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HENRY WOLDMAR RUOFF, M. A., LITT. D., D. C. L. 
Editor 



THE STANDARD 
DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


HISTORY, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, BIOG¬ 
RAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ART, GOV¬ 
ERNMENT, POLITICS, INDUSTRY, INVENTION, 
COMMERCE, SCIENCE, EDUCATION, NATURAL 
HISTORY, STATISTICS AND MISCELLANY 


s' 

EDITED BY 

HENRY W. RUOFF, M.,A„ D. C. L., 


Editor of “Century Book of Facts,” “Universal Manual of 
Ready Reference,” “Leaders of Men,” “The Capitals 
of the World,” “Masters of Achievement,” Etc. 




THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY 

BUFFALO, N. Y. 

1913 


A& 5 
l B 


Copyright, 1908, 

BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. 
Copyright, 1909, 

BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. 
Copyright, 1910, 

BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. 
Copyright, 1911, 

BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. 
Copyright, 1912, 

BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. 
Copyright, 1913, 

BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. 


All rights reserved. 


S’ 

©CI.A34G699 


/ 



EDITOR’S PREFACE 


I N the year 1900, the editor of this volume presented to the public a more or 
less comprehensive book of general information—THE CENTURY BOOK 
OF FACTS — which has since found a place in upward of half a million 
American homes. This immense circulation would seem to be conclusive that a 
work of this type meets with the intelligent approval of a large contingent of the 
book-buying public. There is additional evidence, however, that the demand for 
comprehensive, concise, reliable, up-to-date, books of reference and instruction, 
in almost every department of knowledge, is becoming more insistent. And it 
is in consequence of this demand, as well as the desire of the editor to enlarge 
and improve and standardize his original plan, that the present work has been 
prepared. 

The present work has been built entirely anew, guided by the defects and 
limitations of other books of reference, to be sure, but chiefly in the light of the 
advances of the past eight years. It is divided into Ten Books, covering the 
entire range of general knowledge, so classified as to bring to the reader or con- 
suiter the essentials of many diverse subjects in the most direct and expeditious 
manner. Numerous tabulations have been introduced which in themselves will 
be found valuable substitutes for volumes, even, along the same lines. 

The aim has been to adapt the work to the needs of all classes of readers—to 
the home, to the school, to the ofiice, to the library. Live, practical, every-day 
information, touching the manifold interests of the day, has been given a place 
alongside the previously recorded facts of history, literature, science, industry 
biography, and achievement. The past has been linked with the present in 
such fashion as to make the survey of the world’s progress at once complete and 
concise. 

Many hundreds of volumes have been laid under tribute to complete the 
present work, and much valuable assistance has been rendered by many persons 
throughout the entire country, both by suggestion and contribution. To Miss 
Susan F. Chase, M. A., Pd. D., and Miss Helen L. Dunston, of the Buffalo State 
Normal School, in particular, the credit is due for the best features in the depart¬ 
ments of Literature and Language, respectively. 

While an earnest effort has been made to attain a minimum of error in 
the succeeding pages, it is too much to expect that all errors and inconsistencies 
have been removed. In so vast an array of facts some error is inevitable. 
This is due to a multitude of causes,— chief of which is the absence of agree¬ 
ment among the very highest so-called authorities and the lack of uniformity 
in many statistical tabulations. We shall welcome, therefore, any intelligent 
criticism that will enable us to give to this work the greatest possible accuracy 
and usefulness. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 


FIRST BOOK 

HISTORY 

DICTIONARY OF HISTORY — Concise Histories of Countries and States : Alabama — 
Argentine Republic — Arizona — Arkansas — Austria-Hungary Belgium Brazil 

— California — Canada — Chile — China — Colorado — Connecticut — Cuba — 
Delaware — Denmark — England — Florida — France Georgia German 
Empire — Greece — Idaho — Illinois — Indiana — Iowa — Ireland — Italy — 
Japan — Kansas — Kentucky — Maine — Maryland — Massachusetts — Mexico — 
Michigan — Minnesota — Mississippi —Missouri — Montana — Nebraska — Nevada 

— New Hampshire — New Jersey — New Mexico — New York — North Carolina — 
North Dakota — Norway — Ohio — Oklahoma — Oregon — Pennsylvania — Persia 

— Portugal — Rhode Island — Russia — Scotland — South Carolina — South 
Dakota —Spain — Sparta — Sweden — Switzerland — Tennessee — Texas — Turkey 

— United States — Utah — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virginia 

— Wisconsin — Wyoming — EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS — GREAT BATTLES 

— GREAT WARS — IMPORTANT TREATIES — OUTLINES OF AMERICAN HIS¬ 
TORY — BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME — RUINS — RULERS OF THE PRINCI¬ 
PAL NATIONS, PAST AND PRESENT — HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS AND TABU¬ 
LATIONS. 

SECOND BOOK 

LANGUAGE 

The English Language — Use of Capital Letters — Punctuation — Right Use of Words 
—-Figures of Speech — Synonyms — Letter Writing — Words and Phrases from the 
Classic and Modern Languages — Abbreviations — Mispronounced Words — Forms 
of English Composition — Travels — Memoirs — Biography — History — News — 
Fiction — Short Story — Parables — Allegories — Description — Exposition — 
Essays — Editorials — Reviews — Criticisms — Argument — Addresses — Lectures 

— Orations — Sermons. 

THIRD BOOK 

LITERATURE 

Preliminary View of Literature — Oriental Literature — Literature of India — 
Persia — China — The Hebrews — Egypt — Phenicia — Assyria — Arabia — Greece 

— Rome — Scandinavia — Germany — France — Italy — Spain — Russia — England 

— America —? List of Books for Children’s Library — Family Libraries — Books 
and Authors, Classified — Famous Poems, Authors and First Lines — Pen Names 
.of Noted Writers — Mythology — Names in Fiction, Literary Plots, and Allusions. 

FOURTH BOOK 

BIOGRAPHY 

Great Men and Women of the Past — Great Men and Women of the Present — Authors 

— Statesmen — Warriors — Rulers — Jurists — Lawyers — Physicians — Scien¬ 
tists — Educators — Sculptors — Painters — Architects — Preachers — Invent¬ 
ors — Discoverers — Patriots — Editors — Philanthropists — Actors — Musicians 

— Financiers — Religious Leaders — Philosophers — Mathematicians — Astron¬ 
omers — Artisans — Orators — Engineers — Merchants — Geniuses — Savants — 
and Others. 

FIFTH BOOK 

GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 

Selected Topics in Physical, Descriptive, and Political Geography — Continents — 
Oceans Rivers — Mountains — Lakes — Countries — States — Cities — Battle¬ 
fields Castles — Cathedrals — Churches — Monuments — Obelisks — Palaces — 
Shrines Museums — Art Galleries — Historic Buildings — Historic Ruins — 
Fashionable Resorts — Architectural Structures — Theaters — Tabulations. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 


5 


SIXTH BOOK 

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 

Government of the Principal Countries of the World — Government of the States of 
the Union — Government of Territorial and Insular Possessions — Government 
of Cities — Abyssinia — Afghanistan — Alabama — Argentine Republic — Arizona 

— Arkansas — Austria-Hungary — Belgium — Bolivia — Brazil — British Empire — 
Bulgaria — California — Chile — China — Colombia — Colorado — Connecticut — 
Corea — Cuba — Delaware — Denmark — District of Columbia — Dominican 
Republic — Ecuador — Florida — France — Georgia — German Empire — Greece 

— Hayti — Idaho — Illinois — India, Empire of — Indiana — Iowa — Ireland 

— Italy — Japan — Kansas — Kentucky — Liberia — Louisiana — Maine — Mary¬ 
land — Massachusetts — Mexico — Montana — Montenegro — Morocco — Nebraska 

— Netherlands — Nevada — New Hampshire — New Jersey — New Mexico — New 
York — New Zealand — North Carolina — North Dakota — Norway — Ohio — 
Oklahoma — Oman — Oregon — Panama — Paraguay — Pennsylvania — Persia — 
Peru — Portugal — Prussia — Rhode Island — Roumania — Russia — Scotland — 
Servia — Siam — South Carolina — South Dakota — Spain — Sweden — Switzer¬ 
land — Tennessee — Texas — Turkey — United States of America — Uruguay 
— Utah — Venezuela — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virginia — 
Wisconsin — Wyoming — Zanzibar — Tabulations and Statistics. 


SEVENTH BOOK 

INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 

Agriculture — Banks -— Canals — Commerce -— Commercial Products — Finance —• 
Forestry — Imports and Exports — Insurance — Inventions — ; Iron and Steel — 
Labor Organizations — Live Stock Industry — Manufactures — Merchant Marine 
— Mining — Money — Occupations — Railroads — Transportation — Trusts — 
World Marts — World’s Staples — Tabulations and Statistics. 


EIGHTH BOOK 

SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 

Branches of Human Knowledge — Colleges and Universities — Educational Systems 
and Topics — Fine Arts — Learned Societies — Music — Religions and Religious 
Denominations — Electricity — Topics in Physical Science, Medical Science, 
Biological Science, Electrical and Mechanical Science — Scientific, Educational, 
and Religious Statistics. 


NINTH BOOK 

NATURAL HISTORY 

ANIMAL KINGDOM: Birds, Insects, Mammals, Reptiles — MINERAL KINGDOM: 
Coals and Clays, Gases, Fossils, Liquids, Metals, Precious Stones, Rocks, Soils — 
VEGETABLE KINGDOM: Cereals and Bulbs, Grasses, Flowers, Forests, Fruits — 
CURIOSITIES AND WONDERS. 


TENTH BOOK 

MISCELLANY 

Curious Titles — Notable Bridges — Chemical Substances — Popular Names of Cities 
— Earthquakes — Fraternal Organizations — Holidays — Death Rates — Mourn¬ 
ing Customs — Names and Name Origins — Navies of the World — State Mottoes 
and Popular Names — Arithmetical Principles — Weights and Measures — 
Distances. 


BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 

Henry Woldmar Ruoff, the well-known American journalist 
and author, and the editor of The Standard Dictionary of Facts, 
was born in Germantown, Pa., 1867. He was graduated at 
Indiana University in 1890. After two years of post-graduate 
study in history, philosophy, and comparative religions at 
Harvard, he spent two years in economics, politics, and com¬ 
parative jurisprudence at Columbian (now George Washington) 
University, securing the degree of Doctor of Civil Law in 1901, 
and supplementing his education at Oxford, the University of 
Berlin, and Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Paris. In 
1892-93, he was an instructor in psychology, logic, and ethics at 
Pennsylvania State College. In 1904, Dr. Ruoff became an 
associate editor of the American Spectator, in 1906 of Hidgway’s, 
and during 1907 he acted as editor of the Nashville Tennessean. 
He has traveled very extensively in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
and is a member of the National Geographical Society, and of 
the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Dr. 
Ruoff is probably the leading and best known editor of reference 
books, among his works being The Century Book of Facts; 
Leaders of Men; The Capitals of the World; Syllabus of American 
Politics, and Masters of Achievement, as well as the present volume. 
His books have come to be appreciated as models of compre¬ 
hensiveness, accuracy and breadth of view, with the result that 
their combined sale has reached a total of over one million 
copies. The constantly increasing demand bears witness that 
the eagerness with which they are accepted is only equalled by 
the satisfaction with which they are used. 


The Publishers. 






COLUMBUS BEFORE ISABELLA 



















HISTORY 


Abdication is the act of giving up an of¬ 
fice. It is sometimes compulsory, and some¬ 
times the result of vexation and disappointment. 
The following monarchs have abdicated: 


Abdul-Hamid II. (forced),.1909 

Amadeus I. (duke of Aosta) of Spain,.1873 

Charles Albert of Sardinia (forced),.1849 

Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia,.1802 

Charles IV. of Spain (forced).1808 

Charles V. of Spain and Germany,.1556 

Charles X. of France (forced),.1830 

Christina of Sweden,.1654 

Diocletian and Maximian.305, 308 

Emperor of Korea,.1907 

Felipe V. of Spain.1724 

Ferdinand of Austria.1848 

Francis II. of the Two Sicilies (forced), ..... 1860 

James II. of England (forced),.1689 

Louis Bonaparte of Holland,.1810 

Louis Philippe of France (forced).1848 

Ludwig of Bavaria (forced),.1848 

Manuel II. of Portugal (forced),.1910 

Matilda (Lady of England),.1154 

Milan of Servia.1889 

Napoleon I. of France (forced),.1814 

Napoleon III. of France (forced),.1870 

Oscar II. of Sweden.1907 

Otho of Greece (forced),.1862 

Pedro II. of Brazil (forced),.1889 

Poniatowski of Poland (forced),.1795 

Pu-Yi of China,.1912 

Richard II. of England (forced),.1399 

Stanislaus Leszczinski (forced),.1735 

Victor Amadeus of Sardinia.1730 

Victor Emmanuel.1821 


Several dethroned without even the mocking show 
of abdication, like Edward II. of England (1327); 
Henry VI. of England (1471); Emperor of Korea (1907); 
Abdul-Hamid II., Manuel II.. etc. 

Abyssinia. The oldest accounts of the 
Abyssinians are full of fables, but seem sufficient 
to prove that they attained some degree of civili¬ 
zation even in remote antiquity. Christianity 
was introduced about the middle of the Fourth 
Century, and soon prevailed extensively. Axum 
was at that time the capital. Two centuries 
later the Abyssinians were powerful enough to 
invade Arabia, and conquer part of Yemen. 
In the Tenth Century a Jewish Princess over¬ 
threw the reigning dynasty, the surviving repre¬ 
sentative of which fled to Shoa. After three 
centuries of confusion the empire was restored 
under Icon Amlae, and some progress was made 
in improvement. Early in the Fifteenth Cen¬ 
tury the Abyssinians entered into close relations 
with the Portuguese. Under the influence of 
the Portuguese missionaries the royal family 
adopted the Roman Catholic faith, and the old 
Coptic Church was formally united to the See 
of Rome. The people and ecclesiastics obsti¬ 
nately resisted the innovation; the emperor gave 
way; and ultimately, in 1632, the Romish 
priests were expelled or put to death. Though 
Christianity is still the professed religion of 
Abyssinia, it exists only in its lowest-form, and 
is little more than ceremonial. The Church is 
national and independent, but the visible head, 
or Abuna (“our father”), is ordained by the Cop¬ 
tic Patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines of 
the Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic 
Church, especially in the monophysite heresy; 


but several peculiar rites are observed, including 
the rite of circumcision and observance of the 
Mosaic laws respecting food, etc., etc., love-feasts, 
and adult baptism. The oldest Abyssinian 
churches are hewn out of rocks. The modern 
churches are mostly round or conical buildings, 
thatched with straw and surrounded by pillars 
of cedar. Statues and bas-reliefs are not toler¬ 
ated in churches, but paintings are numerous. 
In 1860, King Theodore (born 1818, crowned 
1855) felt himself insulted by the British Con¬ 
sul, whom he imprisoned with some missionaries. 
A large English force under Lord Napier then 
came to Abyssinia and captured the strong 
fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. On this 
Theodore committed suicide. After an interval 
of anarchy Prince Kassai assumed power as 
Johannes II., in 1872. He died in 1889, and 
was succeeded by Menelik II. Abyssinia then 
practically became an Italian protectorate. 
During 1895 a war prevailed between Abyssinia 
and Italy, which was closed in 1896. In 1906, 
an agreement between Great Britain, France, 
and Italy, as to their interests in Abyssinia, was 
concluded. In 1907, a decree was issued by 
Menelik II. announcing the formation of a cabi¬ 
net on European lines. 

Abyssinian War, The. Between the 
British and Theodore, King of Abyssinia. This 
expedition (for the release of missionaries, Cap¬ 
tain Crawford, and others) was under Sir R. 
Napier, who joined the army at Senafe, January, 
1868. On 10th of April, Colonel Phayre defeated 
Theodore at Magdala, which was bombarded 
and taken on 13th of April. The return of the 
British army commenced 18th of April, 1868. 

Achaean League, The. A confeder¬ 
acy of the twelve towns of Achaea. It was dis¬ 
solved by Alexander the Great, but reorganized 
B. C. 280, and again dissolved B. C. 147. The 
second of these leagues, founded at Megalopolis, 
contained all the chief cities of Peloponnesus. 
It contended with the Macedonians and the Ro¬ 
mans for the liberty of Greece; but, being beaten 
at Scarphea by Metellus, and at LeucopStra by 
Mummius, it dissolved soon after the taking of 
Corinth. 

The twelve cities of Achaea, in Ionia, were 
founded by the Heraclldae. 

Achaean War, The. Roman am¬ 
bassadors at Corinth enjoin the dismemberment 
of the Achaean League and are insulted (B. C. 
147). Kritolaos, general of the league, at once 
besieged Heracleia (B. C. 146), but was defeated 
at Scarphea by Metellus, and slew himself. 
Diaeos, successor of Kritolaos, was defeated at 
Leucopgtra by Mummius (B. C. 146). Corinth 
was then destroyed, and all Greece was erected 
into a Roman Province, September, 146. 

Actiac War, The. This arose out of 
the rupture between Octavian and Antony, two 
of the Triumvirs (B. C. 33). Octavian declared 
war against Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, and de- 




































THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


feated Antony at Actium, 2d September, B. C. 
31. Both Cleopatra and Antony killed them¬ 
selves. Alexandria was taken by Octavian, 
August 30th (B. C. 33), and Egypt was made a 
Roman Province, B. C. 30. 

^Etolian Confederacy, The, B. C. 
323, called into existence by the Lamian War. 
The states used to assemble annually in the 
autumn at Thermum, and the assembly was 
called the Panaetolicon. B. C. 189, the iEtolian 
states were subjected to the Romans. 

The object of the Lamian War was (on the 
death of Alexander the Great) to liberate Greece 
from Macedonia. The Athenians were the prin¬ 
cipal insurgents, but were defeated in 322 at 
Cranon, by Antipater. 

^Etolian League, The. iEtolia joined 
the Greek confederates in the Lamian War, 
B. C. 313, but the iEtolian League rose into no 
great prominence till the Macedonian War (B. C. 
214), when Sparta joined it, and it became the 
antagonist of the Achaean League, which sided 
with Philip V. of Macedon. It was the unwise 
policy of the iEtolian League which made Rome 
master of Greece. 

Afghanistan. The history of Afghanis¬ 
tan belongs almost to modern times. The col¬ 
lective name of the country itself is of modern 
and external origin (Persian). In 1738, the-coun- 
try was conquered by the Persians under Nadir 
Shah. On his death, in 1747, Ahmed Shah, one 
of his generals, obtained the sovereignty of 
Afghanistan, and became the founder of a dy¬ 
nasty which lasted about eighty years. At the 
end of that time Dost Mohammed, the ruler of 
Cabul, had acquired a preponderating influence 
in the country. On account of his dealings with 
the Russians the British resolved to dethrone 
him and restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In 
April, 1839, a British army under Sir John 
Keane entered Afghanistan, occupied Cabul, 
and placed Shah Shuja on the throne, a force of 
8,000 being left to support the new sovereign. 
SirW. MacNaghten remained as envoy at Cabul, 
with Sir Alexander Burnes as assistant envoy. 
The Afghans soon organized a wide-spread in¬ 
surrection, which came to a head on November 
2, 1841, when Burnes and a number of British 
officers, besides women and children, were mur¬ 
dered, MacNaghten being murdered not long 
after. The other British leaders now made a 
treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was 
Akbar, son of Dost Mohammed, agreeing to 
withdraw the forces from the country, while the 
Afghans were to furnish them with provisions 
and escort them on their way. On January 6, 
1842, the British left Cabul and began their most 
disastrous retreat. The cold was intense, they 
had almost no food — for the treacherous 
Afghans did not fulfill their promises — and day 
after day they were assailed by bodies of the 
enemy. By the 13th, 20,000 persons, including 
camp-followers, women, and children, were de¬ 
stroyed. Some were kept as prisoners, but only 
one man, Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad, which, 
as well as Kandahar, was still held by British 
troops. In a few months General Pollock, with 
a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and soon 
finished the war. Shah Shuja having been as¬ 
sassinated, Dost Mohammed again obtained the 


throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in 
Afghanistan. He joined with the Sikhs against 
the British, but afterward made an offensive 
and defensive alliance with the latter. He died 
in 1863, having nominated his son Shere Ali his 
successor. Shere Ali entered into friendly re¬ 
lations with the British, but in 1878, having re¬ 
pulsed a British envoy and having refused to 
receive a British mission (a Russian mission 
being meantime at his court), war was declared 
against him, and the British troops entered 
Afghanistan. They met with comparatively 
little resistance; the emir fled to Turkestan, 
where he soon after died. His son Yakoob 
Khan having succeeded him concluded a treaty 
with the- British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in 
which a certain extension of the British fron¬ 
tier, the control by Britain of the foreign policy 
of Afghanistan, and the residence of a British 
envoy in Cabul, were the chief stipulations. 
The members of the mission were again treach¬ 
erously attacked and slain, and troops were sent 
into the country. Cabul was occupied, Kan¬ 
dahar and Ghazni were relieved, and Yakoob 
Khan was sent to imprisonment in India. In 
1880, Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mo¬ 
hammed, was recognized by Britain as emir of 
the country. Until his death in 1901 he was 
on friendly terms with the British, by whom he 
was subsidized. Encroachments by the Russians 
on territory claimed by Afghanistan threatened 
a rupture between Britain and Russia in 1885, 
and led to the delimitation of the frontier of 
Afghanistan on the side next the territory now 
occupied by Russia. In 1897, a punitive ex¬ 
pedition was again sent against the tribes around 
the Khyber Pass, who disregarded their pledges. 
In 1905, the Emir Habibullah, son of Abdur- 
Rahman, ratified a treaty with Great Britain 
agreeing to accept the advice of the British 
Government in regard to his foreign relations, 
and was guaranteed against unprovoked ag¬ 
gressions on his dominions. 

Afghan War, The. A diplomatic con¬ 
test between France and Russia induced Dost 
Mohammed of Cabul to invite the friendship of 
Great Britain in 1836. This led to a diplomatic 
contest between Great Britain and Russia re¬ 
specting Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed joined 
Persia, and war was proclaimed against him at 
Simla by Lord Auckland, Governor-General of 
India, October 1, 1838. Dost Mohammed gave 
himself up at Cabul to Sir W. MacNaghten, No¬ 
vember 3, 1840; but his son Akbar Khan com¬ 
pletely outwitted General Elphinstone and the 
envoy, Sir William MacNaghten, both of whom 
were treacherously put to death. Negotiations 
for quitting Cabul were purposely delayed until 
winter had set in; then the whole British force 
of 20,000 souls was destroyed in the Khyber 
Pass,. 1842. 

African War, The. The first African 
War was undertaken by the Romans for the 
restoration of Hiempsal to the throne of Nu- 
mantia. Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian 
party in Africa, had dethroned him, but Cneius 
Pompey slew Ahenobarbus, and restored Hiemp¬ 
sal, B. C. 81. 

The second African War was between Csesar 
and Scipio, B. C. 46. Caesar defeated the party 



HISTORY 


11 


of Pompey at Thapsus, in Africa, and thus put 
an end to the Civil War. 

The third African War was undertaken by the 
Romans against Tacfarlnas, a Numidian, in the 
reign of Tiberius. Tacfarlnas, having collected 
a large gang of freebooters, defied for some years 
the Roman arms in Numidia, but was ultimately 
overthrown and slain by Dolabella, A. D. 24. 

The fourth African War was between the Ro¬ 
mans and Vandals in Africa. The Vandals under 
Genseric took possession of the Roman dominions 
in Africa, and continued masters for 105 years 
(A. D. 429-534). Belisarius was sent into Africa 
by the Emperor Justinian to win back the Afri¬ 
can dominions, and he utterly overthrew the 
Vandals, took Carthage in 533, and returned to 
Rome in triumph in A. D. 534. 

Agrarian Agitation, B. C. 480. The 
reat Roman agrarian agitation was set on foot 
y Spurius Cassius, who had been three times 
consul. To win popular favor, he told the peo¬ 
ple that the Senate ought to give an account of 
the land taken from the Volsci, which ought to 
have been equally divided among the whole 
people irrespective of rank. The Senate, to allay 
the popular clamor, promised to give the matter 
their best consideration, but arrested Cassius 
and hurled him from the Tarpeian Rock. Things 
went on until B. C. 464, when Herdonius, the 
Sabine, got possession of the capital. Then the 
Senate promised to pass an agrarian law, if the 
people would eject the invaders. The invaders 
were expelled, but it was not until B. C. 365 that 
Licinius Stolo, the plebeian tribune, had a law 
passed making it penal for anyone to hold more 
than 500 acres of the public lands. 

Alabama. The name, derived from the 
Indians, denotes “Here we rest.” Originally a 
part of Georgia, the country included in Alabama 
and Mississippi was organized as a Territory in 
1798. In 1812, that part of Florida, then belong¬ 
ing to Spain, lying between the Perdido and 
Pearl rivers on the Gulf Coast, was seized by 
the United States troops and annexed to the 
Territory. Alabama remained a Territory after 
the western portion was admitted as a State 
under the name of Mississippi, and was itself 
admitted as a State in 1819. On January 11, 
1861, the Ordinance of Secession was adopted 


by the Secession Convention, and in February 
a provisional congress met at Montgomery and 
organized the Government of the Confederate 
States. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated Presi¬ 
dent of the Confederacy at Montgomery, Febru¬ 
ary 18, 1861, and the government seat was 
moved from Montgomery to Richmond in July, 
1861. Mobile was finally captured by the Fed¬ 
erate, April 12, 1865, and on May 4th the State 
was included in the surrender made by General 
Richard Taylor. After the Confederate sur¬ 
render, the State passed under the phases of pro¬ 
visional and military government until 1868, 
when it was regularly reconstituted as a State 
in the Union. In 1901, a Constitutional Con¬ 
vention, called to regulate negro suffrage, was in 
session from May 21st to September 2d at Mont¬ 
gomery. On November 11, 1901, the new con¬ 
stitution was ratified by popular vote. In 1907, 
a notable effort was made by Governor Comer 
opposing federal interference in the regulation 
of the railroads of the State. In 1911 the legis¬ 
lature passed a bill providing for the adoption 
of a commission form of government by the 
municipalities of the State. 

Alamo, The, a mission church at San 
Antonio, in what is now Bexar County, Texas, 
converted into a fort. In 1836 it was occupied 
by about 150 of the revolutionists in the Texan 
War of Independence. Though attacked by 
4,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana, the Texans held 
it from February 23d to March 6th, when Santa 
Ana took it by storm. All but seven of the gar¬ 
rison perished, six of these being murdered after 
their surrender, and one man escaping to report 
the affair. In this garrison were the celebrated 
David Crockett, and Colonel James Bowie, in¬ 
ventor of the bowie-knife. The memory of this 
massacre became an incitement to the Texans 
in subsequent encounters, and “Remember the 
Alamo! ” became a war-cry in their struggle for 
freedom. 

Alemanni, a confederacy of tribes which 
appeared on the banks of the Rhine in the Third 
Century, and for long gave no small trouble to 
Rome, but whose incursions were arrested, first by 
Maximinus, and finally by Clovis in 496, who made 
them subject to the Franks, hence the modern 
names in French for Germany and the Germans. 


AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED 


Naval engagements are indicated by italics ; * means that it was a drawn battle; t means a general estimate. 







CASUALTIES 


Date 

Name of Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

United States 

Opponents 





. Kilted 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

July 2, 1898 

Aguadores (including July 1st), . . 

Spanish 

U. S. 

0 

12 

10 

30 

Feb. 11, 1865 

Aikens. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

6t 

9t 

31 

160 

May 5, 1864 

Albemarle , . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

4 

25 

0 

0 

Oct. 27, 1864 

Albemarle , . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2 

0 

0 

0 

Oct. 5, 1864 

Allatoona,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

142 

352 

338 

704 

Nov. 13, 1776 

A If red - transports , . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

2 

3 

10 

May 28, 1781 

Alliance - squadron , .. 

English 

u. s. 

5 

20 

11 

30 

Jan. 29,1814 

Alligator , . 

English 

u. s. 

2 

2 

8 

14t 

March 2, 1815 

America - Elizabeth , .. 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

2 

13 

Oct. 2, 1863 

Anderson’s Cross-Roads,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

16 

32 

41 

Aug. 12, 1776 

Andrea Dorian - Racehorse , . 

English 

u. s. 

4 

8 

6 

3 

Marchl7, 1813 

Antelope - Zephyr , .. 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

0 

2 

Sept. 16. 1862 

Antietam (continued),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

, ri , 


.... 

.... 

Sept. 17. 1862 

Antietam (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2,010 

9,416 

1,842 

9,399 





























12 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued 


Date 


Name of Battle 


April 9, 1865 
Aug. 14, 1813 
July 15, 1862 
Jan. 10, 1863 
Jan. 11, 1863 
Oct. 12, 1863 
Oct. 13, 1863 
Oct. 9, 1779 
July 14, 1813 
Sept. 23, 1864 
July 22, 1864 
Aug. 3, 1812 
Aug. 3, 1804 
Aug. 7, 1804 
Nov. 29, 1813 
Marchl6, 1865 
Feb. 1, 1864 
Oct. 21, 1861 
Feb. 4, 1863 
Aug. 5, 1862 
Oct. 4, 1863 
Aug. 27, 1863 
Jan. 29, 1863 
June 24, 1813 
Nov. 6, 1861 
Nov. 7, 1861 
Aug. 16, 1777 
Marchl8, 1865 
Marchl8, 1865 
May 26, 1864 
May 27, 1864 
May 28, 1864 
May 29, 1864 
May 30, 1864 
June 9,1863 
Jan. 11, 1865 
July 26, 1864 
Oct. 24, 1864 
Oct. 25, 1864 
June 25, 1876 
May 17, 1863 
Aug. 24, 1814 
Feb. 13, 1862 
Oct. 10, 1863 
Sept. 8, 1862 
April 3, 1780 
June .3, 1776 
Sept. 23, 1779 
Oct. 12, 1800 
March31, 1865 
Sept. 11, 1777 
June 10, 1864 
April 29, 1862 
Oct. 14, 1863 
Aug. 4, 1812 
Oct. 19, 1863 
Feb. 22, 1847 
Feb. 23,1847 
July 21, 1861 
Aug. 29, 1862 
Aug. 30, 1862 
June 17, 1775 
July 1, 1863 
July 7, 1862 
Oct. 7, 1812 
Aug. 16, 1780 
June 11,1898 
June 12,1898 
June 13,1898 
June 14,1898 
Nov. 16, 1863 
Jan. 27, 1814 
April 23, 1864 
April 13, 1813 
March 1, 1813 
Nov. 20, 1856 
Nov. 21, 1856 
Nov. 22, 1856 
April 26, 1863 
Jan. 14, 1863 
July 7, 1777 
Aug. 19, 1780 
Oct. 19, 1864 
Aug. 8, 1862 


Appomattox,. 

Argus-Pelican, . 

Arkansas . 

Arkansas Post (continued), . . • 

Arkansas Post (ended),. 

Arrow Rock (continued), . . . . 

Arrow Rock (ended),. 

Assault on Savannah. 

Asp, attack on the, . 

Athens, Ala.,. 

Atlanta, Hood’s first sortie, . . . 
Atlas-Planter and Pursuit, . . . . 

Attack on Tripoli, . 

Attack on Tripoli, . 

Autosse,. 

Averysboro,. 

Bachelor’s Creek,. 

Ball’s Bluff. 

Batesville,. 

Baton Rouge,. 

Baxter’s Springs,. 

Bayou Metea,. 

Bear River,. 

Beaver Dam,. 

Belmont (continued),. 

Belmont (ended),.. 

Bennington,. 

Bentonville (continued), . . . . 

Bentonville (ended),. 

Bermuda Hundreds (continued), . 
Bermuda Hundreds (continued), . 
Bermuda Hundreds (continued), . 
Bermuda Hundreds (continued), . 
Bermuda Hundreds (ended),. . . 

Beverly Ford,. 

Beverly, W. Va.,. 

Big Creek,. 

Big Blue (continued),. 

Big Blue (ended). 

Big Horn. 

Black River,. 

Bladensburg,. 

Blooming Gap,. 

Blue Springs,. 

Boat attack on Charleston, ... . 

Boots-Black Snake, . 

Boats-tender to Nautilus, . . . . 
Bonhomme Richard-Serapis, . . . 

Boston-Berceau, . 

Boyd ton and White Oak Road, . 

Brandywine,. 

Brice’s Cross-Roads, Miss., . . . 

Bridgeport, Ala.,. 

Bristow Station,. 

Brownstown,. 

Buckland’s Mills,. 

Buena Vista (continued). 

Buena Vista (ended),. 

Bull Run,. 

Bull Run No. 2 (continued), . . . 
Bull Run No. 2 (ended), . . . . 

Bunker Hill,. 

Cabin Creek,. 

Cache Swamp,. 

Caledonia and Detroit-boats, . . . 

Camden,. 

Camp McCalla (continued), . . . 
Camp McCalla (continued), . . . 
Camp McCalla (continued), . . . 

Camp McCalla (ended),. 

Campbell Station,. 

Camp Defiance. 

Cane River. 

Canonnier-Medusa . 

Canonnier-Warspite, . 

Canton Forts (continued), . . . . 
Canton Forts (continued), . . . . 

Canton Forts (ended),. 

Cape Girardeau,. 

Carney’s Bridge,. 

Castletown,. 

Catawba Fords,. 

Cedar Creek,. 

Cedar Mountain (continued), . . 


Opponent 

Victor 

CASUALTIES 

United States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Conf. 

U. S. 

203 

297 

189 

386 

English 

Eng. 

6 

17 

2 

5 

Conf. 

U. S. 

18 

50 

10 

15 

Conf. 

u. s. 

6 

25 

10f 

30t 

Conf. 

u. s. 

129 

831 

60 

78 

Conf. 

Conf. 


.... 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

45 

162 

84 

205 

English 

Eng. 

68 

173 

18 

37 

English 

Eng. 

4 

6 

10 

21 

Conf. 

U. S. 

0 

0 

12 

18 

Conf. 

u. s. 

499 

2,142 

1,162 

7,337 

English 

u. s. 

2 

5 

2 

4 

Tripolitan 

* 

1 

13 

60 

70 

Tripolitan 

* 

22 

6 

50t 

80t 

Indians 

u. s. 

11 

54 

204 

0 

Conf. 

u. s. 

77 

477 

86 

632 

Conf. 

Conf. 

24 

77 

13 

22 

Conf. 

Conf. 

223 

226 

58 

242 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2 

4 

5t 

7t 

Conf. 

u. s. 

99 

203 

125 

234 

Conf. 

Conf. 

80 

21 

12 

32 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2 

8 

11 

31 

Indians 

u. s. 

12 

49 

224 

8 

English 

Eng. 

25 

50 f 

30f 

34 

Conf. 

Conf. 


.... 

. . . 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

90 

173 

231 

682 

English 

u. s. 

30 

41 

59 

81 

Conf. 

u. s. 



.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

i9i 

i,ios 

267 

1,381 

Conf. 

u. s. 


.... 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 



.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 


.... 

• • • • 

t • • • 

Conf. 

u. s. 



.... 


Conf. 

u. s. 

20i 

998 

864 

2,i36 

Conf. 

Conf. 

156 

289 

253 

354 

Conf. 

Conf. 

5 

20 

3 

6 

Conf. 

u. s. 

18 

32 

48 

102 

Conf. 

u. s. 


. . 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

4i 

62 

78 

135 

Indians 

Ind. 

261 

0 

81 

126 

Conf. 

u. s. 

29 

242 

40 

186 

English 

Eng. 

30 

42 

183 

297 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

2 

13 

26 

Conf. 

u. s. 

33 

62 

48 

94 

Conf. 

Conf. 

23 

57 

0 

2 

English 

u. s. 

0 

2 

3 

5 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

4 

18 

English 

u. s. 

49 

67 

49 

68 

French 

u. s. 

4 

11 

4 

17 

Conf. 

u. s. 

177 

1,134 

236 

998 

English 

Eng. 

289 

568 

98 

398 

Conf. 

Conf. 

223 

394 

124 

582 

Conf. 

u. s. 

3 

8 

31 

42 

Conf. 

* 

50 

150 

150 

250 

English 

Eng. 

17 

30 

0 

0 

Conf. 

Conf. 

8 

23 

4 

31 

Mexican 

u. s. 





Mexican 

u. s. 

267 

456 

568 

l,24i 

Conf. 

Conf. 

481 

1,011 

362 

1,390 

Conf. 

Conf. 





Conf. 

Conf. 

798 

4,023 

1,090 

6,154 

English 

Eng. 

145 

304 

359 

695 

Conf. 

U. S. 

8 

15 

42 

108 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

45 

110 

150 

English 

u. s. 

1 

4 

5 

10 

English 

Eng. 

94 

281 

80 

245 

Spanish 

u. s. 

.... 

.... 



Spanish 

u. s. 

. . , . 




Spanish 

u. s. 

• • . 



. . . 

Spanish 

u. s. 

6 

ii 

60 f 

140t 

Conf. 

Conf. 

112 

186 

135 

214 

Indians 

u. s. 

17 

132 

37 

0 

Conf. 

u. s. 

98 

152 

108 

164 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

0 

4 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

0 

1 

Chinese 

u. s. 





Chinese 

u. s. 





Chinese 

u. s. 

12 

28 

400 

540 

Conf. 

u. s. 

6 

18 

22 

43 

Conf. 

u. s. 

7 

27 

14 

36 

English 

Eng. 

211 

583 

35 

144 

English 

Eng. 

162 

281 

2 

21 

Conf. 

u. s. 

588 

3,516 

961 

3,239 

Conf. 

Conf. 

.... 

.... 


l 




























































































HISTORY 


13 


AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED —Continued 







CASUALTIES 

Date 

Name op Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

United States 

Opponents 






Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Aug. 

9,1862 

Cedar Mountain (ended),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

450 

660 

223 

1,060 

April 

18.1847 

Cerro Gordo. 

Mexican 

U. S. 

63 

368 

loot 

500t 

May 

16,1863 

Champion Hills,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

426 

1,842 

486 

1,954 

April 

30,1863 

Chancellorsville (continued), . . 

Conf. 

Conf. 




May 

1, 1863 

Chancellorsville (continued), .... 

Conf. 

Conf. 





May 

2, 1863 

Chancellorsville (continued). 

Conf. 

Conf. 





May 

3, 1863 

Chancellorsville (continued), .... 

Conf. 

Conf. 





May 

4, 1863 

Chancellorsville (ended),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1,512 

9,518 

1,718 

10,563 

Sept. 

13, 1847 

Chapultepec,. 

Mexican 

U. S. 

116 

671 

l, 000 f 

2,000 

June 

4, 1782 

Charming Sally-Revenge, . 

English 

u. s. 

1 

4 

3 

6 

Feb. 

25, 1815 

Chasseur-St. Lawrence, . 

English 

u. s. 

5 

8 

15 

23 

July 

6 , 1864 

Chattahoochee (continued), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 





July 

8 , 1864 

Chattahoochee (continued), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 





July 

10, 1864 

Chattahoochee (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

80 

450 

2 oi 

402 

Nov. 

23, 1863 

Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, 









Lookout Mountain, and Missionary 
Ridge (continued),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 





Nov. 

24, 1863 

Chattanooga, etc. (continued), . . . 

Conf. 

u. s. 



.... 

.... 

Nov. 

25, 1863 

Chattanooga, etc. (ended), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

757 

4,529 

850 

2,150 

June 

1, 1813 

Chesapealce-Shannon, . 

English 

Eng. 

47 

99 

24 

59 

Dec. 

7, 1777 

Chestnut Hill,. 

English 

* 

14 

36 

42 

64 

Sept. 

18, 1863 

Chickamauga (continued),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Sept. 

19, 1863 

Chickamauga (continued),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 





Sept. 

20, 1863 

Chickamauga (ended). 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1,644 

9,262 

6,000 

10,666 

Feb. 

27, 1847 

Chihuahua. 

Mexican 

U. S. 

3 

5 

33 

67 

July 

5, 1814 

Chippewa,. 

English 

u. s. 

60 

244 

199 

328 

Nov. 

11, 1813 

Chrysler’s Fields,. 

English 

* 

102 

237 

22 

147 

Aug. 

20, 1847 

Churubusco,. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

131 

876 

l.OOOf 

3,000t 

May 

9,1864 

Cloyd’s M’tain and New River Bridge, 

Conf. 

u. s. 

126 

585 

248 

652 

Dec. 

5,1863 

Coffeeville,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

38 

62 

21 

32 

June 

5,1864 

Columbia, Ark. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

19 

73 

22 

81 

April 

16, 1865 

Columbus, Ala.,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

10 

14 

30 

50 

Dec. 

9, 1862 

Col. Matthews. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

18 

22 

32 

68 

April 

4, 1864 

Col. Gooding,.. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

26 

18 

39 

June 

2, 1864 

Cold Harbor (continued). 

Conf. 

Conf. 



.... 

.... 

June 

3, 1864 

Cold Harbor (ended),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1,905 

10,570 

364 

1,336 

Jan. 

14, 1813 

Comet-frigate, . 

Port’guese 

u. s. 

1 

3 

10 

14 

Aug. 

3,1814 

Comoeta Creek. 

English 

u. s. 

2 

8 

10 

20 

Dec. 

1,1782 

Commerce-brig and schooners . 

English 

* 

1 

2 

14 

24 

April 21, 1775 

Concord and retreat,. 

English 

Eng. 

49 

34 

74 

199 

Sept. 

6 , 1781 

Congress-Savage . 

English 

U. S. 

11 

19 

25 

31 

Feb. 

9, 1799 

Constellation-Insurgent, . 

French 

U. S. 

2 

3 

29 

41 

Feb. 

2 , 1800 

Constellation-Vengeance, . 

French 

u. s. 

14 

25 

50 

110 

Aug. 

19, 1812 

Constitution-Guerriere, . 

English 

u. s. 

7 

7 

15 

63 

Dec. 

29, 1812 

Constitution-Java, . 

English 

TJ. S. 

9 

25 

60 

101 

Feb. 

20, 1815 

Constitution-Cyane and Levant,. . . 

English 

U. S. 

4 

10 

35 

42 

Aug. 

19,1847 

Contreras,. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

20 

40 

700 

2,200 

Oct. 

19, 1814 

Cook’s Mills,. 

English 

u. s. 

11 

54 

20 

60 

Feb. 

23, 1813 

Cora-boals, . 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

1 

2 

Oct. 

3,1862 

Corinth (continued),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 



.... 

.... 

Oct. 

4,1862 

Corinth (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

315 

l, 8 i 2 

1,423 

5,692 

Feb. 

29,1812 

Courier-Andromache, . 

English 

Eng. 

0 

3 

0 

1 

Jan. 

17,1781 

Cowpens,. 

English 

u. s. 

12 

60 

120 

199 

Sept. 

14,1862 

Crampton Gap. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

115 

418 

98 

342 

June 

22,1813 

Craney Island . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

75f 

125t 

June 

8,1862 

Cross Keys,. 

Conf. 

* 

125 

498 

29 

302 

Aug. 

1, 1863 

Culpepper Court-House,. 

Conf. 

* 

16 

98 

22 

104 

Feb. 

21, 1865 

Cumberland, Md.,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1 

3 

2 

8 

Feb. 

5, 1865 

Dabney’s Mills (continued), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Feb. 

6 , 1865 

Dabney’s Mills (continued), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 




.... 

Feb. 

7, 1865 

Dabney’s Mills (ended). 

Conf. 

u. s. 

232 

1,062 

249 

751 

July 

11 , 1812 

Decatur-Commerce, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

4 

7 

Aug. 

5, 1813 

Decatur-Dominica, . 

English 

u. s. 

4 

16 

18 

45 

June 

17, 1776 

Defense-transports, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

9 

18 

30t 

Sept. 

9, 1847 

Del Rey,. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

8 

31 

46 

89 

April 

27, 1805 

Deme,. 

Turkish 

u. s. 

6 

8 

iot 

20t 

Dec. 

6 , 1864 

Deveraux’s Neck (continued), . . . 

Conf. 

* 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Dec. 

8,1864 

Deveraux’s Neck (continued), . . . 

Conf. 

* 

• . . * 

.... 


'228 

Dec. 

9, 1864 

Deveraux’s Neck (ended),. 

Conf. 

* 

39 

390 

ii2 

April 

15, 1813 

Diligent-squadron, . 

English 

Eng. . 

1 

3 

0 

1 

Aug. 

22,1814 

Diomede-Upton, . ... . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

1 

2 

Sept. 

2 , 1812 

Dolphin-two ships, . 

English 

u. s. 

4 

7 

3 

8 

Jan. 

25, 1813 

Dolphin-squadron, . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

8 

6 

9 

June 

28,1863 

Donaldsonville,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1 

3 

85 

114 

Feb. 

3, 1863 

Dover, Col. Harding. 

Conf. 

u, s. 

16 

60 

150 

400 

May 

15, 1862 

Drury’s Bluff,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

422 

2,380 

514 

1,086 

Nov. 

6 , 1863 

Droop Mountain,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

41 

79 

82 

158 

May 

5, 1864 

Dunn’s Bayou,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

38 

64 

4 

18 

Aug. 

23,1864 

Duvall’s Bluff. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

13 

42 

6 

33 

Dec. 

23, 1813 

Econochaca,. 

Indians 

u. s. 

1 

6 

30 

0 

July 

Feb. 

1,1898 
10 , 1862 

El Caney,. 

Elizabeth City, . 

Spanish 

Conf. 

u. s. 
u. s. 

88 

2 

356 

2 

120 

4 

400 

10 

Jan. 

22,1814 

Emucfau,. 

Indians 

u. s. 

20 

75 

220t 

0 

Nov. 

20, 1780 

Ennoree Ford,. 

English 

u. s. 

3 

4 

92 

102 





























































































THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued 


Date 


Name of Battle 


Jan. 24,1814 
Sept. 5, 1813 
Aug. 1, 1801 
Aug. 13, 1812 
March 28,1814 
Sept. 8, 1781 
July 28, 1864 
Oct. 27, 1864 
Oct. 28, 1864 
July 13, 1863 
Feb. 26,1863 
Feb. 28, 1862 
Aug. 5, 1864 
Oct. 7, 1863 
April 18, 1863 
April 1, 1865 
April 9, 1865 
May 20, 1863 
Sept. 15, 1814 
Sept. 27, 1864 
Feb. 1 15, 1862 
Aug. 15, 1814 
Sept. 17, 1814 
March 12,1864 
Dec. 24, 1864 
Dec. 25, 1864 
Jan. 13, 1865 
Jan. 14, 1865 
Jan. 15,1865 
May 27, 1813 
April 2, 1865 
Sept. 5, 1812 
Aug. 28, 1861 
Feb. 6, 1862 
April 25, 1862 
March 3, 1863 
May 5, 1813 
Oct. 6, 1777 
June 28, 1776 
March 11,1863 
March 12,1863 
March 13,1863 
March 14,1863 
March 16,1863 
May 10, 1862 
April 12, 1864 
April 11, 1863 
Oct. 17, 1862 
Aug. 6, 1777 
July 27, 1864 
Mareh25, 1865 
Aug. 2, 1813 
July 18, 1863 
April 17, 1864 
Dec. 18, 1862 
Jan. 6, 1813 
April 10, 1863 
Nov. 30, 1864 
Dec. 11, 1862 
Dec. 12, 1862 
Dec. 13, 1862 
Jan. 18, 1813 
Jan. 22, 1813 
May 23, 1862 
June 27,1862 
Jan. 1, 1863 
Sept. 7, 1813 
Aug. 26, 1814 
June 4,1780 
Jan. 16, 1864 
Sept. 21, 1777 
Feb. 18, 1815 
Oct. 4, 1777 
July 1, 1863 
July 2, 1863 
July 3, 1863 
April 7, 1776 
Nov. 8, 1813 
Sept. 25, 1812 
Nov. 2, 1813 
April 29, 1863 
Dee. 15, 1775 
Nov. 17, 1847 
June 17,1815 


Enotachopco. 

Enterprise-Boxer , .. 

Enterprise-Tripoli, .. 

Essex-Alert, . 

Essex-Phoebe and Cherub . 

Eutaw Springs,.. 

Ezra Chapel,. 

Fair Oaks (continued),. 

Fair Oaks (ended), . ~ . 

Falling Waters. 

Falmouth,. ... • • • 

Farragut at Vicksburg, . 

Farragut in Mobile . 

Farmington,. 

Fayetteville. 

Five Forks,. 

Fort Blakely,. 

Fort Blunt. 

Fort Bowyer. 

Fort Davidson. 

Fort Donelson,. 

Fort Erie. 

Fort Erie (sortie). 

Fort De Russey . 

Fort Fisher (continued),. 

Fort Fisher (continued),. 

Fort Fisher (continued),. 

Fort Fisher (continued),. 

Fort Fisher (ended),. 

Fort George,. 

Fort Greggs and Alexander, .... 

Fort Harrison,. 

Fort Hatteras, . 

Fort Henry, . 

Fort Macon, . 

Fort McAllister, . 

Fort Meigs,. 

Forts Montgomery and Clinton, . . 

Fort Moultrie, .. 

Fort Pemberton (continued), .... 
Fort Pemberton (continued), .... 
Fort Pemberton (continued), .... 
Fort Pemberton (continued), .... 
Fort Pemberton (ended), ...... 

Fort Pillow, . 

Fort Pillow,. 

Fort Pulaski. 

Fort Ridgeley, .. 

Fort Schuyler,. . 

Fort Smith,. 

Fort Stedman,. 

Fort Stephenson. . 

Fort Wagner,. 

Fort Wessels,. 

Foster’s Expedition (ended),. . . . 

Fox-Lapwing, . 

Franklin,.•. . 

Franklin, Tenn. 

Fredericksburg (continued), .... 
Fredericksburg (continued), .... 

Fredericksburg (ended). 

Frenchtown,. 

Frenchtown No. 2,. 

Front Royal,. 

Gaines Mill. 

Galveston, . 

Gen. Armstrong-Queen, . 

Gen Armstrong-British boats, .... 

Gen. Pickering-Achilles . 

Gen. Sturgis,. 

Gen. Wayne,. 

George Little-Granicus, . 

Germantown,. 

Gettysburg (continued),. 

Gettysburg (continued). 

Gettysburg (ended),. 

Glasgow, .. . 

Globe-packets, . 

Globe-Sir Simon Clark, . 

Governor Tompkins-Mary Ann,. . . 

Grand Gulf. 

Great Bridge,. 

Guaymas. 

Guerriere-Mashouda, . 


Opponent 

Victor 

CASUALTIES 

United States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Indians 

U. S. 

40 

60 

200f 

0 

English 

u. s. 

2 

10 

4 

1 / 

Tripolitan 

u. s. 

0 

0 

20 

30 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

0 

3 

English 

Eng. 

58 

66 

5 

10 

• English 

u. s. 

130 

349 

85 

402 

Conf. 

u. s. 

99 

601 

864 

3,778 

Conf. 

* 



.... 


Conf. 

* 

120 

783 

150 

30i 

Conf. 

u. s. 

25 

80 

125 

354 

Conf. 

Conf. 

5t 

8t 

6 

8 

Conf. 

u. s. 

15 

30 

0 

0 

Conf. 

u. s. 

145 

170 

12 

20 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

16 

22 

37 

Conf. 

u. s. 

4 

26 

17 

36 

Conf. 

u. s. 

124 

706 

450 

750 

Conf. 

u. s. 

113 

516 

242 

874 

Conf. 

u. s. 

12 

38 

25 

37 

English 

u. s. 

4 

5 

32 

40 

Conf. 

Conf. 

47 

154 

245 

756 

Conf. 

u. s. 

560 

746 

466 

1,534 

English 

u. s. 

17 

56 

222 

309 

English 

u. s. 

79 

216 

110 

250 

Conf. 

u. s. 

18 

29 

14 

33 

Conf. 

Conf. 



.... 

.... 

Conf. 

Conf. 

20 

63 

3 

55 

Conf. 

u. s. 



.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 



. . . .* 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

184 

749 

150 

249 

English 

u. s. 

39 

121 

108 

163 

Conf. 

u. s. 

198 

304 

249 

353 

Indians 

u. s. 

2 

2 

8 

20 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

0 

'4 

25 

Conf. 

• u. s. 

17 

27 

5 

11 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

3 

7 

18 

Conf. 

Conf. 

0 

1 

0 

1 

English 

u. s. 

64 

124 

30t 

601 

English 

Eng. 

84 

166 

62 

141 

English 

u. s. 

11 

26 

68 

437 

Conf. 

Conf. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

Conf. 





Conf. 

Conf. 



.... 

.... 

Conf. 

Conf. 



.... 


Conf. 

Conf. 

7 

i6 

3t 

8t 

Conf. 

U. S. 

0 

4 

2 

1 

Conf. 

Conf. 

348 

52 

19 

61 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1 

3 

1 

7 

Indians 

u. s. 

1 

6 

44 

108 

English 

Eng. 

120 

268 

86 

204 

Conf. 

Conf. 

10 

15 

12 

19 

Conf. 

u. s. 

68 

337 

134 

698 

English 

u. s. 

1 

7 

50 

101 

Conf. 

Conf. 

624 

876 

26 

74 

Conf. 

Conf. 

20 

31 

29 

42 

Conf. 

U. S. 

90 

478 

201 

538 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

14 

8 

Conf. 

u. s. 

17 

20 

79 

163 

Conf. 

u. s. 

189 

1,033 

1,141 

5,113 

Conf. 

Conf. 




.... 

Conf. 

Conf. 





Conf. 

Conf. 

1,152 

9,ioi 

505 

4,06i 

English 

u. s. 

12 

55 

30f 

501 

English 

Eng. 

357 

64 

150 

155 

Conf. 

Conf. 

32 

122 

0 

13 

Conf. 

Conf. 

3,000 

4,500 

2,000 

4,000 

Conf. 

Conf. 

17 

20f 

26 

117 

English 

U. S. 

0 

1 

10 

19 

English 

u. s. 

2 

7 

137 

107 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

8 

12 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

32 

16 

49 

English 

Eng. 

94 

162 

2 

5 

English 

Eng. 

2 

6 

0 

1 

English 

Eng. 

189 

542 

98 

402 

Conf. 

u. s. 





Conf. 

u. s. 





Conf. 

u. s. 

2,834 

13,709 

4,000 

14,666 

English 

Eng. 

10 

14 

1 

3 

English 

u. s. 

8 

18 

9 

18 

English 

u. s. 

2 

1 

4 

4 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

1 

4 

Conf. 

Conf. 

19 

57 

8 

16 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

24 

81 

Mexican 

u. s. 

0 

0 

12 

18 

Algerine 

u. s. 

3 

11 

12 

18 









































































































HISTORY 


15 


AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED —Continued 


Date 

Name of Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

CASUA 

United States 

iLTIES 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

March 15,1781 

Guilford Court-House,. 

English 

Eng. 

123 

314 

231 

318 

May 21, 1863 

Gum Swamp,. 

Conf. 

U. S. 

3 

8 

4 

16 

May 11, 1777 

Hancock-Fox, . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

5 

14 

18 

May 27, 1862 

Hanover Court-House,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

53 

344 

198 

732 

Sept. 16, 1776 

Harlem Plains,. 

English 

* 

7 

8 

2 

20 

Sept. 13, 1863 

Harper’s Ferry. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

80 

120 

0 

0 

June 5,1862 

Harrisonburg,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

15 

32 

20 

50 

Oct. 1, 1864 

Harrison,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

24 

16 

46 

Dec. 7, 1862 

Hartsville,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

48 

102 

35 

115 

Jan. 10, 1863 

Hartsville. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

7 

69 

18 

74 

Oct. 27, 1864 

Hatcher’s Run,. 

Conf. 

* 

56 

1,047 

247 

763 

Jan. 11, 1863 

Hatter as-Alabama . 

Conf. 

Conf. 

2 

6 

0 

1 

March 16,1779 

Hazard-Active, . 

English 

U. S. 

3 

5 

13 

20 

Feb. 22, 1812 

H azard-Caledonia . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

7 

2 

11 

July 9, 1780 

Hazard-Duff, . 

English 

u. s. 

2 

4 

31 

64 

July 4, 1863 

Helena,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

98 

152 

205 

504 

March 21,1864 

Henderson’s Hill. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1 

3 

5 

18 

April 5, 1779 

Hibernia-brig of war, . 

English 

* 

1 

3 

3 

9 

July 22, 1812 

H ighflyer-Caledonia . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

7 

3 

9 

Feb. 17, 1813 

II ighflyer-Poictiers . 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

0 

0 

Nov. 18, 1813 

Hillabee towns. 

Indians 

u. s. 

0 

0 

61 

0 

April 25, 1781 

Hobkirk’s Hill. 

English 

Eng. 

52 

141 

38 

104 

July 30, 1779 

Holker-briq, . 

English 

u. s. 

6 

16 

6 

20 

Feb. 17, 1781 

Holker-Hypocrite . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

1 

4 

7 

Dec. 20, 1862 

Holly Springs,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

3 

4 

2 

21 

Nov. 30, 1864 

Honey Hill, S. C.,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

66 

645 

18 

114 

July 17, 1863 

Honey Springs,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

17 

60 

153 

378 

Feb. 24, 1813 

Hornet-Peacock, . 

English 

u. s. 

1 

4 

5 

33 

March 23,1815 

Hornet-Penguin, . 

English 

u. s. 

1 

11 

10 

28 

March 27,1814 

Horseshoe Bend,. 

Indians 

u. s. 

26 

106 

557 

0 

April 14, 1779 

Hunter-armed ship, . 

English 

* 

0 

4 

3 

6 

Jan. 4, 1862 

Huntersville, Va.,. 

Conf. 

* 

1 

3 

2 

4 

April 8, 1782 

Hyder Ally-Gen. Monk, . 

English 

u. s. 

4 

11 

20 

33 

Nov. 15, 1779 

Impertinent-H arlem . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

1 

8 

3 

Feb. 24,1863 

Indianola, . 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1 

1 

2 

5 

Nov. 16, 1776 

Industry-brig, . 

English 

* 

2 

6 

3 

8 

March 19,1776 

Industry-brig. . 

English 

Eng. 

0 

3 

2 

6 

Sept. 4, 1804 

Intrepid, . 

Tripolitan 

Trip 

13 

0 

20 

30 

April 7, 1863 

Ironclads at Charleston, . 

Conf. 

* 

3 

18 

0 

3 

April 7, 1862 

Island No. 10. 

Conf. 

U. S. 

19 

32 

1 

3 

Sept. 19, 1862 

Iuka,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

144 

598 

385 

692 

July 12, 1863 

Jackson. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

88 

765 

71 

504 

May 14, 1863 

Jackson. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

37 

228 

64 

392 

July 16, 1863 

James Island,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

24 

76 

48 

152 

July 6, 1781 

Jamestown Island. 

English 

Eng. 

37 

81 

21 

49 

Nov. 1, 1779 

Jason-Perseus, . 

English 

Eng. 

18 

12 

7 

9 

July 25, 1779 

J ason-privateer . 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

3 

6 

April 30, 1864 

Jenkins Ferry,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

222 

978 

842 

1,458 

Aug. 31, 1864 

Jonesboro, Ga. (continued), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 


.... 

.... 


Sept. 1, 1864 

Jonesboro (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

1,149 

498 

1,502 

July 31, 1812 

Julia-Gloucester, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

0 

3 

June 19,1864 

Kearsarge-Alabama, . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1 

2 

9 

21 

June 10,1864 

Kellar’s Bridge,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

13 

54 

0 

0 

Jan. 30, 1862 

Kelly’s Stores, . 

Conf. 

* 

24 

80 

22 

28 

Dec. 3, 1815 

Kemp-merchantmen {armed), .... 

English 

u. s. 

1 

4 

3 

8 

March23, 1862 

Kernstown. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

103 

441 

80 

342 

Oct. 7, 1780 

King’s Mountain,. 

English 

u. s. 

28 

60 

168 

284 

Dec. 14, 1862 

Kingston,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

90 

478 

71 

268 

Aug. 6, 1862 

Kirksville. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

28 

60 

180 

498 

Nov. 17, 1863 

Knoxville. 

Conf. 

* 

24 

72 

18 

64 

Nov. 29, 1863 

Knoxville. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

24 

68 

259 

432 

March30, 1814 

La Colie Mill,. 

English 

Eng. 

8 

66 

11 

47 

June 3,1776 

Lady Washington-barges, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

2 

3 

11 

Dec. 14, 1814 

Lake Borgne . 

English 

Eng. 

6 

35 

17 

77 

Oct. 11, 1776 

Lake Champlain, . 

English 

Eng. 

30 

50 

15 

26 

Sept. 11, 1814. 

Lake Champlain, .. 

English 

U. S. 

52 

58 

84 

110 

Sept. 10, 1813 

Lake Erie, . 

English 

u. s. 

27 

96 

41 

94 

Sept. 28, 1813 

Lake Ontario, . 

English 

u. s. 

10 

17 

12 

20 

June 24,1898 

Las Guasimas. 

Spanish 

u. s. 

16 

50 

28 

124 

Aug. 21, 1863 

Lawrence,... 

Conf. 

Conf. 

140 

22 

3 

14 

July 5, 1862 

Lebanon. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

4 

8 

3 

4 

Nov. 22, 1776 

Lee-ship, . 

English 

* 

1 

3 

2 

8 

July 7, 1864 

Legareville,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

36 

61 

12 

25 

May 23, 1862 

Lewisburg,. 

Conf. 

U. S. 

11 

52 

49 

76 

April 19, 1775 

Lexington,. 

English 

Eng. 

7 

9 

0 

0 

Sept. 20, 1777 

Lexington-Alert, . 

English 

Eng. 

3 

10 

2 

3 

April 17, 1776 

Lexington-Edward .. 

English 

U. s. 

2 

2 

5t 

8t 

Sept. 12, 1861 

Lexington, Mo.,. 

Conf. 

* 

42 

108 

33 

65 

April 12,1864 

Lexington, Red River. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

0 

164 

341 

Sept. 10, 1863 

Little Rock,. 

Conf. 

u. s. • 

22 

59 

31 

45 

Aug. 17, 1862 

London, Ky.,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

12 

18 

3 

8 

Aug. 27, 1776 

Long Island,. 

English 

Eng. 

62 

188 

61 

257 

Feb. 14,1813 

Lottery-boats, . 

English 

Eng. 

8 

10 

• 2 

4 

June 17,1864 

Lynchburg (continued),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 






































































































16 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued 


Date 


June 18,1864 
Aug. 9, 1812 
Sept. 30, 1863 
July 1, 1862 
Aug. 4, 1862 
July 24, 1863 
Aug. 27, 1862 
May 1, 1898 
Aug. 13, 1898 
Aug. 12, 1898 
Nov. 4, 1812 
April 25, 1864 
May 16, 1864 
Aug. 20, 1779 
July 23, 1864 
July 24, 1864 
Dec. 2, 1777 
Dec. 17, 1812 
June 27, 1861 
May 8, 1862 
April 20, 1863 
June 26, 1862 
June 6, 1862 
March 8, 1862 
Jan. 7, 1862 
June 12,1863 
June 7, 1863 
Jan. 19, 1862 
Nov. 28, 1863 
Feb. 3, 1863 
April 14, 1780 
March 9, 1862 
June 28,1778 
July 9, 1864 
Sept. 24, 1846 
Dec. 6, 1812 
Feb. 14,1776 
Aug. 30, 1814 
Oct. 5, 1813 
Nov. 16, 1776 
Sept. 14, 1862 
July 13, 1862 
Dec. 30, 1862 
Dec. 31, 1862 
Jan. 1, 1863 
Jan. 2, 1863 
Dec. 15, 1864 
Dec. 16, 1864 
Sept. 13. 1814 
July 12, 1863 
Dec. 23, 1814 
Dec. 28, 1814 
Nov. 3, 1863 
July 19, 1863 
June 15,1847 
March 14,1862 
May 24, 1862 
July 26, 1863 
Sept. 6, 1781 
Sept. 28, 1864 
Sept. 29, 1864 
Sept. 30, 1864 
May 15, 1864 
Jan. 1, 1815 
Jan. 8, 1815 
April 23, 1862 
Aug. 29, 1779 
Nov. 28, 1812 
July 25, 1814 
June 18, 1781 
Sept. 28, 1812 
Oct. 31, 1799 
May 26, 1864 
May 27, 1864 
June 25, 1862 
Jan. 31, 1863 
Oct. 4, 1812 
Feb. 10,1863 
Feb. 20,1864 
Nov. 26, 1863 

Nov. 27, 1863 
Sept. 19, 1864 
May 6, 1814 


Name of Battle 


Lynchburg (ended). 

Maguaga. 

Major Montgomery,. 

Malvern Hill. 

Malvern No. 2. 

Manassas Gap,. 

Manassas Junction. 

Manila, . 

Manila,. 

Manzanillo, .. 

M arengo-Leonidas . 

Mark’s Mills. 

Marksville,. 

Mars-Active, . 

Martinsburg (continued),. 

Martinsburg (ended),. 

Massachusetts-Lawnsdale, . 

Massasinewa,. 

Mathias Point, . 

McDowell’s,. 

McMinnville,. 

Mechanics ville. 

Memphis, . 

Merrimac in Hampton Roads, . . . 

Middle Creek. 

Middletown,. 

Milliken’s Bend,. 

Mill Spring (Logan Cross Roads),. . 

Mine Run (ended),. 

Mingo Swamp,. 

Monk’s Corner. 

Monitor-Merrimac . 

Monmouth, . .. 

Monocacy. 

Monterey,. 

Montgomery, armed-ship . 

Moore’s Creek. 

Moorfields,. 

Moravian towns,. 

Mount Washington. 

Mumfordsville, . ..' . 

Murfreesboro,. 

Murfreesboro (continued),. 

Murfreesboro (continued),. 

Murfreesboro (continued). 

Murfreesboro (ended),. 

Nashville (continued),. 

Nashville (ended),. 

Near Baltimore,. 

Near Donaldsonville,. 

Near New Orleans, . .. 

Near New Orleans. 

Near Opelousas,. 

Near Pomeroy,. 

Near Tabasco, . 

New Berne, . 

New Bridge, . . . -.. 

New Lisbon,. 

New London. 

New Market Heights (continued), . 
New Market Heights (continued), . 
New Market Heights (ended), . . . 

New Market, Pa.,. 

New Orleans,. 

New Orleans,. 

New Orleans . 

Newtown,. 

Niagara batteries,. 

Niagara (Lundy’s Lane),. 

Ninety-six,.. . 

N onesuch-privateer. . 

N orfolk-Picaroons . 

North Anna (continued),. 

North Anna (ended),. 

Oak Grove, near Richmond, .... 

Off Charleston, . 

Ogdensburg,. 

Old River,. 

Olustee. 

Operations at Mine Run, Va. (contin¬ 
ued), . 

Operations at Mine Run (continued), 

Opequan,. 

Oswego. 


CASUAI TIES 


Opponent 

Victor 

United States 

Opponents 



Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Conf. 

Conf. 

99 

503 

47 

157 

English 

U. S. 

18 

58 

50 

75 

Conf. 

Conf. 

14 

40 

0 

2 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2,860 

3,500 

3,023 

4,077 

Conf. 

u. s. 

6 

8 

10 

18 

Conf. 

u. s. 

30 

59 

41 

79 

Conf. 

Conf. 

14 

28 

11 

16 

Spanish 

u. s. 

0 

7 

318 

298 

Spanish 

u. s. 

8 

40 

' lot 

'(TV 

Spanish 

u. s. 

0 

0 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

0 

1 

Conf. 

Conf. 

98 

142 

126 

394 

Conf. 

u. s. 

9 

18 

32 

64 

English 

u. s. 

0 

3 

2 

7 

Conf. 

u. s. 

, . . 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

342 

836 

26 

152 

English 

u. s. 

3 

5 

6 

13 

Indians 

u. s. 

11 

26 

39 

0 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1 

4 

0 

0 

Conf. 

Conf. 

80 

176 

71 

390 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

0 

4 

8 

Conf. 

u. s. 

149 

224 

156 

236 

Conf. 

u. s. 

10 

4 

20f 

301 

Conf. 

Conf. 

250 

301 

8 

11 

Conf. 

U. S. 

3 

8 

11 

32 

Conf. 

U. S. 

1 

4 

18 

32 

Conf. 

u. s. 

154 

223 

148 

294 

Conf. 

u. s. 

39 

207 

192 

132 

Conf. 

u. s. 

99 

398 

121 

432 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

0 

8 

20 

English 

Eng. 

26 

73 

3 

6 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

1 

0 

2 

English 

u. s. 

72 

160 

294 

170 

Conf. 

Conf. 

90 

579 

78 

322 

Mexican 

u. s. 

142 

364 

200f 

450 

English 

u. s. 

4 

13 

6 

21 

English 

u. s. 

0 

3 

13 

22 

English 

u. s. 

0 

3 

13 

20 

English 

u. s. 

7 

22 

80 

101 

English 

Eng. 

48 

101 

252 

448 

Conf. 

Conf. 

15 

22 

29 

31 

Conf. 

u. s. 

33 

62 

47 

103 

Conf. 

u. s. 


.... 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 



.... 


Conf. 

u. s. 




.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1,533 

7,245 

1,384 

6,892 

Conf. 

u. s. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

399 

l,74i 

584 

3,02i 

English 

Eng. 

24 

139 

80 

301 

Conf. 

Conf. 

151 

349 

88 

126 

English 

Eng. 

24 

113 

99 

230 

English 

U. S. 

7 

8 

120 

149 

Conf. 

* 

26 

124 

58 

298 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2 

8 

12 

41 

Mexican 

u. s. 

0 

7 

20t 

30f 

Conf. 

u. s. 

102 

432 

50 

152 

Conf. 

u. s. 

3 

5 

4 

15 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1 

12 

22 

43 

English 

Eng. 

88 

34 

86 

142 

Conf. 

u. s. 





Conf. 

u. s. 





Conf. 

u. s. 

398 

2,03i 

399 

l,60i 

Conf. 

Conf. 

120 

563 

96 

306 

English 

u. s. 

11 

23 

20 

30 f 

English 

u. s. 

4 

13 

700 

1,400 

Conf. 

u. s. 

37 

147 

12 

40 

Indians 

u. s. 

8 

22 

12 

34 

English 

u. s. 

8 

12 

14 

30 

English 

u. s. 

171 

572 

201 

559 

English 

Eng. 

48 

107 

24 

61 

English 

u. s. 

3 

8 

7 

16 

Picaroons 

u. s. 

0 

0 

65 

70 

Conf. 

u. s. 





Conf. 

u. s. 

223 

1,460 

304 

1,513 

Conf. 

u. s. 

51 

401 

60 

300 

Conf. 

Conf. 

23 

24 

0 

0 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

3 

6 

Conf. 

u. s. 

5 

7 

4 

7 

Conf. 

Conf. 

193 

1,175 

150 

350 

Conf. 

Conf. 

U. S. 

U. S. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

653 

3,719 

1,632 

3,868 

English 

u. s. 

6 

38 

70 

165 













































































































HISTORY 


17 


AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED —Continued 







CASUALTIES 


Date 

Name of Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

United States 

Opponents 





Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

May 8, 1846 

Palo Alto,. 

Mexican 

U. S. 

4 

42 

102 

127 

Dec. 31, 1862 

Parker’s Cross-Roads,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

23 

139 

48 

152 

Feb. 2, 1864 

Paterson Creek,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

0 

3f 

4 

5t 

Aug. 18, 1779 

Paulus Hook,. 

English 

u. s. 

2 

3 

5 

12 

Nov. 5, 1812 

Paul Jones-Hassan .. 

English 

u. s. 

0 

1 

1 

1 

April 29, 1814 

P eacock-Epervier, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

2 

8 

15 

June 30,1815 

Peacock-Nautilus, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

6 

8 

March 6, 1862 

Pea Ridge (continued),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

«... 


.... 


March 7, 1862 

Pea Ridge (continued),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 



. . . 


March 8, 1862 

Pea Ridge (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

203 

972 

1,040 

3,638 

July 20, 1864 

Peach Tree Creek. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

301 

1,411 

880 

3,916 

April 22, 1847 

Perote,. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

0 

3 

0 

4 

Oct. 8, 1862 

Perryville. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

916 

2.943 

980 

1,520 

April 2, 1865 

Petersburg. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

298 

2,565 

341 

3,092 

June 19,1864 

Petersburg (from June 15), . . . . 

Conf. 

* 

1,298 

7,474 

984 

6,721 

June 20,1864 

Petersburg (continued to June 30), . 

Conf. 

u. s. 


June 30,1864 

Petersburg (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

112 

506 

801 

i,4i7- 

July 31, 1864 

Petersburg (from July 1, exclusive of 
losses at the Crater and Deep Bot¬ 
tom), . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

419 

2,076 

799 

4,023 

Aug. 31, 1864 

Petersburg (August 1 to August 31), 

Conf. 

u. s. 

87 

484 

101 

605 

Oct. 30, 1864 

Petersburg (September 1-October 30) 

Conf. 

u. s. 

170 

822 

240 

761 

Feb. 16,1804 

Philadelphia (frigate), . 

Tripolitans 

u. s. 

0 

1 

loot 

0 

Oct. 20, 1863 

Philadelphia, Tenn.,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

26 

73 

34 

62 

June 5, 1864 

Piedmont,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

130 

650 

633 

2,337 

Jan. 5, 1781 

Pilgrim-Mary, . 

English 

u. s. 

4 

16 

13 

22 

Oct. 25, 1863 

Pine Bluff, —* . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

17 

40 

39 

111 

Aug. 13, 1863 

Pineville. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

3 

18 

28 

92 

April 6, 1862 

Pittsburgh Landing (continued), . . 

Conf. 

. u. s. 





April 7, 1862 

Pittsburgh Landing (ended),. . . . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1,735 

7,882 

1,128 

8,0i2 

Sept, 11, 1814 

Plattsburg,. 

English 

u. s. 

37 

62 

50 

98 

April 8, 1864 

Pleasant Hill (continued), . . . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

.... 



.... 

April 9, 1864 

Pleasant Hill (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

99 

688 

348 

1,654 

April 20, 1864 

Plymouth. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

41 

59 

125 

174 

Oct. 22, 1862 

Pocotaligo (continued). 

Conf. 

Conf. 




.... 

Oct. 23, 1862 

Pocotaligo (ended). 

Conf. 

Conf. 

84 

152 

14 

102 

May 1, 1863 

Port Gibson,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

130 

718 

144 

832 

Marchl3, 1863 

Port Hudson, . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

7 

0 

0 

June 14,1863 

Port Hudson. 

Conf. 

* 

250 

680 

188 

364 

May 27, 1863 

Port Hudson,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

293 

1,549 

no 

173 

June 9,1862 

Port Republic. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

67 

361 

104 

796 

Nov. 7, 1861 

Port Royal . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

23 

n 

48 

April 10, 1863 

Prairie d’Anne. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

8 

15 

18 

36 

Dec. 7, 1862 

Prairie Grove. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

167 

798 

164 

817 

Sept. 30, 1864 

Preble’s Farm (continued), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 





Oct. 1, 1864 

Preble’s Farm (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

141 

788 

214 

686 

June 23,1812 

President-Belvidere, . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

19 

2 

22 

Jan. 15,1815 

President-Endymion . 

English 

Eng. 

24 

56 

11 

14 

Oct. 9, 1814 

Prince de Neuchatel-Endymion, . . . 

English 

u. s. 

7 

23 

33 

37 

Jan. 3, 1777 

Princeton,. 

English 

u. s. 

31 

64 

49 

151 

Dec. 4, 1781 

Prosperity-privateer, . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

8 

4 

9 

Jan. 9, 1779 

Protector-Admiral Duff, . 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

140 

3 

May 7, 1779 

Providence-Diligent, . 

English 

u. s. 

4 

10 

8 

19 

May 15, 1847 

Puebla, .. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

18 

62 

83 

142 

Feb. 7, 1832 

Qualla Battoo, . 

Malays 

u. s. 

2 

11 

120f 

200t 

Dec. 31, 1775 

Quebec,. 

English 

Eng. 

18 

42 

1 

8 

Oct. 13, 1812 

Queenstown. 

English 

Eng. 

90 

160 

50 

101 

Sept. 3, 1777 

Raleigh-Druid, . 

English 

U. S. 

1 

2 

6 

26 

March 7, 1778 

Randolph-Yar mouth . 

English 

Eng. 

311 

0 

5 

12 

April 24, 1778 

Ranger-Drake, . 

English 

U. S. 

2 

6 

18 

24 

Oct. 16, 1776 

Ranger-privateer, . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

11 

16 

24 

May 5, 1813 

Rapids of Miami. 

English 

u. s. 

80 

101 

15 

45 

Nov. 7, 1863 

Rappahannock Station. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

149 

250 

80 

160 

May 12, 1863 

Raymond. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

69 

341 

103 

720 

Aug. 25, 1864 

Ream’s Station,. 

Conf. 

* 

127 

546 

289 

1,211 

Oct. 22, 1777 

Red Bank,. 

English 

u. s. 

11 

21 

142 

258 

Jan. 14,1865 

Red Hill. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

7 

27 

14 

36 

April 7, 1864 

Red River,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

23 

39 

45 

88 

April 26, 1864 

Red River. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

17 

31 

28 

61 

May 13, 1864 

Resaca,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

598 

2,147 

861 

1,949 

May 9, 1847 

Resaca de la Palma,. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

39 

83 

160 

228 

March29, 1813 

Revenge-Narcissus, . 

English 

Eng. 

0 

3 

0 

1 

Aug. 30, 1862 

Richmond, Ky.. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

199 

689 

153 

248 

Feb. 8, 1862 

Roanoke Island,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

47 

198 

25 

30 

Feb. 12,1864 

Rock House,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

3 

5 

15 

23f 

Nov. 6, 1863 

Rogersville,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

5 

12 

3 

24 

Sept. 16, 1812 

Rossie-Princess Amelia, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

8 

3 

0 

Dec. 19, 1776 

Rover-Africa, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

3 

23 

0 

April 8, 1864 

Sabine Cross-Roads. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

199 

893 

486 

1,024 

Sept. 8, 1863 

Sabine Pass, . 

Conf. 

Conf. 

17 

19 

0 

0 

Jan. 21, 1863 

Sabine Pass . 

Conf. 

Conf. 

1 

3 

0 

2 

July 6, 1776 

Sachem-privateer, .■ 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

2 

6 

May 29, 1813 

Sackett’s Harbor . 

English 

E. S. 

21 

84 

29 

101 

April 6, 1865 

Sailor’s Creek,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

166 

1,014 

268 

2,032 




























































































THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued 


CASUALTIES 


Date 


Feb. 3, 1865 
Dec. 21, 17 f9 
■Jan. 12, 1848 
April 30, 1814 
Jan. 8, 1847 
July 1, 1898 
July 2, 1898 
July 3,1898 
Feb. 16,1847 
Nov. 21, 1847 
July 10,1898 
July 11, 1898 
July 12, 1898 
June 22, 1898 
Oct. . 7, 1777 
Dec. 22, 1778 
Oct. 8, 1780 
Dec. 10, 1812 
April 30, 1814 
Nov. 10, 1813 
Oct. 3, 1814 
Dec. 29, 1778 
Oct. 8, 1779 
Jan. 10, 1865 
June 16,1862 
April 2, 1865 
May 31, 1862 
June 27, 1863 
July 15, 1863 
May 12, 1780 
May 3, 1863 
Aug. 18, 1864 
Aug. 19, 1864 
Aug. 20, 1864 
Aug. 21, 1864 
March 30,1863 
April 19, 1864 
April 20, 1862 
Sept. 14, 1862 
March 26,1865 
July 3, 1898 
May 8, 1864 
May 9, 1864 
May 11, 1864 
May 18, 1864 
Jan. 8, 1863 
March 5, 1863 
June 17, 1863 
Dec. 26, 1781 
Sept. 19,1777 
June 28, 1779 
Aug. 11, 1814 
June 6, 1813 
Jan. 23,1813 
July 29, 1863 
Aug. 18, 1864 
July 16, 1779 
April 28, 1863 
Jan. 28, 1815 
Jan. 20,1864 
May 9, 1864 
May 10, 1864 
Oct. 26, 1846 
Nov. 9, 1813 
Nov. 3, 1813 
June 30, 1847 
March 4, 1863 
March 5, 1863 
July 4, 1863 
May 10, 1775 
Nov. 7, 1811 
Nov. 12, 1813 
Feb. 20,1865 
Dec. 25, 1776 
June 11,1864 
June 12,1864 
Aug. 7, 1781 
June 2,1780 
April 9, 1777 
Feb. 22,1864 
July 15, 1864 

April 18, 1847 
June 13,1776 


Name of Battle 


Sa’kelhatchie,. 

Sally-transports, . 

San Bias, .. 

Sandy Creek,. 

San Gabriel, . 

San Juan (continued),. 

San Juan (continued),. 

San Juan (ended),. 

San Jose, . 

San Jos4, . ... . 

Santiago (continued). 

Santiago (continued). 

Santiago (ended),. 

Santiago forts bombarded, . 

Saratoga... 

Saratoga-Chance . 

Saratoga-Molly . 

Saratoga-Morgiana .. . . . 

Saucy Jack-Pelham, ....... 

Saucy J ack-Sherbroke . 

Saucy Jack-troop ship, . 

Savannah,. 

Savannah,. 

Scottsboro,. 

Secessionville. 

Selma, .. 

Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks. 

Shelbyville,. 

Shepardstown,. 

Siege of Charleston (ended), .... 
Siege of Suffolk, N. C. (ended), . . . 
Six-Mile House (continued), .... 
Six-Mile House (continued), .... 
Six-Mile House (continued), .... 

Six-Mile House (ended),. 

Somerset,. 

Southfield-Albemarle, . 

South Mills or Camden,. 

South Mountain,. 

Spanish Fort (to April 8),. 

Spanish squadron destroyed off Santiago 
Spottsylvania (continued), .... 
Spottsylvania (continued), .... 

Spottsylvania (ended),. 

Spottsylvania (continued). 

Springfield,. 

Spring Hill. 

St. Charles. 

St. James-ship {armed), . 

Stillwater,. 

Stone Ferry,. 

Stonington,. 

Stony Creek,. 

Stony Creek,. 

Stony Lake. 

Strawberry Plains, etc.,. 

Stony Point,. 

Streight’s Raid (to May 3). 

Surprise-Star, . 

Sturgis’ Raid (January 16-28),. . . 

Swift Creek (continued). 

Swift Creek (ended),. 

Tabasco, . 

Talladega,. 

Talluschatches.. 

Tamultay,. .. 

Thompson’s Station (continued), '. '. 
Thompson’s Station (ended), . . . 

Tibb’s Bend. 

Ticonderoga,. 

Tippecanoe,.* ’ 

Tom-Townsend, .’ ' ] 

Town Creek,.’ ' 

Trenton,. 

Trevilian Station (continued), . . . 

Trevilian Station (ended),. 

Trumbull-1 ris, ......... 

Trumbull-Watt, .! ! 1 ! 

Trumbull-transports, . . 

Tunnel Hill,.’ 

Tupelo, Harrisonburg, and Old Town 

Creek, . 

Tuspan, .’ 

Tyrannicide-Dispatch. ....... 


Opponent 

Victor 

United States 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Conf. 

u. S. 

18 

70 

20 

80 

English 

* 

5 

12 

6 

11 

Mexican 

u. s. 

0 

2 

3 

8 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

13 

28 

Mexican 

u. s. 

2 

9 

70 

150 

Spanish 

u. s. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Spanish 

u. s. 

. • . • 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Spanish 

u. s. 

151 

1,007 

204 

1,340 

Mexican 

u. s. 

3 

8 

13 

30t 

Mexican 

u. s. 

0 

3 

8 

20 

Spanish 

u. s. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Spanish 

u. s. 

• . • . 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Spanish 

u. s. 

2 

13 

0 

0 

Spanish 

* 

1 

11 

(?) 

(?) 

English 

u. s. 

32 

61 

98 

156 

English 

u. s. 

4 

9 

5 

13 

English 

u. s. 

2 

4 

6 

10 

English 

u. s. 

3 

7 

2 

5 

English 

u. s. 

2 

9 

4 

11 

English 

u. s. 

0 

3 

2 

5 

English 

u. s. 

8 

15 

3 

2 

English 

Eng. 

28 

69 

7 

19 

English 

Eng. 

98 

136 

20 

35 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1 

8 

14 

32 

Conf. 

Conf. 

137 

438 

63 

141 

Conf. 

u. s. 

153 

347 

198 

409 

Conf. 

* 

891 

3,627 

1,987 

2,233 

Conf. 

u. s. 

143 

361 

164 

344 

Conf. 

* 

22 

78 

34 

66 

English 

Eng. 

92 

142 

76 

189 

Conf. 

u. s. 

15 

94 

898 

1,202 

Conf. 

u. s. 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

. 

.... 

• • • • 

.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 


.... 


.... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

212 

1,155 

862 

3,138 

Conf. 

u. s. 

11 

38 

24 

73 

Conf. 

Conf. 

2 

12 

0 

0 

Conf. 

u. s. 

15 

98 

12 

67 

Conf. 

u. s. 

312 

1,234 

224 

860 

Conf. 

u. s. 

99 

695 

152 

401 

Spanish 

u. s. 

1 

1 

342 

461 

Conf. 

u. s. 

. 




Conf. 

u. s. 


.... 



Conf. 

u. s. 

3,288 

19,278 

3,342 

20,187 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2,031 

7,956 

1,752 

7,248 

Conf. 

u. s. 

14 

145 

23 

164 

Conf. 

Conf. 

8 

14 

1 

4 

Conf. 

u. s. 

136 

20 

6 

8 

English 

* 

1 

4 

3 

8 

English 

u. s. 

98 

252 

161 

328 

English 

Eng. 

51 

99 

31 

63 

English 

u. s. 

1 

5 

21 

55 

English 

Eng. 

17 

38 

20t 

30 

Indians 

Ind. 

400 

0 

0 

0 

Indians 

U. S. 

-12 

42 

32 

98 

Conf. 

u. s. 

401 

1,754 

338 

762 

English 

u. s. 

20 

70 

63 

31 

Conf. 

u. s. 

12 

69 

0 

0 

English 

u. s. 

0 

0 

1 

1 

Conf. 

u. s.. 

6 

17 

30 

62 

Conf. 

Conf. 

. 


, 


Conf. 

Conf. 

90 

401 

124 

376 

Mexican 

u. s. 

0 

0 

4 

10 

Indians 

u. s. 

15 

86 

299 

0 

Indians 

u. s. 

5 

41 

186 

0 

Mexican 

u. s. 

6 

53 

42 

103 

Conf. 

Conf. 





Conf. 

Conf. 

99 

301 

152 

453 

Conf. 

u. s. 

6 

23 

280 

687 

English 

u. s. 


.... 

. 


Indians 

u. s. 

37 

151 

120 

iso 

English 

u. s. 

0 

2 

8 

13 

Conf. 

u. s. 

5t 

8t 

8t 

18t 

English 

u. s. 

2 

4 

17 

78 

Conf. 

u. s. 





Conf. 

u. s. 

85 

490 

i24 

582 

English 

Eng. 

5 

11 

0 

3 

English 

* 

19 

20 

39 

52 

English 

u. s. 

7 

8 

9 

14 

Conf. 

u. s. 

150t 

200f 

80 f 

180 

Conf. 

u. s. 

85 

563 

184 

516 

Mexican 

u. s. 

3 

11 

25 

34 

English 

u. s. 

1 

2 

2 

5 




































































































HISTORY 


19 


AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED —Continued 


Date 

Name of Battle 

Opponent 

Victor 

CASU 

United States 

ALTIES 

Opponents 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

Killed 

Wo’nd’d 

March29, 1779 

Tyrannicide-Revenge . 

English 

U. S. 

0 

8 

11 

22 

Jan. 5, 1813 

Ultor-boats, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

2 

1 

7 

Jan. 30, 1864 

Underwriter, . 

Conf. 

Conf. 

9 

20 

6 

32 

Jan. 26,1813 

Union-Iris, . 

English 

Eng. 

1 

3 

0 

2 

Oct. 25, 1812 

United States-Macedonian, . 

English 

U. S. 

5 

7 

36 

68 

June 21, 1863 

Upperville,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

30 

70 

50 

100 

Nov. 19, 1847 

Urias,. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

0 

0 

8 

12 

Feb. 28,1863 

Van Buren, Ark.,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

3 

2 

5 

March20, 1863 

Vaught's Hill,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

23 

33 

63 

241 

Oct. 15, 1779 

Vengeance-Defiance, . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

5 

4 

11 

Sept. 18, 1778 

Vengeance-Harriet, . 

English 

u. s. 

1 

3 

3 

8 

March24, 1847 

Vera Cruz,. 

Mexican 

u. s. 

11 

56 

981 

2,000t 

April 16, 1863 

Vicksburg, . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

3 

7 

18 

May 19, 1863 

Vicksburg (continued to May 22), . 

Conf. 

Conf. 





May 22, 1863 

Vicksburg (continued to May 25), . 

Conf. 

Conf. 





May 25, 1863 

Vicksburg (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

1,848 

2,378 

1,420 

2,i5i 

Dec. 27, 1862 

Vicksburg assault (continued), . . . 

Conf. 

Conf. 





Dec. 28, 1862 

Vicksburg assault (ended), .... 

Conf. 

Conf. 

724 

990 

63 

i34 

July 4, 1863 

Vicksburg (ended),. 

Conf. 

U. S. 

545 

3,688 

25 

20 

Sept. 1, 1814 

Wasp- Avon, . 

English 

u. s. 

2 

1 

10 

32 

Oct. 6, 1782 

Wasp-packet, . 

English 

u. s. 

3 

10 

4 

17 

Oct. 18, 1812 

Wasp-Frolic, . 

English 

u. s. 

5 

5 

15 

47 

June 28,1814 

W asp-Reindeer . 

English 

u. s. 

11 

15 

25 

42 

Oct. 27, 1863 

Wauhatchie (continued), ...... 

Conf. 

u. s. 





Oct. 28, 1863 

Wauhatchie (continued),. 

Conf. 

U. S. 





Oct. 29, 1863 

Wauhatchie (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

76 

339 

153 

208 

May 15, 1780 

Waxhaws,. 

English 

Eng. 

250 

130 

5 

14 

June 17,1863 

Weehawken-Atlanta, . 

Conf. 

u. s. 

0 

0 

0 

8 

June 23, 1864 

Weldon Railroad,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

604 

2,494 

156 

344 

May 7, 1862 

West Point,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

84 

110 

3 

15t 

June 29, 1862 

White Oak Swamp. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

34 

42 

65 

86 

Oct. 25, 1776 

White Plains. 

English 

* 

24 

66 

89 

144 

June 27, 1864 

White River,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

52 

148 

162 

341 

Sept. 3, 1863 

Whitestone Hill,. 

Indians 

u. s. 

8 

23 

194 

42 

Aug. 26, 1863 

White Sulphur Springs. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

63 

144 

42 

75 

March 8, 1865 

Wilcox’s Bridge (continued). 

Conf. 

Conf. 





March 9, 1865 

Wilcox’s Bridge (continued), .... 

Conf. 

Conf. 





March! 0, 1865 

Wilcox’s Bridge (ended). 

Conf. 

Conf. 

80 

42 i 

132 

643 

May 5, 1864 

Wilderness (continued). 

Conf. 

u. s. 





May 6, 1864 

Wilderness (continued),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 





May 7, 1864 

Wilderness (ended),. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2,309 

12,188 

1,956 

10,444 

Nov. 14, 1813 

Wile Renard-ship . 

English 

u. s. 

6 

40 

82 

0 

May 5, 1862 

Williamsburg,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

456 

1,400 

351 

1,403 

Feb. 8,1865 

Williston Station,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

2 

3 

3 

6 

Aug. 10, 1861 

Wilson Creek,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

223 

721 

331 

764 

June 30,1864 

Wilson’s Raid (June 22-30), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

76 

265 

48 

- 252 

March 22,1865 

Wilson’s Raid (to April 24), .... 

Conf. 

u. s. 

99 

598 

352 

1,231 

May 25, 1862 

Winchester,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

38 

154 

68 

329 

June 14,1863 

Winchester (continued),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 





June 15,1863 

Winchester (ended),. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

203 

397 

50 

81 

Feb. 19,1862 

Winton, N. C., . 

Conf. 

* 

0 

0 

1 

4 

Sept. 22, 1862 

Wood Lake,. 

Indians 

u. s. 

8 

24 

84 

138 

July 3, 1778 

Wyoming, or Fort Forty. 

English 

Eng. 

225 

0 

2 

8 

July 16, 1863 

Wyoming-Japanese batteries . 

Japanese 

u. s. 

6 

4 

100 

200 

July 18, 1863 

Wytheville,. 

Conf. 

Conf. 

21 

62 

3 

8 

Aug. 1, 1812 

Yankee-Royal Bounty, . 

English 

u. s. 

0 

2 

2 

7 

May 19, 1864 

Yellow Bayou,. 

Conf. 

u. s. 

42 

108 

74 

158 

April 27, 1813 

York,. 

English 

u. s. 

66 

203 

loot 

302 

April 18, 1814 

York-Lord Somers . 

English 

* 

0 

0 

6 

12 

Oct. 19, 1781 

Yorktown (ended),. 

English 

u. s. 

8 

16 

199 

353 


Arabia. The history of Arabia before the 
time of Mohammed is involved in mystery. 
The aborigines of Arabia were probably Cush¬ 
ites, most of whom passed over into Abyssinia. 
A few, however, remained, who inhabited the 
west coasts. Subsequently another Semitic 
race, descended from Abraham, settled in the 
land. The oldest Arabian tribes are now ex¬ 
tinct, and only a traditional memory even of 
their names exists; but the Semitic chiefs, 
Joktan, or Kahtan, and Ishmael, are generally 
considered to be the fathers of the present in¬ 
habitants. Christianity found an early entrance 
into'Arabia. The Jews, in considerable num¬ 
bers, migrated into Arabia after the destruction 
of Jerusalem, and made many proselytes. The 
great diversity of creeds in the peninsula was 


favorable to the introduction of the doctrine of 
Mohammed, which forms the grand epoch in 
Arabian history, and brings it into close connec¬ 
tion with the general history of civilization. 
Now, for the first time, the people of Arabia 
became united, and powerful enough to erect 
new empires in the three quarters of the world. 
The dominion of the Arabs, from the time of 
Mohammed to the fall of the caliphate of Bag¬ 
dad in 1258, or even to the expulsion of the 
Moors from Spain in 1492, is an important 
period in the history of civilization. But the 
movements which had such great effect on the 
destinies of other nations produced but little 
change in the interior of Arabia; and after the 
brilliant career of conquest was ended the penin¬ 
sula was left in an exhausted condition. Then 






































































20 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


followed the subjugation of Yemen by the Turks 
in the Sixteenth Century; their expulsion in 
the Seventeenth Century; the dominion of the 
Portuguese over Muscat, 1508-1659; the con¬ 
quests of Oman and the temporary victories 
gained by the Persians at the close of the Six¬ 
teenth Century; and, lastly, the appearance of 
the Wahhabees (1770), whose moral influence is 
still felt. The latter took an important part in 
the political affairs of Arabia, but their progress 
was interrupted by Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of 
Egypt, who subjugated the coast country of 
Hedjaz, with some parts of the coast of Yemen, 
and in 1818 gained a decisive advantage through 
the victory of Ibrahim Pasha. The subsequent 
events of the year 1840, in Syria, compelled 
Mehemet, however, to concentrate his forces 
and to resign all claims upon the territories 
lying beyond the Red Sea. Politically, Hedjaz, 
Yemen, and El Hasa are really three Turkish 
rovinces; the Sinaitic peninsula is in Egyptian 
ands; England exercises much influence in 
Hadramaut through her possession of Aden; 
the Sultan of Oman is practically independent, 
and in alliance with England. 

Argentine Republic. In 1515, Juan 
Diaz de Solis, while searching for a passage into 
the Great South Sea newly seen by Balboa, 
entered the Rio de La Plata. In 1526, Sebastian 
Cabot, son of the discoverer of Newfoundland, 
penetrated nearly to the confluence of the Parana 
and the Paraguay, being arrested by the rapids, 
which afterwards gave name to Corrientes. In 
1535, Buenos Ayres was founded, to command 
the only outlet of the country. In conjunction 
with its own colony of Montevideo, on the oppo¬ 
site bank, it has virtually monopolized the history 
of a region equal in extent to Western Europe. 
Gradually other cities were planted, partly by col¬ 
onists from Spain, and partly by adventurers from 
Peru, each city generally giving its own name to 
its own province. The chief staples of the coun¬ 
try—horses and cattle—had been largely intro¬ 
duced before 1552. Down to 1775, the basin 
of the Rio de La Plata was a dependency of the 
viceroyalty of Peru. In that year, however, 
was erected the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, 
which, to the basin in question, added Bolivia, 
under the name of Upper Peru, thus embracing 
the headwaters of the Amazon, and also most 
of the plateau of Titicaca. The year 1806 
ushered in a new order of things. Spain, as an 
ally of France, being then at war with England, 
both Buenos Ayres and Montevideo were occu¬ 
pied by the English — a change which, brief as 
was its duration, virtually sowed the seeds of 
revolution. The colonists had felt the incon¬ 
venience of belonging to a state which left them, 
in a great measure, to defend themselves; they 
had successfully tried their strength against a 
foe more powerful than their own masters; and 
they had been encouraged not less by the say¬ 
ings than by the doings of their invaders to 
assert their independence. The triumphant 
militia, after deposing and expelling the legiti¬ 
mate viceroy for cowardice, elected in his stead 
the French officer who had led them to victory. 
Thus had the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres become 
peculiarly ripe for taking its share in the out¬ 
break which Napoleon’s dethronement of the 


Bourbons, in 1808, almost immediately occa¬ 
sioned throughout Spanish America. The con¬ 
stituents of the Argentine Republic did not, 
however, submit to the sovereignty of Joseph 
Bonaparte when he was shuffled on to the Spanish 
throne to replace Ferdinand VII. In 1810, they 
organized a government in the name of Ferdinand. 
After a short and inglorious period, this arrange¬ 
ment ended in utter confusion. In 1816, a Gen¬ 
eral Congress declared the independence, of the 
“United Provinces of Rio de La Plata”; but 
those provinces, in 1827, returned once more to 
a state of isolation. In 1831, Buenos Ayres, 
Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Santa Fe, sometimes 
classed as the coast or riverine states, entered 
into a federal compact, and invited the others 
to form a voluntary alliance with them. This 
Argentine Confederation led to little but anarchy 
till 1835, when General Rosas was elected cap¬ 
tain general or governor of it, with all but 
absolute power. He secured quiet and order for a 
time; but his struggles to achieve the military 
and commercial supremacy of Buenos Ayres 
led to his overthrow in 1851. Buenos Ayres, 
refusing to submit to Urquiza, the next gov¬ 
ernor of the Argentine Republic, declared itself 
independent in 1854, but was compelled by a 
signal defeat atCepeda in 1859 to reenter the con¬ 
federation. Continuing restless, however, another 
war placed that province in the position of 
supremacy which it still holds. In 1881, the Argen¬ 
tine Republic, in conjunction with Chile, came 
into possession of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. 
A financial crisis in 1890 did much to temporarily 
retard the industrial progress of the republic. 
In 1906-07, immigration was encouraged on an 
extensive scale, and railroad building received 
a renewed impetus. The immigration law of 
1911 excluded all but able-bodied immigrants. 
In 1912 Argentina spent more money on educa¬ 
tion than on her army and navy combined. 

Arizona. The name is probably derived 
from the Spanish-Indian word Arizonac, which 
was applied to certain local features, as hill, 
spring, stream, etc. Evidence contained in num¬ 
erous ruins indicates Arizona was the home of a 
highly civilized race before it was visited by 
Spanish explorers. It was explored by the 
Spaniards about 1570, and a military post was 
established at Tucson in 1580. 

Arizona originally formed a part of Mexico and 
was ceded to the United States along with New 
Mexico, February 2,1848. It was separated from 
New Mexico and made a territory, February 24, 
1863. Indian troubles in some measure hindered 
the development of the country, but the popula¬ 
tion of the territory steadily increased in propor¬ 
tion as larger tracts of desert land were reclaimed 
by irrigation, and the mineral resources of the 
region were utilized. After struggling for state¬ 
hood for about twenty years, Arizona was admitted 
to the Union, February 14, 1912, being the 48th 
state and last territory admitted; in November 
of the same year the state adopted a constitu¬ 
tional amendment granting suffrage to women. 

Arkansas. The name, derived from the 
Indian, signifies “smoky water,” with a French 
prefix meaning “bow.” The State was origi¬ 
nally a portion of the Louisiana Territory pur¬ 
chased from the French in 1803. When the 



HISTORY 


21 


State of Louisiana was admitted, in 1812, the 
remaining portion was organized as Missouri 
Territory, which name it held till 1819, when 
Missouri formed a State Constitution, and Ar¬ 
kansas became a Territory under its present 
name. It became a State in 1836. The people 
passed the ordinance of secession on May 6, 1861. 
During the late Civil War the principal battles 
fought within the State boundaries were Pea 
Ridge, Prairie Grove, Arkansas Post, and Hel¬ 
ena. Arkansas was temporarily reorganized as 
a State in the Union in 1864, but it was rele¬ 
gated to military government under the recon¬ 
struction acts of 1867. The new constitution 
was adopted in 1868, and the State resumed 
permanent federal relations. In 1903, charges 
were preferred against Governor Jeff Davis, 
alleging gross official misconduct. In the fol¬ 
lowing election he received full vindication. 

Armada. A Spanish word, signifying gen¬ 
erally an armed force, but applied specially to 
the great naval expedition sent out against 
England by Philip of Spain, A. D. 1588. The 
object of the expedition was to strike a decisive 
blow at the Protestant interest. The expedition 
had been long in preparation, and ponsisted of 
no fewer than 132 vessels, chiefly galleons, which 
carried, besides 8,000 sailors and the galley- 
slaves, an army of 20,000 men. These were 
destined for the coast of Flanders, where Alex¬ 
ander Farnese, Prince of Parma, was to embark 
with 35,000 men in addition. The news of these 
hostile preparations aroused all the enthusiasm 
of England. Her navy, which had been reduced 
to thirty-six ships, was rapidly increased until 
191 vessels were ready for sea. These were 
placed under the command of Lord Howard of 
Effingham, under whom served Drake, Hawkins, 
Frobisher, and others. The command of the 
army was given to the Earl of Leicester. The 
main body of the ships was stationed off Ply¬ 
mouth, while a squadron, under Lord Seymour, 
was ordered to cruise off the coast of Flanders. 
The Armada set out from the Tagus on the 29th 
of May. On the 19th of July, the fleet (which 
had been delayed by storms) was observed en¬ 
tering the Channel. On the 23d, there was a 
whole day’s fighting off Portland, and the 25th 
saw a similar scene with a similar result — the 
capture or crippling of Spanish ships — off the 
Isle of Wight. On the 27th, the fleet anchored 
off Calais. Two nights later, eight small vessels, 
daubed with pitch and resin, and filled with 
explosive substances, were drifted down with 
the tide towards the floating castles, and were 
set on fire. In the panic which the fire and the 
frequent crashes struck through the Spanish 
fleet, many vessels cut their cables and cleared 
off from the shore, while others were disabled 
or seriously injured. Next morning the scattered 
vessels of the Armada fell an easy prey 
to the English ships, which, being much smaller 
in size than those of the Spaniards, had all along 
been more easily manoeuvred. Four thousand 
Spaniards were killed. Many of their vessels 
were either taken, sunk, or driven ashore. The 
rest fled northward at the bidding of their ad¬ 
miral, who saw no way home but round the 
northern coast of Scotland; and, at the end of 
September, fifty-three weather-beaten and muti¬ 


lated ships, all that remained of “The Invin¬ 
cible Armada,” were brought to an anchor in 
Santander Bay. 

Assembly. The four great legislative 
bodies which succeeded each other during the 
period of the first French revolution are usually 
termed: (1) The National or Constituent Assem¬ 
bly, commenced June 17, 1789, by the resolution 
of the deputies of the communes in the States- 
General, constituting themselves a national as¬ 
sembly, to which the deputies of the nobles and 
clergy afterwards adhered; termed Constituent 
Assembly from having framed a constitution; 
dissolved on the acceptance of the constitution 
by the king, September 30, 1791. (2) The Legis¬ 

lative Assembly . It commenced its sittings Octo¬ 
ber 1, 1791; suspended the royal authority by 
its decree of August 10, 1792; and was dissolved 
September 21, 1792. (3) The Convention. It 

commenced its sittings September 21, 1792, 
with a proclamation of the Republic; was dis¬ 
solved 4 Brumaire, fourth year of the Repub¬ 
lic (October 26, 1795). (4) Two-thirds of this 

assembly were then included in the new body 
of the Corps Legislatif, which commenced its 
sittings October 27, 1795, forming the Council 
of the Five Hundred (des Cinq-Cents), and the 
Council of the Ancients (des Anciens), 250 in 
number. The latter body named the Directory. 
This assembly subsisted until the dissolution of 
the Directory by Bonaparte, 17 Brumaire, eighth 
year of the Republic (November 10, 1799). The 
term Assemblee Nationale was revived by the 
legislative body under the second Republic, 
May, 1848; and under the third Republic, 1870. 

Assyria ( ds-sir're-ah ). The name of the 
first great empire of antiquity recorded in Holy 
Writ. Assyria Proper was a region east of the 
Tigris, including Nineveh, and derived its name 
from Asshur, the second son of Shem. It ap¬ 
pears to have comprised the modern pashalics 
of Yan and Diarbekr, with Pensarmenia, includ¬ 
ing at least part of Azerbijan; corresponding 
pretty exactly to modern Kurdistan. The first 
empire of Assyria was founded by Belus, B. C. 
1993. Ninus, son of Belus (1968-1916), and his 
widow, Semiramis (1916-1874), were its most 
famous monarchs. The last of their successors, 
Sardanapalus, infamous for his luxury and volup¬ 
tuousness, was dethroned by his subjects, and 
burned himself in his palace, with his eunuchs, 
concubines, and all his treasures, about 820 B.C. 
The empire was then divided into Media, Assyria, 
and Babylonia. Salmanassar, or Shalmaneser, 
conquered Judea about 724 B. C. The second 
empire of Assyria finished with Nabopolassar, 
who united Assyria to Babylonia, B. C. 625. 
Assyria, with Babylonia, was conquered by Cyrus, 
B. C. 538, and became a province of Persia. 

Augur ( au'gur ). A public officer appointed 
to interpret the will of the gods, as expressed by 
signs or omens, for national or individual guid¬ 
ance. Their office was one of great importance 
in the state, as no enterprises or ceremonies were 
performed unless they declared the omens fa¬ 
vorable. Accordingly, the members of their col¬ 
lege were always elected from the most honorable 
citizens. Their divinations were called auguries 
or auspices , between which there is sometimes a 
distinction made; the latter meaning such as 



22 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


were derived from the inspection of birds, the 
former being extended to all omens or prodigies 
whatever. The Augurs bore a staff or wand as 
the ensign of their authority. From B. C. 300 
to Sulla’s time, the College of Augurs consisted 
of nine. They were then increased to fifteen. 
Julius Caesar added another. Their office was 
suppressed, 390 A. D. 

Aulic Council. One of the two supreme 
courts of the old Germanic, or Holy Roman, 
Empire, the other being the Imperial Chamber. 
The nomination of the Aulic Councillors be¬ 
longed to the emperor, and each new emperor 
made a new appointment. The Council, which 
was called into existence in 1501 by the Em¬ 
peror Maximilian, ultimately attained to great 
authority, and was held to be equal in dignity 
to the Imperial Chamber. At the extinction of 
the old Germanic Empire, by the renunciation 
of Francis II., and the establishment of the 
Confederation of the Rhine under the protection 
of the Emperor Napoleon, in 1806, the Aulic 
Council ceased to exist. 

Austria-Hungary. The history of Aus¬ 
tria is the history of the House of Habsburg. 
When Rudolph of Habsburg became Emperor 
of Germany, and Ottokar, King of Bohemia and 
Duke of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia, refused, 
to take the oath of allegiance, the emperor 
succeeded in dispossessing him of his fiefs (1278), 
and subsequently conferred them, with the con¬ 
sent of the electors of the German Empire, on 
his son (1282). Thus the dynasty of Habsburg 
was founded. In the first half of the Sixteenth 
Century, Duke Ferdinand of Austria was elected 
King of Hungary by one party, while John 
Zapolya of Transylvania was chosen by another. 
After several wars, in which John was supported 
by the Turks, Ferdinand finally came out vic¬ 
torious and united Hungary to Austria. Thus 
possessed of a large territory, fertile and densely 
peopled, the House of Habsburg, regularly 
elected emperors of Germany, was for several 
centuries the richest and most powerful family 
in Europe. But humiliations came, thick and 
heavy, with Napoleon. Driven out of Germany, 
the Emperor Francis assumed, August 11, 1804, 
for himself and his successors, the title of Em¬ 
peror of Austria. But, besides Germany, he 
also lost his possessions in Italy, and was com¬ 
pletely shut out from the sea. After the fall of 
Napoleon, Austria was restored to its former 
size, and under the administration of Metternich 
it also regained its former prestige in European 
politics. But it was internally weak, and its 
weakness became surprisingly apparent, first by 
the revolution of 1848, when only the support 
of Russia prevented the whole fabric from falling 
to pieces, and then after the battle of Sadowa, 
1866, w T hen, for the second time, it was driven 
out of Germany, and lost its hold on Italy. Since 
that time the Austrian Government has been 
principally occupied with the internal recon¬ 
struction of the empire, and it is now consti¬ 
tuted as a double state — Austria and Hungary 
— each with a representation of its own, out of 
which is formed a common representation, in 
which all common affairs, army and navy, for¬ 
eign policy, etc., are treated. In 1878, the 
administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina was 


given to Austria-Hungary. In 1882, the dual 
kingdom entered into the triple alliance with 
Germany and Italy. An anti-Semitic agitation 
assumed vast proportions in 1895, and resulted 
in the Czechs carrying the Bohemian Diet. 
More internal unrest has recently been displayed 
in Austria-Hungary than in any other nation of 
Europe, Turkey excepted. In 1907-08, socialist 
demonstrations in favor of universal suffrage 
were frequent and impressive. In 1909, Bosnia 
and Herzegovina became absolute possessions. 

Battles ( The fifteen decisive), according to 
Professor Creasy: (1) Marathon (B. C. 490), in 
which the Greeks, under Milti5d§s, defeated 
Darius, the Persian, and turned the tide of 
Asiatic invasion. (2) Syracuse (B. C. 413), in 
which the Athenian power was broken, and the 
extension of Greek domination was prevented. 
(3) Arhela (B. C. 331), by which Alexander 
overthrew Darius, and introduced European 
habits into Asia. (4) Metaurus ~(B. C. 207), in 
which the Romans defeated Hannibal, and Car¬ 
thage was brought to ruin. (5) Armin'ius 
(A. D. 9), in which the Gauls overthrew the 
Romans under Varus, and established their in¬ 
dependence. (6) Chdlons (A. D. 451), in which 
Attila, “the Scourge of God,” was defeated by 
Aetius, and Europe saved from utter devasta¬ 
tion. (7) Tours (A. D. 732), in which Charles 
Martel overthrew the Saracens, and broke from 
Europe the Mohammedan yoke. (8) Hastings 
(A. D. 1066), by which William of Normandy 
became possessed of the English Crown. (9) 
Orleans (A. D. 1429), by which Jeanne d’Arc 
raised the siege of the city, and secured the 
independence of France. (10) Armada (The), 
(A. D. 1588), which crushed the hopes of Spain 
and of the papacy in England. (11) Blenheim 
(A. D. 1704), in which Marlborough, by the 
defeat of Tallard, broke the ambitious schemes 
of Louis XIV. (12) Pultowa (A. D. 1709), in 
which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by 
Peter the Great of Russia, and the stability of 
the Muscovite Empire was established. (13) 
Saratoga (A. D. 1777), in which General Gates 
defeated Burgoyne, and virtually decided the 
fate of the American Revolution. (14) Valmy 
(A. D. 1792), in which the allied armies, 
under the Duke of Brunswick, were defeated 
by the French revolutionists, and the Revolu¬ 
tion was suffered to go on. (15) Waterloo 
(A. D. 1815), in which Wellington defeated 
Napoleon, and rescued Europe from French 
domination. 

Belgium. The territory now known as 
Belgium originally formed only a section of that 
known to Caesar as the territory of the Belgae, 
extending from the right bank of the Seine to 
the left bank of the Rhine, and to the ocean. 
This district continued under Roman sway till 
the decline of the empire; subsequently formed 
part of the Kingdom of Clovis; and then of that 
of Charlemagne, whose ancestors belonged to 
Landen and Herstal on the confines of the Ar¬ 
dennes. After the breaking up of the empire 
of Charlemagne, Belgium formed part of the 
Kingdom of Lotharingia under Charlemagne’s 
grandson, Lothaire; Artois and Flanders, how¬ 
ever, belonging to France by the treaty of 
Verdun. 






HISTORY 


23 


For more than a century this kingdom was 
contended for by the kings of France and the 
emperors of Germany. In 953, it was conferred 
by the Emperor Otto upon Bruno, archbishop 
of Cologne, who assumed the title of archduke, 
and divided it into two duchies: Upper and 
Lower Lorraine. In the frequent struggles 
which took place during the Eleventh Century, 
Luxemburg, Namur, Hainaut, and Li6ge usu¬ 
ally sided with France, while Brabant, Holland, 
and Flanders commonly took the side of Ger¬ 
many. The contest between the civic and in¬ 
dustrial organizations and feudalism, which 
went on through the Twelfth and Thirteenth 
Centuries, and in which Flanders bore a leading 
part, was temporarily closed by the defeat of 
the Ghentese under Van Artevelde in 1382. 
In 1384, Flanders and Artois fell to the House 
of Burgundy, which, in less than a century, 
acquired the whole of the Netherlands. The 
death of Charles the Bold at Nancy, in his 
attempt to raise the duchy into a kingdom 
(1477), was followed by the succession and mar¬ 
riage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, by 
which the Netherlands became an Austrian pos¬ 
session. With the accession, however, of the 
Austrian House of Habsburg to the Spanish 
throne, the Netherlands, after a brief period of 
prosperity, attended by the spread of the re¬ 
formed religion, became the scene of increas¬ 
ingly severe persecution under Charles V. and 
Philip II. of Spain. Driven to rebellion, the 
seven northern states under William of Orange, 
the Silent, succeeded in establishing their inde¬ 
pendence, but the southern portion, or Belgium, 
continued under the Spanish yoke. 

From 1598 to 1621, the Spanish Netherlands 
were transferred as an independent kingdom to 
the Austrian branch of the family by the mar¬ 
riage of Isabella, daughter of Philip II., with the 
Archduke Albert of Austria. He died childless, 
however, and they reverted to Spain. After 
being twice conquered by Louis XIV., con¬ 
quered again by Marlborough, coveted by all 
the powers, deprived of territory on the one 
side by Holland and on the other by France, 
the Southern Netherlands were at length in 
1714, by the peace of Utrecht, again placed 
under the dominion of Austria, with the name 
of the Austrian Netherlands. During the Aus¬ 
trian war of succession the French, under Saxe, 
conquered nearly the whole country, but re¬ 
stored it in 1748 by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The Seven Years’ War (1756-63) did not affect 
Belgium, and in that period,^ and during the 
peace which followed, she regained much of her 


prosperity under Maria Theresa and Charles of 
Lorraine. On the succession of Joseph II., the 
“philosophic emperor,” a serious insurrection 
occurred, the Austrian army being defeated at 
Turnhout, and the provinces forming them¬ 
selves into an independent state as United Bel¬ 
gium (1790). They had scarcely been subdued 
again by Austria before they were conquered 
by the revolutionary armies of France, and the 
country divided into French departments, the 
Austrian rule being practically closed by the 
battle of Fleurus (1794), and the French posses¬ 
sion confirmed by the treaties of Campo Formio 
(1797) and Luneville (1801). 

In 1815, Belgium was united by the Congress 
of Vienna to Holland, both countries together 
now forming one state, the Kingdom of the 
Netherlands. This union lasted until 1830, when 
a revolt broke out among the Belgians, and soon 
attained such dimensions that the Dutch troops 
were unable to repress it. A convention of the 
great powers assembled in London, favored the 
separation of the two countries, and drew up a 
treaty to regulate it, the National Congress of 
Belgium offering the crown, on the recommenda¬ 
tion of England, to Leopold, Prince of Saxe- 
Coburg, who acceded to it under the title of 
Leopold I., on July 21, 1831. In November of 
the same year, the five powers guaranteed the 
crown to him by the treaty of London, and the 
remaining difficulties with Holland were settled 
in 1839, when the Dutch claims to territory in 
Limburg and Luxemburg were withdrawn. The 
reign of Leopold was for Belgium a prosperous 
period of thirty-four years. Leopold II. suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 1865. In recent years the 
chief feature of Belgian politics has been a keen 
struggle between the clerical and the liberal 
party. In 1877, a bill was passed to put down 
corruption at the elections, and to increase the 
number of town deputies to the Chamber of 
Representatives; at the next elections, in June, 
1878, the Liberals gained a majority, which they 
lost in 1884. In 1885 the Congress of Berlin 
constituted the Congo Free State, in which 
Leopold II. had shown an active interest, and 
invited him to become its sovereign. 

The Congo Free State passed under the 
suzerainty of Belgium in 1890, and in the years 
following the indignation of the civilized world 
was aroused by the reported atrocities under 
Leopold’s rule. Finally, in 1908, the Congo Free 
State was annexed to Belgium. In 1909 Leopold 
died and was succeeded by his son Albert I. In 
1911 Parliament voted a law providing for old 
age pensions to coal miners. 


BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME 


Pontiff 

Pontificate 

StTHNAME 

Nationality 

St. Peter. 

Linus.. . 

Cletus or Anacletus. 

Clement,. 

Evaristus,. 

Alexander I., ...... . 

Sixtus I.,. 

First Century 

A. D. A. D. 

41 67 

67 79 

79-91 

91-100 

Second Century 
100-109 
about 109-119 

119-128 


Roman. 

















24 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME— Continued 


Pontiff 


Telesphorus, 
Hyginus, . . 
Pius I., . . 
Anicetus, 
Soter, . . . 
Eleutherus, 
Victor I M . 
Zephyrinus, 


Calixtus I., 
Urban I., 
Pontianus, . 
Antherius, . 
Fabianus, . 
Cornelius, . 
Lucius I., . 
Stephen I., . 
Sixtus II., . 
Dionysius, . 
Felix I., . . 
Eutychianus, 
Caius, , , . 


Marcellinus, 
Marcellus I., 
Eusebius, . 
Melchiades, 
Sylvester I., 
Marcus, . . 
Julius I., 
Liberius, . . 
Damascus I., 
Siricius,_ . . 
Anastasius I., 


Innocent I. 

Zosimus,. 

Boniface I.,. 

Celestinus I.,. 

Sixtus III.,. 

Leo I., “. The Great,” . . . 

Hilarius,. 

Simplicius,. 

Felix II.,. 

Gelasius,. 

Anastasius II. 


Symmachus, 
Hormisdas, . 
John I., . . 
Felix III., . 
Boniface II., 
John II., . . 
Agapetus I., 
Sylverius, . 
Vigilius, . . 
Pelagius I., . 
John III., . 
Benedict I., 
Pelagius II., 


Gregory I., “The Great, ” 

Sabinianus. 

Boniface III.,. 

Boniface IV. 

Deusdedit. 

Boniface V.,. 

Honorius,. 

Severinus,. 

John IV. 

Theodore,. 

Martin I.,. 

Eugenius I.,. 

Vitalianus. 

Adeodatus,. 

Donus I.,. 

Agatho. 

Leo II.,. 

Benedict II.,. 

John V. 

Conon, . 


Pontificate 

Surname 

A. D. 

A. D. 


128 

139 


139 

142 


142 

157 


157 

168 


168 

176 


177 

190 


190 

202 


202 

217 


Third Century 

• 

217 

222 


222 

230 


230 

235 


235 

236 


236 

250 


251 

253 


253 

254 


254 

257 


257 

258 


259 

268 


269 

274 


275 

283 


283 

296 


Fourth Century 


296 

304 


304 

309 


309 



310 

314 


314 

335 


336 



337 

352 


352 

366 


366 

384 


384 

398 


398 

401 


Fifth 

Century 


401 

417 


417 

418 


418 

422 


422 

432 


432 

440 


440 

461 


461 

468 


468 

483 


483 

492 


492 

496 


496 

498 


Sixth 

Century 


498 

514 


514 

523 


523 

526 


526 

530 


530 

532 


532 

535 


535 

536 


536 

537 


537 

555 


555 

560 


560 

573 


574 

578 


578 

590 


Seventh Century 


590 

604 


604 

606 


607 



608 

615 


615 

618 


619 

625 


625 

638 


638 

640 

. 

640 

642 


642 

649 


649 

653 


654 

657 


657 

672 


. 672 

676 


676 

678 


678 

681 


682 

683 


684 

685 


685 

686 


686 

687 



Nationality 


Greek. 

Athenian. 

Native of Aquileia. 
Syrian. 

Greek. 

Greek. 

African. 


Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Greek. 

Probably Roman. 
Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Greek. 

Roman. 

Uncertain. 

Roman. 


Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

African. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Spaniard. 

Roman. 

Roman. 


Native of Albano. 
Greek. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Native of Sardinia. 
Native of Tibur. 
Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 


Native of Sardinia. 
Native of Frusino. 
Tuscan. 

Native of Beneventum. 
Roman. 

Roman. 

Roman. 

Native of Campania. 







































































































































































HISTORY 


25 


BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME —Continued 


Pontiff 

Pontificate 

Surname 

Nationality 


Eighth 

Century 




A. D. 

A. D. 



Sergius,. 

687 

701 


Native of Palermo. 

John VI.,. 

701 

705 


Native of Greece. 

John VII.,. 

705 

707 


Greek. 

Sisinnius, . 

708 



Syrian. 

Constantinus I., . 

708 

715 



Gregory II.,. 

715 

731 


Roman. 

Gregory III.,. 

731 

741 


Syrian. 

Zachary, . 

741 

752 


Greek. 

Stephen II.,. 

752 

757 



Paul I.,. 

757 

767 


Roman. 

Stephen III.,. 

768 

772 


Sicilian. 

Adrian I.,. 

772 

795 


Roman. 


Ninth 

Century 



Leo III.,. 

795 

816 


Roman. 

Stephen IV.,. 

816 

817 


Roman. 

Pascal I.,. 

817 

824 


Roman. 

Eugenius II.,. 

824 

827 


Roman. 

Valentine,. 

827 



Roman. 

Gregory IV.,. 

827 

844 


Roman. 

Sergius II.,. 

844 

847 


Roman. 

Leo IV. 

847 

855 


Roman. 

Benedict III., . 

855 

858 


Roman. 

Nicholas I., . 

858 

867 


Roman. 

Adrian II.,. 

867 

872 


Roman. 

John VIII. 

872 

882 


Roman. 

Martin II., . 

882 

884 



Adrian III. 

884 

885 


Roman. 

Stephen V.,. 

885 

891 


Roman. 

Formosus. 

891 

896 


Bishop of Parto. 

Boniface VI., . 

896 




Stephen VI. 

896 

897 


Roman. 

Romanus,. 

897 




Theodore II., . 

897 




John IX. 

898 

900 


Native of Tiber. 


Tenth 

Century 



Benedict IV.,. 

900 

903 


Roman. 

Leo V.,.. : . 

903 



Native of Ardea. 

Sergius III. 

904 

911 



Anastasius III.,. 

911 

913 


Roman. 

Landon, . 

913 

914 


Native of Sabina. 

John X., . 

914 

929 


Roman. 

Leo VI. 

929 



Native of Rome. 

Stephen VII.,. 

929 

931 


Roman. 

John XI.,. 

931 

936 



Leo VII.,. 

936 

939 


Roman. 

Stephen VIIT.,. 

939 

942 

. * . 

Roman. 

Martin III.,. 

942 

946 



Agapetus II., . 

946 

955 



John XII. 

955 

964 

Ottaviano Conti. He was the 





first who changed his name 





on his elevation. 


Benedict V.,. 

965 



Roman. 

John XIII. 

965 

972 


Roman. 

Benedict VI. 

973 

974 



Benedict VII.,. 

974 

983 

(Conti),. 

Roman. 

John XIV. 

983 

984 

(Boniface VII., Franco, anti- 





pope.) 


John XV. 

985 

996 


Roman. 


Eleventh Century 



Gregory V. 

996 

999 

Bruno. 


Sylvester II... 

999 

1003 

Gerbert,. 

Native of Auvergne. 

John XVII. 

1003 


Philagathus. 


John XVIII. 

1003 

1009 

Secco, . 

Roman. 

Sergius IV. 

1009 

1012 



Benedict VIII. 

1012 

1024 

Fasio,. 

Roman. 

John XIX. 

1024 

1033 



Benedict IX.,. 

1033 

1045 

Sylvester,.. 

Native of Tusculum. 

Gregory VI. 

1045 

1046 

Giovanni Braziano, .... 

Roman. 

Clement II. 

1046 

1047 

Suger,. 

Native of Saxony. 

Damascus II.,. 

1048 


Pappo. 


Leo IX.,. 

1048 

1054 

Bruno. 

Bishop of Toul. 

Victor II.,. 

1054 

1057 

Gebhard,. 

Bishop of Eichstadt. 

Stephen IX.,. 

1057 

1058 

Frederick,. 

Abbot of Monte Cassino. 

Nicholas II.,. 

1058 

1061 


Native of Burgundy. 

Alexander II.,. 

1061 

1073 


Native of Milan. 

Gregory VII.,. 

1073 

1085 

Hildebrand,. 

Native of Tuscany. 

Victor III.,. 

1086 

1087 


Native of Beneventum 

Urban II.,. 

1088 

1099 

Otho or Endes,. 

Native of France. 


Twelfth Century 



Pascal. 

1099 

1118 


Native of Tuscany. 

Gelasius, . . . .. 

1118 

1119 


Native of Gaeta. 












































































































































26 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME — Continued 


Pontiff 

Pontificate 

Surname 

Nationality 

Calixtus II.,. 

Honorius II.,. 

A. D. A. D. 

1119 1124 

1124 1130 

Cardinal Lamberti, .... 

Native of Burgundy. 

Bishop of Ostia. 

Innocent II.,. 

1130 1143 


Roman. 

Celestine II.,. 

Lucius II. 

1143 1144 

1144 1145 


Tuscan. 

Native of Bologna. 

Eugenius III.,. 

1145 1153 


Native of Pisa. 

Anastasius IV.,. 

1153 1154 


Roman. 

Adrian IV.,. 

1154 1159 

Nicholas Breakspear, . . . 

Englishman. 

Alexander III.,. 

1159 1181 

Cardinal Orlando Bandinello, 

Native of Siena. 

Lucius III.,. 

1181 1185 

Cardinal Ubaldo,. 

Native of Lucca. 

Urban III.,. 

1185 1187 

Uberto Crivelli. 

Archbishop of Milan. 

Gregory VIII.,. 

Clement III. 

1187 

1187 1191 

Paul,. 

Native of Beneventum. 
Bishop of Prseneste. 

Celestine III.,. 

1191 1198 

Cardinal Hyacinthus, . . . 

Roman. 

Innocent III.,. 

Thirteenth Century 
1198 1216 

Cardinal Lotharius, .... 

Native of Signia. 

Honorius III.,. 

1216 1227 

Cardinal Savelli,. 

Roman. 

Gregory IX.,. 

1227 1241 

Cardinal Hugo,. 

Native of Anagni. 

Celestine IV.,. 

1241 


Native of Milan. 

Innocent IV.,. 

1243 1254 

Sinibaldo Fieschi, .... 

Native of Genoa. 

Alexander IV.,. 

1254 1261 

Cardinal Rinaldo Conti, . . 

Native of Anagni. 

Urban IV.,. 

Clement IV. 

1261 1264 

1265 1268 

James, Patriarch of Jerusa¬ 
lem, . 

Guy,. 

Frenchman. 

Native of St. Gilles, in 

Gregory X. 

1271 1276 

Tebaldo Visconti, .... 

Languedoc. 

Native of Placenzi. 

Innocent V.,. 

Adrian V.,. 

John XXI. 

1276 

1276 

1276 1277 

Cardinal Peter,. 

Ottobono Fieschi, .... 

Native of Tarentaise. 

Native of Genoa. 

Native of Lisbon. 

Nicholas III.,. 

1277 1281 

Cardinal Orsini,. 

Native of Rome. 

Martin IV. 

1281 1285 

Cardinal Simon de Brie, . . 

Frenchman. 

Honorius IV.,. 

1285 1288 

Cardinal James Sevelli, . . 

Roman. 

Nicholas IV., . 

1288 1292 

Cardinal Jerome. 

Native of Ascoli. 

Celestine V. 

Boniface VIII. 

1294 

1294 1303 

Pietro da Morrone, .... 
Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani, 

Native of Abruzzi. 

Native of Anagni. 

Benedict XI.,. 

Fourteenth Century 
1303 1304 

Cardinal Nicholas, .... 

Native of Treviso. 

Clement V.,. 

John XXII. 

1305 1314 

1316 1334 

Bertrand, removed Papal See 

to Avignon,. 

James. 

Native of Bordeaux 

Native of Cahors in 

Benedict XII.,. 

1334 1342 

James Fournier,. 

France. 

Frenchman. 

Clement VI.,. 

1342 1352 

Peter Roger, . . . 

Native of Limoges in 

Innocent VI. 

1352 1362 

Stephen Aubert,. 

France. 

Native of Limoges. 

Urban V.,. 

Gregory XI., . . . . . •. . 

1362 1370 

William Grimoard. 

Frenchman. 

1370 1378 

Peter Roger,. 

Frenchman. 

Urban VI. 

1378 1389 

Bartolomew Prignano, . . 

Neapolitan. 

Boniface IX. 

1389 1404 

Peter Tomacelli,. 

Of Naples. 

Innocent VII.,. 

Fifteenth Century 
1404 1406 

Cosmo Migliorati, .... 

Native of Sulmona. 

Gregory XII.,. 

1406 1415 

Angelo Corrari. 

Native of Venice. 

Martin V... 

1415 1431 

Otho Colonna,. 

Roman. 

Eugenius IV.,. 

1431 1447 

Gabriel Condulmero, . . . 

Venetian. 

Nicholas V., ...... . 

1447 1455 

Cardinal Thomas, .... 

Native of Sargana. 

Calixtus III.,. 

1455 1458 

Alfonso Borgia,. 

Spaniard. 

Pius II., ......... 

1458 1464 

iEneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 

Native of Siena. 

Paul II.,. 

Sixtus IV.,. 

1464 1471 

Peter Barbo,. 

Native of Venice. 

1471 1484 

Francis della Rovere, . . . 

Genoese. 

Innocent VITI.,. 

1484 1492 

Gian Battista Cibo, .... 

Genoese. 

Alexander VI. 

1492 1503 

Rodrigo Lenzoli Borgia, . . 

Spaniard. 

Pius III. 

Julius II., .. 

Leo X.,. 

Sixteenth Century 
1503 

1503 1513 

1513 1521 

Francis Todeschini Piccolo- 

mini, . 

Julian della Rovere. 

Giovanni de’ Medici, . . . 

Genoese. 

Son of Lorenzo, the Mag- 

Adrian VI.,. 

1521 1523 

nificent. 

Native of Utrecht. 

Clement VlL,. 

1523 1534 

Guilio de’ Medici, .... 

Nephew of Lorenzo. 

Paul III., .. 

1534 1549 

Alessandro Farnese, . . . 

Roman. 

Julius III.,. 

1549 1555 

Giovan Maria Giocci, . . . 

Roman. 

Marcellus, . .. 

Paul IV.,. 

1555 

1555 1559 

Cardinal Cervini,. 

Gianpietro Caraffa, .... 

Native of Montepulciano. 
Neapolitan. 

Pius IV.,. 

1559 1565 

Giovanni Angelo Medichino, 

Native of Milan. 

Pius V.,. 

1565 1572 

Michelo Chislieri,. 

Native of Alessandria. 

Gregory XIII .. 

1572 1585 

Hugo Buoncampagni, . . . 

Native of Bologna. 

Sixtus V.,. 

1585 1590 

Felice Peretti of Montaito, 

Native of March Ancona. 

Urban VII. 

Gregory XIV. 

1590 

1590 1591 

Gian Battista Castagna, . . 
Nicola Sfrondati,. 

Genoese. 

Native of Milan. 

Innocent IX.,. 

Clement VIII.,. 

1591 

1591 1605 

Gian Antonio Facchinetti, . 
Ippolito Aldobrandino, . . 

Native of Bologna. 

Native of Fano. 





























































































































HISTORY 


27 


BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME— Continued 


Pontiff 

Pontificate 

Surname 

Nationality 

Leo XI. 

Seventeenth 

A. D. 
1605 

Century 

A. D. 

Alessandro de Medici, . . . 

Native of Florence. 

Paul V.,. 

1605 

1621 

Camillo Borghese, .... 

Native of Rome. 

Gregory XV.,. 

1621 

1623 

Alessandro Ludovici, . . . 

Native of Bologna. 

Urban VIII. 

1623 

1644 

Maffeo Barberini,. 

Florentine. 

Innocent X.,. 

Alexander VII. 

1644 

1655 

Gian Battista Pamfili, . . 

Roman. 

1655 

1667 

Fabio Chigi,. 

Native of Siena. 

Clement IX.,. 

1667 

1669 

Guilio Rospigliosi, .... 

Native of Pistoia. 

Clement X.,. 

1669 

1676 

Emilio Attieri,. 

Native of Rome. 

Innocent XI.,. 

Alexander VIII.,. 

1676 

1689 

Benedetto Odescalchi, . . 

Native of Como. 

1689 

1691 

Pietro Ottobani,. 

Native of Venice. 

Innocent XII.,. 

1691 

1700 

Antonio Pignatelli, .... 

Native of Naples. 

Clement XI.,. 

Innocent XIII., 

Eighteenth Century 

1700 1721 

Gian Francesco Albani, . . 

Native of Urbino. 

1721 

1724 

Michael Angelo Conti,. . . 

Native of Rome. 

Benedict XIII. 

1724 

1730 

Vincenzo Maria Orsini, . . 

Native of Rome. 

Clement XII. 

Benedict XIV. 

1730 

1740 

Lorenzo Corsini,. 

Native of Florence. 

1740 

1758 

Prospero Lambertini, . . . 

Native of Bologna. 

Clement XIII.,. 

1758 

1769 

Carlo Rezzonico,. 

Native of Venice. 

Clement XIV.,. 

1769 

1775 

Gian Vencenzo Ganganelli, 

Born near Rimini. 

Pius VI. 

1775 

1799 

Angelo Braschi. 

Native of Cesena. 

Pius VII. 

Nineteenth 

1800 

Century 

1823 

# 

Gregario Barnaba Chiara- 


Leo XII. 

1823 

1829 

monti,. 

Annibale della Genga,. . . 

Native of Cesena. 

Native of Romagna. 

Pius VIII. 

1829 

1830 

Cardinal Castigliani, . . . 

Native of Cingoli. 

Gregory XVI.,. 

1830 

1846 

Mauro Cappellari, .... 

Native of Belluno. 

Pius IX. 

1846 

1878 

Giovanni Maria Mastai-Fer- 


Leo XIII. 

1878 

1903 

retti,. 

Gioacchino Pecci, .... 

Native of Sinigaglia. 

Native of Carpinetto. 

Pius X. 

1903 


Guiseppe Sarto,. 

Venice. 


Blue Laws. The code of 1660, a compila¬ 
tion of the earliest laws and customs of Connec¬ 
ticut. It is almost verbally copied from the 
Mosaic Law. After the restoration of Charles 
II. “Presbyterian true blue” became a term of 
derision applied to anything which smattered 
of Puritanism, and “blue laws” simply meant 
puritanical laws, or laws with a blue tinge. 
These laws inflicted the penalty of death for 
worshiping any god but the God of the Bible; 
for speaking disrespectfully of the Bible, Christ, 
or the Holy Ghost; for witchcraft, adultery, 
theft, false-swearing, and disobedience to par¬ 
ents. Said to have been drawn up by the Rev. 
Samuel Peters, but generally supposed to be 
apocryphal. 

Boer War, The. The reinforcing of the 
British troops in South Africa, along the borders 
of the Transvaal Republic, together with differ¬ 
ences on the franchise question, coupled with 
grim recollections of former armed clashes be¬ 
tween Great Britain and the sturdy, patriotic 
Boers, all tended to hasten the conflict of 1899- 
1900, one of the most sanguinary in the world’s 
history. As an effort to avert war, a conference 
was held May 31, 1899, between Sir Alfred 
Milner, Governor of Cape Colony, and the Presi¬ 
dents of the Dutch Republics at Bloemfontein, 
in which terms for the adjustment of the claims 
of the Outlanders were discussed, but no agree¬ 
ment was reached. Between June 1 and Octo¬ 
ber 10, negotiations proceeded between the gov¬ 
ernments of Great Britain and the Transvaal, 
while the legislature of the latter adopted fran¬ 
chise laws which were not acceptable to Great 
Britain. In the meantime, both countries made 
energetic preparations for war, and the Orange 
Free State announced that in case of hostilities 
it would support the Transvaal. 


On October 10th, the. Transvaal sent to the 
British Government an ultimatum demanding: 
That all points of mutual difference be regulated 
by friendly recourse to arbitration or by what¬ 
ever amicable way might be agreed upon by 
the governments concerned; that all British 
troops on the border of the Transvaal Republic 
should be instantly withdrawn; that Great 
Britain should withdraw all reinforcements of 
troops landed in South Africa since June 1, 
1899, with assurance that during further nego¬ 
tiations the Republic would not attack any 
British possessions, and that upon compliance 
with the ultimatum the Republic would be pre¬ 
pared to withdraw from the borders the armed 
burghers of the Transvaal; that the British troops 
then on the high seas should not be landed in 
any part of Africa; that an answer to the ulti¬ 
matum be received by the Republic not later 
than 5 o’clock P. M. on October 11th; that an 
unsatisfactory answer would be regarded by the 
Republic as a formal declaration of war by 
Great Britain, as would also be a further move¬ 
ment of British troops in a nearer direction to 
the Republic’s borders. 

On October 12, 1899, the reply of the British 
having been unsatisfactory, the Transvaal Boers 
invaded Natal, advancing toward Newcastle, 
which was defended by the British generals 
White and Symons. The British evacuated 
Newcastle and fell back on Ladysmith, where, 
on October 13th, there was a strong British 
force. On October 20th, the Boers began the 
siege of Kimberley, and on the same day in 
Natal was fought the battle of Dundee, in which 
the British repulsed the Boers, suffering a loss of 
215 in killed and wounded. On October 21st, 
General French captured the Boers’ position at 
Elandslaagte after a hard battle, with a British 





















































28 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


loss of 257 killed and wounded. General White 
repulsed a Free State force at Rietfontein, near 
Ladysmith, October 24th. Five days later the 
Boers began the siege of Ladysmith. On Octo¬ 
ber 30th, in a sortie near Ladysmith, the British 
were entrapped and defeated, and the Boers 
captured 870 prisoners. Communication with 
Ladysmith was cut off by the Boers on Novem¬ 
ber 2d, and the next day the British evacuated 
Colenso, in Natal. The Boers shelled Mafeking 
November 6th, but were repulsed in an attack 
on the British position. The first British trans¬ 
port carrying reinforcements reached Cape Town 
on November 9th, and proceeded to Durban. 
The Boers wrecked a British armored train near 
Eastcourt, Natal, on November 16th, capturing 
fifty-six prisoners, including Winston Churchill. 
On November 23d, near Gras Pan, Lord Me¬ 
thuen attacked the Boers and drove them from 
their position, and on November 26th the British 
won a sanguinary victory at Modder River. A 
series of Boer successes then followed. On De¬ 
cember 10th, the British, under General Gatacre, 
were led into a Boer ambuscade near Stormberg 
Junction and lost 1,000 men, including 672 cap¬ 
tured, while on the same and following day 
Lord Methuen failed to take the Boer position 
at Spytfontein after desperate fighting and 
heavy losses, General Wauchope being killed. 
On December 15th, General Buffer was severely 
defeated while attempting to force the Tugela 
River, near Colenso, he losing 1,000 men and 
eleven guns. The British losses to this date 
were 7,630 men killed, wounded, and missing, 
and the attention of the civilized world was 
riveted upon the war. After Buffer’s signal 
defeat, Field Marshal Lord Roberts was ordered, 
December 18th, to South Africa, to take com¬ 
mand of military operations, with Lord Kitch¬ 
ener as chief of staff, and with a reinforcement 
of 100,000 men. 

General French captured Colesburg on New 
Year’s Day, 1900. On January 6th, Roberts 
and Kitchener arrived in South Africa, and on 
the same date the Boers were repulsed with 
heavy loss in an attack on Ladysmith. On 
January 23-25th, occurred some of the most 
desperate and famous fighting of the war, when 
a British storming party under General Warren 
captured Spion Kop, but, after heavy losses, 
withdrew. General Buffer made a third attempt 
to relieve Ladysmith, but failed, February 9th, 
and Lord Roberts began an invasion of the 
Orange Free State on February 12th. General 
French relieved Kimberley on February 15th. 
On February 22-27th there was severe fighting 
between Roberts and Cronje, terminating with 
the capitulation of the latter, with 4,600 men 
and six guns. Lord Dundonald entered Lady¬ 
smith on February 28th, and General Gatacre 
occupied Stormberg on March 5th. On March 
7th, Lord Roberts turned the Boer position near 
Modder River and advanced triumphantly on 
Bloemfontein, capital of the Orange Free State, 
which surrendered to the British on March 13th. 
The Boer Commander-in-Chief, General Joubert, 
died on March 27th, and Colonel de Villebois 
Mareuil, French officer with the Boers, was 
killed in a skirmish on April 5th. General 
Cronje and the other Boer prisoners were sent 


to St. Helena, where they arrived April 14th, 
and the demoralization of the Boers seemingly 
began. On April 20th, Mr. Pettigrew, in the 
United States Senate, introduced a resolution of 
sympathy with the Boers, but it was voted 
down, 29 to 20. On May 3d, Lord Roberts 
began his advance on Pretoria. 

The Boers now turned to the United States 
and Europe for intervention, but the United 
States was the only government in the world 
of all those approached by the South African 
Republic which tendered its good offices to 
either of the combatants in the interest of the 
cessation of hostilities. 

So the war continued. On May 10th, the 
British crossed the Zand River and occupied 
Kroonstad, and on May 15th, General Buffer 
occupied Dundee. The Boer envoys to the 
United States reached New York on May 16th, 
the day that Mafeking was relieved, after a 
siege of 217 days. President McKinley received 
the envoys unofficially, but they were officially 
informed by Secretary of State Hay that the 
United States could not intervene in the war. 
The end of the struggle was not yet, however, 
in sight. On May 28th, Lord Roberts pro¬ 
claimed the annexation of the Orange Free State 
to the British Empire. The British entered 
Johannesburg on May 30th, and on the same 
day President Kruger retired from Pretoria, 
which city surrendered on June 5th to the Brit¬ 
ish army. General Prinsloo and 3,348 Boers 
surrendered at Naauwpoort, and Harrismith 
surrendered to General Macdonald on August 
4th. Several conspirators against the life of 
Lord Roberts were tried at Pretoria August 17th, 
and their leader was executed. Machadodorp, 
Kruger’s new capital, was occupied by General 
Buffer August 28th. On September 1st, the 
Transvaal was proclaimed a part of the British 
Empire by Lord Roberts. Guerilla warfare, 
which had begun July 1st, was now general in 
the Transvaal, and the Boer Generals DeWet 
and Botha continued to harass the British by 
sporadic raids. Ex-President Kruger, aband¬ 
oning the Transvaal, began his journey to Eu¬ 
rope September 12th. He arrived at Marseilles 
on November 22d, and had an ovation from 
the French people, the demonstrations of wel¬ 
come continuing through his journey to Paris, 
while the National French Assembly adopted 
resolutions of sympathy. On November 30th, 
the supreme military command in South Africa 
was turned over to Lord Kitchener by Lord 
Roberts, who departed for home, sailing for 
England from Cape Town on December 12th. 
In the meantime, the German Government inti¬ 
mated to Mr. Kruger on December 1st, that a 
visit by him to Berlin would be inopportune. 
Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, on the 
contrary, welcomed Mr. Kruger at a dinner on 
December 15th. The British met with a severe 
reverse at Nooltgedacht December 13th, Colonel 
Legge being killed. On December 14th, Sir 
Alfred Milner was appointed Administrator of 
the Orange River and Transvaal colonies, and 
the year closed with both sides grimly deter¬ 
mined to continue the terrible warfare to a 
definite conclusion. 

The first battle of 1901 was at Lindley, 





HISTORY 


29 


Orange River Colony, where forty British officers 
and men were killed or wounded. On January 
7th, the British position along Delagoa Bay 
Railway was unsuccessfully attacked by the 
Boers, who were also driven back on January 
17th near Standerton, when they attacked a 
British column under General Colville. On 
January 18th, New Zealand troops and Bushmen, 
under Colonel Gray, routed 800 Boers near 
Veutersburg. On January 30th, the Bloem- 
fontein-Ladybrand line was crossed by DeWet 
near Israel’s Poort, and the Boers captured the 
British post at Modderfontein in the Transvaal 
on February 3d, at about which time the British 
War Office decided to reinforce Kitchener with 
30,000 additional mounted troops. General 
Smith-Dorrien was attacked by Louis Botha 
with 2,000 men at Orange Camp February 6th, 
but repulsed him. On the same date the Boers 
cut the Delagoa Bay Railroad, near Lorenzo 
Marques; ten days later DeWet crossed the 
railroad at Bariman’s Siding and was engaged 
by Crabbe and an armored train, and on Feb¬ 
ruary 19th the Boers blew up a supply train at 
Clip River. Four severe Boer reverses then 
followed in quick succession. The Boers, 5,000 
strong, were defeated by General French at Piet 
Retief, February 22d; DeWet’s force was scat¬ 
tered by Colonel Plummer at Disselfontein, 
Orange River, February 23d; General French 
captured 300 Boers, ammunition, cattle, and 
supplies at Middleburg, February 26th; Lord 
Kitchener drove DeWet north of the Orange 
River, with a loss of 280 men captured, March 
1st. Lord Kitchener then granted General 
Botha a seven days’ armistice to make commu¬ 
nication with other Boer leaders, after which 
truce hostilities were resumed. The Boers cap¬ 
tured a British supply train near Viaklaagte 
March 22d, but were defeated three days later 
near Vryheid by General French. On March 
27th, Fourie’s commando and Bruce Hamilton’s 
command held a running fight for twenty miles. 
Commandants Prinsloo and Englebrecht surren¬ 
dered to the British March 30th, and the British 
reoccupied Pietersburg on April 9th, on which 
date the Boers captured seventy-five men of the 
Fifth Infantry and Imperial Yeomanry. Gen¬ 
eral Botha, on April 10th, renewed negotiations 
for peace. Sir Alfred Milner, returning home 
from South Africa, was received by the king and 
created a peer May 21st. The Boers, again for 
a time, rejoiced over successes. They attacked 
and partially destroyed the convoy of General 
Plummer’s column May 25th, captured a Brit¬ 
ish post of forty-one men near Maraisburg, May 
27th, and attacked General Dixon’s brigade of 
the Seventh Yeomanry near Ylakfontein, May 
29th, causing a heavy British loss. On June 3d, 
an attack by 700 Boers under Scheeper upon 
Willomore, Cape Colony, was repulsed after a 
nine hours’ fight. The British and Boers lost 
heavily in an engagement between Elliot and 
DeWet near Reitz, June 6th, and on the same 
day Colonel Wilson, with 240 men, routed 400 
Boers under Bever, near Warm Baths. The Boers 
captured 200 members of the Victoria Mounted 
Rifles at Steenkoolsprint, June 12th, and the 
Midland Mounted Rifles were overpowered by 
Commandant Malan at Waterkloof, June 20th. 


President Schalk-Burger, of the South African 
Republic, and President Steyn, of Orange Free 
State, issued a proclamation for “ no peace with¬ 
out independence,” June 20th, and on August 
7th, Lord Kitchener issued a proclamation of 
banishment against all Boers in South Africa 
not surrendering by September 15th. In the 
meantime, General Benson repulsed the Boers 
in a mountain pass near Dullstroem, and, though 
the inevitable end of the warfare was becoming 
daily more apparent, fighting was continued. 
Fifty of General French’s scouts were captured 
in Cape Colony August 16th; three officers and 
sixty-five British, north of Ladybrand, were 
captured August 21st; the Boers attacked a 
convoy near Kooipopje and killed nine men of 
the Seventy-fourth Yeomanry, wounding twenty- 
three, on August 24th; Colonel Vandeleur and 
nine men were killed and seventeen wounded by 
the blowing up of a train in the Transvaal, 
August 31st; Von Tonder and Delarey engaged 
General Methuen in the Great Maries valley, 
September 8th. Then, on September 16th, the 
British troops captured Lotter’s entire command 
south of Pietersburg, and on the following day 
the Boers partially evened matters by ambush¬ 
ing and capturing three companies of British 
mounted infantry under Major Gough, near 
Scheeper’s Nek, and also by capturing a company 
of mounted British infantry and two guns at 
Vlakfontein, September 20th. Two Boer com¬ 
mandos were captured September 21st, near 
Adenburg, and Colonel the Hon. A. Murray and 
Captain Murray, his adjutant, were killed in a 
fight with Krintzsinger, who crossed the Orange 
River. On September 29th, Commandant De¬ 
larey attacked Colonel Kekewich’s camp at 
Moedwill, with loss on both sides. 

Martial law was declared throughout Cape 
Colony on October 9th. The following day 
General Sir Redvers Buller admitted, in a speech, 
that he advised the surrender of Ladysmith, 
and was severely criticised for his utterances. 
Commander Scheeper was captured October 12th, 
and Captain Bellew and four others were killed 
in a fight, October 16th, at Twenty-four Streams. 
On November 1st, in a heavy Boer attack on 
Colonel Benson’s column near Brakenlaagte, the 
British lost twenty-five officers and 214 men in 
killed and wounded. During the next sixty 
days numerous small skirmishes were reported, 
and during the first three months of 1902 the 
war was more or less of a desultory character. 
Negotiations for peace between the Boer leaders 
and the British Government began on March 
23d, the latest notable Boer accomplishment 
having been the capture of General Methuen 
and 200 men, forty-one British being killed, on 
March 11th. 

On May 31, 1902, Lord Kitchener announced 
that a peace treaty had been signed between 
Great Britain and the Boers, Commandant-Gen¬ 
eral Louis Botha, assisted by General Delarey 
and Chief Commandant DeWet, acting for the 
Boers. 

Bohemia*. The Boii, from whom Bohemia 
derives its name, settled in the country in the 
Second Century B. C., but were expelled by the 
Marcomanni about the beginning of the Christian 
era. The victors themselves soon gave place to 



30 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


others, and as early as the Fifth Century A. D. 
we find Bohemia peopled by the Czechs, a Slavic 
race. In the latter part of the Ninth Century, 
Swatopluk, the King of Moravia, subjugated 
Bohemia and introduced Christianity. After 
his death, the Dukes of Prague, who, in 1061, 
had the title of king conferred on them by the 
Emperor Henry IV., ruled the country as a 
state in the German Empire, until 1306, when 
the last of the dynasty was assassinated. From 
1310 to 1437, Bohemia was ruled by kings of the 
House of Luxembourg. In the time of Wenzel 
IV. (Wenceslas), a reformation of religion took 
place under John Huss and Jerome of Prague. 
After the death of Wenzel IV., the imprudent 
measures adopted by the Emperor Sigismund 
excited in Bohemia a war of sixteen years’ dura¬ 
tion, which ended in making Bohemia an elective 
kingdom. In 1458, the shrewd and able Protest¬ 
ant noble, George von Podiebrad, ascended the 
throne. His successor, Ladislaus (1471-1516), 
was elected (1490) to the throne of Hungary, 
and removed the royal residence to Ofen, where 
also his son and successor, Louis (1516-26), 
resided. After his death in battle against the 
Turks at Mohacz (1526), Bohemia and Hungary 
passed into the hands of Ferdinand I. of Austria, 
who had married Louis’ sister. From that time 
the history of Bohemia merges into the history 
of Austria. 

Boii. A Celtic people, who emigrated from 
Transalpine Gaul into Italy, where they occupied 
the old seat of the Umbrians, between the Po 
and the Apennines. In B. C. 283, the Boii were 
defeated by the Romans at the Vadimonian 
Lake, and thereafter prolonged through numer¬ 
ous campaigns, especially in support of Hannibal, 
but sometimes single-handed, their resistance to 
the Roman arms, till their complete defeat by 
Scipio Nasica, B. C. 191. They were subse¬ 
quently compelled to recross the Alps, and 
dwelt for more than a century in a part of 
modern Bohemia (which derives its name from 
them), but were ultimately exterminated by the 
Dacians. 

Bonaparte’s Egyptian Campaign 

(1799). Alexandria fell into his hands; he won 
the great battle of the Pyramids; completed the 
subjugation of Egypt; passed into Syria, made 
himself master of Gaza and Jaffa; won the battle 
of Mount Tabor; returned to Egypt, attacked 
the. Turks at Aboukir, and utterly destroyed 
their whole army, June 25, 1799. 

Bonaparte’s Forty Days Cam¬ 
paign. He left Paris May 6, 1800; marched 
over the Alps, and reached Aosta May 23d; he 
entered Milan June 2d; won the battle of Monte¬ 
bello over the Austrians, June 9th, and the great 
battle of Marengo, June 14th; returned to Paris, 
July 2d. The forty days count from his arrival 
at Aosta, May 23d, to his return to Paris, July 2d. 

Bonaparte’s Italian Campaign 
(1796-97). He was 27 years of age. April 11th, 
he defeated Beaulieu, the Austrian general, at 
Montenotte, in Sardinia; April 14th, he won the 
battle of Millesimo; April 15th, he won the bat¬ 
tle of Dego; April 22d, he won a victory over 
the Piedmontese at Mondovi; May 10th, he de¬ 
feated the Austrian general, Beaulieu, at the 
Bridge of Lodi, and entered Milan; June 19th, 


he occupied Bologna, Ferrara, and Ancona; 
August 3d, he defeated the Austrian general, 
Wiirmser, at Lonato; August 5th, he defeated 
the same general at Castiglione; September 8th, 
he defeated him again at Bassano; November 
17th, he won the great battle of Areola over 
Alvinzi, the Austrian general ; January 14, .1797, 
he won the battle of Rivoli over Alvinzi and 
Wurmser; January 15th, he won a battle at the 
faubourg of St. George, near Mantua; January 
16th, he won a battle near the palace called The 
Favorite; March 16th, he defeated the Aus¬ 
trians, led by the Archduke Karl, at Taglia- 
mento; October 17th, the treaty of Campo 
Formio, and in December he returned to France. 
He had won fifteen battles; added Savoy and 
Nice to France, the Netherlands, and Italy; 
had obtained vast money compensations, and 
returned to France laden with treasures of art. 

Boxer Rebellion, The. The causes of 
the Boxer outbreak in China were cumulative. 
For three years prior to the enforced occupation 
of China by the powers, in 1900, a number of 
acts of foreign countries had a disquieting effect 
upon the empire. Since 1898, Russia had taken 
Port Arthur and the adjacent harbor of Talien- 
wan. Germany had leased Kiaochau and gained 
great concessions in the province of Shang Tung. 
France had suggested privileges in portions of 
Chinese territory adjacent to the French posses¬ 
sions of Tonquin. Great Britain, to cap the 
climax, had obtained from China a lease of 
Wei-Hai-Wei, on the south shore of the Gulf of 
Pechili, opposite Port Arthur, and thus com¬ 
manded the entrance to the gulf and the water 
approach to Peking. Many Chinese were re¬ 
sentful of these encroachments by foreigners, 
but the Dowager Empress did not oppose them, 
and hence she was bitterly arraigned by her 
people. 

The leader of this opposition was Prince Tuan, 
the sixth son of the Emperor Kwang-Su’s grand¬ 
father. Prince Tuan had long been an athlete 
and had a following of many athletic young 
men in the kingdom, who, because of their 
ability in sports, were known as boxers, a name 
which Tuan’s recruits adopted. Tuan pro¬ 
claimed his nine-year-old son heir presumptive 
to the throne. The emperor, then but a figure¬ 
head, dominated by the Dowager Empress, had 
little popular support. The Boxers revolted, 
massacred missionaries at many interior points 
of the empire, and finally made a concerted 
attack upon the foreign legations in Peking, in 
which movement the imperial troops eventually 
participated. 

The Chinese Tsung-li-Yamen, the equivalent 
to a responsible government ministry in Europe, 
was in sentiment hostile to foreigners, and 
hence either would not, or could not, protect 
the legations or escort them safely from the 
country. The civilized world received distress¬ 
ing reports of massacres and outrages, and was 
for several weeks in suspense as to the fate of 
the foreign ministers in China, their families, 
legation attaches, and converted Chinese under 
foreign protection. The offended powers de¬ 
cided upon concerted action and hurried vessels 
and troops to the ports nearest to the danger 
points. Upon Chinese resistance to the landing 




HISTORY 


31 


of marines at Taku, the forts were shelled by all 
the allies except Americans, and on June 17th, 
while the Chinese shelled the allies’ fleet, the 
allied troops landed and captured the Taku 
forts, after a sanguinary conflict. On June 18th 
the Ninth United States Regiment was ordered 
from Manila to China, other troops following. 
On June 20th, German fury and general inter¬ 
national indignation was aroused when Baron 
von Ketteler, the German Minister, while pro¬ 
ceeding on a diplomatic mission to the Tsung- 
lLYamen in Peking, was beset by Chinese sol¬ 
diers and butchered. On the same day an allied 
expedition under Vice-Admiral Seymour, of the 
British Navy, began a march upon Peking for 
the relief of the British legationers. Such count¬ 
less hordes of Chinese opposed him that he was 
obliged to turn back, suffering casualties of 374. 
The allied warships shelled Tien-tsin on June 
21st, and the combined forces, two days later, 
occupied the foreign quarters of that city. The 
Chinese, on June 23d, requested an armistice 
through Minister Wu at Washington. The 
United States promptly replied that free com¬ 
munication must first be allowed with the lega¬ 
tions, and on July 4th, Secretary of State Hay 
outlined to the powers the American policy. 

On July 13-14th, occurred one of the noted 
conflicts of history, when the allied forces 
stormed the Chinese port of Tien-tsin, which 
they captured with a loss of 800 killed and 
wounded. Colonel E. H. Liscum, commanding 
the United States contingent, was among the 
slain. On July 19th, the Emperor of China 
appealed to President McKinley for peace. The 
advance of the allies upon Peking began August 
4th, under command of Field Marshal von Wal- 
dersee, of the German army, who was unani¬ 
mously selected to command the allied forces. 

The first news from the beleaguered foreigners 
reached the United States in the form of a cipher 
message from Minister Conger. It read: “Still 
besieged. Situation more precarious. Chinese 
Government insisting on our leaving Peking, 
which would be certain death. Rifle firing 
upon us daily by imperial troops. Have abun¬ 
dant courage, but little ammunition or provisions. 
Two progressive Yamen ministers beheaded. 
All connected with the legation of the United 
States well at present moment.” The receipt 
of this message caused intense excitement 
throughout the United States, for, though it 
broke the long suspense, it added to public fury 
and anxiety. On August 8th, Li Hung Chang 
was appointed Envoy Plenipotentiary to pro¬ 
pose to the several powers for the immediate 
cessation of hostile demonstrations. On August 
14th, Peking was captured by the allied forces 
of the Americans, British, Germans, French, 
Austrians, Italians, and Japanese. The American 
troops were the first to enter the city, and Cap¬ 
tain Reilly was the first victim. The emperor and 
empress had fled. The legationers were prompt¬ 
ly relieved and told thrilling stories of their 
danger and distress during the long siege. The 
Chinese, on August 16th, asked for an armistice, 
which was refused. Li Hung Chang’s appeal 
was rejected by the United States, and China 
was informed that the demands of this Govern¬ 
ment must be complied with. At the same 


time General Chaffee was given full power to 
act. The American refugees from Peking 
reached Tien-tsin safely on August 25th. 

On November 19th, the negotiations between 
the allies and the Chinese authorities for terms 
of peace and compensation, which were begun 
when the allies took full possession of Peking, 
had progressed so far that the German Imperial 
Chancellor in the Reichstag announced that the 
allies had unanimously agreed upon the follow¬ 
ing as their demands upon China: 

First. China shall erect a monument to Baron von 
Ketteler on the site where he was murdered and send an 
Imperial Prince to Germany to convey an apology. She 
shall inflict the death penalty upon eleven princes and 
officials already named, and suspend provincial exami¬ 
nations for five years where the outrages occurred. 

Second. In future all officials failing to prevent anti- 
foreign outrages within their jurisdiction shall be dis¬ 
missed and punished. 

Third. Indemnity shall be paid to states, corpora¬ 
tions and individuals. The Tsung-li-Yamen shall be 
abolished and its functions vested in a Foreign Minister. 
Rational intercourse shall be permitted with the em¬ 
peror, as in civilized countries. 

Fourth. The forts at Taku and other forts on the 
coast of Chili shall be razed, and the importation of 
arms and war material prohibited. 

Fifth. Permanent legation guards shall be main¬ 
tained, and also guards of communication between 
Peking and the sea. 

Sixth. Imperial proclamations shall be posted for 
two years throughout the empire suppressing Boxers. 

Seventh. Indemnity is to include compensation for 
Chinese who suffered by being employed by foreigners, 
but not compensation for native Christians. 

Eighth. China shall erect expiatory monuments in 
every foreign or international burial ground where the 
graves have been profaned. 

Ninth. The Chinese Government shall undertake 
to enter upon negotiations for such changes in existing 
treaties regarding trade and navigation as the foreign 
governments deem advisable, and with reference to 
other matters having in view the facilitation of commer¬ 
cial relations. 

In December, 1900, the Chinese authorities 
had accepted all the foregoing conditions im¬ 
posed by the allies, and the preliminary note of 
the demands of the powers was signed by Li 
Hung Chang and Prince Ching. Peking was 
evacuated by the American cavalry and artillery 
May 5th, and General Chaffee embarked for the 
Philippines May 18th. The powers, on May 9th, 
demanded of China a formal indemnity of 450,- 
000,000 taels (about $300,000,000), which was 
agreed to by China, and the powers, on July 26th, 
formally accepted China’s offer to pay the sum 
named on time at 4^ per cent, interest. Prince 
Chun, at Berlin, September 4th, formally apolo¬ 
gized to Emperor William for the insult to Ger¬ 
man honor in the murder of Baron von Ketteler. 
On September 17th, the American and Japanese 
troops in Peking handed over the Forbidden 
City to the Chinese. 

Brazil. It was only in 1531 that the Portu¬ 
guese, busy as they were in India, here planted 
their first settlement. In 1578, Brazil fell with 
Portugal, under the power of Spain, and became 
a prey to the Dutch; and, though Portugal 
regained its own independence in 1640, it was 
not until 1654 that Brazil was entirely recovered 
from the Hollanders. In 1807, the royal family 
of Portugal fled to Brazil; in 1815, the colony 
was declared “a kingdom”; and the Portu¬ 
guese court having returned to Europe in 1821, 
a national congress assembled at Rio de Janeiro, 
and on May 13, 1822, Dom Pedro, eldest son of 
King Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen “Per- 




32 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


petual Defender” of Brazil. He proclaimed the 
independence of the country on September 7, 
1822, and was chosen “ Constitutional Emperor 
and Perpetual Defender” on October 12th, fol¬ 
lowing. In 1831, he abdicated in favor of his 
only son, Dom Pedro II., who reigned until 
November 15, 1889, when he was dethroned, 
exiled, and Brazil declared a republic under the 
title of the United States of Brazil. A new con¬ 
stitution was adopted in 1891, and Fonseca 
elected first president. Admirals Mello and Da 
Gama rebelled, 1893. Rio de Janeiro several 
times bombarded. In 1906-07, Brazil took the 
lead in an effort to reach a better under¬ 
standing among the countries of North and 
South America. A great demonstration was 
given by the city of Rio de Janeiro, in 1908, 
to the United States Pacific squadron. A 
mutiny in the navy in 1910, in which the 
warships were seized, was met by granting 
the demands of the crews for better pay and 
treatment. 

Brunswick, The House of. TheDuchy 
of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by 
Charlemagne, and governed afterward by counts 
and dukes. Albert-Azzo, Marquis of Italy and 
Lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife, 
Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph, Duke of Ca- 
rinthia in Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was in¬ 
vited into Germany by Imitza, his mother-in- 
law, and invested with all the possessions of his 
wife’s stepfather, Guelph of Bavaria. His de¬ 
scendant, Henry the Lion, married Maud, 
daughter of Henry II. of England, and is always 
looked upon as the founder of the Brunswick 
family. His dominions were very extensive; 
but, having refused to assist the Emperor Fred¬ 
erick Barbarossa in a war against Pope Alex¬ 
ander III., through the emperor’s resentment he 
was proscribed at the Diet at Wiirtzburg, in 
1180. The Duchy of Bavaria was given to 
Otho, from whom is descended the family of 
Bavaria; the Duchy of Saxony to Bernard 
Ascanius, founder of the House of Anhalt; and 
his other territories to different persons. On 
this he retired to England; but, at the inter¬ 
cession of Henry II., Brunswick and Llineburg 
were restored to him. The House of Brunswick, 
in 1409, divided into several branches. Bruns¬ 
wick was included by Napoleon in the Kingdom 
of Westphalia in 1806, but was restored to the 
duke in 1815. 

Buccaneers. A celebrated association of 
piratical adventurers, who, from the commence¬ 
ment of the second quarter of the Sixteenth 
Century to the end of the Seventeenth, main¬ 
tained themselves in the Caribbean seas, at first 
by systematic reprisals on the Spaniards, latterly 
by a less justifiable and indiscriminate piracy, 
The name is derived from the Caribbee boucan, a 
term for preserved meat, smoke-dried in a pecu¬ 
liar manner. The Buccaneers were also some¬ 
times called “Brethren of the Coast.” The arro¬ 
gant assumption by the Spaniards of a divine 
right — sanctioned by the pope’s bull — to the 
whole New World was not, of course, to be 
tolerated by the enterprising mariners of Eng¬ 
land and France; and the enormous cruelties 
practiced by them upon all foreign interlopers, 
of which the history of that time is full, natur¬ 


ally led to an association for mutual defense 
among the adventurers of all other nations, but 
particularly among the English and French 
The fundamental principles of the policy were 
close mutual alliance and war with all that 
were Spanish. The center of their predatory 
life was Tortuga. Their last great exploit was 
the capture of Carthagena, 1697. 

Bull Run, or Bull’s Run. A stream in 
Virginia, dividing Fairfax and Prince William 
counties, in the northeastern part of the State, 
and flowing into the Occoquan River, fourteen 
miles from the Potomac. On its banks were 
fought two of the most memorable battles dur¬ 
ing the Civil War. After a series of heavy skir¬ 
mishes, July 16-19, 1861, the Union army, under 
General McDowell, was on the 21st utterly 
routed by the Confederates, under the command 
of Generals Beauregard and J. E. Johnston. 
The Union loss was about 3,000 men, while that 
of the Confederates was estimated at nearly 
2,000 men. The former lost, in addition, t wenty- 
seven guns, besides an immense quantity of 
small arms, ammunition, stores, provisions, and 
accoutrements. On August 30, 1862, another 
great battle was fought here between the Union 
forces, commanded by General Pope, and the 
Confederates, under Generals Lee, Longstreet, 
and “Stonewall” Jackson, when the former 
were again defeated with heavy loss. The three 
battles of Groveton, Bull’s Run, and Chantilly, 
fought in three successive days, cost the Union 
cause about 20,000 men in killed, wounded, 
missing, and prisoners, thirty guns, and 30,000 
small arms. The first battle of Bull Run is 
sometimes known as the Battle of Manassas. 

Bunker Hill, Battle of. A famous 
engagement between American and British 
troops, June 17, 1775. The former were com¬ 
manded by Colonel Prescott and General Put¬ 
nam, and the latter by General Howe. The 
British loss in killed and wounded was 1,054; 
that of the Americans, 450. Although the latter 
were driven from their position after their pow¬ 
der was exhausted, and the victory remained 
with the British, the moral effect of this first 
battle on the Americans, and the heavy loss to 
the enemy, made it equivalent to a victory for 
the Continentals. On the ground where the 
hottest of the battle was fought a granite obelisk, 
221 feet in height, has been erected at a cost of 
$100,000, raised by popular subscriptions. The 
corner stone was laid by General La Fayette, 
when on his visit to this country in 1825; it 
was completed July, 1842, and, on the occasion 
of its dedication, Daniel Webster delivered his 
famous oration, generally regarded as his best 
effort. 

Burmah. The Burmese Empire was found¬ 
ed in the middle of the Eighteenth Century by 
Alompra, the first sovereign of the dynasty, 
which fell in the person of King Theebaw in 
1886. In 1824, the British commenced hostil¬ 
ities against Burmah, and captured Rangoon on 
May 11th. Successive victories led to the cession 
of Arracan in 1826. In 1852, further complica¬ 
tions resulted in the cession of Pegu to the Brit¬ 
ish Indian Empire. In 1885, King Theebaw, 
relying upon French assistance, interfered with 
a British trading company. The British Gov- 



HISTORY 


33 


ernment took up the case, and demanded of the 
Burmese monarch security for his future good 
behavior. Theebaw rejected these demands, 
whereupon the queen declared war on November 
10th. On November 28th, General Prendergast 
entered Mandalay, the Burmese capital. The 
king surrendered on the following day, and was 
immediately deported to British territory. The 
government was thenceforth administered by a 
British resident, and on December 31, 1885, 
Burmah was formally annexed to British India, 
thus closing the history of Burmah as an inde¬ 
pendent kingdom. 

Cade’s Rebellion. In June, 1450, Jack 
Cade, an Irishman who called himself Mortimer, 
with 15,000 or 20,000 armed men of Kent, 
marched on London and encamped at Black- 
heath whence he kept up a correspondence with 
the citizens, many of whom were favorable to his 
enterprise. The court sent to inquire why the 
good men of Kent had left their homes. Cade, 
in a paper entitled “The Complaint of the Com¬ 
mons of Kent,” replied that the people were 
robbed of their goods for the king's use, that 
the men of Kent were especially ill-treated and 
overtaxed, and that the free election of knights 
of their shire had been hindered. The court 
sent its answer in the form of an army, before 
which Cade retreated to Sevenoaks, where he 
awaited the attack of a detachment which he 
defeated. The royal army now objected to 
fight against their countrymen; the court made 
some concessions, and Cade entered London on 
the 3d of July. For two days he maintained 
the strictest order; but he forced the mayor 
and judges to pass judgment upon Lord Say, 
one of the king's hated favorites, whose head 
Cade's men immediately cut off in Cheapside. 
A promise of pardon now sowed dissension 
among his followers, who dispersed, and a price 
was set upon Cade's head. He attempted to 
reach the Sussex coast, but was followed by an 
esquire, named Alexander Iden, who fought and 
killed him July 11th. His head was stuck upon 
London Bridge as a terror to traitors, 1450. 

Calendar. A systematic division of time 
into years, months, weeks, and days, or a register 
of these or similar divisions. The present cal¬ 
endar was adopted in the Sixteenth Century, the 
Julian, or old Roman calendar, having become 
grossly erroneous. 

Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently called Aloysius 
Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan 
for amending the calendar, which, after his 
death, was presented by his brother to Pope 
Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the 
pope assembled a number of prelates and learned 
men. In 1577, the proposed change was adopted 
by all the Catholic princes; and in 1582, Gregory 
issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in 
all Catholic countries, and introducing in its 
stead the one now in use, under the name of the 
Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the “new 
style,” as the other was now called the “old 
style.” The amendment ordered was this: Ten 
days were to be dropped after the 4th of Octo¬ 
ber, 1582, and the 15th was reckoned immediately 
after the 4th. Every 100th year, which, by the 
old style was to have been a leap year, was now 
to be a common year, the fourth excepted; that 


is, 1600 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 
1800, 1900, to be of the common length, and 
2000 a leap year again. In this calendar the 
length of the solar year was taken to be 365 
days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 12 seconds, the 
difference between which and subsequent ob¬ 
servations is immaterial. In Spain, Portugal, 
and the greater part of Italy, the amendment 
was introduced according to the pope's instruc¬ 
tions. In France, the ten days were dropped 
in December, the 10th being called the 20th. 
In Catholic Switzerland, Germany, and the 
Netherlands, the change was introduced in the 
following year; in Poland, in 1586; in Hungary, 
in 1587. Protestant Germany, Holland, and 
Denmark accepted it in 1700, and Switzerland 
in 1701. In the German Empire a difference 
still remained for a considerable time as to the 
period for observing Easter. In England the 
Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1752, in 
accordance with an act of Parliament passed 
the previous year, the day after the 2d of Sep¬ 
tember becoming the 14th. Sweden followed in 
1753. The change adopted in the English cal¬ 
endar in 1752 embraced another point. There 
had been previous to this time, various periods 
fixed for the commencement of the year in 
various countries of Europe. In France, from 
the time of Charles IX., the year was reckoned 
to begin from the 1st of January; this was also 
the popular reckoning in England, but the legal 
and ecclesiastical year began on March 25th. 
The 1st of January was now adopted as the 
beginning of the legal year, and it was customary 
for some time to give two dates for the period 
intervening between January 1st and March 
25th, that of the old and that of the new year, 
as January 175^. Russia alone retains the 
old style, which now differs twelve days from 
the new. 

California. The name, signifying “hot 
furnace,” is derived from the Spanish. Though 
discovered by Sir Francis Drake in 1578, it was 
first settled by the Spaniards in 1768, at San 
Diego. Lower California, however, was settled 
by the Jesuit missionaries in 1683. Spanish 
power was overthrown by the Mexican Revolu¬ 
tion of 1822. By the treaty of peace which 
followed the Mexican War, California was ceded 
to the United States for $15,000,000 in 1848. 
At this time the white population amounted to 
only 15,000. In February, 1848, gold was dis¬ 
covered by Colonel Sutter, a verification of 
Humboldt’s prophecy more than a dozen years 
before. The emigration from all parts of the 
world was unparalleled, soon increasing the pop¬ 
ulation to a quarter of a million. The State 
was admitted to the Union on September 9, 1850. 

The history of the Chinese in California has 
been more remarkable than that of any other 
foreign element. By 1860, the number of Chi¬ 
nese had reached 34,933; by 1870, 49,310; and 
by 1880, 75,218. A plebiscitum was taken, and 
the people of California voted with remarkable 
unanimity in favor of the restriction of Chinese 
immigration. In 1882, Congress, passed the 
restriction lav/ which, by successive renewals, 
has been kept in force till the present time. 
The Chinese population of California, by 1890, 
had declined to 71,066; and by 1900, to 45,753. 



34 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


In 1900, the Japanese numbered 10,151; during 
later years they have become much more numer¬ 
ous. They have largely taken the place formerly 
held by the Chinese as agricultural laborers and 
domestic servants. 

In 1906, the State suffered from one of the 
most destructive earthquakes of modern times. 

The largest single conquest made by the woman 
suffragists took place in 1911 when California 
was added to the full suffrage ranks; an amend¬ 
ment was also passed putting into force the 
initiative, referendum, and recall. 

Caliph, Kalif, or Khalif (Kal'if). The 
chief sacerdotal dignity among the Saracens or 
Mohammedans, vested with absolute authority 
in all matters relating both to religion and politi¬ 
cal affairs. The government of the original 
caliphs continued from the death of Mohammed 
till the 655th year of the Hegira, that is, from 
A. D. 632 to 1277. The Fatimite caliphs of 
Africa and the Ommiad sovereigns of Spain, 
each professed to be the only legitimate succes¬ 
sors of Mohammed, in opposition to the Abbas- 
side caliphs of Bagdad, which latter caliphate 
reached its zenith of power and splendor under 
Haroun-al-Raschid, in the Ninth Century. The 
title is now one assumed by the Turkish Sultans, 
as successors to the Prophet, and also by the 
Persian Sophis, as successors of Ali. 

Campus Martius (Lat., The field of Mars). 
In ancient times, a field by the side of the Tiber, 
where the Roman youth practiced themselves 
in warlike exercises. It was consecrated to 
Mars, the god of war, and a temple of that deity 
stood on it. During the earlier days of the 
Roman Republic, it was also made use of as a 
place for holding the comitia, or assemblies of 
the people; and, in after times, it was adorned 
with a great number of fine statues. It consti¬ 
tutes the principal part of the modern city of 
Rome. 

Canada. In 1534, Jacques Cartier, a 
French navigator, entering the St. Lawrence on 
the festival of the saint of that title, took nomi¬ 
nal possession of North America in the name of 
his king, Francis I. In 1608, Quebec was 
founded by De Champlain; and here, fifteen 
years later, he built Fort St. Louis, from which 
stronghold France ruled for 150 years a vast 
region extending eastward to Acadia (now 
Nova Scotia), westward to Lake Superior, and 
ultimately down the Mississippi as far as Florida 
and Louisiana. The Recollet and Jesuit mis¬ 
sionaries traversed the country in all directions, 
and underwent incredible hardships in their zeal 
for the conversion of the Indians. These fearless 
priests were the pioneers of civilization in the 
far West, and to one of the most intrepid — 
Lasalle — is due the discovery of the Mississippi 
valley. In 1670, Charles II. granted to Prince 
Rupert and his company, known ever since as 
the Hudson Bay Company, the perpetual ex¬ 
clusive right of trading in the territory watered 
by all the streams flowing into Hudson Bay. 
Garrisoned forts were now raised at suitable 
points, and the bitter enmity between the French 
and the English traders frequently led to bloody 
struggles, in which sometimes the Indians also 
took a part. The most warlike native tribe was 
that of the Iroquois, who were persistent ene¬ 


mies of the French, while the peaceful Hurons 
were steady allies. Meanwhile, the wars on the 
American continent followed the course of the 
wars in Europe, until the long struggle between 
France and England for the supremacy in Amer¬ 
ica came to a close on the “ Plains of Abraham/’ 
in 1759, when General Wolfe defeated Montcalm. 
This victory opened the gates of Quebec. The 
capitulation of Montreal next year brought to a 
close the era of French dominion in Canada. 
The people of the conquered country were se¬ 
cured, by the terms of the treaty agreed to, in 
the free exercise of their religion; and peace was 
concluded between Britain and France, 1763, 
when Canada was formally ceded to England, 
and Louisiana to Spain. In the same year a 
small portion of the recently acquired territory 
was, by royal proclamation, organized under 
English laws. In 1774, the new province was 
extended by parliamentary enactment, and that 
under French laws, down the Ohio to its con¬ 
fluence with the Mississippi, and up the latter 
stream to its source. Finally, Canada receded 
to its present limits in 1783, giving up to the 
American Republic, at the close of the Revolu¬ 
tionary War, the sites of six States: Minnesota, 
Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 
In 1791, Canada was divided under separate 
legislatures into two sections — the eastern re¬ 
taining French institutions, and the western 
receiving those of England; and these sections, 
again, after political discontent had in each 
ripened into armed insurrection, were reunited 
for legislative purposes in 1841. 

In 1867, March 28, the British North American 
act for confederation of the colonies passed the 
imperial parliament. It united Upper Canada, 
or Ontario, Lower Canada, or Quebec, New 
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, into one territory, 
to be named the Dominion of Canada. New¬ 
foundland declared against joining the confed¬ 
eration, but with that exception all the British 
territory north of the United States was grad¬ 
ually included within the Dominion — the Hud¬ 
son Bay Company territory by purchase in 1868, 
British Columbia in 1871, Prince Edward Island 
in 1873. In 1870, an insurrection of the Red 
River settlers, who were under apprehensions as 
to how their titles to their lands might be affected 
by the cession of the Hudson Bay Company’s 
rights, took place under the leadership of Louis 
Riel, and had to be suppressed by a military 
expedition under Colonel (now Viscount) Wolse- 
ley. To reassure the settlers, a part of the newly- 
purchased territory was erected into an inde¬ 
pendent province under the name of Manitoba, 
the unorganized territory beyond receiving the 
name of the Northwestern Territory. In 1871, 
the Washington Treaty arranged that the fish¬ 
eries of both Canada and the United States 
should be open to each country for the next 
twelve years, Canada receiving a compensation, 
afterwards fixed at five and a half million dollars, 
for the superior value of its fisheries. In 1884, 
considerable disaffection was caused amongst 
the half-breeds and Indians in the Saskatchewan 
and Assiniboia districts, on account of the diffi¬ 
culty of obtaining valid titles to their lands. 
The discontent at length took shape in an insur¬ 
rection, which Louis Riel was invited to head. 



HISTORY 


35 


The rebels seized the government stores at Duck 
Lake and induced some of the Indian tribes to 
cooperate with them, with the result that a 
massacre of settlers took place at Frog’s Lake. 
Within a few months an expedition under Gen¬ 
eral Middleton, who had under his command 
several thousand volunteers, suppressed the 
rebellion. Only the leaders were arrested. Riel 
was tried and executed at Regina on July 28,1885. 
After 1883, when the Washington Treaty ex¬ 
pired, disputes between the American and Ca¬ 
nadian fishermen became frequent, and several 
American fishing vessels were seized on the Brit¬ 
ish North American coasts, and others prevented 
from buying bait. For the adjustment of the 
differences connected with the fisheries a joint 
British and American commission was insti¬ 
tuted in 1887. A treaty was signed in Feb¬ 
ruary, 1888, but was rejected by the United 
States Senate. In 1887, also, an arbitration 
board was appointed to settle a dispute with the 
United States concerning the Bering Sea seal 
fisheries, and ten years later made an award in 
favor of the Canadians’ claims. Later on, an¬ 
other commission, sitting in London (1903), 
decided the Alaskan boundary controversy in 
favor of the United States. 

In September, 1907, a serious riot, directed 
against the Japanese and Chinese, broke out in 
Vancouver, largely organized by the American 
labor agitators, but supported by the local 
rowdies of the city. The Dominion authorities 
at once suppressed the outbreak. 

In 1910, the Newfoundland fisheries contro¬ 
versy was very satisfactorily arbitrated at The 
Hague. 

On September 21, 1911, reciprocity of trade 
with the United States was defeated by Canada, 
resulting in the downfall of the liberal ministry 
and the election of Robert Laird Borden as 
premier. He heads the first conservative minis¬ 
try in Canada since 1896. 

Carthage (called Carthago by the Romans, 
and by the Greeks, Karchldori). One of the 
most celebrated cities of the ancient world, 
situated on the north coast of Africa, on a penin¬ 
sula in what is now the state of Tunis. It was 
founded by the Phoenicians of Tyre, about 100 
years before the building of Rome, or, according 
to tradition, 853 B. C. The builder of the city 
was said to be Dido. It became the seat of a 
powerful kingdom; maintained three wars 
against Rome, which are usually called the three 
Punic Wars; and in the third of these wars was 
totally destroyed by Scipio iEmilianus, 146 B. C. 
The greatness of the city at this time may be 
judged from the fact that it took seventeen days 
to burn. It is said to have been twenty-three 
miles in circumference, and to have contained 
within its walls a population of 700,000. Caesar 
afterwards planted a colony on the site, which 
he called Colonia Carthago. It became again the 
first city in Africa, and occupied an important 
part in ecclesiastical as well as in civil history. 
It was taken by the Vandals, A. D. 439;was re¬ 
taken by Belisarius, A. D. 533; and was finally 
destroyed by the Saracens, A. D. 698. Of this 
once splendid city there are now almost, abso¬ 
lutely no remains. The Cathedral of Pisa is said 
to have been built out of the ruins of Carthage. 


Charter Oak, a tree which formerly 
stood in Hartford, Conn., in the hollow trunk 
of which the colonial charter is said to have 
been hidden. The story is that when Governor 
Andros went to Hartford in 1687, to demand 
the surrender of the charter, the debate in the 
Assembly over his demand was prolonged until 
darkness set in, when the lights were suddenly 
extinguished, and a patriot, Captain Wadsworth, 
escaped with the document and hid it in the oak. 
The venerable tree was preserved with great care 
until 1856, when it was blown down in a storm. 

Chile. Chile originally belonged to the Incas 
of Peru, from whom it was wrested by the Span¬ 
iards under Pizarro and Almagro, in 1535. 
From this period Chile continued a colony of 
Spain until 1810, when a revolution commenced, 
which terminated in 1818 in the independence 
of Chile. Several internal commotions have 
since occurred; but the country has been free 
from these compared with other South American 
States. A war begun with Spain, in 1865, led 
to the blockade of the coast by the Spanish 
fleet, and the bombardment of Valparaiso, in 
1866. In 1879, a war broke out with Bolivia 
and Peru in reference to the rights of Chile in 
the mineral district of Atacama. This war was 
virtually finished in 1881, and the victorious 
Chileans gained a large accession of territory 
from both Bolivia and Peru. In 1891, an in¬ 
surrection, headed by influential members of 
Congress, caused by dissatisfaction with President 
Balmaceda’s administration, was successful and 
resulted in his overthrow. In 1907 ; a number 
of labor disturbances in the mining regions 
called for armed intervention. 

China. The early history of the Chinese is 
shrouded in fable, but it is certain that civiliza¬ 
tion had advanced much among them when it 
was only beginning to dawn on the nations of 
Europe. The Chow dynasty, which was founded 
by Woo-wang and lasted from about 1100 B. C. 
to 258 B. C., is perhaps the earliest that can be 
regarded as historic, and even of it not much 
more is historic than the name. Under Ling- 
wang, one of the sovereigns of this dynasty, 
Confucius is said to have been born, some time 
in the Sixth Century B. C. During the latter 
half of the period, during which this line of 
sovereigns held sway, there appear to have been 
a number of rival kings in China, who lived in 
strife with one another. Chow-siang, who was 
the founder of the Tsin dynasty, from which 
China takes its name, gained the superiority over 
his rivals, and died in 251 B. C. His great- 
grandson, a national hero of the Chinese, was 
the first to assume the title of “Hoang” (em¬ 
peror), and called himself Che-Hoang-ti. He 
ruled over an empire nearly conterminous with 
modern China proper. In his reign, the great 
wall, which was designed as a protection 
against marauding Tartars, was begun about 214 
B. C. Buddhism was introduced in 65 A. D. 
Subsequently, the empire broke up into three 
or more states, and a long period of confusion 
and weak government ensued. In 960, a strong 
ruler managed to consolidate the empire, but 
the attacks of the Tartars were now causing 
much trouble. In the Thirteenth Century the 
Mongols, under Jenghis Khan and his son, Ogdai, 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


conquered China, and in 1259 the celebrated 
Kublai Khan, a nephew of the latter, ascended 
the throne and founded the Mongol dynasty. 
His ninth descendant was driven from the 
throne, and a native dynasty, called Ming, again 
succeeded in 1368, in the person of Hungwu. A 
long period of peace ensued, but was broken 
about 1618, when the Manchus gained the as¬ 
cendancy, and, after a war of twenty-seven years, 
founded the existing Tartar dynasty in the per¬ 
son of Tungchi, establishing their capital in the 
northern city of Peking, which was nearer their 
native country and resources than the old capital 
Nanking. The earliest authentic accounts of 
China, published in Europe, are those of Marco 
Polo, who visited the country in the Thirteenth 
Century. The first British intercourse -was at¬ 
tempted under Queen Elizabeth, in 1596, and a 
trade was subsequently established by the East 
India Company, but no direct intercourse be¬ 
tween the governments took place till the em¬ 
bassy of Lord Macartney, in 1792. A second 
embassy in 1816, by Lord Amherst, was treated 
with insolence; and, subsequently, -the treat¬ 
ment of British merchants became such that a 
collision was inevitable. In 1840, the British, 
on being refused redress for injuries partly real 
and partly alleged, proceeded to hostilities, and, 
after scattering almost without a struggle every 
force which was opposed to them, were prepar¬ 
ing to lay siege to Nanking when the Chinese 
found it necessary to sue for peace. A treaty 
was then concluded (1842) by which the five 
ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, 
and Shanghai were opened to British merchants, 
the island of Hong-Kong ceded to the British in 
perpetuity, and the payment of 21,000,000 dol¬ 
lars agreed to be made by the Chinese. In 1850, 
an insurrection, headed by Hung-seu-tseuan, or 
Tien-te, broke out in the provinces adjoining 
Canton, with the object of expelling the Manchu 
dynasty from the throne, as well as of restoring 
the ancient national religion of Shan-ti, and of 
making Tien-te the founder of a new dynasty, 
which he called that of Tai-ping, or Universal 
Peace. After a long period of civil war, the 
Tai-ping rebellion was at length suppressed in 
1865, chiefly by the exertions of General Gordon 
and other British and American officers at the 
head of the Chinese army. In October, 1856, 
the crew of a vessel belonging to Hong-Kong 
were seized by the Chinese. The men were 
afterwards brought back, but all reparation or 
apology was refused. In consequence of this, a 
war with China commenced, in which the French 
took part with the British. Peking had to be 
taken (in 1860) before the Chinese Government 
finally gave way, and granted a treaty securing 
important privileges to the allies. The child 
emperor, Tsaitien, succeeded in 1875, but only 
assumed the reins of government in 1887, on 
reaching the age of sixteen. War was declared 
between China and Japan on July 31, 1894. 
Japan, by a series of brilliant victories, both on 
land and sea, brought the war to an end in 
April, 1895. Corea was declared independent, 
Formosa ceded to Japan, and China was forced 
to pay a very large war indemnity. The follow¬ 
ing succinct statement of recent progress in 
China was lately made by a missionary who 


has labored in that country since 1863: “Who 
among us, ten years ago, would have dared to 
imagine that to-day China would have (1) a 
national fleet; (2) the telegraph radiating to the 
most distant provinces; (3) government colleges 
for engineering, navigation, military tactics, 
electricity, and medicine; (4) the Kai-ping mines 
supplying steamers and the north ports with 
excellent and cheap coal?” During 1898, both 
Russia and Germany had taken possession of 
certain provinces of China. In 1900, the Boxers 
rose against the foreigners, attacked the lega¬ 
tions in Peking, murdered the German and other 
attaches, a number of the missionaries and 
native converts, and destroyed the stations. A 
punitive war by the powers followed; indem¬ 
nity and future guarantees and punishment of 
the principals were demanded, and subsequently 
paid. 

In 1903, insurrection and rebellion kept sev¬ 
eral provinces in a state of disturbance during 
a greater part of the year. That in Kwang- 
si assumed the most alarming proportions, and 
lasted from January until May. Rebels in 
North China proclaimed Pu Chun, Prince 
Tuan’s son, as emperor, but the movement 
was quickly suppressed. As a result of the 
rebellion in the Province of Kwang-si, the 
country was desolated and a serious famine 
threatened. It was reported that 1,000,000 per¬ 
sons were starving, and that men were selling 
their wives and children in order to get food. 
In 1907-08, edicts were issued looking to the 
extension of self-government in the cities, and 
a larger degree of civil liberty. 

A grand council was instituted by the emperor, 
and in 1910 in response to popular demands he, 
through the council, announced the establish¬ 
ment of representative government in 1913. 

In 1911 a revolution began in China between 
those who advocated the retention of the mon¬ 
archy under a modernized constitution and those 
who favored the establishment of a republic. In 
1912, with the formal abdication of the Manchu 
dynasty, which has ruled China for three cen¬ 
turies, an end came to an empire nearly 5,000 
years old. China was proclaimed a republic and 
Yuan-Shi-Kai was elected president of the new 
government. 

Cisalpine Republic. A former political 
division of Italy, embracing portions of Mantua, 
Milan, the Valtellina, Yenetia west and south 
of the Adige, Modena, and the northern Pontifical 
States. Inaugurated by Napoleon I. in 1797, 
it was named the Italian Republic in 1802, and 
three years later constituted the principal part 
of the Italian Kingdom. 

Colorado. Colorado was first organized 
as a territory in 1861, from parts of Kansas, 
Nebraska, New Mexico, and Utah. A portion 
of it was derived from the Louisiana purchase 
of 1803, and a part from the Mexican cession of 
1848. This region was first settled by Coronado 
in 1540. It was thoroughly explored by expe¬ 
ditions sent out by the government, under 
Major Zebulon M. Pike, in 1806; under Colonel 
S. H. Long, in 1819; and under Colonel J. C. 
Fremont, in 1842-44. The first American set¬ 
tlements were made by mining parties in 1858- 
59, since which time Colorado has become even 




HISTORY 


37 


more prolific than California in its yield of the 
precious metals. The State was admitted Au¬ 
gust 1, 1876. The famous Leadville mines were 
opened in 1879, and the same year saw the Ute 
uprising. In 1891 the Cripple Creek gold dis¬ 
coveries were made. In 1893 the legislature 
passed a bill, making equal suffrage for men and 
women a law. The Gunnison tunnel, the largest 
single irrigation project ever undertaken by the 
United States government, was opened by Presi¬ 
dent Taft, Sept., 1909. 

In 1909 the state adopted the initiative and 
referendum. 

Committee of Public Safety. A com¬ 
mittee of nine created by the French Conven¬ 
tion, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of 
the executive, “the conscience of Marat, who 
could see salvation in one thing only, in the fall 
of 260,000 aristocrats’ heads.” 

Confederation of the Rhine. Dur¬ 
ing the war of 1805, so disastrous for Austria, 
several German princes, too weak to remain 
neutral, were forced to ally themselves with 
France. The first to do so were the Electors of 
Bavaria and Wtirttemberg, who, in recompense 
of their services, were elevated to the dignity of 
kings by the Peace of Pressburg, December 26, 
1805. Some months after (May 28, 1806), the 
archchancellor of the empire announced at the 
Diet that he had chosen as his coadjutor and 
successor Cardinal Fesch, the uncle of Napoleon, 
a thing entirely contrary to the constitution of 
the Germanic Empire. Finally, at Paris, on 
the 12th of July, 1806, sixteen German princes 
formally signed an act of confederation, dissolv¬ 
ing their connection with the Germanic Empire, 
and allying themselves with France. These six¬ 
teen princes were: the kings of Bavaria and 
Wtirttemberg, the archchancellor, the Elector of 
Baden, the new Duke of Cleves and Berg (Joac¬ 
him Murat), the Landgraf of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
the princes of Nassau-Usingen, Nassau-Weilburg 
Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmar- 
ingen, Salm-Salm, Salm-Kyrburg, the Duke of 
Arenberg, the princes of Isenburg-Birstein and 
Lichtenstein, and the Count of Leyen. 

Connecticut. One of the thirteen original 
States. Its name was derived from the Indian, 
and signifies “Long River.” The territory, 
originally claimed by the Dutch of New Nether¬ 
lands by right of prior exploration, was finally 
acquired by the English under a patent granted 
to Lord Say and Sele, and Brooke and asso¬ 
ciates, in 1631. Permanent settlements were 
made, 1633-36, by colonists from Massachusetts, 
at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. In 1638, 
New Haven was settled by a distinguished com¬ 
pany of emigrants from England. The first 
constitution was adopted in 1639, being the first 
time in history when a government was organ¬ 
ized and defined by a written constitution. Its 
leading features were afterward copied in the 
constitutions of the other States and of the 
United States, and it was the basis of the charter 
of 1662. The attempt to revoke and supersede 
this charter by James II. through his representa¬ 
tive, Sir Edmund Andros, in 1687, led to what 
might be called the first colonial act of rebellion 
against royal authority. During the Civil War, 
54,882 men were furnished by the State. 


Consul. The title of the two chief magis¬ 
trates of Rome, whose power was in a certain 
degree absolute, but who were chosen for only 
one year; they were instituted B. C. 509. The 
authority of the two consuls was equal; yet 
the Valerian law gave the right of priority to 
the elder, and the Julian law to him who had the 
greater number of children; and this one was 
generally called Consul major or prior. In the 
first ages of the republic, they were elected from 
patrician families; but in the year of Rome, 
388, the people obtained the privilege of electing 
one of the consuls from their own body, and 
sometimes both were plebeians. After the estab¬ 
lishment of the empire in 91, the office of consul 
became merely honorary; the. last holder of the 
dignity at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Pauli- 
nus, A. D. 536; at Constantinople, Flavius 
Basilius Junius, 541. 

Consulate. A body of three persons, to 
whom, after the dissolution of the French Direct¬ 
ory in 1799, the provisional government was 
intrusted. Napoleon, Cambac6res, and Lebrun, 
were elected as first, second, and third consuls, 
respectively, with different degrees of authority, 
1800; but the influence of the first becoming 
radually augmented, the transition to imperial 
ignity became easy to him. On August 4, 
1802, he was made consul for life, and on May 
18, 1804, the title of emperor was substituted for 
that of consul. 

Continental System. A plan devised 
by Napoleon to exclude Britain from all inter¬ 
course with the continent of Europe. It began 
with the decree of Berlin of November 21, 1806, 
by which the British Islands were declared to 
be in a state of blockade; all commerce, inter¬ 
course, and correspondence were prohibited; 
every Briton found in France, or a country occu¬ 
pied by French troops, was declared a prisoner 
of war; all property belonging to Britons, fair 
prize; and all trade in goods from Britain or 
British colonies entirely prohibited. Britain re¬ 
plied by orders in council prohibiting trade with 
French ports, and declaring all harbors of France 
and her allies subjected to the same restrictions 
as if they were closely blockaded. Further de¬ 
crees on the part of France, of a still more 
stringent kind, declared all vessels of whatever 
flag, which had been searched by a British 
vessel or paid duty to Britain, denationalized, 
and directed the burning of all British goods, 
etc. These decrees caused great annoyance, 
and gave rise to much smuggling, till annulled 
at the fall of Napoleon, 1814. 

Convention, National. A revolution¬ 
ary convention in France, which, on September 
20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, 
proclaimed the republic, and condemned the king 
to death. It succeeded in crushing the royalists of 
La Vendee and the south, in defeating all Europe 
leagued against France, and in founding institu¬ 
tions of benefit to France to this day. It was 
dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way 
for the Directory. 

Corea or Korea. The seeds of Chris¬ 
tianity were sown in Corea in 1592, by the 
invading army, composed chiefly of Christian 
converts of the Japanese usurper, Tiacosama. 
Hamel, a Dutch sailor, was wrecked here and 




38 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


detained for thirteen years; from his narrative 
it was that, till very recently, most of our scanty 
knowledge of Corea was obtained. In 1784, 
Jesuit missionaries found their way into Corea 
and had great success among the people. From 
1835 till 1860, several intrepid and devoted 
French missionaries contrived to find shelter, 
and, in spite of incessant persecutions, the 
Christian community continued rather to in¬ 
crease, rising in 1852 to 11,000 souls. The 
massacre of nine missionaries, in 1866, led to an 
invasion of Corea by a small French force, but 
without success. Nor did two successive Ameri¬ 
can expeditions, provoked by attack on an 
American vessel, succeed in breaking down the 
barriers that separated the Coreans from the 
rest of the world. The pseudonym of “ Hermit 
Nation ” has attached to Corea, not because of 
vast deserts and deadly jungles which interposed 
as physical barriers to constitute the Nile sources 
a region of myths and mysteries — for Corea, 
situated in the open sea, had none of these to 
bar ingress — but because of a persistent policy 
of isolation which, consecrated by time, became 
in fact, a sort of Corean religion. To be let 
alone by the So Yang Saram (“men from the 
Western Ocean”), this was the policy of govern¬ 
ment until our own day. About 1881, however, 
Corea made a treaty with Japan, and, later on, 
through Admiral Shufeldt, tJ. S. N., with the 
United States—followed by others with Eng¬ 
land, Russia, France, Germany, and Italy. After 
Japan’s victory over China, in 1895, Corea was 
made independent. In 1907, Corea practically 
passed under a Japanese protectorate and, in 
1910, was annexed to that empire. 

Covenanters. In Scottish history, the 
name given to the party which struggled for 
religious liberty from 1637 on to the revolution; 
but more especially applied to the insurgents 
who took up arms in defense of the Presbyterian 
form of church government. The Presbyterian 
ministers who refused to acknowledge the bish¬ 
ops were ejected from their parishes and gath¬ 
ered around them crowds of their people on the 
hillsides to attend their ministrations. The 
first outbreaks took plafce in the hill country on 
the borders of Ayr and Lanark shires. The 
murder of Archbishop Sharp, on Magus Moor, 
and a skirmish near there alarmed the govern¬ 
ment, who sent troops to put down the insur¬ 
gents, who had increased in number rapidly. 
The two armies met at Bothwell Bridge, when the 
Covenanters were totally defeated, June 22,1679. 

In consequence of the rebellious protest, called 
the “Sandquhar Declaration,” put forth in 1680, 
by Cameron, Cargill, and others, as representing 
the more irreconcilable of the Covenanters, and 
a subsequent proclamation in 1684, the govern¬ 
ment proceeded to more severe measures. An 
oath was now required of all who would free 
themselves of suspicion of complicity with the 
Covenanters; and the dragoons, who were sent 
out to hunt down the rebels, were empowered 
to kill anyone who refused to take the oath. 
After the accession of William, some of the ex¬ 
treme Covenanters refused to acknowledge him, 
owing to his acceptance of Episcopacy in Eng¬ 
land, and formed the earliest dissenting sect in 
Scotland. 


Crimean War. In 1854, the Crimea be¬ 
came the theater of a sanguinary war, under¬ 
taken by England, France, Turkey, and Sardinia 
in support of the integrity of the sultan’s power 
and to check the growing ascendency of Russia 
on the Black Sea. The allies landed near 
Eupatoria, and defeated the Russians at the 
River Alma, September 20, 1854; at Balaklava, 
October 25th; at Inkerman, November 5th; at 
the River Tchernaya, August 16, 1855. The 
siege of Sebastopol continued from October 9, 
1854, to September 8, 1855, when the important 
fortresses known as the Malakoff and the Redan 
were stormed by the French and English,. and 
the Russians evacuated the city. An armistice 
was concluded February 26, 1856, and peace 
was proclaimed in April of the same year. The 
British loss, during the war, was nearly 24,000, 
of which number, however, 16,500 died of dis¬ 
ease and privation. The French lost about 
63,500. The Russian loss was estimated at 
500,000. 

Crusades (Lat. crux, a cross). The name 
given to the religious wars which were carried 
on during the middle ages between the Christian 
nations of Western Europe and the Mohamme¬ 
dans of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. 
Originally, the object of the Crusades was to 
obtain free access for pilgrims to the Holy 
Sepulchre, but they afterwards developed into 
a contest for the possession of Jerusalem itself. 
The Crusades lasted for nearly two centuries. 
They are usually divided into eight, as follows: 
First (1096-1100), led by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
and preached up by Peter the Hermit; second 
(1147-1149), led by Louis VII. and the Emperor 
Konrad, at the instigation of St. Bernard; third 
(1189-1193), led against Saladin, the Sultan of 
Syria and Egypt, by Richard the Lion-hearted 
of England and Philip Augustus of France; 
fourth (1202-1204), led by Baldwin of Flanders 
and the Doge of Venice; fifth (1217), led by 
John Brienne, titular sovereign of Jerusalem; 
sixth (1228-1229), led by Frederick II. of Ger¬ 
many; seventh and eighth (1248-1254 and 1268- 
1270), to satisfy the religious scruples of Louis 
IX. of France. Although the Crusades did not 
accomplish their main object, and the “Holy 
City” remained finally in the hands of the 
“Infidels,” they yet called forth an amount of 
enterprise that has exerted a powerful influence 
upon modern civilization. On the other hand, 
they cost many millions of lives, and the deeds 
that were done during the Crusades in the sacred 
name of Christ would be altogether repugnant 
to all modern ideas of religion or even of human¬ 
ity. The name Crusades was derived from the 
symbol of the cross, which the warriors engaged 
in them wore over their armor. 

Cuba, spoken of as the “Queen of the An¬ 
tilles,” was discovered by Columbus in 1492, 
the discoverer calling it “the most beautiful 
land that eyes ever beheld.” It was first settled 
by Spaniards at Baracoa in 1511. Havana, 
first settled in 1519, was reduced to ashes by 
the French in 1538, and again in 1554. For 
about one and a half centuries, Cuba was in 
constant danger from French, Dutch, English, 
and West Indian filibusters. In 1762, the Eng¬ 
lish, under Lord Albemarle, took Havana, 




HISTORY 


39 


which, however, was by the treaty of Paris next 
year restored to Spain. From 1789 to 1845, 
the island was a vast slave-trading center. 
Negro insurrections occurred in 1845 and 1848. 
In the latter year the United States offered 
$100,000,000 to Spain for the island. Rebel¬ 
lions against Spanish rule broke out in 1849 
and in 1868. They were put down after long 
campaigns; another insurrection, begun in 1895, 
gained formidable proportions by 1898. The 
United States battleship “Maine,” while on a 
friendly visit, was blown up in Havana harbor, 
February 15, 1898, and on April 19th, the Con¬ 
gress of the United States adopted resolutions 
declaring Cuba independent. War with Spain 
began at once. Cervera’s Spanish fleet was 
destroyed at Santiago de Cuba, July 3d, and 
Santiago and its large army were surrendered 
on July 17th. The leading military events of 
the war, so far as Cuba was concerned, were the 
fights at El Caney and San Juan, the battle at 
Santiago, and the destruction of Cervera’s fleet. 
A Constitutional Convention assembled in 
November, 1900, and adopted a constitution 
providing for a republican form of govern¬ 
ment, with a president, vice-president, senate, 
and house of representatives. Thereupon, the 
United States Congress authorized the transfer 
of the government to the people of Cuba on 
condition that: (1) No treaty should be made 
with any other foreign power impairing the 
independence of Cuba, or allowing military or 
naval occupation of the island; (2) the United 
States should have the right to intervene for 
the discharge of her obligations under the Treaty 
of Paris; (3) the United States should have 
certain naval stations (at Bahia Honda and 
Guantanamo). These conditions were included 
in the Law of Constitution, and confirmed in 
the permanent treaty between Cuba and the 
United States, which was signed in May, 1903. 

The formal transfer of the government to the 
Cuban authorities took place on May 20, 1902. 
Tomas Estrada Palma was elected first presi¬ 
dent, and Luis Esteves, vice-president. An 
insurrection in 1906 led to American interven¬ 
tion and the appointment of Charles E. Magoon 
as provisional governor. Cuban Government 
again became independent in 1909, with Jose 
Gomez as President. In 1913 Gomez was suc¬ 
ceeded by Mario Menocal. 

Czar, Tsar, Tzar ( zahr ), [Russ. tsar]. 
The Sclavonic form of Ccesar, the title assumed 
by the emperors of Russia, borne first by Ivan II. 
in 1579, as Czar of Muscovy. The eldest son of 
the czar was called Czarovicz, or, as we usually 
write it, Czarovitsch, or Cesarowitch; but this 
appellation was discontinued after the murder 
of Alexis, the son of Peter the Great, until 
revived by Paul I. in 1799, in favor of his second 
son, Constantine. The consort of the czar is 
termed czarina. 

Decemviri ( de-sem've-re ). A body of men 
who were elected by the patricians, B. C. 451, 
for the purpose of drawing up a body of laws, 
founded on the most approved institutions of 
Greece. They compiled a code, which they in¬ 
scribed on ten tables, and stated that their 
labors were not yet complete. > Next year, 
therefore, another body of ten, which probably 


included some of the patricians, was appointed 
with the same powers; and these added two 
more tables, altogether making the famous 
Twelve Tables, which were from that time the 
foundation of all Roman law. The second body 
of decemvirs attempted to prolong their period 
of office, committed some acts of violence, and 
altogether gave such dissatisfaction that they 
were dissolved. The traditionary history of the 
decemviri is, however, very doubtful. There 
were other decemvirs, who were appointed for 
judicial and other purposes. 

Defenestration of Prague, The 
(May 23, 1618). That is, the ejection out of win¬ 
dows by the Bohemians. The Bohemians had 
two Protestant churches, one in the diocese of 
Prague, and the other in the territory of the 
abbot of Braunau. The Archbishop of Prague 
and the abbot pulled down these reformed 
churches, and when the Protestants remonstrated 
they were told it was the king’s pleasure. So 
Count Thurn of Bohemia headed a deputation, 
which went to the royal castle of Prague to lay 
their grievance before the king. Being admitted 
into the council hall, they were so insolently 
received that they threw two of the councillors 
and the king’s private secretary out of the win¬ 
dows into the moat. This was the beginning 
of the Thirty Years’ War. 

Delaware. Though the State was first 
discovered by the Dutch in 1609, Lord Delaware, 
Governor of Virginia, who visited it the follow¬ 
ing year, and afterward gave name to it, claimed 
it on behalf of England. In 1637, colonies were 
planted near Wilmington by the Swedish East 
India Company, which brought on a conflict 
with the Dutch and led to the expulsion of the 
Swedes in 1655. When New Netherlands was 
conquered by the English, this territory went 
with it. William Penn, having received the 
Pennsylvania grant, secured, also, from the Duke 
of York rights over Delaware by patent, and 
until the Revolution the territory was governed 
under the same proprietary. In 1776, the people 
declared themselves an independent State, and 
as such fought in the Continental ranks. Dela¬ 
ware was the first State to ratify the Federal 
Constitution, and its own constitution, adopted 
in 1792, still forms the fundamental law. 

Deluge. The Deluge was threatened in the 
year of the world 1536, and began December 7, 

1656, and continued 377 days. ( Genesis vi, vii, 
viii). The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 

1657, and Noah left the ark December 18th, 
following. The year corresponds with that of 
2348 B. C. The following are the epochs of the 
Deluge, according to Dr. Hales: 

B C B C 

3246 Clinton,. 2482 

3170 Playfair, .... 2352 
H55 Usher and E. Bible, 2348 


Septuagint, 
Jackson, . 
Hales, . . 
Josephus,. 
Persian, . 
Hindoo, . 
Samaritan, 
Howard, 


3146 

3103 

3102 

2998 

2698 


Marsham, 
Petavius, . 
Strauchius, 
Hebrew, . 
Vulgar Jewish,. 


2344 

2329 

2293 

2288 

2104 


In the reign of Ogyges, King of Attica, 1764 
B. C., a deluge so inundated Attica that it lay 
waste for nearly 200 years. Buffon thinks that 
the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, 








40 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and arose from the Atlantic and Bosporus burst¬ 
ing into the Valley of the Mediterranean. 

The deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly is placed 
1503 B. C. according to Eusebius. It was often 
confounded by the ancients with the general 
flood but considered to be merely a local inun¬ 
dation occasioned by the overflowing of the 
River Pineus whose course was stopped by an 
earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and 
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, 
with his wife Pyrrha and some of their subjects, 
are stated to have saved themselves by climbing 
up Mount Parnassus. 

Denmark. The Kymri were the earliest 
known inhabitants of Scandinavia and made 
themselves formidable to the Romans 100 years 
B. C. To them succeeded the Goths who, 
under their mythical leader, Odin, established 
their rule over the Scandinavian lands. Odin’s 
son, Skjold, is reputed to have been the first 
ruler of Denmark; but the little that is known 
of Danish history in these remote ages seems to 
indicate that the country was split up into 
many small territories, whose inhabitants lived 
by piracy. The people were divided into 
“ Bonder ” and “Traelle,” freemen and bondmen. 
The former busied themselves with war and 
“ Vikingetog,” or piracy, and the government 
of the land; while to the latter were left the 
peaceful pursuits of hunting, fishing, and tilling 
the soil. The mission of Ansgarius the Apostle 
of the North to South Jutland, in 826, when he 
baptized Harald Klak, one of the Smaa Kongar, 
or the little kings of Denmark, was the means 
of first opening the Danish territories to the 
knowledge of the more civilized nations. The 
country was soon torn by civil dissensions be¬ 
tween the adherents of the ancient and modern 
faith. Gorm the Old, the first authentic King 
of Denmark, the bitter enemy of Christianity, 
died in 935, after having subjugated the several 
territories to his sway; and, although his death 
gave fresh vigor to the diffusion of the new 
faith, paganism kept its ground for 200 years 
longer, and numbered among its adherents many 
of those half-mythical heroes, whose deeds are 
celebrated in the Eddas and the Kaempeviser of 
the Middle Ages. The success that attended the 
piratical incursions of the Northmen drew them 
from their own homes; and, while Gorm’s 
descendants, Svend and Knud, were reigning in 
England, Denmark was left a prey to anarchy. 
On the extinction of Knud’s dynasty, in 1042, 
his sister’s son, Svend Estridsen, ascended the 
throne. Internal dissensions and external wars 
weakened the country, and the introduction of a 
feudal system raised up a powerful nobility and 
ground down the once free people to a condition 
of oppressed serfage. Valdemar I., by the help 
of his great minister, Axel Hvide, known in 
history as Bishop Absalon, subjugated the 
Wends of Rtigen and Pomerania, and forced 
them, in 1168, to renounce the faith of their 
god, Svantevit, and accept Christianity. During 
the time of Knud VI., and in the early part of 
the reign of Valdemar II.— sons of Valdemar I. 
— the conquest of Denmark extended so far 
into German and Wendic lands that the Baltic 
was little more than an inland Danish sea. The 
jealousy of the German princes and the treachery 


of his vassals combined to rob Valdemar II. of 
these brilliant family conquests. His death, in 
1241, was followed by a century of anarchy and 
inglorious decadence of the authority of the 
crown, during which the kingdom was brought 
to the brink of annihilation under the vicious 
rule of his sons and grandsons. Under his 
great-grandson, Valdemar IV., the last of the 
Estridsen line, Denmark made a quick but 
transient recovery of the conquests of the older 
Valdemars, and the national laws were collected 
into a well-digested, comprehensive code. From 
his death, in 1375, till 1412, his daughter, the 
great Margaret, first as regent for her only and 
early lost son, Olaf, and later as sole monarch, 
ruled, not only Denmark, but, in course of time, 
also Sweden and Norway, with such consummate 
tact, and with so light yet firm a hand, that, for 
once in the course of their history, the three 
rival Scandinavian kingdoms were content to 
act in harmony. Margaret’s successor, Erik, 
the son of her niece, for whose sake she had 
blended the three sovereignties into one, undid 
her glorious work with fatal rapidity, and after 
an inglorious war of twenty-five years with his 
vassals, the Counts-dukes of Schleswick-Holstein, 
he lost the allegiance and the crowns of his triple 
kingdom, and ended his disastrous existence in 
misery and obscurity. After the short reign of 
his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria, the Danes, 
on the death of the latter in 1448, again exer¬ 
cised their long-dormant right of election to the 
throne, and chose for their king Christian of 
Oldenburg, a descendant of the old royal family 
through his maternal ancestress, Rikissa, the 
great-granddaughter of Valdemar II. Christian 
I., the father of the Oldenburg line, which con¬ 
tinued unbroken till the death of the late King 
of Denmark, Frederick VII., in 1863, laid the 
foundation of the Schleswick-Holstein troubles, 
which, after maturing for centuries, have ended 
in our own day in dismembering the Danish 
monarchy. The insane tyranny of the other¬ 
wise able and enlightened Christian II. cost him 
his throne. Christian III., in whose reign the 
Reformation was established, united the Schles¬ 
wick-Holstein duchies in perpetuity to the 
Crown in 1533. Frederick II., who increased 
the embarrassments connected with the crown 
appanages, by making additional partitions in 
favor of his brother (the founder of the Holstein- 
Sonderburg family), was succeeded by Christian 
IV., 1588, who was the ablest of Danish rulers. 
His liberal policy was, however, cramped by the 
nobles, by whose supineness Denmark lost all 
the possessions she had hitherto retained in 
Sweden. The national abasement which fol¬ 
lowed led, in 1660, under Christian’s son, Fred¬ 
erick III., to the rising of the people against the 
nobles, and their surrender into the hands of 
the king of the supreme power. For the next 
100 years the peasantry were kept in serfage 
and the middle classes depressed. The abolition 
of serfage was begun by Christian VII. in 1767; 
it was extended to the duchies in 1804. The 
reign of Christian’s son, Frederick VI., brought 
the country to the verge of ruin. On the acces¬ 
sion of Frederick VII. half his subjects were in 
open rebellion against him. The liberal consti¬ 
tution granted by the king fully satisfied his 




HISTORY 


41 


subjects in Denmark proper, but the disaffection 
still smoldered in the duchies. Prince Christian 
of Schleswick-Holstein-Glucksborg ascended the 
throne as Christian IX. in 1863 and was succeeded 
by his son, Frederick VIII. in 1906. On the 
death of Frederick VIII. in 1912, Christian X. 
became king. 

Deposed Kings of England. (1) Be¬ 
fore the Conquest: Sigebert of Wessex, A. D. 755; 
Alcred of Northumbria, 774; Ethelred I., 779; 
Eardwulf and Ethelwulf, 857; Edwy, 957; 
Ethelred II., 1013; Hardicanute, son of Canute, 
1037. (2) Since the Conquest: Edward II., 1327; 

Richard II., 1399; Henry VI., 1460; James II., 
1688. Euphemistically called his “abdication,” 
Charles I. was not only deposed but tried for 
treason against his parliament and beheaded; 
Charles II. was not exactly deposed, but he was 
kept from the crown during the Commonwealth. 
The most absolute and tyrannical of British 
sovereigns have been the Welsh and Scotch 
dynasties, but Wales and Scotland are eminently 
democratic. The Stuarts claimed the “ right 
divine” of kings, but James I. and Charles II. 
did no honor to the claim. 

Deposed Kings of France. Louis 
XVI., like Charles I., was not only deposed but 
executed, 1793; Napoleon I. (emperor) was twice 
deposed, 1814, 1815; Charles X. (1830), like 
James II., is said to have “ abdicated”; Louis- 
Philippe (1848), also said to-have “abdicated”; 
Napoleon III., 1872. 

Dictator ( dik-ta'tur ). A magistrate ap¬ 
pointed in times of exigency and peril, and in¬ 
vested with extraordinary powers. They acted 
as generals-in-chief of the army, and could 
declare war or make peace at their pleasure. 
They were originally selected from the patrician 
order, the first having been Titus Laertius, B. C. 
501. In B. C. 356, however, the office of dic¬ 
tator was thrown open to the plebeians, and 
Marcius Rutilus, one of that class, received the 
appointment. For the space of 400 years this 
office was regarded with veneration, until Sulla 
and Caesar, by becoming perpetual dictators, 
converted it into an engine of tyranny, and 
rendered the very name odious. Hence, it 
became extinguished by decree of Mark Antony, 
B. C. 44. 

Directory, The. “Le Directoire,” the 
executive of the Constitution of Year III. 
(October 27, 1795 — November 9, 1799). The 
legislature consisted of two houses, the Council 
of Elders and the Council of 500. The number 
of the directors was five, named by the two 
councils, and they were elected for five years, 
without power of reelection. They appointed 
the ministers and les generaux-en-chef. Abol¬ 
ished by Napoleon in November, 1799. 

The military glory of France was never greater 
than in the Directory. It had for its com¬ 
manders, Bonaparte, Kleber, Desaix, Massena, 
and Moreau. 

District of Columbia. The region of 
the Potomac River was originally a favorite 
camping and fishing ground of several Indian 
tribes who lived in its vicinity, and was called 
by them the “River of Swans.” As early as 
1660 a portion of. the tract was purchased by 
an Englishman named Pope, who named the 


whole tract Rome, a stream running through it, 
the Tiber, and the principal eminence, on which 
the capitol now stands, Capitoline Hill, and 
signed all his letters and documents “The Pope 
of Rome.” Some thirty years prior to this, the 
Potomac had been explored as far as Little Falls, 
beyond the limits of the District of Columbia, 
by an Indian trader named William Fleet, with 
whom Leonard Calvert treated, 1634. The 
Colonial Congress, for a number of years follow¬ 
ing its organization, had no permanent seat. 
The session of 1783 was begun in Philadelphia, 
but, being disturbed by a riotous demand of the 
soldiers for their overdue pay, Congress ad¬ 
journed first to Princeton, thence to Annapolis, 
and, subsequently, to New York. The question 
of a permanent seat of government, to be en¬ 
tirely under federal authority, which had been 
broached several times, was then considered to 
be urgent; and when the proposed Federal Con¬ 
stitution was being drafted (1787) a clause was 
inserted in Art. I, Sec. 8, establishing the power 
of Congress to exercise exclusive legislation over 
such a district as might subsequently be ceded 
to the government by particular States for a 
seat of the Government of the United States. 
As soon as the intention of Congress to select a 
site was known, the State of Maryland ceded 
sixty square miles on one side of the river/and 
the State of Virginia forty square miles on the 
other, to constitute the federal district. The 
site of the national capital was selected in 1790, 
and the first stone to mark the boundaries of 
the District of Columbia was set at Jones’s Point, 
below Alexandria, April 15, 1791. The com¬ 
missioners appointed to lay out the district 
agreed that it should be called “The Territory 
of Columbia,” and the federal city “The City 
of Washington.” The city was laid out in 
accordance with the plans of Major L’Enfant, 
a French officer and engineer who had been 
wounded at Savannah, and who was one of 
Washington’s favorite officers. Public buildings 
were erected, and official possession was taken, 
1800, when Congress removed from Philadelphia 
and began holding its sessions there. Subse¬ 
quently, the whole territory was styled the 
District of Columbia, in memory of Christopher 
Columbus. In 1846, the area of 100 square 
miles was reduced to sixty-four square miles by 
retrocession to Virginia of the section previously 
included within the bounds of that State. Pre¬ 
vious to 1871, legislative power was exercised 
directly by Congress. An act adopted that year 
established a territorial form of government, 
and gave the citizens representation in Congress 
for the first time. The charters of Georgetown, 
incorporated December 25, 1789, and Washing¬ 
ton, incorporated May 3, 1802, were repealed 
by the act, though both were allowed to bear 
the name of “city,” and the corporations of the 
cities as well as that of Washington County, 
were merged into the new government. Alex¬ 
ander R. Shepherd became president of the 
Citizens’ Reform Association, 1870, vice-presi¬ 
dent of the Board of Public Works under the 
new government, 1871,‘and governor of the 
district, 1873. In 1874, the territorial govern¬ 
ment was abolished, and since then all the public 
affairs of the district have been managed by a 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


board of three commissioners acting directly 
under the legislation of Congress. 

Divine Right of Rings, The. A 

Seventeenth Century dogma, implying the be¬ 
lief that kings hold their office by divine appoint¬ 
ment, and are the earthly representatives of 
Deity. So they are in a theocracy like Judaea 
and the popedom. The dogma was sanctioned 
in the book of the Canons of Convocation, 1604; 
but in the Bill of Rights, 1689, the right of the 
people to depose the monarch, to change the 
order of succession, and to confer the throne 
on whom they think proper is distinctly set 

°Dominican Republic, or Santo 
Domingo. A state formed by the Spanish 
or eastern section of Hayti. Spain, in 1697, sur¬ 
rendered to France, by the Treaty of Ryswick, 
the western part of the island, retaining the 
remainder down to 1795. In the year last men¬ 
tioned, however, the Spanish portion became 
nominally French. In 1814, the West having 
vindicated its independence, France formally 
relinquished, in favor of Spain, all claim to the 
East. In 1822, the colony, in imitation of the 
continental possessions, threw off the yoke of 
the mother-country, to link itself, more or less 
closely, with its African neighbors. But in the 
year 1844 it assumed a separate standing as 
the Dominican Republic, the anarchy of which 
it exchanged in 1861 for the despotism of its 
former masters. In 1863, it again revolted, and 
Spain gave up the possession; the republic 
has since maintained a troubled existence. In 
1907, a treaty between the Dominican Republic 
and the United States was ratified, under which 
the latter will collect the customs revenues, 
assist the Dominican Government to maintain 
peace, and act as intermediary between the 
republic and its foreign creditors. 

Dorr Rebellion. In 1840, Connecticut 
and Rhode Island were the only States that 
were still governed by their colonial charters. 
The charter of the latter State, imposing, as it 
did, a property qualification so high as to dis¬ 
franchise two-thirds of the citizens, was ex¬ 
tremely unpopular. A proposition of Thomas 
W. Dorr, of Providence, to extend the franchise 
was voted down. Dorr then took to agitation, 
and finally a convention prepared a constitution 
and submitted it to a popular vote. Its sup¬ 
porters claimed a majority for it, which its op¬ 
ponents, known as the law and order party, 
denied. Nevertheless, in 1842, the constitution 
was proclaimed to be in force. An election was 
held under it, only the suffrage party partici¬ 
pating. Dorr was elected governor. The suf¬ 
frage legislature assembled at Providence with 
Thomas W. Dorr as governor; the charter 
legislature at Newport, with Samuel W. King 
as governor. After transacting some business 
the suffrage legislature adjourned. The charter 
legislature authorized the governor to take 
energetic steps, and an appeal for aid was made 
to the National Government. The suffragists 
attempted armed resistance, but were dispersed. 
Dorr fled, but soon returned and gave himself up. 
He was convicted of high treason in 1844, and 
sentenced to imprisonment for life, but was par¬ 
doned in 1847, and in 1852 was restored to his 


civil rights. The charter party soon after the 
rebellion proposed a new constitution, largely 
extending the suffrage, which was carried and 
went into effect in May, 1843. 

Druids. The priests of the Celts of Gaul 
and Britain. According to Julius Caesar, they 
possessed the greatest authority among the Cel¬ 
tic nations. They had some knowledge of 
geometry, natural philosophy, etc., superin¬ 
tended the affairs of religion and morality, and 
performed the office of judges. They had a 
common superior, who was elected by a majority 
of votes from their own number, and who en¬ 
joyed his dignity for life. They took unusual 
care to fence themselves round with mysteries, 
and it is probable that they cherished doctrines 
unknown to the common people; but that they 
had a great secret philosophy which was handed 
down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of 
their religious doctrines little is known. Human 
sacrifice was one of their characteristic rites, the 
victims being usually prisoners of war. 

Eastern Empire. Commenced under 
Yalens, A. D. 364, and ended in the defeat and 
death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian 
emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to 
dethrone him and possess himself of Constan¬ 
tinople; he laid siege to that city both by sea 
and land, and took it by assault after it had 
held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate 
emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, 
threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and 
was cut to pieces; the children of the imperial 
house were massacred by the soldiers, and the 
women reserved to gratify the lust of the con¬ 
queror; and thus terminated the dynasty of 
the Constantines, and commenced the present 
empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. 

Ecuador. After the conquest of the Inca 
dominions, the Kingdom of Quito was made a 
presidency of the viceroyalty of Peru, and re¬ 
mained under Spanish rule from 1533 to 1822. 
In 1809, it revolted, and after many fruitless 
struggles achieved its independence by the battle 
of Pichincha, May 22, 1822. The territory was 
incorporated into the Republic of Colombia, on 
the disruption of which, in 1830, it became an 
independent republic under the name of Ecuador. 
But a series of civil wars ensued, lasting almost 
without intermission for more than twenty years. 
From 1852 to 1858, desultory hostilities existed 
with Peru. War was declared against New 
Granada, November 20, 1863, and the Ecua¬ 
dorian army was routed. In August, 1868, a 
very destructive earthquake occurred. In 1869, 
Garcia Moreno, the head of the clerical party, 
overthrew the government. He was assassi¬ 
nated in 1875, and Dr. Antonio Borrero, the 
candidate of the non-official party, was elected 
president. A constitution was adopted and a 
president elected, and until 1884 the republic 
enjoyed a reasonably peaceable government. In 
1884, another constitution was formed, which, 
with modifications, in 1887 and 1897, has since 
been in force. 

Edict of Nantes ( n&nts , Fr. ndnt). This 
was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of 
France granted toleration to his Protestant sub¬ 
jects, in 1598. It was revoked by Louis XIV., Octo¬ 
ber 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to 




HISTORY 


43 


France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England 
(part of these) 50,000 industrious artisans. Some 
thousands, who brought with them the art of 
manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where 
their descendants yet remain: others planted 
themselves in Soho and St. Giles’s, and pursued 
the art of making crystal glasses, and various 
fine works in which they excelled; among these, 
jewelry, then little understood in England. 

Egypt* The Egyptians are the earliest 
people known to us as a nation. When Abra¬ 
ham entered the Delta from Canaan, they had 
been long enjoying the advantages of a settled 
overnment. They had built cities, invented 
ieroglyphic signs, and improved them into 
syllabic writing, and almost into an alphabet. 
They had invented records, and wrote their 
kings’ names and actions on the massive temples 
which they raised. The arrangement of Egyp¬ 
tian chronology is still a much-disputed point 
amongst scholars. A list of the kings of Egypt, 
arranged in thirty dynasties, was given by the 
Priest Manetho (about 250 B. C.), and this 
division is still used. His list, however, is in a 
very corrupt condition and his method is not 
strictly chronological. Hence, in the various 
systems of chronology adopted by Egyptolo¬ 
gists the dates assigned to Mena (or Menes) 
vary from 5702 to 2440 B. C. According to 
tradition, Mena formed the old Empire of Egypt 
and founded its capital Memphis. The Fourth 
Dynasty is distinguished as the “Pyramid Dy¬ 
nasty.” Three of its kings, Khufu, Khafra, and 
Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, 
Chephren, and Mykerinos), built the largest 
pyramids. The date assigned to these kings in 
the chronology of Lepsius is 2800-2700. About 
2400 the government of the empire seems to 
have been transferred from Memphis to Thebes, 
and with the beginning of Dynasty Twelve, the 
Theban line was firmly established. The chief 
princes of this dynasty are Amenemhat I. 
(2380), who seems to have extended the power 
of Egypt over a part of Nubia; Usurtasan I., 
who made further conquests in this direction; 
and Amenemhat III. (2179), who constructed 
Lake Meri (Moeris), a large reservoir for regu¬ 
lating the water supply of the Nile. About 
2100, Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos, or 
shepherd kings, who invaded Egypt from the 
east and established their capital at Tanis 
(Zoan). The Theban princes seem, however, to 
have preserved a state of semi-independence, 
and at last a revolt commenced which ended 
by the shepherd kings being completely driven 
out of Egypt by King Aahmes (Amasis) of 
Thebes (about 1600), the first of the Eighteenth 
Dynasty. With Aahmes and the expulsion of 
the shepherd kings began the reigns of those 
great Theban kings who built the magnificent 
temples and palaces at Thebes. The kings of 
the other parts of Egypt sank to the rank of 
sovereign priests. Thutmes (or Thothmosis II.) 
added Memphis to his dominions by his marriage 
with Queen Nitocris. Under Thutmes III. and 
his successors there were successful expeditions 
against the Syrians and the Ethiopians. Amen- 
hotep III. set up his two gigantic statues in the 
plain of Thebes, one of which the Greeks called 
the musical statue of Memnon. The Rames- 


sides form the Nineteenth Dynasty. They com¬ 
mence with Ramses I., who seems to have been 
of Lower Egyptian extraction. His grandson, 
the great Ramses II., or Sesostris, was successful 
against the neighboring Arabs, and covered 
Egypt with magnificent buildings. Ramses II. 
was probably the Pharaoh who oppressed the 
Hebrews, and the exodus may have occurred 
under his successor, Meneptah, or Merenptah. 
Under the later Ramessides the Egyptian Em¬ 
pire began to decay. A new dynasty, Twenty- 
first, came to the throne with King Hirhor. The 
seat of their power was Tanis in the Delta. 
During this period a great number of foreigners, 
Libyans as well as Asiatics, established them¬ 
selves in Egypt. About 961, Sheshenk I., the 
Shishak of the Bible, of a Shemite family from 
Bubastis, established a new dynasty (Twenty- 
second). He attempted to restore Egyptian 
rule in the East, and conquered and plundered 
Jerusalem. After his death, Egypt was torn by 
civil wars, and eventually the Ethiopians under 
Shabak (Sabako) conquered it (Twenty-fifth 
Dynasty). For a time it was subject alternately 
to Ethiopian and Assyrian princes, but in the 
Seventh Century the kings of Sais once more 
restored its independence and prosperity to 
Egypt. Psamethik I. (Psammetichus) warred 
successfully in Syria and Palestine. King Nekho 
(610-594) defeated Josiah, King of Judah, but 
his further progress was checked by Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar. His sailors circumnavigated Africa. 
Uahbra (the Greek Apries, the Hophrah of the 
Bible); and Aahmes II. (Greek Amasis) followed. 
About 523, Cambyses, King of Persia, overran 
Egypt and made it a Persian province. During 
the reign of Cambyses the Egyptians suffered 
much oppression. After the Persian defeat at 
Marathon, the Egyptians rose and recovered 
their independence for a short time, but were 
again subdued, and, in spite of two other revolts, 
Egypt remained a Persian province till Persia 
itself was conquered by Alexander the Great, 
B. C. 332. Egypt now became a Greek state, 
many Greeks having been already settled in the 
country, and the Egyptians were treated as an 
inferior race. Alexandria was founded as the 
new Greek capital. On Alexander’s death, his 
general, Ptolemy, took possession of the throne 
and became the first of a Greek Dynasty that 
for three hundred years made Egypt one of the 
chief kingdoms of the world. The Ptolemies 
were magnificent patrons of letters and arts. 
Theocritus, Callimachus, Euclid the geometri¬ 
cian, the astronomers Eratosthenes and Aratus, 
etc., flourished under their rule. But while the 
Alexandrian Greeks managed to keep down the 
native Egyptians, they were themselves sinking 
under the Romans. Ptolemy Auletes went to 
Rome to ask help against his subjects, and the 
famous Cleopatra maintained her power only 
through her personal influence with Julius Caesar 
and Mark Antony. On the defeat of Mark 
Antony by Augustus, B. C. 30, Egypt became 
a province of Rome. It was still a Greek state, 
and Alexandria was the chief seat of Greek 
learning and science. On the spread of Chris¬ 
tianity the old Egyptian doctrines lost their 
sway. Now arose in Alexandria the Christian 
catechetical school, which produced Clemens and 



44 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Origen. The sects of Gnostics united astrology 
and magic with religion. The school of Alex¬ 
andrian Platonics produced Plotinus and Proclus. 
Monasteries were built all over Egypt; Christian 
monks took the place of the pagan hermits, and 
the Bible was translated into Coptic. 

On the division of the great Roman Empire 
(A. D. 364), in the time of Theodosius, into the 
Western and Eastern Empires, Egypt became a 
province of the latter, and sank deeper and 
deeper in barbarism and weakness. It was con¬ 
quered in 640 A. D. by the Saracens under Caliph 
Omar. As a province of the caliphs it was under 
the government of the celebrated Abbasides — 
Harun-al-Rashid and Al-Mamun — and that of 
the heroic Sultan Saladin. The last dynasty 
was, however, overthrown by the Mamelukes 
(1250); and the Mamelukes in their turn were 
conquered by the Turks (1516-17). The Mame¬ 
lukes made repeated attempts to cast off the 
Turkish yoke, and had virtually done so by the 
end of last century, when the French conquered 
Egypt and held it till 1801, when they were 
driven out by the British under Abercromby 
and Hutchinson. 

On the expulsion of the French a Turkish 
force under Mehemet Ali Bey took possession of 
the country. Mehemet Ali was made pasha, 
and being a man of great ability, administered 
the country vigorously and greatly extended 
the Egyptian territories. At length he broke 
with the Porte, and after gaining a decisive vic¬ 
tory over the Ottoman troops in Syria, in 1839, 
he was acknowledged by the sultan as viceroy 
of Egypt, with the right of succession in his 
family. Mehemet Ali died in 1849, having sur¬ 
vived his son Ibrahim, who died in 1848. He 
was succeeded by his grandson, Abbas, who, 
dying in 1854, was succeeded by his uncle, Said, 
son of Mehemet. Under his rule railways were 
opened, and the cutting of the Suez Canal com¬ 
menced. After Said’s death, Ismail Pasha, a 
grandson of Mehemet Ali, obtained the govern¬ 
ment in 1863. His administration was vigorous 
but exceedingly extravagant, and brought the 
finances of the country into disorder. In 1866, 
he obtained a firman from the sultan, granting 
him the title of khedive. In 1879 he was forced 
to abdicate under pressure of the British and 
French governments, and was replaced by his 
son, Tewfik. In 1882 the “national party” 
under Arabi Pasha revolted and forced the 
khedive to flee. On July 11th, a British fleet 
bombarded Alexandria and restored the khedive, 
and at Tel-el-Kebir Arabi’s forces were totally 
crushed on September 13th. A rebellion in the 
Soudan, under the leadership of Mohammed 
Ahmed, the so-called mahdi, now gave the gov¬ 
ernment trouble. In 1883 the mahdi’s forces 
annihilated an Egyptian force under Hicks 
Pasha in Kordofan. British troops were now 
despatched to Suakin and inflicted two severe 
defeats on the mahdi’s followers there. But 
the British cabinet had resolved to abandon the 
Soudan; and General Gordon, already famous 
for his work in this district, was sent to effect 
the safe withdrawal of the garrisons (1884). By 
this time, however, the mahdi’s forces were strong 
enough to shut the general up in Khartoum. 
For nearly a year he held the town, but perished 


(January, 1885) before the relief expedition 
under Sir Garnet Wolseley could reach him. 
Since then the Anglo-Egyptian troops have 
reoccupied it. Prince Abbas succeeded as khe¬ 
dive in 1892 — the British still retaining control. 
The predominant position of Great Britain in 
Egypt was formally recognized by France under 
the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904. ( 

El Caney ( el-cd'-na ), a fortified town of 
Cuba; on the main road, four miles northeast 
of Santiago. During the Spanish-American 
war it was the scene of a decided American vic¬ 
tory. At 6 A. M. on July 1, 1898, Captain Cap- 
ron’s battery of four guns opened fire on El 
Caney from an elevation about a mile and a half 
distant. The guns were not heavy enough to 
destroy the enemy’s works, and at eight o’clock 
General Lawton’s infantry of Chaffee’s brigade, 
consisting of the 7th, 12th, and 17th United 
States Infantry, assaulted and captured the hill 
with many prisoners. In 1901 the United States 
Government purchased the battlefield and ap¬ 
proaches for a public reservation. 

Electors, The, or Kurfursts, of 
Germany, German princes who enjoyed the 
privilege of disposing of the imperial crown, 
ranked next the emperor, and were originally 
six in number, but grew to eight, and finally 
nine; three were ecclesiastical — the Arch¬ 
bishops of Mayence, Cologne, and Treves, and 
three secular — the Electors of Saxony, the 
Palatinate, and Bohemia, to which were added 
at successive periods the Electors of Branden¬ 
burg, of Bavaria, and Hanover. 

Emancipation Proclamation, a 
proclamation providing for the emancipation 
of the slaves in certain parts of the Confederate 
States, issued as a war measure by President 
Lincoln, January 1, 1863. The number of slaves 
emancipated by this proclamation was, taking 
the census of 1860 as a basis, as follows: 

Alabama,. 435,080 

Arkansas,.111,115 

Florida,. 61,745 

Georgia,. 462,198 

Louisiana,. 247,715 

Mississippi,. 436,631- 

North Carolina,. 331,059 

South Carolina,. 402,046 

Texas,. 182,566 

Virginia,. 450,000 

Total,.3,120,515 

The number of slaves not affected by its pro¬ 
visions was about 832,000. The full text of the 
proclamation is as follows: 

Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, 
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclama¬ 
tion was issued by the President of the United States, 
containing, among other things, the following, to-wit: 

That on the first day of January, in the year of our 
Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all 
persons held as slaves within any State, or designated 
part of State, the people whereof shall be in rebellion 
against the United States, shall be then, thenceforth and 
forever free, and the Executive Government of the 
United States including the military and naval officers 
thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such 
persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such per¬ 
sons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for 
their actual freedom. 

That the Executive will, on the first day of January 
aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and 
parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof shall 















HISTORY 


45 


be in rebellion Against the United States, and the fact 
that any State, or the people thereof, shall, on that day, 
be, in good faith, represented in the Congress of the 
United States, by members chosen thereto at elections 
wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State 
shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong 
countervailing testimony be deemed conclusive evidence 
that such State and the people thereof are not then in 
rebellion against the United States. 

Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the 
United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as 
Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United 
States in time of actual armed rebellion against the 
authority and Government of the United States, and as 
a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said 
rebellion, do on this first day of January, in the year of 
our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, 
and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly 
proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the 
day of the first above-mentioned order, and designate, 
as the States and parts of States wherein the people 
thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the 
United States, the following, to-wit: Arkansas, Texas, 
Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Barnard, Plaque¬ 
mines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascen¬ 
sion, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, 
St. Martin, and Orleans, including the City of New 
Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South 
Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty- 
eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the 
counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth 
City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the 
cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted 
parts are, for the present, left precisely as if this procla¬ 
mation were not issued. 

And by virtue of the power and for the purpose afore¬ 
said, I do order and declare that all persons held as 
slaves within said designated States and parts of States 
are, and henceforth shall be, free; and that the Execu¬ 
tive Government of the United States, including the 
military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize 
and maintain the freedom of said persons. 

And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be 
free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self- 
defense, and I recommend to them that, in all cases, 
when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. 

And I further declare and make known, that such per¬ 
sons, of suitable condition, will be received into the 
armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, 
positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels 
of all sorts in said service. 

And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of 
justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military 
necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind 
and the gracious favor of Almighty God. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, 
and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. 

. [L. S.] Done at the City of Washington, this first 
day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence 
of the United States the eighty-seventh. 

By the President Abraham Lincoln. 

William H. Seward, 

Secretary of State. 

England. The history of England proper 
begins when it ceased to be a Roman possession. 
On the withdrawal of the Roman forces, about 
the beginning of the Fifth Century A. D., the 
South Britons, or inhabitants of what is now 
called England, were no longer able to withstand 
the attacks of their ferocious northern neighbors, 
the Scots and Piets. They applied for assistance 
to Aetius, but the Roman general was too much 
occupied in the struggle with Attila to attend to 
their petition. In their distress they appear to 
have sought the aid of the Saxons; and accord¬ 
ing to the Anglo-Saxon narratives three ships, 
containing 1,600 men, were dispatched to their 
help under the command of the brothers Heng- 
est and Horsa. Vortigern, a duke or prince of 
the Britons, assigned them the isle of Thanet 
for habitation, and, marching against the north¬ 
ern foe, they obtained a complete victory. The 
date assigned to these events by the later Anglo- 
Saxon chronicles is 449 A. D., the narratives 
asserting further that the Saxons, finding the 


land desirable, turned their arms against the 
Britons, and, reinforced by nevi bands, conquered 
first Kent and ultimately the larger part of the 
island. Whatever the credibility of the story 
of Vortigern, it is certain that in the middle of 
the Fifth Century the occasional Teutonic incur¬ 
sions gave place to persistent invasion with a 
view to settlement. These Teutonic invaders 
were Low German tribes from the country about 
the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, the three 
most prominent being the Angles, the Saxons, 
and the Jutes. Of these, the Jutes were the first 
to form a settlement, taking possession of part of 
Kent, the Isle of Wight, etc.; but the larger con¬ 
quests of the Saxons in the south and the Angles 
in the north gave to these tribes the leading place 
in the kingdom. The struggle continued 150 
years, and at the end of that period the whole 
southern part of Britain, with the exception of 
Strathclyde, Wales, and West Wales (Cornwall), 
was in the hands of the Teutonic tribes. This 
conquered territory was divided among a number 
of small states or petty chieftaincies, seven of 
the most conspicuous of which are often spoken 
of as the Heptarchy. These were: (1) The King¬ 
dom of Kent; founded by Hengest in 455; 
ended in 823. (2) Kingdom of South Saxons, 

containing Sussex and Surrey; founded by Ella 
in 477; ended in 689. (3) Kingdom of East 

Angles, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, 
Ely (Isle of); founded by Uffa in 571 or 575; 
ended in 792. (4) Kingdom of West Saxons, 

containing Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, 
Hants, Berks, and part of Cornwall; founded by 
Cedric 519; swallowed up the rest in 827. (5) 

Kingdom of Northumbria, containing York, 
Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northum¬ 
berland, and the east coast of Scotland to the 
Firth of Forth; founded by Ida 547; absorbed 
by Wessex in 827. (6) Kingdom of East Saxons, 
containing Essex, Middlesex, Hertford (part); 
founded by Erchew in 527; ended in 823. (7) 

Kingdom of Mercia, containing Gloucester, 
Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Leicester, Rut¬ 
land, Northampton, Lincoln, Huntingdon, Bed¬ 
ford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford, Derby, 
Salop, Nottingham, Chester, Hertford (part); 
founded by Cridda about 584; absorbed by Wes¬ 
sex in 827. Each state was, in its turn, annexed 
to more powerful neighbors; and at length, in 
827, Egbert, by his valor and superior capacity, 
united in his own person the sovereignty of what 
had formerly been seven kingdoms, and the whole 
came to be called England, that is Angle-land. 

While this work of conquest and of intertribal 
strife had been in progress towards the establish¬ 
ment of a united kingdom, certain important 
changes had occurred. The conquest had been 
the slow expulsion of a Christian race by a purely 
heathen race, and the country had returned to 
something of its old isolation with regard to the 
rest of Europe. But before the close of the Sixth 
Century Christianity had secured a footing in the 
southeast of the island. Ethelbert, king of 
Kent and suzerain over the kingdoms south of 
the Humber, married a Christian wife, Bertha, 
daughter of Charibert of Soissons, and this event 
indirectly led to the coming of St. Augustine. 
The conversion of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia 
was followed by that of Northumberland and 



46 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


then by that of Mercia, of Wessex, of Sussex, 
and lastly of Wight, the contest between the 
two religions being at its height in the Seventh 
Century. The legal and political changes imme¬ 
diately consequent upon the adoption of Christi¬ 
anity were not great, but there resulted a more 
intimate relation with Europe and the older 
civilizations, the introduction of new learning 
and culture, the formation of a written liter¬ 
ature, and the fusion of the tribes and petty 
kingdoms into a closer and more lasting unity 
than that which could have been otherwise 
secured. 

The kingdom, however, was still kept in a 
state of disturbance by the attacks of the Danes, 
who had made repeated incursions during the 
whole of the Saxon period, and about half a 
century after the unification of the kingdom 
became for the moment masters of nearly the 
whole of England. But the genius of Alfred the 
Great, who had ascended the throne in 871, 
speedily reversed matters by the defeat of the 
Danes at Ethandune (878). Guthrum, their 
king, embraced Christianity, became the vassal 
of the Saxon king, and retired to a strip of 
land on the east coast including Northum¬ 
bria and called the Danelagh. The two im¬ 
mediate successors of Alfred, Edward (901- 
925) and Athelstan (925-940), the son and grand¬ 
son of Alfred, both vigorous and able rulers, had 
each in turn to direct his arms against these set¬ 
tlers of the Danelagh. The reigns of the next 
five kings, Edmund, Edred, Edwy, Edgar, and 
Edward the Martyr, are chiefly remarkable on 
account of the conspicuous place occupied in 
them by Dunstan, who was counsellor to Ed¬ 
mund, minister of Edred, treasurer under Edwy, 
and supreme during the reigns of Edgar and his 
successor. It was possibly due to his policy 
that from the time of Athelstan till after the 
death of Edward the Martyr (978 or 979) the 
country had comparative rest from the Danes. 
During the Tenth Century many changes had 
taken place in the Teutonic constitution. Feu¬ 
dalism was already taking root; the king’s 
authority had increased; the folkland was being 
taken over as the king’s personal property; the 
nobles by birth, or ealdormen, were becoming of 
less importance in administration than the nobil¬ 
ity of thegns, the officers of the king’s court. 
Ethelred (978-1016), who succeeded Edward, 
was a minor, the government was feebly con¬ 
ducted, and no united action being taken against 
the Danes, their incursions became more frequent 
and destructive. Animosities between the Eng¬ 
lish and the Danes who had settled among them 
became daily more violent, and a general mas¬ 
sacre of the latter took place in 1002. The fol- 
owing year Sweyn invaded the kingdom with a 
powerful army and assumed the crown of Eng¬ 
land. Ethelred was compelled to take refuge 
in Normandy; and though he afterwards re¬ 
turned, he found in Canute an adversary no less 
formidable than Sweyn. Ethelred left his king¬ 
dom in 1016 to his son Edmund, who displayed 
great valor, but was compelled to divide his 
kingdom with Canute; and when he was assas¬ 
sinated in 1017, the Danes succeeded to the 
sovereignty of the whole. 

Canute (Knut), who espoused the widow of 


Ethelred, that he might reconcile his new sub¬ 
jects, obtained the name of Great, not only on 
account of his personal qualities, but from the 
extent of his dominions, being master of Den¬ 
mark and Norway as well as England. In 1035 
he died, and in England was followed by two 
other Danish kings, Harold and Hardicanute, 
whose joint reigns lasted till 1042, after which 
the English line was again restored in the person 
of Edward the Confessor. Edward was a weak 
prince, and in the latter years of his reign had 
far less real power than his brother-in-law Har¬ 
old, son of the great earl Godwin. On Edward’s 
death in 1066 Harold accordingly obtained the 
crown. He found, however, a formidable oppo¬ 
nent in the second-cousin of Edward, William of 
Normandy, who instigated the Danes to invade 
the northern counties, while he, with 60,000 men, 
landed in the south. Harold vanquished the 
Danes, and hastening southward met the Nor¬ 
mans near Hastings, at Senlac, afterwards called 
Battle. Harold and his two brothers fell (Octo¬ 
ber 14,1066), and William (1066-87) immediately 
claimed the government as lawful King of 
England, being subsequently known as William 
I., the Conqueror. For some time he conducted 
the government with great moderation; but 
being obliged to reward those who had assisted 
him, he bestowed the chief offices of the govern¬ 
ment upon Normans, and divided among them 
a great part of the country. The revolts of the 
native English which followed were quickly 
crushed, continental feudalism in a modified 
form was established, and the English Church 
reorganized under Lanfranc as Archbishop of 
Canterbury. 

At his death, in 1087, William II., commonly 
known by the name of Rufus, the conqueror’s 
second son, obtained the crown, Robert, the 
eldest son, receiving the duchy of Normandy. 
In 1100, when William II. was accidently killed 
in the New Forest, Robert was again cheated 
of his throne by his younger brother Henry 
(Henry I.), who in 1106 even wrested from him 
the duchy of Normandy. Henry’s power being 
secured, he entered into a dispute with Anselm 
the primate, and with the pope, concerning the 
right of granting investure to the clergy. He 
supported his quarrel with firmness, and brought 
it to a not unfavorable issue. His reign was 
also marked by the suppression of the greater 
Norman nobles in England, whose power (like 
that of many continental feudatories) threatened 
to overshadow that of the king, and by the sub¬ 
stitution of a class of lesser nobles. In 1135 he 
died in Normandy, leaving behind him only a 
daughter, Matilda. 

By the will of Henry I. his daughter Maud or 
Matilda, wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of 
Anjou, and frequently styled the Empress 
Matilda, because she had first been married to 
Henry V., Emperor of Germany, was declared 
his successor. But Stephen, son of the Count of 
Blois, and of Adela, daughter of William the 
Conqueror, raised an army in Normandy, landed 
in England, and declared himself king. After 
years of civil war and bloodshed an amicable 
arrangement was brought about, by which it 
was agreed that Stephen should continue to 
reign during the remainder of his life, but that 





HISTORY 


47 


he should be succeeded by Henry, son of Matilda 
and the Count of Anjou. Stephen died in 1154, 
and Henry Plantagenet ascended the throne 
with the title of Henry II., being the first of the 
Plantagenet or Angevin kings. A larger domin¬ 
ion was united under his sway than had been 
held by any previous sovereign of England, for 
at the time when he became King of England he 
was already in the possession of Anjou, Nor¬ 
mandy, and Aquitaine. 

Henry II. found far less difficulty in restrain¬ 
ing the license of his barons than in abridging 
the exorbitant privileges of the clergy, who 
claimed exemption not only from the taxes of 
the state, but also from its penal enactments, 
and who were supported in their demands by the 
primate Becket. The king’s wishes were formu¬ 
lated in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), 
which were first accepted and then repudiated 
by the primate. The assassination of Becket, 
however, placed the king at a disadvantage in 
the struggle, and after his conquest of Ireland 
(1171) he submitted to the Church, and did pen¬ 
ance at Becket’s tomb. Henry was the first who 
placed the common people of England in a situ¬ 
ation which led to their having a share in the 
government. The system of frank-pledge was 
revived, trial by jury was instituted by the Assize 
of Clarendon, and the Eyre courts were made 
permanent by the Assize of Nottingham. To 
curb the power of the nobles he granted charters 
to towns, freeing them from all subjection to any 
but himself, thus laying the foundation of a new 
order in society. 

Richard I., called Cceur de Lion, who in 1189 
succeeded to his father, Henry II., spent most of 
his reign away from England. Having gone to 
Palestine to join in the third crusade he proved 
himself an intrepid soldier. Returning homewards 
in disguise through Germany, he was made pris¬ 
oner by Leopold, duke of Austria, but was ran¬ 
somed by his subjects. In the meantime John, 
his brother, had aspired to the crown, and hoped, 
by the assistance of the French, to exclude Rich¬ 
ard from his right. Richard’s presence for a 
time restored matters to some appearance of 
order; but having undertaken an expedition 
against France, he received a mortal wound at 
the siege of Chalons, in 1199. 

John was at once recognized as King of Eng¬ 
land, and secured possession of Normandy; but 
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine acknowledged the 
claim of Arthur, son of Goeffrey, second son of 
Henry II. On the death of Aithur, while in 
John’s power, these four French provinces were 
at once lost to England. John’s opposition to 
the pope in electing a successor to the See of Can¬ 
terbury in 1205 led to the kingdom being placed 
under an interdict; and the nation being in a 
disturbed condition, he was at last compelled to 
received Stephen Langton as archbishop, and to 
accept his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). 
His exactions and misgovernment had equally 
embroiled him with the nobles. In 1213 they 
refused to follow him to France, and on his return, 
defeated, they at once took measures to secure 
their own privileges and abridge the prerogatives 
of the crown. King and barons met at Runny- 
mede, and on June 15, 1215, the Great Charter 
(Magna Charta) was signed. It was speedily de¬ 


clared null and void by the pope, and war broke 
out between John and the barons, who were aided 
by the French king. In 1216, however, John 
died, and his turbulent reign was succeeded by 
the almost equally turbulent reign of Henry III. 

During the first years of the reign of Henry 
III. the abilities of the Earl of Pembroke, who 
was regent until 1219, retained the kingdom in 
tranquillity; but when, in 1227, Henry assumed 
the reins of government he showed himself 
incapable of managing them. The Charter was 
three times reissued in a modified form, and new 
privileges were added to it, but the king took no 
pains to observe its provisions. The struggle, 
long maintained in the great council (hencefor¬ 
ward called Parliament) over money grants and 
other grievances reached an acute stage in 1263, 
when civil war broke out. Simon de Montfort 
who had laid the foundations of the house of 
Commons by summoning representatives of the 
shire communities to the Mad Parliament of 
1258, had by this time engrossed the sole power. 
He defeated the king and his son Edward at 
Lewes in 1264, and in his famous parliament of 
1265 still further widened the privileges of the 
people by summoning to it burgesses as well as 
knights of the shire. The escape of Prince 
Edward, however, was followed by the battle of 
Evesham (1265), at which Earl Simon was de¬ 
feated and slain, and the rest of the reign was 
undisturbed. 

On the death of Henry III., in 1272, Edward I. 
succeeded without opposition. From 1276 to 
1284 he was largely occupied in the conquest and 
annexation of Wales, which had become practi¬ 
cally independent during the barons’ wars. In 
1292 Balliol, whom Edward had decided to be 
rightful heir to the Scottish throne, did homage 
for the fief to the English king; but when, in 
1294, war broke out with France, Scotland also 
declared war. The Scots were defeated at Dun¬ 
bar (1296), and the country placed under an Eng¬ 
lish regent; but the revolt under Wallace (1297) 
was followed by that of Bruce (1306), and the 
Scots remained unsubdued. The reign of 
Edward was distinguised by many legal and leg¬ 
islative reforms, such as the separation of the 
old king’s court into the Court of Exchequer, 
Court of King’s Bench, and Court of Common 
Pleas, the passage of the Statute of Mortmain, 
etc. In 1295 the first perfect parliament was 
summoned, the clergy and barons by special 
writ, the commons by writ to the sheriffs direct¬ 
ing the election of two knights from each shire, 
two citizens from each city, two burghers from 
each borough. Two years later the imposition 
of taxation without consent of parliament was 
forbidden by a special act (De Tallagio non Con- 
cedendo). The great aim of Edward, however, 
to include England, Scotland, and Wales in one 
kingdom proved a failure, and he died in 1307 
marching against Robert Bruce. 

The reign of his son, Edward II., was unfor¬ 
tunate to himself and to his kingdom. He made a 
feeble attempt to carry out his father’s last and 
earnest request to prosecute the war with Scot¬ 
land, but the English were almost constantly 
unfortunate; and at length, at Bannockburn 
(1314), they received a defeat from Robert 
Bruce which ensured the independence of Scot- 



48 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


land. The king soon proved incapable of regu¬ 
lating the lawless conduct of his barons; and 
his wife, a woman of bold, intriguing disposition, 
joined in the confederacy against him, which 
resulted in his imprisonment and death in 1327. 

The reign of Edward III. was as brilliant as 
that of his father had been the reverse. The 
main projects of the third Edward were directed 
against France, the crown of which he claimed 
in 1328 in virtue of his mother, the daughter of 
King Philip. The victory won by Edward III. 
at Crecy (1346), the capture of Calais (1347), 
and the victory of Poitiers (1356), ultimately- 
led to the Peace of Br6tigny in 1360, by which 
Edward III. received all the west of France 
on condition of renouncing his claim to the 
French throne. Before the close of his reign, 
however, these advantages were all lost again, 
save a few principal towns on the coast. 

Edward III. was succeeded in 1377 by his 
grandson Richard II., son of Edward the Black 
Prince. The people of England now began to 
show, though in a turbulent manner, that they 
had acquired just notions of government. In 
1380 an unjust and oppressive poll-tax brought 
their grievances to a head, and 100,000 men 
under Wat Tyler, marched toward London 
(1381). Wat Tyler was killed while conferring 
with the king, and the prudence and courage of 
Richard appeased the insurgents. Despite his 
conduct on this occasion Richard was deficient in 
the vigor necessary to curb the lawlessness of 
the nobles. In 1398 he banished his cousin, 
Henry Bolingbroke; and on the death of the lat¬ 
ter’s father, the Duke of Lancaster, unjustly ap¬ 
propriated his cousin’s patrimony. To avenge 
the injustice Bolingbroke landed in England 
during the king’s absence in Ireland, and at the 
head of 60,000 malcontents compelled Richard 
to surrender. He was confined in the Tower, 
and despite the superior claims of Edmund Morti¬ 
mer, Earl of March, Henry was appointed king 
(1399), the first of the House of Lancaster. 
Richard was, in all probability, murdered early 
in 1400. 

The manner in which the Duke of Lancaster, 
now Henry IV., acquired the crown rendered his 
reign extremely turbulent, but the vigor of 
his administration quelled every insurrection. 
The most important—that of the Percies of 
Northumberland, Owen Glendower, and Douglas 
of Scotland—was crushed by the battle of Shrews¬ 
bury (1403). During the reign of Henry IV. the 
clergy of England first began the practice of 
burning heretics under the act de hceretico com- 
bur endo, passed in the second year of his reign. 
The act was chiefly directed against the Lollards, 
as the followers of Wickliffe now came to be 
called. Henry died in 1413, leaving his crown 
to his son, Henry V., who revived the claim of 
Edward III. to the throne of France in 1415, 
and invaded that country at the head of 30,000 
men. The disjointed councils of the French 
rendered their country an easy prey; the victory 
of Agincourt was gained in 1415; and after a sec¬ 
ond campaign a peace was concluded at Troyes 
in 1420, by which Henry received the hand of 
Katherine, daughter of Charles VI., was ap¬ 
pointed regent of France during the reign of his 
father-in-law, and declared heir to his throne on 


his death. The two kings, however, died within 
a few weeks of each other in 1422, and the infant 
son of Henry thus became King of England (as 
Henry VI.) and France at the age of nine 
months. 

England during the reign of Henry VI. was 
subjected, in the first place, to all the confusion 
incident to a long minority, and afterwards to 
all the misery of a civil war. Henry allowed 
himself to be managed by anyone who had the 
courage to assume the conduct of his affairs, and 
the influence of his wife, Margaret of Anjou, a 
woman of uncommon capacity, was of no advan¬ 
tage either to himself or the realm. In France 
(1422-1453) the English forces lost ground, and 
were finally expelled by the celebrated Joan of 
Arc, Calais alone being retained. The rebellion 
of Jack Cade in 1450 was suppressed, only to be 
succeeded by more serious trouble. In that 
year Richard, duke of York, the father of Edward, 
afterwards Edward IV., began to advance his 
pretentions to the throne which had been so long 
usurped by the house of Lancaster. His claim 
was founded on his descent from the third son of 
Edward III., Lionel, duke of Clarence, who was 
his great-great-grandfather on the mother’s side, 
while Henry was the great-grandson on the fa¬ 
ther’s side of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 
the fourth son of Edward III. Richard of York 
was also grandson on the father’s side of Edmund, 
fifth son of Edward III. The wars which result¬ 
ed, called the Wars of the Roses, from the fact 
that a red rose was the badge of the house of 
Lancaster and a white one that of the house of 
York, lasted for thirty years, from the first battle 
of St. Albans, May 22, 1455, to the battle of 
Bosworth, August 22, 1485. Henry VI. was 
twice driven from the throne (in 1461 and 1471) 
by Edward of York, whose father had previously 
been killed in battle in 1460. Edward of York 
reigned as Edward IV. from 1461 till his death in 
1483, with a brief interval in 1471; and was 
succeeded by two other sovereigns of the house of 
York, first his son Edward V., who reigned for 
eleven weeks in 1483; and then by his brother 
Richard III., who reigned from 1483 till 1485, 
when he was defeated and slain on Bosworth 
field by Henry Tudor, of the house of Lancaster, 
who then became Henry VII. 

Henry VII. was at this time the representative 
of the house of Lancaster, and in order at once to 
strengthen his own title, and to put an end to the 
rivalry between the houses of York and Lan¬ 
caster, he married, in 1486, Elizabeth, the sister 
of Edward V. and heiress of the house of York. 
His reign was disturbed by insurrections attend¬ 
ing the impostures of Lambert Simnel (1487), 
who pretended to be, a son of the Duke of Clar¬ 
ence, brother of Edward IV., and of Perkin 
Warbeck (1488), who affirmed that he was the 
Duke of York, younger brother of Edward V.; 
but neither of these attained any magnitude. 
The king’s worst fault was the avarice which led 
him to employ in schemes of extortion such 
instruments as Empson and Dudley. His admin¬ 
istration throughout did much to increase the 
royal power and to establish order and prosper¬ 
ity. He died in 1509. 

The authority of the English crown, which 
had been so much extended by Henry VII., 





HISTORY 


49 


was by his son Henry VIII. exerted in a tyran¬ 
nical and capricious manner. The most impor¬ 
tant event of the reign was undoubtedly the 
Reformation; though it had its origin rather 
in Henry’s caprice and in the casual situation 
of his private affairs than in his conviction of the 
necessity of a reformation in religion, or in the 
solidity of reasoning employed by the reformers. 
Henry had been espoused to Catharine of Spain, 
who was first married to his elder brother 
Arthur, a prince who died young. Henry became 
disgusted with his queen, and enamored of one 
of her maids of honor, Anne Boleyn. He had 
recourse, therefore, to the pope to dissolve a 
marriage which had at first been rendered legal 
only by a dispensation from the pontiff; but 
failing in his desires he broke away entirely from 
the Holy See, and in 1534 got himself recog¬ 
nized by act of parliament as the head of the 
English Church. He died in 1547. He was 
married six times, and left three children, each 
of whom reigned in turn. These were: Mary, 
by his first wife, Catharine of Aragon; Eliza¬ 
beth, by his second wife, Anne Boleyn; and 
Edward, by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Ed¬ 
ward, who reigned first, with the title of Edward 
VI., was nine years of age at the time of 
his succession, and died in 1553, when he was 
only sixteen. His short reign, or rather the 
reign of the Earl of Hertford, afterwards Duke of 
Somerset, who was appointed regent, was dis¬ 
tinguished chiefly by the success which attended 
the measures of the reformers, who acquired great 
art of the power formerly engrossed by the 
atholics. The intrigues of Dudley, Duke of 
Northumberland, during the reign of Edward, 
caused Lady Jane Grey to be declared his suc¬ 
cessor; but her reign, if it could be called such, 
lasted only a few days. Mary, daughter of 
Henry VIII., was placed upon the throne, and 
Lady Jane Grey and her husband were both 
executed. Mary, a zealous Catholic, seems to 
have wished for the crown chiefly to aid in 
reestablishing the Roman Catholic faith. Polit¬ 
ical motives had induced Philip of Spain to 
accept of her as a spouse; but she could never 
prevail on her subjects to allow him any share of 
power. She died in 1558. 

Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary, 
was attached to the Protestant faith, and found 
little difficulty in establishing it in England. 
Having concluded peace with France (1559), 
Elizabeth set herself to promote the confu¬ 
sion which prevailed in Scotland, to which 
her cousin Mary had returned from France as 
queen in 1561. In this she was so far success¬ 
ful that Mary placed herself in her power (1568), 
and after many years imprisonment was sent to 
the scaffold (1587). As the most powerful 
Protestant nation, and as a rival to Spain in the 
New World, it was natural that England should 
become involved in difficulties with that country. 
The dispersion of the Armada by the English 
fleet under Howard, Drake, and Hawkins was 
the most brilliant event of a struggle which 
abounded in minor feats of valor. In Eliza¬ 
beth’s reign London became the center of the 
world’s trade, the extension of British com¬ 
mercial enterprise being coincident with the 
ruin of Antwerp in 1585. The parliament was 


increased by the creation of sixty-two new bor¬ 
oughs, and its members were exempted from 
arrest. In literature not less than in politics 
and in commerce the same full life displayed it¬ 
self, and England began definitely to assume the 
characteristics which distinguish her from the 
other European nations of to-day. 

To Elizabeth succeeded (in 1603) James VI. of 
Scotland and I. of England, son of Mary Queen 
of Scots and Darnley. His accession to the 
crown of England in addition to that of Scotland 
did much to unite the two nations, though a 
certain smoldering animosity still lingered. His 
dissimulation, however, ended in his satisfying 
neither of the contending ecclesiastical parties— 
the Puritans or the Catholics; and his absurd 
insistance on his divine right made his reign a 
continuous struggle between the prerogative of 
the crown and the freedom of the people. His 
extravagance kept him in constant disputes 
with the parliament, who would not grant him the 
sums he demanded, and compelled him to resort 
to monopolies, loans, benevolences, and other 
illegal methods. The nation at large, however, 
continued to prosper through the whole of this 
inglorious reign. His son, Charles I., who suc¬ 
ceeded him in 1625, inherited the same exalted 
ideas of royal prerogative, and his marriage with 
a Catholic, his arbitrary rule, and illegal methods 
of raising money, provoked bitter hostility. 
Under the guidance of Laud and Strafford things 
went from bad to worse. Civil war broke out 
in 1642 between the king’s party and that of the 
parliament, and, the latter proving victorious, 
in 1649 the king was beheaded. 

A commonwealth or republican government 
was now established, in which the most promi¬ 
nent figure was Oliver Cromwell. Mutinies in 
the army among Fifth-monarchists and Level¬ 
lers were subdued by Cromwell and Fairfax, and 
Cromwell in a series of masterly movements 
subjugated Ireland and gained the important 
battles of Dunbar and Worcester. At sea Blake 
had destroyed the Royalist fleet under Rupert, 
and was engaged in an honorable struggle with 
the Dutch under Van Tromp. But within the 
governing body matters had come to a deadlock. 
A dissolution was necessary, yet parliament 
shrank from dissolving itself, and in the mean¬ 
time the reform of the law, a settlement with regard 
to the Church, and other important matters 
remained untouched. In April, 1653, Cromwell 
cut the knot by forcibly ejecting the members 
and putting the keys of the house in his pocket. 
From this time he was practically head of the 
government, which was vested in a council of 
thirteen. A parliament—the Little or Bare- 
bones Parliament—was summoned and in 
December of the same year Cromwell was in¬ 
stalled Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of 
England, Scotland, and Ireland. With more 
than the power of a king, he succeeded in dom¬ 
inating the confusion at home and made the 
country feared throughout the whole of Europe. 
Cromwell died in 1658, and the brief and feeble 
protectorate of his son Richard followed. 

There was now a widespread feeling that the 
country would be better under the old form of 
government, and Charles II., son of Charles I., 
was called to the throne by the Restoration of 



50 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


1660. He took complete advantage of the popu¬ 
lar reaction from the narrowness and intolerance 
of Puritanism, and even latterly endeavored to 
carry it to the extreme of establishing the Cath¬ 
olic religion. The promises of religious freedom 
made by him before the Restoration in the Dec¬ 
laration of Breda were broken by the Test and 
Corporation Acts, and by the Act of Uniformity, 
which drove two thousand clergymen from the 
Church and created the great dissenting move¬ 
ment of modern times. The Conventicle and 
Five-mile Acts followed, and the “ Drunken Parli¬ 
ament ” restored Episcopacy in Scotland. At 
one time even civil war seemed again imminent. 
The abolition of the censorship of the press 
(1679) and the reaffirmation of the habeas 
corpus principle are the most praiseworthy inci¬ 
dents of the reign. 

As Charles II. left no legitimate issue, his 
brother, the Duke of York, succeeded him as 
James II. (1685-88). An invasion by an ille¬ 
gitimate son of Charles, the Duke of Monmouth, 
who claimed the throne, was suppressed, and 
the king’s arbitrary rule was supported by the 
wholesale butcheries of such instruments as 
Kirke and Jeffreys. The king’s zealous coun¬ 
tenance of Roman Catholicism and his attempts 
to force the Church and the universities to sub¬ 
mission provoked a storm of opposition. Seven 
prelates were brought to trial for seditious libel, 
but were acquitted amidst general rejoicings. 
The whole nation was prepared to welcome any 
deliverance, and in 1688 William of Orange, hus¬ 
band of James’s daughter Mary, landed in Tor- 
bay. James fled to France, and a convention 
summoned by William settled the crown upon 
him, he thus becoming William III. Annexed 
to this settlement was a Declaration of Rights 
circumscribing the royal prerogative by depriv¬ 
ing him of the right to exercise dispensing power, 
or to exact money, or maintain an army with¬ 
out the assent of parliament. This placed 
henceforward the right of the British sovereign 
to the throne upon a purely statutory basis. A 
toleration act, passed in 1689, released dissent 
from many penalties. An armed opposition to 
William lasted for a short time in Scotland, but 
ceased with the fall of Viscount Dundee, the 
leader of James’s adherents; and though the 
struggle was prolonged in Ireland, it was brought 
to a close before the end of 1691. The following 
year saw the origination of the national debt, the 
exchequer having been drained by the heavy 
military expenditure. A bill for triennial parli¬ 
aments was passed in 1694, the year in which 
Queen Mary died. For a moment after her death 
William’s popularity was in danger, but his suc¬ 
cesses at Namur and elsewhere, and the obvious 
exhaustion of France, once more confirmed his 
power. The treaty of Ryswick followed in 
1697, and the death of James II. in exile in 1701 
removed a not unimportant source of danger. 
Early in the following year William also died, 
and by the act of settlement Anne succeeded him. 

The closing act of William’s reign had been the 
formation of the grand alliance between England, 
Holland, and the German Empire, and the new 
queen’s rule opened with the brilliant successes 
of Marlborough at Blenheim (1704) and Ramil- 
lies (1706). Throughout the earlier part of her 


reign the Marlboroughs practically ruled the 
kingdom, the duke’s wife, Sarah Jennings, being 
the queen’s most intimate friend and adviser. 
In 1707 the history of England becomes the his¬ 
tory of Britain, the Act of Union passed in that 
year binding the parliaments and realms of Eng¬ 
land and Scotland into a single and more power¬ 
ful whole. 

The measure which declared the parliaments 
of England and Scotland united, and the two 
countries one kingdom, known as the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain, was passed, after 
violent opposition, in the reign of Queen Anne, 
1st of May, 1707. This union, however, much it 
was opposed by the prejudices and interest of 
particular men or classes at the time, has con¬ 
tributed very much to the prosperity of both 
countries. The Grand Alliance, which it had 
been the aim of William’s later years to form 
between Holland, Austria, and England against 
the threatening growth of French power, now 
held the field against the armies of France, and 
the victories of Marlborough at Blenheim and 
Ramillies, and the taking of Gibraltar and Bar¬ 
celona, ended in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, 
by which the British right of sovereignty over 
Hudson’s Bay, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, 
Minorca, and Gibraltar was acknowledged, and 
the foundation of Britain’s imperial and colonial 
power securely laid. The remainder of Anne’s 
reign was distracted by the never-ending alter¬ 
cations of domestic parties. She died on the 
1st of August, 1714; and with her ended the 
line of the Stuarts, who had held the scepter of 
England 112, and that of Scotland 343 years. 

At her death, George I., elector of Hanover, 
maternally descended from Elizabeth, daughter 
of James I., according to the Act of Settlement, 
ascended the throne of Britain. The Whigs 
under this prince regained that superiority in tne 
national councils of which they had long been 
deprived, and this, along with the suspension of 
the Habeas Corpus Act and some other extreme 
precautionary measures, increased the irritation 
of the Tory and Stuart party. In 1715 the Earl 
of Mar in Scotland and the Earl of Derwent- 
water in England raised the standard of rebellion 
and proclaimed the Chevalier St. George (the 
Old Pretender) king. But the insurrection, 
feebly supported by the people, was soon sup¬ 
pressed. In 1716 the Septennial Act was passed, 
making parliament of seven instead of three 
years duration. In 1720 occurred the extra¬ 
ordinary growth and collapse of the South Sea 
Company. From this date till 1742 the govern¬ 
ment was virtually in the hands of Sir Robert 
Walpole, the first, we might say, of modern 
premiers, governing the cabinet and chiefly 
responsible for its doings. Walpole had great 
sagacity, prudence, and business ability, and 
could manage dexterously the king, the parlia¬ 
ment, and the people alike. It is true that in 
the case of the parliament he achieved this by 
undue influence in elections and a scandalous 
use of bribery. But the power he thus acquired 
was generally wisely used. The failure of the 
war with Spain into which he had reluctantly 
entered drove him from office, and in 1742 his 
long ministry came to an end. In 1743, George 
II., frightened at the dangers to Hanover, 



HISTORY 


51 


dragged Britain into the wars between France, 
Prussia, and Austria, regarding the succession 
of the Emperor Charles. George himself fought 
at the head of his troops at Dettingen (1743), 
where he obtained a complete victory over the 
French, which was balanced, however, later on 
by the defeat at Fontenoy (1745). 

A fresh attempt was now made to restore the 
Stuart family to the throne of Britain. Charles 
Edward, son of the Old Pretender, having been 
furnished by France with a small supply of 
money and arms, landed on the coast of Loch- 
aber, in the Western Highlands, in 1745, and 
was joined by a considerable number of the 
people. Marching southwards with 1,500 High¬ 
landers, his forces increasing as he advanced, he 
entered Edinburgh without opposition; and hav¬ 
ing defeated Sir John Cope near Prestonpans he 
marched into England. He now took Carlisle, 
and advanced through Lancaster, Preston, and 
Manchester, to Derby, within 100 miles of Lon¬ 
don ; but finding himself disappointed of expect¬ 
ed succors from France, and the English Tories, 
contrary to his expectations, keeping aloof, he 
commenced his retreat into Scotland, closely 
pursued by the king’s troops, whom he again 
defeated at Falkirk. With this victory his good 
fortune terminated. The Duke of Cumberland 
having arrived from the continent put himself 
at the head of the forces which were destined to 
check the rebels; and the armies having met at 
Culloden, near Inverness, Charles was completely 
defeated. After lurking for six months amidst 
the wilds of Invernesshire, he at length, with 
much difficulty, escaped to France. 

The war of the Austrian succession, which still 
continued and which was the cause of the hostili¬ 
ties between the French and British in India as 
well as elsewhere, was terminated by the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. During most of this 
period Pelham and his brother, the Duke of New¬ 
castle, had been the ruling ministers, and in their 
hands the art of government had reached a low 
level both as regards morality and ability. In 
1752, the New Style of reckoning time was intro¬ 
duced, and the Old Style being eleven days behind, 
the 3d of September, 1752, was called the 14th. 
At the same time the 1st of January was fixed as 
the opening day of the year, instead of the 25th 
of March. 

Soon after, the French, uneasy at the growing 
colonial power of Britain, made a determined 
effort against the British Colonies and possessions 
in North America and the East Indies, and at 
first the British met with several disasters in 
America. In 1756 the Seven Years’ War broke 
out, Austria and France being allied on the one 
side, and Prussia and England on the other, and 
ill success attended the British arms in Europe 
also. Fortunately, a great war minister, William 
Pitt, now took the helm of the state. In 1758 
the British made themselves masters of several 
French settlements in North America, while the 
attack made by Wolfe on Quebec in 1759 was 
completely successful, and gave Britain the whole 
of Canada. The same year the British and their 
allies defeated the French at Minden in Prussia. 
In the East Indies the French were even less 
successful than in America. Clive’s victory at 
Plassey (1757) and Coote’s at Wandewash 


(1760) secured the British empire in the east, 
and together with the naval feats of Hawke and 
Boscawen made England the greatest of mari¬ 
time and colonial powers. 

On the accession of George III. in 1760 hostili¬ 
ties were still carried on, generally to the advan¬ 
tage of the French as far as the theater of war in 
Germany was concerned, but still more to their 
loss in the other quarters of the world where they 
were engaged with the British in a struggle for 
supremacy, and this notwithstanding that Spain 
had now joined her forces to those of France. At 
length the success of the British arms induced 
France and Spain to accede to terms, and the 
war ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The 
French relinquished nearly all their possessions 
in North America; Minorca was restored to Brit¬ 
ain ; in the East Indies they got back their fac¬ 
tories and settlements, on condition that they 
should maintain neither forts nor troops in Ben¬ 
gal ; Cuba and Manila were resigned to the Span¬ 
iards. In Europe everything was restored to the 
status quo. 

The expenses of this war, which had been 
undertaken partly for the defense of the Ameri¬ 
can Colonies, had added upwards of £72,000,000 
to the national debt. It seemed to the British 
people to be just that the Americans should be 
taxed to assist in the payment of the interest. 
The Americans did not deny the justice, but 
replied that if they were to be taxed they had a 
right to be represented in parliament, in order 
that, like other British subjects, they might be 
taxed only in consequence of their own consent. 
Grenville, then the prime-minister, stood to his 
purpose, however, and introduced a bill for 
imposing certain stamp duties on the American 
Colonies. The Americans protested and resisted, 
and partly by the influence of the great Pitt, 
who had steadily opposed the measure, the bill 
was withdrawn. On the illness of Pitt, now 
Lord Chatham, in 1767, Townshend became 
premier, and again revived the project of taxing 
the Americans by imposing duties on tea; and 
in 1770, Lord North, as his successor, set himself 
to carry it out. The result was that in 1775 
the Colonies were declared in a state of rebellion 
and a war began, in which both France and Spain 
joined the revolted Colonies, and of which the 
result was the recognition of the independence 
of the United States. On the American side of 
this struggle the great name is that of George 
Washington. On the British side the war was 
unskillfully conducted, and though they gained 
some successes these were more than counter¬ 
balanced by such blows as the capitulation of 
Burgoyne with nearly 6,000 men at Saratoga 
(1777), and of Cornwallis at Yorktown with 
7,000 (1781). Against their European foes the 
British could show such successes as that of 
Admiral Rodney off Cape St. Vincent (1780); 
the brilliant defense of Gibraltar by General 
Eliott (1779-82); and Admiral Rodney’s victory 
over the French fleet in the West Indies (1782). 
The war closed with the Peace of Versailles in 
1783. Britain finally acquired several West 
Indian Islands; Spain got Florida and Minorca, 
France Pondicherry and Chandernagore in India. 
The struggle had added over £100,000,000 to 
the British national debt. 



52 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


From 1783 to 1801 the government of Britain 
was directed by William Pitt, the younger son 
of Lord Chatham, who when only twenty-four 
years of age was placed as first lord of the treas¬ 
ury and chancellor of the exchequer. The affairs 
of Ireland and India, and the impeachment of 
Warren Hastings, were among the first subjects 
which occupied the attention of Pitt’s ministry. 
In 1782, the Irish had been able to extort from 
Britain, then engaged in her struggle with the 
American Colonies, the right to establish an inde¬ 
pendent parliament, so that from this year there 
were two independent governments in the British 
Isles till 1800, when Pitt, who had in the interval 
experienced some of the difficulties arising out 
of two coordinate legislatures, contrived once 
more to unite them. 

In 1789, the French Revolution was begun. 
For a time there was considerable sympathy in 
England with this movement; but as the revo¬ 
lutionaries proceeded to extreme measures there 
was a reaction in English feeling, of which Ed¬ 
mund Burke became the great exponent, and 
the execution of Louis XVI. gave rise to diplo¬ 
matic measures, which finally terminated in the 
National Convention declaring war against Brit¬ 
ain, on the 1st of February, 1793. At first Brit¬ 
ain cooperated with Prussia, Austria, etc., 
against France, and successes were gained both 
by sea and land; but latterly on the Continent 
the armies of the French Republic were every¬ 
where triumphant, and in 1797 Britain stood 
alone in the conflict, and indeed soon found a 
European coalition formed against her. The 
war was now largely maritime, and the naval 
successes of Jervis off St. Vincent and Duncan 
off Camperdown were followed (when Bonaparte 
led an expedition to Egypt, having India as its 
ultimate object) by the victories of Nelson in 
Aboukir Bay, and Abercromby at Alexandria. 
In 1798, a rebellion in Ireland had to be crushed. 
Peace was made in 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens, 
only to be broken by another declaration of war in 
1803, as the ambitious projects of Napoleon 
became evident. In spite of the efforts of Pitt 
(who died in 1806) in the way of forming and 
supporting with funds a new coalition against 
France, the military genius of Napoleon swept 
away all opposition on land, though the naval 
victory of Trafalgar (1805) established England’s 
supremacy on the seas. Napoleon, who had 
assumed the title of Emperor of the French in 
1805, and was now virtually the ruler of Europe, 
put forth his Berlin decrees (1806), prohibiting 
all commerce with Great Britain wherever his 
power reached, set his brother Joseph on the 
throne of Spain, and occupied Portugal. But 
the spirit of resistance had now taken deep root 
in the British people, and in 1808 troops were 
sent into Spain under Sir John Moore, and a year 
later Wellington, then General Wellesley, landed 
in Portugal. Then began that famous series of 
successful operations (the Peninsular War) which 
drove back the French into their own country, 
and powerfully contributed to undermine the 
immense fabric of Napoleon’s conquests. The 
other chief European powers having united, 
Paris was occupied in 1814, Napoleon was de¬ 
posed and exiled to Elba, and Louis XVIII. 
placed on the throne of France. Escaping in 


1815, Napoleon appeared once more in the field 
with a large army. Wellington and Bliicher 
hastened to oppose him, and at Waterloo Na¬ 
poleon’s long career of conquest ended in a crush¬ 
ing defeat. The restoration of Louis followed, 
and Napoleon was sent to the island of St. Helena. 
Of her conquests Britain retained Tobago, St. 
Lucia, Mauritius, the Cape of Good Hope, Dem- 
erara, Essequibo, Berbice, Heligoland, and Malta. 
Ceylon and Trinidad had been gained in 1802, 
and Britain emerged from this long struggle 
with a very great increase of territorial posses¬ 
sions and political importance. 

After the termination of the wars with Napo¬ 
leon many things concurred to make a troublous 
era in the home administration. The new bur¬ 
den of debt which the wars had left on the nation, 
the bad harvests of 1816 and 1817, a succession 
of governments which had no idea but that of 
absolute resistance to all reforms, etc.; all these 
contributed to increase discontent. The result 
was a strong Radical agitation, accompanied 
often by serious riots throughout the country, 
more especially in the large towns, and loud 
demands for reform in parliament and the system 
of representation. The death of George III. and 
accession of George IV. in 1820 made little 
change in this respect. From 1822 a succes¬ 
sion of able statesmen, Canning, Peel, and 
Lord Grey, gave the government a more liberal 
turn, and did much to satisfy the popular 
demands. The Catholics were admitted to 
parliament; the severity of the old restric¬ 
tions on commerce was relaxed; and in the 
face of a determined opposition Earl Grey car¬ 
ried the Reform Bill of 1832 (two years after 
the accession of William IV.), which gave 
large manufacturing towns a voting power in 
some proportion to their importance, and prac¬ 
tically transferred the center of political power 
from the aristocratic to the middle classes. 
The next great public measure was the aboli¬ 
tion of negro slavery in every British posses¬ 
sion in 1834. 

William IV. died June 20, 1837, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Victoria. The year following is nota¬ 
ble as that in which the Chartists began their 
movement for reform, which eontinued more or 
less active, with popular assemblies, presenta¬ 
tions of monster petitions, and occasional tu¬ 
mults, till 1848, when it was without much trouble 
suppressed. The same years saw the struggle 
of the Anti-Corn-law League, of which Cobden 
and Bright were the chiefs, and which were 
finally successful, Sir Robert Peel, the leader of 
the Tory party, himself proposing the repeal of 
the corn duties (1846). The principle of free- 
trade had further victories in the repeal of the 
navigation laws, and in the large abolition of 
duties made during Lord Aberdeen’s ministry 
(1853). 

In 1852-53, dissension arose between Russia 
and Turkey regarding the rights of the Latin 
and Greek Churches to preferable access to the 
“holy places” in Palestine. The Emperor of 
Russia, resenting concessions made to French 
devotees, sent Prince Menschikoff to Constanti¬ 
nople to demand redress, and not being satisfied, 
war was declared, June 26, 1853. On the plea 
that it was impossible to leave Russia a free hand 



HISTORY 


53 


in dealing with Turkey, France and Great Brit¬ 
ain formed an alliance against Russia, March 28, 
1854. The invasion of the Crimea followed; sev¬ 
eral important battles (Alma, Balaclava, Inker- 
man) took place, resulting in favor of the allies, 
till at length Sebastopol fell (1855), and peace 
was signed the following year at Paris. Russia 
ceded a part of Bessarabia to Turkey, and con¬ 
sented to the free navigation of the Danube and 
the neutrality of the Black Sea. 

Immediately after the Crimean War came the 
mutiny of the Sepoys in India. Seventy thou¬ 
sand British troops were required to suppress 
the rebellion. In 1858, the sovereignty over the 
British possessions was transferred by parlia¬ 
ment from the East India Company to the 
Crown. Wars with China (1858 and 1860), 
during which Canton was bombarded and Pekin 
taken by the united forces of France and Britain, 
opened up five new Chinese ports to trade. 
The American Civil War seriously interfered 
with the cotton-trade in Lancashire, causing 
widespread distress. The Fenian movement 
(1861-7), whose object was the separation of 
Ireland from the United Kingdom, occasioned 
some excitement. 

Parliamentary reform was attempted by sev¬ 
eral governments without success, un+il the gov¬ 
ernment of the Earl of Derby in 1867 passed a 
measure establishing the principle of household 
suffrage. This year also saw the passing of the 
act by which the Dominion of Canada was con¬ 
stituted. In 1867, the Abyssinian expedition 
set out, and effected its object — the relief of 
English captives — in the spring of 1868. In the 
same year Lord Derby was succeeded by Mr. 
Disraeli as leader of the Conservative party, 
then in office. Before the end of the year a gen¬ 
eral election put the Liberals in power. In 1869, 
Mr. Gladstone’s administration passed a bill for 
the disestablishment of the Irish Church. In 
1870, an Irish Land Law Bill, for the regulation 
of the relations between landlord and tenant, 
became law; and an act of parliament estab¬ 
lishing a national system of education for Eng¬ 
land was passed. In 1871, the purchase of 
commissions in the army was abolished. Next 
followed the Ballot Act and the Scotch Educa¬ 
tion Act. Early in 1874, Mr. Gladstone dis¬ 
solved Parliament, and a large Conservative 
majority being returned, Mr. Disraeli (after¬ 
wards Earl of Beaconsfield) again became pre¬ 
mier. The Ashantee War, begun the previous 
year, was brought to a successful termination 
early in 1874. In 1876, the title of Empress of 
India was added to the titles of the queen. Dur¬ 
ing the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 Britain 
remained neutral, but took an important part in 
the settlement effected by the Berlin Congress, 
and acquired from Turkey the right to occupy 
and administer Cyprus. Then followed a war in 
Afghanistan, a war with the Kaffirs of Zululand, 
and a brief war with the Boers of the Transvaal. 

A new parliament was returned in 1880 with 
a large Liberal majority, and Mr. Gladstone once 
more became premier. This parliament passed 
a land-act for Ireland (1881), an act for putting 
down crime in Ireland (1882), a reform act equal¬ 
izing the borough and county franchise (1884), 
and a redistribution of seats act (1885) — all 


important. The intervention of Britain in Egyp¬ 
tian affairs led to the bombardment of Alexan¬ 
dria by the British fleet (July, 1882) and the send¬ 
ing of an army into Egypt to quell the rebellion 
headed by Arabi Pasha; the rising under the 
Mahdi in the Soudan caused British troops to be 
despatched to Suakim, and another force to be 
sent by way of the Nile (in the autumn of 
1884) to relieve General Gordon at Khartoum, 
an object which it was too late to accomplish. 
A new parliament was elected in the end of 1885, 
and for a brief period Lord Salisbury was premier 
as he had latterly been in the preceding parlia¬ 
ment, but in February, 1886, he made way for 
Mr. Gladstone. On March 29th, Mr. Gladstone 
gave notice of his intention to introduce a bill 
which would establish a separate Irish legisla¬ 
tive body, and withdraw the Irish members 
from the Imperial Parliament. A determined 
opposition was organized, and a section of the 
Liberal party, headed by men mostly old col¬ 
leagues of Mr. Gladstone, operated with the 
Conservatives and succeeded in throwing out 
the bill on its second reading. The result was 
a general election, in which the Unionists, or 
those opposed to the bill, had a great majority. 
The Conservative party assumed office, with 
the Marquis of Salisbury as head. A criminal 
law amendment act for Ireland (1887), and a 
local government act for England (1888), were 
passed. In 1887, the jubilee of the Queen was 
celebrated. The elections in 1892 resulted in a 
Liberal victory and Mr. Gladstone became again 
premier. In 1893, Lord Salisbury was returned 
to power. October 11, 1899, war was declared 
by the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free 
State, the aim being the destruction of the 
British paramountcy in South Africa; this led 
to the annexation of those states by the British, 
after a fierce contest, in 1900. In 1900, a new 
arliament was elected, with a slightly increased 
onservative majority. Victoria died January 
22, 1901, and was succeeded by Edward VII. 

In 1902, a new ministry was formed, with 
A. J. Balfour as premier. The Balfour ministry 
was succeeded in 1905 by that of Sir Henry 
Campbell-Bannerman, which, in turn, was suc¬ 
ceeded by the Asquith ministry in 1908. The 
visit of King Edward to Germany in 1906, and 
of Emperor William to England in 1907, did 
much to secure an amicable understanding 
between those two powers. The complete 
autonomy of Australia was recognized in 1907. 
In 1908, the Old Age Pensions act was passed. 
The rejection by the Lords of important meas¬ 
ures of social and industrial reform proposed by 
the government led, however, to demands for 
the curtailment of the powers of the Upper 
House. Parliament was finally prorogued in 
January, 1910, and in the new election the 
Liberals were returned with one vote over the 
Unionists, their opponents. The death of 
Edward, on May 16th, interrupted the political 
warring of the parties only temporarily, and 
George V. finally dissolved Parliament in 
November and summoned a new Parliament 
(elected in December) which met in January, 
1911, in which the Liberals were again returned. 
The past two years have also witnessed increased 
and violent agitation by women suffragists. 



54 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS 

I. FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST—B. C. 

II. FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE PRESENT TIME — A. D. 

Dates and events at the dawn of history are involved in much doubt. At best they are mere approxima¬ 
tions and must be interpreted in that light. The Samaritan Pentateuch places the Creation B. C. 4700; the 
Septuagint, 5872; Josephus, 4658; the Talmudists, 5344; Scaliger, 3950; Petavius, 3984; and Dr. Hales, 5411. 
The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here followed as the most generally accepted standard. 


B. C. 


4004 


3875 

3874 

3769 

3679 

3609 

3544 

3382 

3317 

3130 

3074 

3017 

2948 

2468 

2348 


2347 

2247 

2234 


2122 

2100 

2095 


1998 


FRQ3I THE CREATION TO THE DELUGE —1656 YEARS 


Creation of the World, 

Fall of Man. 

Birth of Cain. 

Death of Abel, the first subject of 
death. 

Seth born, third son of Adam. 

Enos born. 

Cainan born. 

Mahalaleel born. 

Jared born. 

Enoch born. 

Methuselah born. 

Lamech born. 

Death of Adam at age of 930 years. 
Enoch translated. 

Noah born. 

Building of the Ark begun. 

The Deluge. 


Cain builds a city, which he calls 
Enoch. 

He introduces use of weights and 
measures. 

Polygamy introduced. 

Jabal, the first to build a tent for 
habitation, and to use cattle for 
purposes of husbandry. 

Jubal invented the harp and the 
organ, first stringed and wind 
instruments. 

Tubal-Cain discovered the mode 
of preparing and using iron, 
brass, and other metals. 

Naamah introduced the arts of 
spinning and weaving. 


According to Usher, the 
antediluvian period was al¬ 
most as long as that since 
the birth of Christ. Of the 
progress of knowledge and 
the arts during that period 
nothing is known beyond 
what is recited in the adja¬ 
cent column, except that 
ship-building, caulking, and 
the use of pitch, or paint, 
simple measures, and of doors 
and windows, were known. 
They imply, in their adapta¬ 
tion to the use of man, other 
arts, and a considerable ad¬ 
vance in science and mechan- 


FROM THE DELUGE TO TIME OF 3IOSES 


Arts of Civilization 


Wine made by Noah 
from the grape. 


Bricks made, and ce¬ 
ment used to unite 
them. 

Astronomical observa¬ 
tions begun at Baby¬ 
lon. 


The Hebrews 


Athotes, son of Menes, 
invents hieroglyphics. 

Sculpture and painting 
employed to commem¬ 
orate the exploits of 
Osymandyas. 

Pyramids and canals in 
Egypt. Geometry used. 


Ching Hong teaches the 
Chinese the art of hus¬ 
bandry, and how to 
make bread from wheat 
and wine from rice. 


2347. Dispersion of the 
descendants of 
Noah. 

Those of Shem prob¬ 
ably in Asia, of Ham 
in Africa, and of Ja- 
phet in Europe. 

2247. Building of the 
Tower of Babel. 

2245. Babylon founded 
by Nimrod, son of 
Cush and grandson 
of Ham. 

Nineveh founded 
by Ashur, son of 
Shem. 


1996. Abraham born. 


Asia 


2356. Yaou extends 
the Empire of 
China. 


2207. China. First 
imperial dynasty 
of Hia begins. 
Fohi (probably 
Noah) is men¬ 
tioned as the 
first Chinese 
Monarch. 

2124. Belus reigns in 
Babylon. 


2069. Ninus, son of 
Belus, reigns in 
Nineveh. 

2059. Ninus estab¬ 
lishes the Assy¬ 
rian Empire. 


2017. Semiramis en¬ 
larges and embel¬ 
lishes Babylon, 
and makes it the 
seat of empire. 

1975. Semiramis in¬ 
vades Lybia, 
Ethiopia, and 
India. 


Africa and Europe 


2188. Misraim (Menes), 
the son of Ham, 
builds Memphis, in 
Egypt, and begins 
the Egyptian mon¬ 
archy. 


2111. Thebes founded 
by Busiris. 

2100. Osymandyas, the 
f first warlike king, 
passes into Asia and 
conquers Bactria. 

2089. Sicyon, the first 
Kingdom of Greece, 
founded by Egialus, 
or Inachus. 

2085. Egypt conquered 
by the shepherd 
kings of Phenicia, 
who hold it 260 
years. 

2048. Colony of Pheni- 
cians land in Ire¬ 
land (?). 

2042. Uramus arrives in 
Greece. 


























HISTORY 


55 


B. C. 

1920 

1891 

1822 

1588 

1582 

1580 


1506 

1494 


1490 

1486 


1370 


1263 


FR031 THE DELUGE TO TIME OF MOSES —B. C. 


Arts of Civilization 


Gold and silver first men¬ 
tioned as money. 


Letters first used in 
Egypt by Syphoas. 


Memnon invents the 
Egyptian alphabet. 


Atlas, the astronomer. 
The chronology of the 
Arundelian marbles 
begins. 

The cymbal used at the 
feasts of Cybele. 


The flute invented by 
Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 

Ericthoneus teaches the 
Athenians husbandry. 


Asia 


1937. The Arabs 
seize Nineveh. 


1766. The second 
Chinese Imperial 
dynasty begins. 


The Hebrews 


1921. The call of Abra¬ 
ham. 

1897. Sodom and Go¬ 
morrah destroyed. 
1896. Isaac born. 


1836. Jacob and Esau 
born. 

1824. Abraham dies, 
aged 172. 

1729. Joseph sold into 
Egypt. 

1715. Is made governor 
under Pharaoh. 

1699. Death of Jacob. 

1635. Death of Joseph. 


1577. Israelites perse¬ 
cuted in Egypt. 
1574. Aaron born. 

1571. Moses born. 


1491. God sends Moses 
to Egypt to deliver 
the Israelites. 

The Ten Plagues 
in Egypt. 

The Exodus of 
the Israelites from 
Egypt. 


1546. Troy founded 
by Scamander. 

The Chinese. 

Dark Ages. 

1500. Northern In¬ 
dia invaded and 
conquered by the 
Aryans between 
this date and 
1000 . 


Africa and Europe 


1938. Lake Moeris con¬ 
structed. 


1856. Inachus plants a 
colony in Argos. 


1710. Colony of Arca¬ 
dians emigrate into 
Italy. 

1618. Sesostris reigns in 
Egypt. 


1556. Rameses-Miamuns 
reigns in Egypt. 
1556. Athens founded by 
Cecrops. 

1520. Corinth founded. 
1516. Sparta founded. 
1507. Areopagus estab¬ 
lished in Athens. 


1493. Thebes, in Boeo- 
tia, founded by Cad. 
mus, a Phenician, 
who introduces the 
alphabet into Greece. 


FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS —B. C. 


Arts of Civilization 


The Hebrews 


1491. Moses gives the law at 
Crockery made by Mt. Sinai. 

Egyptians and 
Greeks. 

Ericthoneus introduces 
first chariot. 


1453. Death of Aaron. 

1451. Death of Moses. 

Joshua conquers Canaan. 


Asia and Africa 


1491. Pharaoh and 
his army _ 
drowned in the 
Red Sea. 

1485. Egyptus reigns 
and gives name 
to the country. 


1449. Ericthoneus 
reigns in Troy. 


Bucklers used in single 
combat. 

Music and poetry cul- 1343. Eglon, King of Moab, en- 
tivated in Greece. slaves Israel. 


Temple of Apollo at 
Delphi built. 

Jason leads first naval 
expedition on record. 


1305. Israel subdued by King 
of Canaan. 

1285. Deborah and Barak de¬ 
feat the Canaanites. 

1249. Gideon conquers the 
Midianites. 


1376. Sethos reigns 
in Egypt. 

1374. Troas, King of 
Troy. 


1322. Rameses II. 
(Sesostris) con¬ 
quers Ethiopia. 

1314. Ilus, son of 
Troas, founds 
Ilium. 

1252. Second Assy¬ 
rian dynasty. 


Europe 


1457. Kingdom of 
Mycene founded. 

1453. First Olympic 
games at Elis. 

1400. Minos reigns 
in Crete. 

1397. Corinth be¬ 
comes a king¬ 
dom under Sisy¬ 
phus. 

1356. Eleusinian 
mysteries insti¬ 
tuted by Eumol- 
pus. 


1266. CEdipus, King 
of Thebes. 

1263. Argonautic 
Expedition of 
Jason. 






























56 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


B. C. 

1240 

1224 


1115 

1100 


1015 

1000 


916 

886 

884 

869 


FRO31 TI3IE OF 310SES TO TI31E OF CYRUS — B. C. 


Arts of Civilization 


The Hebrews 


Asia and Africa 


Europe 


The axe, wedge, wim¬ 
ble, and lever, also 
masts and sails for 
ships, invented by 
Daedalus of Athens. 


Game of backgammon 
invented by Palame- 
des of Greece. 


1161. Israel enslaved by the 
Philistines. 

Samson born. 

1136. Samson slays 1,000 
Philistines. 


Mariner’s compass 
known in China. 


1116. Samuel, last Judge of 
Israel. 


Dictionary of Chinese 
completed by Pa- 
out-she. 


1095. Saul becomes King of 

TQT*fJ Pi 

1085. David born. 


1240. Troy taken by 
the Argonauts. 


1233. Carthage 

founded by the 
Tyrians. 

1220. Priam, King of 
Troy. 


1194. The Trojan 
War begins. 

1140. Tiglath-Pile- 
ser real founder 
of the Assyrian 
Empire 


1124. Troy taken. 
1123. Chow dynasty 
begins in China. 


1239. Latinus reigns 
in Italy. 

1235. Theseus 

reigns in Athens 
for 30 years. 

1225. First Theban 
War. 

1216. Second The¬ 
ban War. 

1213. Helen of Troy 
carried off by 
Theseus, mar¬ 
ries Menelaus. 


1152. Alba Longa 
built by As- 
canius. 

1124. .ZEolian migra¬ 
tion. 

Thebes, capi¬ 
tal of Boeotia, 
founded. 

1104. Return of the 
Heraclidse. 

End of King¬ 
dom of Mycene. 


1055. Death of Saul; accession 
of David. 

1048. David King of all Israel. 


Minos gives Crete his 
code of laws. 


Solomon extends his 
commerce to India, 
via Red Sea, and to 
the shores of the At¬ 
lantic, via Straits of 
Gibraltar; builds Pal¬ 
myra, Baalbec, and 
other cities. 


1042. The Ark removed to 
Jerusalem. 

1036. Revolt of Absalom. 
1033. Solomon born. 

1016. Death of David. 

1015. Solomon anointed 
King. 

1012. Solomon begins the 
Temple. 

1004. Dedication of Temple. 


975. Death of Solomon. 

Revolt of the Ten Tribes. 
Two kingdoms formed. 


1070. Heremon, of 
Gallicia, con¬ 
quers Ireland. 

1060. Athens gov¬ 
erned by 
Archons. 


1044. Ionian emi¬ 
grants settle in 
Asia Minor. 


1000. Solomon and 
Hiram, King of 
Tyre, form an al¬ 
liance; also Solo¬ 
mon and Pha¬ 
raoh. 

986. Utica built. 

Samos built. 976. Capys reigns 

in Alba Longa. 


The Rhodians begin 
navigation laws. 


Homer’s poems 

brought into Greece. 


Lycurgus reforms the 
constitution of 
Sparta. 

Gold and silver coined 
by Phidon, ruler of 
Argos. 


Judah 

971. Shishak, 
King- of 
Egypt, takes 
Jerusalem. 


888. Philis¬ 
tines plun¬ 
der Jerusa¬ 
lem. 

884. Usurpa¬ 
tion and 
death of At- 
haliah. 


Israel 

975. Jero¬ 
boam estab¬ 
lishes idola¬ 
try. 

918. Ahab and 
Jezebel. 

901. The Syri¬ 
ans besiege 
Samaria. 

896. Elijah 
translated 
to heaven. 


884. Jehu, 
King. 


971. Shishak (Se- 
sostus of Egypt) 
plunders Jerusa¬ 
lem. 

Homer born (?). 


840. Jehoash 
defeats 
King Ben- 
hadad of 
Syria. 


825. Dynasty of 
the Tanites in 
Egypt. 

820. Arbaces, 

King of Assyria. 


935. Bacchus, 

King of Corinth. 


895. Tiberinus, 
King of Alba, 
drowned in the 
river Albula, 
which is thence 
called the Tiber. 


864. Romulus, 
King of Alba 
Longa. 




























HISTORY 


57 


B. C. 

FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS —B. C. 


Arts of Civilization 

Judah 

Israel 

Asia and Africa 

Europe 


786 

772 


721 


710 

685 

680 

660 

640 


621 

610 


594 


Corinthians employ tri¬ 
remes or vessels with 
three banks of oars. 

Sculpture first men¬ 
tioned among the 
Egyptian arts. 


578 


First eclipse of the 
moon observed by 
the Chaldeans at 
Babylon. 

Religion of Buddha in¬ 
troduced in India. 


Roman Calendar re¬ 
formed; year divided 
into 12 months in¬ 
stead of 10 as before. 

Iambic verse intro¬ 
duced. 

Chess invented. 


Attempt to discover the 
primitive language of 
mankind. 

Spherical form of the 
earth and true cause 
of lunar eclipses 
taught by Thales, 
who also discovered 
the electricity of 
amber. 

Draconian code form¬ 
ulated. 

Pharaoh-Necho begins 
a canal between the 
Mediterranean and 
Red Sea. Many lives 
lost in the attempt. 
He also sent out a 
Phenician fleet which 
circumnavigated 
Africa. 


Solon’s code supersedes 
that of Draco in 
Athens. 


Money coined at Rome 
by Servius Tullius. 


770. Pul in¬ 
vades Israel, 
and is bribed 
to depart. 


741. Pekah, 
King of Is¬ 
rael, be¬ 
sieges Jeru¬ 
salem, 120,- 
000 of his 
men slain. 

726. Heze- 
kiah abol¬ 
ishes idola¬ 
try. 

717. Heze- 
kiah, King. 


Hebrews 

712. Sennach- 
arib invades 
Judah. 

711. His army 
(185,000) 
destroyed by 
pestilence. 

696. Manas- 
seh, King. 


677. Manas- 
seh, carried 
to Babylon, 
is afterward 
restored. 


606. Conquest 
of Jerusalem 
by Nebu¬ 
chadnezzar. 


591. Ezekiel 
prophesies 
in Chaldea. 


588. Captivity 
of Judah 
completed. 

Jerusalem 
destroyed 
and the 
Temple 
burnt. 

579. Jews car¬ 
ried to 
Babylon. 


721. Samaria 
taken by the 
Assyrians; 
Tribes car¬ 
ried into 
captivity. 


797. Ardyssus, first 
King of Lydia. 


767. Sardanapalus, 
King of Nineveh. 
Media subjected 
to Assyria. 


747. Era of Na- 
bonazzar, Assy¬ 
rian Empire de¬ 
stroyed. 

737. Sebacon in¬ 
vades Egypt. 

736. Tiglath-pil- 
eser conquers 
Syria and part 
of Israel. 

721. Shalmanezer. 
King of Nineveh, 
takes Samaria 
and carries the 
Ten Tribes into 
captivity. 


717. Sennacharib, King of Nineveh. 
710. Media becomes a kingdom. 


680. Babylon and Nineveh are united 
under Esarhaddon. 


Babylonia 

648. Saracus, King 
of Babylon and 
Nineveh. 


612. Nineveh a 
second time 
destroyed. 

606. Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar defeats Necho 
of Egypt, in¬ 
vades Judea and 
takes Jerusalem. 


604. Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar, King 
of Babylon. 

599. Birth of Cyrus. 


589. Invades 
Phenicia. 


Egypt 

660. Psammet- 
icus, King 
of Egypt. 
Memphis 
becomes the 
capital. 


610. Pharaoh- 
Necho, King 
of Egypt. 
600. Psammis, 
King of 
Egypt. 


594. Pharaoh- 
Hophra, 
King of 
Egypt. 

581. Egypt in¬ 
vaded by 
Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar. 


814. The Kingdom 
of Macedon 
founded by 
Caramus. 


769. Syracuse 
founded by 
Archias of 
Corinth. 

753. Building of 
Rome. 

750. Sabine War. 

747. Union of Ro¬ 
mans and Sa¬ 
bines. 

743. First Messin- 
ian War. 


716. Romulus re¬ 
puted murdered. 


685. Second Mes- 
sinian War. 


678. Argseus, first 
King of Macedon. 

672. Tullius Hos- 
tilius, King of 
Rome. 

664. First sea- 
fight on record 
— between the 
Corinthians 
and Corcyreans. 

658. Byzantium 
founded. 

640. Latins con¬ 
quered by the 
Romans. 

Philip I., 

King of Macedon, 

616. Tarquinius 
Priscus, King of 
Rome. 

602. Illyria con¬ 
quered by 
Macedon. - 


594. Solon, Archon 
of Athens. 


578. Servius Tullius, 
King of Rome. 






















58 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


B. C. 


FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS — B. C. 


Arts of Civilization 


Persia 


568 


School of sculpture 
opened at Athens. 


562 


540 

535 


First comedy acted at 
Athens. 

Dials invented by 
Anaximander of 
Miletus. 

Corinthian order of 
architecture invent¬ 
ed by Calimachus. 

Thespis performs first 
tragedy at Athens. 


560. Cyrus, King 
of Persia. 

548. Cyrus con¬ 
quers Lydia. 

538. Takes Baby¬ 
lon. 



572. Takes Tyre. 


562. Croesus, 
King of Lydia, 
subjects Asia 
Minor. 


538. Babylon 
taken by 
Cyrus, the 
Persian. 


569. Amasis, 
King of 
Egypt, makes 
alliance with 
Greece. 

536. Pythagorus 
visits Egypt. 


535. Made tribu¬ 
tary by 
Cyrus. 


567. Conquest of 
the Etrurians 
by Rome. 

565. First census 
of Rome; 
84,700 citizens. 

539. The Phocians 
emigrate to 
Gaul and build 
Massilia (now 
Marseilles). 


536. Persian Empire founded by 
Cyrus, composed of Assyria, 
Media, and Persia. 

Captivity of the Jews ended. 
535. Temple rebuilt at Jerusalem. 
529. Death of Cyrus; Cambyses, 
King of Persia. 


528. Thrace comes 
into view. 


FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER — B. C. 


527 


522 

509 


Arts of 
Civilization 


First public li¬ 
brary founded 
at Athens 


Confucius, the 
Chinese philos¬ 
opher. 

Abolition of regal 
government at 
Rome, and es¬ 
tablishment of 
a Republic at 
Rome. 


Persia 


525. Cambyses con¬ 
quers Egypt 
and makes it a 
Persian prov¬ 
ince. 

Psammeticus, 
last King of 
Egypt. 

522. Darius I., 

King of Persia. 


508. Darius con¬ 
quers India. 


500 


Phenician letters 
carried to Ire¬ 
land from 
Spain. 

The Temple of 
Minerva built. 


483 


Etrurians excel in 
music, drama, 
and architec¬ 
ture. 


500. The Ionians 
revolt and burn 
Sardis. 


490. Darius sends 
an army of 500,- 
000 into Greece. 

487. Egypt revolts 
— is subdued by 
Xerxes. 

486. Xerxes, King 
of Persia. 

481. Expedition of 
Xerxes into 
Greece; destroys 
Athens. 


479. Returns de¬ 
feated. 


460 


Voyage of the 
Carthaginians 
to Britain for 
tin. 


465. Xerxes assas¬ 
sinated. Artax- 
erxes I., King. 

456. Esther. 

449. Persians de¬ 
feated at Sala- 
mis. 


Greece 

Macedonia 

Rome, Etc. 



530. Cadiz built 

527. Pisistratus 


by the Car- 

dies, after seiz¬ 
ing Athens. 

510. Followers of 
Pisistratus ex- 


thaginians. 

pelled; Democ- 


509. The Tar- 

racy established 


quins ex- 

at Athens. 


pelled from 
Rome. 

Brutus and 
Collatinus 
first Consuls. 
507. The Capitol 


497. Alexander 

finished. 


I., King. 

494. Tribunes of 
the people 
chosen. 

491. Coriolanus 

490. Battle of Mara¬ 
thon. 

483. Aristides ban¬ 
ished. 


banished. 

480. Battle of Ther- 


480. Carthagini- 

mopylse. 


ans defeated. 

Battle of Sala- 


Hamilcar 

mis and defeat of 
Persians. 

479. Battle of 

Platea; Persian 
fleet destroyed 
at Mycale. 

476. Themistocles 
rebuilds Athens. 

465. Third Messini- 
an War. 


killed in battle. 

461. Pericles im- 



presses himself 


460. Cincinnatus, 

upon Greek af¬ 
fairs. 


Consul. 


























HISTORY 


59 








B. C. 

FRO 31 THE 

DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER —B. C. 


Arts of 
Civilization 

Persia 

Greece 

3Iacedonia 

Rome, Etc. 




457. Long walls of 






Athens begun. 


456. Cincinnatus, 





Dictator. 






451. Laws of 



445. Jerusalem re- 



the 12 tables. 

441 

The battering 

built by Nehe- 





ram invented. 

miah. 

431. Peloponnesian 





440. Siege of Samos 

War. 





by Pericles. 

429. Death of Peri- 





cles, having gov- 





• 

erned Athens 40 
years. 






416. War with Sici- 

413. Archelaus, 

413. Egypt re- 




ly. 

“Patron of 

gains inde- 





Learning,” 

pendence. 




411. Athens gov- 

seizes the 

411. Roman 




erned by the 
“400.” 

Alliance of Spar¬ 
ta with Persia. 

throne. 

famine. 



401. Cyrus the 

408. Capture of 





Younger defeat- 

Byzantium. 


407. Carthagin- 



ed. Retreat of 



ians War on 



the 10,000 under 
Xenophon. 



Sicily. 



400. Delhi founded. 

400. Return of the 



399 

Catapults invent¬ 
ed by Diony¬ 
sius. 


10,000. 

399. Archelaus 
murdered. 

392. The Illy- 

390. Rome de- 




rians invade 

stroyed by 



387. Greek cities of 


Macedonia, 

the Gauls. 

380 

Treatise on conic 

Asia made tribu- 


and possess 

376. War be- 

sections by 
Aristseus. 

tary to Persia. 


the throne. 

tween patrici¬ 
ans and pie- 






bians. Lucius 
Sextus first 


368 

A celestial globe 


370. Predominance 


plebian con- 

brought into 


of Thebes. 


sul. 


Greece from 




371. Curule 


Egypt. 



360. Philip II., 

magistrates 

360 

Philippics of De- 


360. War of the 

appointed. 

mosthenes de- 


Allies against 

King; he in- 

369. Military 


livered. 


Athens. 

stitutes the 

tribunes abol- 



Decline of Gre¬ 
cian republics. 

Macedonian 
phalanx; de¬ 
feats the 
Athenians. 

ished. 







356. Second Sacred 

356. Philip II. 





War. 

conquers 
Thrace and 






Illyria. 

Birth of Alex- 






ander the 


343 

Aristotle writes 


344. Philip subdues 

Great. 

343. Samnian 

his philosophi- 

344. Aristotle visits 


War, contin- 


cal works. 

Mitylene. 

Sparta. 

341. War 

ued 53 years. 

• 




against the 

340. War with 





Athenians. 
Siege of By¬ 
zantium. 

the Latins. 




339. War with 





338. Royal family 

Macedonia. 

338. Philip 




destroyed witn 


master of 




poison. 


Greece. 






338. Athenians 

337. First 





and Thebans 





defeated at 

plebian pr®- 





Chseronea. 

tor. 

336 

Eclipses calcu¬ 
lated by Calip- 
pus, the A then- 

336. Darius III., 
King. 

336. Philip slain. 

336. Philip as¬ 
sassinated by 
Pausanius; 
Alexander 



tan. 



III., sur- 
named the 






Great, suc¬ 
ceeds to the 






throne. 




















60 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


B. C. 

335 


328 


320 

317 

312 

310 

300 

293 

290 


FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER — B. C. 


Arts of 
Civilization 


Caustic art in¬ 
vented. 


Voyage of Near- 
chus from the 
Indies to the 
Euphrates. 


Persia 


334. Alexander the 
Great invades 
Persia. (See un¬ 
der Macedonia.) 

331. Darius III. 
murdered. Alex¬ 
ander founds the 
Grecian or Mace¬ 
donian mon¬ 
archy. 

Battle of Arbela. 


Greece 


335. Greeks con¬ 
quered by Alex¬ 
ander the Great. 
Thebes destroy¬ 
ed. 


Macedonia 


335. Enters 
Greece, con¬ 
quers Greeks, 
and succeeds 
to head of 
army against 
Persians. 

334. Invades 
Persia. 
Defeats 
Darius at 
Granicus. 


333. Battle of Issus. 

332. Egypt conquered by Alexander, 
and Alexandria built. 


330. iEschines, the orator, banished. 

327. Alexander invades India. 

325. Demosthenes banished. 

323. Ptolemy I. restores the independence of Egypt. 

Alexander the Great dies in Babylonia. The Grecian 
cities revolt from Macedonia, and in 321 Antipater be¬ 
comes Regent of Greece. Persia was reconquered from 
the Greeks, and remained tributary to Parthia till about 
A. D. 250. 


Rome* Etc. 


332. Caledonian 
monarchy 
(Scotland) 
founded by 
Fergus I. 
Roman treaty 
with Alex¬ 
ander the 
Great. 

327. Second 
Samnite War. 


FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH 

OF CHRIST —B. C. 


Arts of 
Civilization 


First work on 
mechanics 
written by 
Aristotle. 

Commerce of 
Macedon 
with India, 
through 
Egypt. 


The Appian 
Way con¬ 
structed. 

Aqueducts 
and baths in 
Rome. 


Euclid, the 
celebrated 
mathemati- 


Sun-dial erect¬ 
ed at Rome, 
and time 
divided into 
hours. 

Fabius intro¬ 
duces paint¬ 
ing at Rome. 

The Colossus 
of Rhodes 
built by 
Chares. 


Rome, Etc. 


321. Roman 
army sur¬ 
renders to 
the Sam- 
nites. 

320. Sam- 
nites de¬ 
feated at 
Luceria. 

317. Syra¬ 
cuse and 
Sicily 
usurped 
by Agath- 
ocles. 


312. War 
with the 
Etruscans. 


286. Law of 
Horten- 
sius, by 
which the 
decrees of 
the people 
had the 
force of 
those of 
the senate. 


Macedonia 


317. Cassan- 
der as¬ 
sumes the 
throne of 
Macedon. 


296. Philip 
IV 


286. Lysima- 
chus, King 
of Thrace, 
subjects 
Mace¬ 
donia. 


Greece 


319. Poly- 
sperchon 
succeeds 
Antipater, 
and pro¬ 
claims lib¬ 
erty to the 
Grecian 
cities. 

317. Deme¬ 
trius Pha- 
lerius gov¬ 
erns Ath¬ 
ens. 

315. Cassan- 
der 

rebuilds 

Thebes. 

312. Pyrrhus 
II., great¬ 
est hero of 
his time. 

306. Democ¬ 
racy es¬ 
tablished 
at Athens 
by Deme¬ 
trius. 


294. Deme¬ 
trius mur¬ 
ders Alex¬ 
ander and 
siezes 
throne of 
Macedon. 


Syria, Judea 


312. Seleucus I. retakes 
Babylon. 


301. Battle of Ipsus, 
Alexander’s empire 
divided anew into 
four parts: Syria, 
Macedon, Greece, 
Egypt. 


291. Seleucus founds 
Antioch, Edessa, 
and Laodicea. 


Egypt, 

Carthage 


320. Ptolemy 
I. carries 
100,000 
Jews into 
Egypt. 


301. Phenicia 
united to 
Egypt. 
300. Golden 
Age of the 
Ptolemies. 


283. Death of 
Soter. 



























HISTORY 


61 


B. C. 

FROM 

THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH 



OF CHRIST —B. C 

. 



Arts of 
Civilization 

Rome, Etc. 

Macedonia 

Greece 

Syria, Judea 

Egypt, 

Carthage 

285 

Dionysius 


287. Lysi- 


285. The Scythians in- 



founds the 
solar year, 


machus 

reigns. 


vade Bosphorus. 

283. Ptolemy 


to consist 




Philadel- 


of 365 days, 





phus.King 


5 hours, and 
49 minutes. 





of Egypt. 

284 

The Septua- 



284. The 




gint begun 
at Alexan- 



Achaean 

Republic. 




dria. 





283 

The Pharos 







built at 

281. The Tar- 



281. Antiochus Soter 



Alexandria 

entine 

279. Irrup- 


succeeds Seleucus. 



first light- 

War. 

tion of the 





house on 


Gauls. 





record. 


277. Reign of 
Antigonus. 
274. Pyrolius 







invades 

Mace- 







donia, de¬ 
feats An- 







tigonus. 







and is 

proclaimed 

King. 







272. Antigo- 







nus re¬ 
stored. 



269. Egypt 




268. Second 

268. Athens 


first sends 

267 

Ptolemy 


incursion 

taken by 


embassa- 


makes a 

266 Rome 

of the 

Antigonus. 

262. Invasion of the 

dors to 


canal from 

mistress of 

Gauls. 

Gauls. 

Rome. 


the Nile to 
the Red Sea. 

all Italy. 





266 

Silver money 


250. Parthia 





first coined. 

264. First 

. 





Punic War. 

revolts 

255. Athens 

246. Antiochus II. 

246. Ptolemy 




from 

joins the 

poisoned by 

Eurgetes 



241. End of 

Macedon. 

Achaean 

his wife. 

subdues 



first 

Punic War. 


League. 

226. Seleucus 

III., King of Syria. 

Syria. 



225. The 




224 

Archimedes 

Gauls re- 






makes 
known his 
discoveries 
in mechan- 

pulsed in 
Italy. 




221. Ptolemy 

Philopa- 
ter, King. 


ics. 


220. Philip 

220. The So- 


219 

Art of sur- 

219. Hanni- 

assists the 

cial War 

219. War with 



gery intro- 

bal takes 

Achaeans. 

begins. 

Ptolemy. 



duced. 

Saguntum, 
and crosses 







the Alps. 







218. Second 







Punic War. 

Hanni¬ 
bal de¬ 
feats the 
Romans 
at Ticinus 
and Tre- 
bia. 







216. Varro at 







Cannae 
totally de- 

211. Alliance 


211. Antiochus the 




feated by 

of Philip 


Great, King of Syria. 




Hannibal.. 

and Han- 




206 

Gold coined 

206. Cartha- 

nibal. 

206. Spar- 




at Rome. 

ginians 


tans de- 


205. Ptolemy 



driven out 


feated at 


Epiphenes, 

King. 



of Spain. 


Man tinea. 




204. Scipio 




204. Roman 



carries the 



203. Judea conquered 

general 



war into 



by Antiochus. 

Scipio de- 



Africa. 



feats As- 

202 

Art of print- 

202. Hanni- 




doubal 


ing known 

bal defeat- 




and Sy- 


in China. 

ed at bat- 




phax of 



tie of Za- 




Carthage. 



ma. End 

* 



202. End of 



otf war. 




Second 

Punic 

War. 


























62 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


B. C. 


FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH 

OF CHRIST —B. C. 


198 


170 


167 


162 


159 


146 


140 

133 

130 


120 


Arts of 
Civilization 


Books, with 
leaves of 
vellum, in¬ 
troduced by 
Attalus, 
King of Per- 
gamus. 


Rome, Etc. 


Paper invent¬ 
ed in China. 


First library 
opened in 
Rome. 


Hipparchus 
fixes the 
first degree 
of longitude 
and latitude 
founds trig¬ 
onometry. 

Clepsydra in¬ 
vented by 
Scipio Nas- 


Alexandria 
the center 
of commerce. 


Clock wheels 
invented by 
Ctesibius. 

Equestrian 
order a dis¬ 
tinct class. 

Revival of 
learning in 
China. 


Theory of 
eclipses 
known to 
Chinese. 


200. Second 
Macedoni¬ 
an War. 


188. Syria is 
made a 
Roman 
province. 


181. Plague 
at Rome. 


170. Tiberius 
and Caius 
Gracchus. 

167. Census 
of Rome, 
327,000 
citizens. 


Macedonia 


199. Second 
War with 
Rome. 


179. Reign of 
Perseus. 
171. Third 
War with 
Rome. 


168. Mace- 
don be¬ 
comes a 
Roman 
province. 


155. Romans unsuccessful in 
Spain. 


149. Third Punic War. 

Conquest of Carthage 
and Corinth. 

Greece annexed to the 
Roman Empire. 


133. Spain becomes a Roman 
province. 


Greece 


198. Achse- 
ans and 
Spartans 
join the 
Romans 
against 
Macedon. 


Syria, Judea 


165. Romans 
enter 
Achaia, 


198. Jews assist Anti- 
ochus in expelling 
the Egyptian troops 
from Jerusalem. 

196. Hannibal joins 
Antiochus. 

190. Scipio Asiaticus 
defeats Antiochus 
at Magnesia. 

187. Antiochus killed. 
Syria becomes tem¬ 
porarily a Roman 
province. 


Syria 
185. Seleu- 
cusIV., 
King. 

172. Antio¬ 
chus 

IV., 

King. 

Greatly 

hated 

by the 

Jews. 


146. Corinth 
destroyed 
by the 
Romans. 

Greece 
becomes a 
Roman 
province 
under the 
name 
Achaia. 


Judea 


170. Jeru¬ 
salem 
plun¬ 
dered 
by An¬ 
tiochus 
Epipha- 
nes. 

165. Judas 
Macca¬ 
beus 
expels 
the 

Syrians. 

161. Trea¬ 
ty with 
Rom- 


123. Caius Gracchus, Tribune. 


113. First great migration of the German 
nations. 


142. Antio¬ 
chus 
VI., 
King. 

134. Inva¬ 
sion of 
Judea. 

130. Con¬ 
quered 
by Par- 
thia. 

129. Re¬ 
gained 
by De¬ 
metrius 
II. 


Egypt, 

Carthage 


198. Egypt 
loses her 
Syrian 
posses- 


180. Ptolemy 
Philoma- 
ter, King. 
174. Cato’s 
embassy 
to 

Carthage. 


130. John 
Hyr- 
canus 
delivers 
Judea 
from 
Syria. 


152. Massi- 
nissa de¬ 
feats the 
Cartha¬ 
ginians. 

151. Joint 
reign of 
Philo- 
mater and 
Physcon 
in Egypt. 

146. Car¬ 
thage tak¬ 
en and 
destroyed 
by the 
Romans. 

145. Ptolemy 
Physcon 
becomes 
sole King 
of Egypt. 


129. Physcon 
driven 
from his 
throne for 
cruelty. 

128. Pesti¬ 
lence in 
Egypt. 

123. Car¬ 
thage 
rebuilt. 

116. Ptolemy 
La thy r us, 
King 
of Egypt. 


















































HISTORY 


03 


B. C. 


no 


98 


86 


79 


74 


62 


55 


50 


47 


45 


FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH 

OF CHRIST —B. C. 


Arts of 
Civilization 


First sumptu¬ 
ary law at 
Rome. 


Roman 
schools of 
oratory on 
Greek mod¬ 
els insti¬ 
tuted. 

Libraries of 
Athens sent 
to Rome by 
Sylla. 

Posidonius 
calculates 
the height 
of the at¬ 
mosphere. 

The Romans 
possess gold 
mines in 
Asia Minor, 
Macedonia, 
Sardinia, 
and Gaul; 
and silver 
mines in 
Spain. 

Magnificent 
houses for 
Roman 
nobles 
erected. 

Also marble 
theater of 
Scaurus to 
hold 30,000 
spectators. 

Iron chain 
cables used 
by the Ve¬ 
netians. 

A water mill 
erected on 
the Tiber at 
Rome. 

The Alexan¬ 
drian library 
burnt — 
400,000 vol¬ 
umes. 

Caesar reforms 
the calendar 
by introduc¬ 
ing the solar 
for the lunar 
year. 


Rome, Etc. 


104. Teutoni defeat 80,000 Romans on banks 
of the Rhone. 

99. Birth of Julius Caesar. 


91. Social War in Italy. 

88. War with Pontus. 

82. Sylla defeats Marius and is created per¬ 
petual dictator. 

Plunder of the temple of Delphi. 


75. Bythinia a Roman province. 


65. Syria becomes a Roman province. 
Cicero, Consul. 

63. Catiline’s conspiracy detected and sup¬ 
pressed by Cicero. 


Syria 


97. Mith- 
ridates 
con¬ 
quers 
Capido- 
cio. 

86. Takes 
Bythin¬ 
ia. 


66. De¬ 
feated 
by 

Pom- 

Pey, 

Syria 

passes 

under 

Rome. 


Judea 


105 War 
with 
Egypt. 


79. Alex¬ 
andra, 
Queen 
of Jan- 
neus, 
governs 
Judea. 


63. Judea 
a 

Roman 

prov¬ 

ince. 


60. First triumvirate — Pompey, Crassus, and Csesar. 


55. Csesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Germans and Gauls, and in¬ 
vades Britain. 

53. Crassus defeated and killed in Parthia. 

51. Csesar completes conquest of Gaul, which becomes a Roman 
province. 

49. Civil War between Csesar and Pompey. Pompey defeated; Csesar, 
Dictator. 

48. Battle of Pharsalia — Pompey defeated by Csesar. Death of 
Pompey in Egypt. 

47. Csesar takes Alexandria and conquers Egypt. 


44. Csesar assassinated in Roman Senate. Antony master of Rome. 
43. Second triumvirate — Octavius Csesar, Marc Antony, and Lepidus. 
42. Battle of Philippi; defeat and death of Brutus and Cassius. 
32-31. War between Antony and Octavius. By the battle of Ac- 
tium (31), Octavius acquires the Empire. 


Egypt, 

Carthage 


107. Alex¬ 
ander I., 
King 
of Egypt. 


82. Revolt 
in Upper 
Egypt. 
Thebes 
destroyed. 

81. Alex¬ 
ander II., 
King 
of Egypt. 


65. Ptolemy 
Auletes, 
King. 

55. Auletes 
restored. 

46. The Afri¬ 
can War. 

45. Csesar 
rebuilds 
Carthage. 

43. Cleopa¬ 
tra poisons 
her 

brother 
and rules 
alone. 

36. Cleopa¬ 
tra ob¬ 
tains from 
Antony a 
grant of 
Phoenicia, 
Cyrene, 
and 

Cyprus. 

31. Defeat 
at Actium. 

30. Suicide 
of Antony 
and Cleo¬ 
patra. 

Egypt 
passes to 
Rome. 


30 


27 


22 


19 


Direct trade 
of Rome 
with India. 
Silk and 
linen fac¬ 
tories in the 
Empire. 

Treasures of 
Egyptian 
art brought 
to Rome. 
The Pan¬ 
theon built. 

Pantomimic 
dances in¬ 
troduced on 
the Roman 
stage. 

Aqueducts 
constructed 
by Agrippa. 


30. Republic of Rome becomes a monarchy. Population of Rome, 
4,100,000 citizens. 


27. Titles of Augustus and Emperor conferred on Octavius for ten 
years. — 


23. Agrippa subdues all Spain. 21. Athens finally subjected to Rome. 


19. Death of Virgil. 18. Parthians defeated. 


















64 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH 

OF CHRIST —B. C. 


Arts of 
Civilization 


Rome, Etc. 


12 


8 

4 


B. C. 


Roman legi¬ 
ons distrib¬ 
uted over 
the prov¬ 
inces in 
fixed camps 
which soon 
grew into 
cities — 
among 
them weie 
Bonn and 
Mayence. 

Calendar cor¬ 
rected by 
Augustus. 

Birth of Je¬ 
sus, at 
Bethlehem, 
in Judea. 
(According 
to the 
chronology 
of Usher.) 


15. Cantabria, Austria, and other territory conquered by Drusus, is added to the 
Empire. 

13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. 

11. Germany subdued by Germanicus. 5. Varrus appointed Governor of Syria, and 
Cyrenius Governor of Judea. 

10. Egyptian religion displaces national religion. 


4. Cymbelene, King of Britain. 

Advent of Christ, four years before the so-called Christian Era. 
3. Death of Herod. 

2. Caesar confirms the will of Herod. 


A. D. 


FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME —A. D. 1-476 



Arts of Civilization 


Celsus advances the 
science cf medicine. 


Development of 
Christianity 


8. Jesus reasons with 
the doctors. 


The Roman Empire 


1. Caius Caesar makes peace with the Parthians. 
Tiberius returns to Rome. 

6. Varrus, encamped on the Weser, governs lower 
Germany like a Roman province. 

14. Augustus dies at Nola; is succeeded by Tibe¬ 
rius as Emperor. 

19. The Jews are banished from Rome 


26 


The Druids in Ger¬ 
many. 


25. Pontius Pilate, Gov¬ 
ernor of Judea. 

26. John the Baptist 
begins his ministry. 

27. Jesus baptized by 
John. 

29. Twelve Apostles 
sent abroad. 

30. Crucifixion of the 
Saviour, Friday, April 
3, at 3 P. M. 

34. St. Paul converted 
to Christianity. 


26. Thrace becomes a Roman province. 


30. Agrippina banished. 


37 


50 


64 


78 


80 


Appion of Alexan¬ 
dria writes on 
grammar. 


Columella, born in 
Spain, writes on 
husbandry. 


Nero’s golden palace 
built—of great 
extent. 


The Capitol at Rome 
rebuilt. 

Circumnavigation 
of Scotland. 

Paintings executed 
for the baths of 
Titus; the group of 
the Laocoon. 


40. Disciples first called 
Christians at Antioch. 

41. Herod’s persecu¬ 
tions. 

50. Paul preaches at 
Athens. 

59. Paul appeals to 

Caesar. 

60. Paul imprisoned in 
Rome. 

64. First persecution of 
Christians by Nero. 

Paul visits Jerusa¬ 
lem. 

66. Jews at war with 
Romans; Paul be¬ 
headed. 

70. Destruction of Jeru¬ 
salem, by Titus. 


95. Second persecution 
of the Christians by 
Domitian. 


37. Tiberius succeeded by Caligula, noted for his 
profligacy. 

48. Census, 6,900,000. 

54. Nero, Emperor; a profligate and tyrant. 


61. Revolt of the Britons under Queen Boadicea. 
64. Nero sets fire to Rome; accuses Christians. 


77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one 
day. 

79. Pompeii and Flerculaneum destroyed by Vesu¬ 
vius. 

80. Agricola governs Britain, reduces Wales and 
enters Caledonia. 






















HISTORY 


65 


A. D. 


FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME—A. D. 



Arts of Civilization 

Development of 
Christianity 

98 

The Ulpian library. 
Jurisprudence 
flourishes. Forum 



built. 

107. Third persecution 


Pillar of Trojan, and 

by Trajan. 


Baths. 

118. Fourth persecution 


Bridge built over the 
Danube. 

by Adrian. 

120 

Great buildings of 
Palmyra. 

The Roman mosaics. 


132 

Ptolemy, celebrated 



Egyptian astrono¬ 
mer and geogra- 

134. Heresy of Marcion. 


pher. 

150. Canon of Scriptures 
fixed about this time. 

180 

Equestrian statue of 
Marcus Aurelius. 

202. Fifth persecution 

215 

Caracalla grants right 

under Severus. 


of Roman citizen¬ 
ship to all the 
provinces. 


235 

Alexandrian School 

235. Sixth persecution 


of Philosophy 
founded. 

under Maximinus. 

250. Seventh persecution 
of the Christians. 

262. Paul, bishop of Sa- 
mosatia, denies the 
divinity of Jesus 
Christ. 

272. Persecution of 

274 

Rome surrounded 

Christians under Au- 


with a wall. 

relian. 

283. The Jewish Talmud 

284 

Diocletian’s Oriental 

composed. 


form of govern- 

Religious ceremo- 


ment. Diocletian’s 

nies multiplied. 


Baths. 

Pagan rites imitat- 

290 

The Gregorian Code. 

ed by the Christians. 

296. Monks in Spain and 
Egypt. 

303. Persecution under 
Diocletian. 

306. Persecution of 
Christians stopped 

323 

Church of St. Sophia 

by Constantius. 

330 

erected at Constan¬ 
tinople. 

325. Council of Nice. 

Constantinople a seat 
of art and litera- 



ture. 

337. Eleventh persecu¬ 
tion. 

366 

Forts built on the 
Rhine. 

373. Bible translated 
into Gothic language. 

Death of Athana¬ 
sius. 


The Roman Empire 


98. Trajan, Emperor; Roman Empire at its greatest 
extent. 

100. The Huns migrate westward. 

117. Hadrian, Emperor; makes a journey through 
the provinces; visits Britain and builds there a 
wall from the Tyne to Solway Firth; builds a wall 
from the Rhine to the Danube. 


138. Antoninus, Emperor; 145-152, defeats the 
Moors, Germans, and Dacians; stops the perse¬ 
cution of the Christians. 

161. Marcus Aurelius, Emperor; 169, war with 
Marcomanni. 

189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by lightning. 

The Saracens defeat the Romans. 

193. Septimus Severus, Emperor. A vigorous ruler. 
194, besieges Byzantium; 202, persecutes the 
Christians; builds the wall of Severus in Britian; 
211, dies at York, in Britain. 

223. Artaxerxes begins the new kingdom of Persia. 
232. Persian War. 

241. The Franks first mentioned in history. 


251. Confederacy of the Franks established between 
the Rhine and Elbe. 

The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 

256-69. Goths conduct expeditions into Asia Minor 
and Greece. 

261. Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and 
Caesarea. 

264. Alliance with Odenatus, King of Palmyra, who 
is succeeded by his wife Zenobia, who reigns 
with the titles of “Augusta” and “Queen of the 
East.” 

268. Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,000 Goths. 

270. Aurelian, a great warrior, becomes Emperor; 
271, defeats the Goths and Alemanni; 273, re¬ 
duces Palmyra, and takes Queen Zenobia 
prisoner; 274, Franks, Spain, and Britain re¬ 
duced to obedience; 275, Aurelian killed near 
Byzantium. 

277. Probus, Emperor; 280, defeats the Persians. 


284. Diocletian, Emperor. 
China, 296. 


Sends ambassadors to 


291. The Franks master Batavia and Flanders. 


304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the empire to 
Constantius and Galerius. 

306. Constantine the Great, first Christian Emperor, 
defeats the Franks. 


331. Constantine orders all the heathen temples to 
be destroyed. 

337. Death of Constantine, and the accession of his 
three sons to the empire. 

364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of Valen- 
tinian and Valens, under whom the empire is 
divided. 


Western Empire 
364. Valentinian, Emperor. 
368. The Saxons invade 
Britain, but are defeated 
by Theodosius. 

375. Gains victory over the 
Germans; succeeds to the 
Eastern Empire on the 
death of Yalens. 


Eastern Empire 
364. Valens, Em¬ 
peror. 


376. Hungary (an¬ 
cient Pannonia) 
invaded by the 
Huns, from whom 
it is named. 




















66 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


392 


425 


435 


468 


476 


FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME —A. D. 


Arts of Civilization 


Development of 
Christianity 


379. Prerogatives of the 
Roman See much en¬ 
larged. 

381. Second general 
Council of Constanti¬ 


nople. 

384. Symachus pleads in 
the Roman Senate for 
Paganism against St. 
Ambrose. 

392. St.Chrysostom, Pa¬ 
triarch of Constanti¬ 
nople. 


Impulse given to the 
development of 
mathematics at 
Alexandria. 


416. The Pelagian heresy 
condemned. 


Theodosius estab¬ 
lishes public schools 
and attempts the 
restoration of 
learning. 


Theodosian Code 
published. 


The principle of law 
established that the 
accused shall be 
tried by his peers, 
or equals. 


Odoacer’s sack of 
Rome changed the 
course of events in 
Europe. The form 
of the old Roman 
government re¬ 
mained, but Italy, 
ravaged by a suc¬ 
cession of wars, 
plagues, famines, 
ana every form of 
public tyranny, 
was almost a desert. 


431. Third general Coun¬ 
cil at Ephesus. 

432. St. Patrick preaches 
the gospel in Ireland. 

435. Nestorianism pre¬ 
vails in the East. 


443. The Manichsean 
books burned in 
Rome. 

447. Eutyches asserts the 
existence of only one 
nature in Jesus Christ. 

451. Fourth general 
Council at Chalcedon. 


465-476. Oligarchy of 
the bishops of Rome, 
Constantinople, Alex¬ 
andria, Antioch, and 
Jerusalem. 

The Church now 
begins to assume a 
political aspect. 


Western Empire 


Eastern Empire 


379. The Lombards first 
leave Scandinavia, and 
defeat the Vandals. 


379. Theodosius the 
Great becomes a 
zealous supporter 
of Christianity. 


392. Theodosius becomes 
sole Emperor of the East 
and West. 

Complete downfall of 
Paganism. 

394. Final division of em¬ 
pire between the sons of 
Theodosius. 

401. Europe overrun by the 
Visigoths. 

406. Vandals allowed to set¬ 
tle in Spain and Gaul. 

410. The Goths under Alaric 
sack and burn Rome. 

412. Rise of the Vandal 
power in Spain. 

413. Burgundian Kingdom 
begun in Alsace. 


420. The Franks form a 
kingdom, under Phara- 
mond, on the lower 
Rhine. 

424. Valentinian IIL, 
Emperor. 

426. Britain evacuated by 
the Romans. 

428. Romans defeated by 
the Franks and Goths. 
Franks, under Clodion, 
extend their conquests. 

433. Attila forms an im¬ 
mense Empire from China 
to the Atlantic. 

439. The Vandals, under 
Genseric, form Kingdom 
of Africa, take Carthage 
and plunder Italy. 

441. Roman territories in¬ 
vaded by the Huns, Per¬ 
sians, and Saxons. 

445. Famous embassy from 
Britain soliciting aid 
against the Piets. 

448. Merovoeus I., first King 
of the Merovingians. 

451. Arrival of Saxons in 
Britain under Hengist 
and Horsa. 

452. City of Venice founded. 

458. Franks, under Childeric 
I., conquer as far as the 
Loire and take Paris. 

468. The Visigoths under 
Eric establish their king¬ 
dom in Spain. 


476. Odoacer, King of the 
Herulii, takes Rome, and 
the Western Empire ends 
1228 years after the 
founding of the city. 
Commencement of the 
Kingdom of Italy under 
Odoacer. 


388. Theodosius de¬ 
feats Maximus, 
the Tyrant of the 
Western Empire. 


408. Theodosius II., 
a child, Emperor. 


414. Regency of the 
Emperor’s sister, 
Pulcheria. 

420. Persian War. 


431. Armenia divided 
by the Persians 
and Romans. 

433. A great part of 
Constan tinople 
destroyed by fire. 

437. Pannonia, Dal¬ 
matia, and Nori- 
cum gained from 
the Western Em¬ 
pire. 


450. Marcian, Em¬ 
peror, refuses to 
pay tribute to the 
Huns. 

457. War with the 
Goths. 

461. Peace with the 
Goths. 

474. Zeno, Emperor; 
a turbulent reign 
marked by de¬ 
bauchery and 
conspiracies. 

475. Theodoric be¬ 
comes chief of the 
Ostrogoths and 
invades the em¬ 
pire. 


















HISTORY 


67 


a. D. 


486 


493 


611 

514 

516 


529 


551 


559 


568 


FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN 

EMPIRE —A. D. 476-841 


Arts of Civilization 


The Eastern 
Empire 


Great Britain 
and Ireland 


Italy and the 
Church 


480. An earthquake 
destroys greater 
part of Constanti¬ 
nople. 


484. Christians 
persecuted by 
the Vandals. 


Rise of the feudal 
system in France, 
under Clovis. 


Theodoric introduces 
Greek architecture 
into Italy. 


491. The Green and 
Blue factions. 


487. The Sax¬ 
ons defeated 
by Prince 
Arthur. 

490. Sussex be¬ 
comes a 
kingdom. 


The Salic law in 
France. 

Use of the burning 
glass in warfare. 

The Christian Era 
proposed and intro¬ 
duced by Diony¬ 
sius, a monk. 


The schools of Athens 
suppressed. 


502. Invasions by the 
Persians. 

511. Great insurrec¬ 
tion in Constanti¬ 
nople. 

514. Constantinople 
besieged by Vitali- 
anus, whose fleet is 
consumed by the 
burning glass of 
Proclus. 

518. Justinian I. be¬ 
gins a brilliant 
reign over the 
Eastern or Byzan¬ 
tine Empire. 

527. Celebrated Justi¬ 
nian code of laws. 

529. Belisarius, the 
famous general, 
defeats the Per¬ 
sians. 

534. Defeats the Van¬ 
dals in Africa. 

535. Subdues Sicily. 

536. Takes Naples. 

537. Takes Rome. 


519. Prince Ar¬ 
thur defeat¬ 
ed by Cer- 
dic, who be¬ 
gins the 
third Saxon 
Kingdom of 
Wessex. 

530. Kingdom 
of Essex. 


Manufacture of silk 
introduced from 
China into Europe 
by monks 


540. North Africa, 
Corsica, and Sar¬ 
dinia annexed to 
the Eastern Em¬ 
pire. 

548. The Turkish 
monarchy founded 
in Asia. 

554. Italy governed 
by Greek Exarchs. 


542. Prince Ar¬ 
thur mur¬ 
dered in 
Cornwall. 


493. Italy con¬ 
quered by 
Theodoric. 

Odoacer put 
to death. 

494. The Roman 
Pontiff asserts 
his supremacy. 

496. Christianity 
introduced 
into France. 


529. Order of the 
Benedictine 
Monks insti¬ 
tuted at Monte 
Cassino, near 
Naples. 


537. Italy con¬ 
quered by 
Belisarius, for 
Justinian. 

539. War, famine, 
and pestilence. 

Milan rav¬ 
aged by the 
Goths. 


The Saxon laws pro¬ 
mulgated. The 
king’s authority 
limited by the 
Wittenagemot. 

Three orders: the 
noble, the free, and 
the servile. 

The feudal system 
established in Italy 
by the Lombards. 
Written laws com¬ 
piled by the Visi¬ 
goths in Spain. 


558. A plague extends 
over Europe and 
Asia and lasts 
about 50 years. 


559. Saxon 
Heptarchy 
begins. 


569. The Turks first 
recognized as a na¬ 
tion. They send 
an embassy to Jus¬ 
tin II. and form an 
alliance. 


568. Italy con¬ 
quered by the 
Lombards. 


France 


481. Clovis I., 
founder of the 
French mon¬ 
archy. 

485. Battle of Sois- 
sons gained by 
Clovis. 


491. Clovis sub¬ 
dues Thuringia. 


510. Clovis makes 
Paris his capi¬ 
tal. 


532. Burgundy 
conquered by 
Childebert. 

536. Ostrogoths 
surrender 
their posses¬ 
sions in Gaul to 
the French 
King. 


557. Church of St. 
Germain de 
Pres built at 

558. Clotaire I., 
King. 

























68 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN 

EMPIRE —A. D. 476-841 


580 


597 


617 


632 


674 


698 


716 


Arts of Civilization 


Latin language ceases 
to be spoken in 
Italy, and super¬ 
sedes the Gothic in 
Spain. 


England relapses into 
semi-barbarism, 
after Saxon con¬ 
quest. 

The aristocracy ac¬ 
quire great power 
in France. 

Rites and supersti¬ 
tions increase all 
over Europe. 


Ethelbert publishes 
the first code of laws 
in England. 


Islamism and the 
power of the Ca¬ 
liphs established in 
the East. In the 
Caliphs were united 
the highest spiritual 
and regal authority. 

Stone buildings and 
glass come into use 
in England. 

The Anglo-Saxons 
advance in civiliza¬ 
tion and power by 
the introduction of 
Christianity. 

In France, the Teu¬ 
tonic language 
supersedes the 
Latin. 

National assemblies 
established but 
confined to the aris¬ 
tocracy. 

In Persia the Magian 
religion gives 
place to the 
Mohammedan. 

Christianity greatly 
extended among 
the German nations 
in the North of 
Europe; but al¬ 
most exterminated 
in Afnca by the 
progress of Moham 
medanism. 

The art of making 
paper introduced 
by the Arabs. 


The Eastern 
Empire 


600. Eastern Empire 
spread over Hun¬ 
gary, Poland, and 
Prussia, under Ti¬ 
berius II. 

602. Invasion of the 
Persians. 


610. Heraclius takes 
Constantinople, 
kills Phocas, the 
Emperor, and 
makes himself 
King. 

612. Mahomet pub¬ 
lishes the Koran. 

Syria ravaged 
by the Arabs. 

614. Jerusalem taken 
by the Persians. 

622. The Hegira, or 
Mahomet’s flight 
from Mecca to Me¬ 
dina. 

632. Death of Ma¬ 
homet. 

633. Omar, Caliph, 
takes Jerusalem,, 
which is held by 
the Saracens 463 
years. 

673. Siege of Con¬ 
stantinople by the 
Saracens, whose 
fleet is destroyed " 
by the Greek fire 
of Callinicus. 

680. Kingdom of Bul¬ 
garia founded. 


Great Britain 
and Ireland 


575. East Ang¬ 
lia formed 
into a 
kingdom, 
whence the 
origin of the 
name Eng¬ 
land. 

591. Ethelbert, 
King of 
Kent, gains 
the ascend¬ 
ancy. 


604. St. Paul’s 
Church 
founded by 
Ethelbert of 
Kent. 

607. Suprem¬ 
acy of the 
Pope ac¬ 
knowledged. 


617. St. Peter’s 
(now West¬ 
minster Ab¬ 
bey) found¬ 
ed by Sa- 
bert, King 
of Kent. 

633. Bretwold 
V. embraces 
Christianity. 


690. The name 
England 
first used 


698. Carthage de¬ 
stroyed by the 
Saracens, and the 
north coast of Af¬ 
rica subjugated. 

709. All Africa sub¬ 
dued by the Sara¬ 
cens. 

716. Leo III., Em¬ 
peror. 

The Saracens 
invest Constanti¬ 
nople, by land 
and sea. City 
saved by Greek 
fire. 


700. Anglo- 
Saxon Oc¬ 
tarchy. 

705. Alfred the 
Wise in 
Northum¬ 
bria. 


727. Ina, King 
of Wessex, 
begins col¬ 
lection of 
Peter’s 
pence to 
support a 
college at 
Rome. 


Italy and the 
Church 


575. First monas¬ 
tery built in 
Bavaria. 


590. Mass intro¬ 
duced. 


598. St. Augus¬ 
tine, first arch¬ 
bishop of Can¬ 
terbury, intro¬ 
duces Chris¬ 
tianity into 
Britain. 


607. The Pan¬ 
theon of Rome 
dedicated to 
Christianity. 


France 


583. Clotaire II., 
King. 


625-40. Churches 
of Jerusalem, 
Antioch, and 
Alexandria 
lost to the 
Christian 
world by the 
sweep of 
Mohammedan- 


680. The Sixth 
general Coun¬ 
cil called at 
Constanti¬ 
nople. 


698. Piets adopt 
Christianity. 

704. The first 
province given 
to the Pope, 
John VI. 


726. The Emperor 
Leo forbids 
image worship 


628. Dagobert I. 
builds the 
Church of St. 
Denis, the sep¬ 
ulture of the 
French kings. 

638. Kingdom di¬ 
vided by Clovis 
II. and Sigebert, 
the latter King 
of Austrasia. 


690. Pepin d’Her- 
istal, King. 


695. Childebert, 
III., King of 
Neustria. 

700. Aquitaine, 
Burgundy, and 
Provence be¬ 
come separate 
dukedoms. 

714. Charles Mar¬ 
tel, Duke of 
Austrasia. 

725. Charles Mar¬ 
tel subdues Ba¬ 
varia. 





























HISTORY 


69 


A. D. 


FROM THE FALL OF R031E TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN 

EMPIRE—A. D. 476-841 


740 


802 


813 


828 


840 


785 

788 

793 

800 


Arts of Civilization 


Saracens encourage 
learning. Ignor¬ 
ance, profligacy, 
and misery charac¬ 
terized the age pre¬ 
ceding Charle¬ 
magne. 


Golden period of 
learning in Arabia 
under the Caliph 
Haroun al Raschid. 

Pleadings in courts of 
justice first prac¬ 
ticed. 

Foundation of schools 
in monasteries and 
cathedrals by Char¬ 
lemagne. 

Agriculture and hor¬ 
ticulture encour¬ 
aged by Charle¬ 
magne; both flour¬ 
ish in Spain under 
the Caliphs. 


Arabian horses intro¬ 
duced into Spain. 


Transient revival of 
learning under 
Charlemagne. 

The reign of Caliph 
Mamun the golden 
epoch of Arabian 
literature. 


St. Mark’s Church at 
Venice built. 


Feudal system in its 
power. 


The Eastern 
Empire 


746. Saracens de¬ 
feated by Con¬ 
stantine V. 


762. Caliph Almanzor 
builds Bagdad and 
makes it his capi¬ 
tal. 

766. Asia Minor rav¬ 
aged by the Turks. 

785. Empire invaded 
by Haroun al Ras- 
chid, Caliph of 
Bagdad. 


803. The Saracens 
ravage Asia Minor. 


822. Constantinople 
besieged by the 
Saracens. The 
Bulgarians raise 
the siege. 

829. Theophilus, 
Emperor. 


Great Britain 
and Ireland 


735. Death of 
the vener¬ 
able Bede. 


787. First re¬ 
corded in¬ 
vasion of the 
Danes — the 
Sea Kings 
and Vikings. 


813. Egbert, 
King of W es- 
sex, defeats 
the Britons. 


827. The seven 
kingdoms of 
Heptarchy 
united by 
Egbert under 
the name of 
England or 
the land of 
the Angles. 

Invasion 
of the Danes 

838. Ethelwolf, 
King. 

Kenneth, 
King of the 
Scots, de¬ 
feats and ex¬ 
tirpates the 
Piets, and 
becomes sole 
monarch of 
Scotland. 


Italy and the 
Church 


752. The Pope de¬ 
thrones Chil- 
deric, King of 
France, by a 
papal decree. 

Pope Ste¬ 
phen III. at 
war with the 
Lombards. 

755. Beginning of 
the Pope’s 
temporal 
power. 


787. Seventh gen¬ 
eral Council of 
Nice. 


800. The Pope 
separates from 
the Eastern 
Empire and 
becomes Su¬ 
preme Bishop 
of the West¬ 
ern. 

Charlemagne 
reforms 
the Church. 
Many bishop 
rics founded. 


817. College of 
Cardinals 
founded. 


824. Christianity 
carried to 
Denmark and 
Sweden. 


France 


732. Defeats the 
Saracens at 
Tours. 


752. End of Mero¬ 
vingian line of 
French kings. 
Pepin, the 
Short, first of 
the Carlovin- 
gian line. 


764. Extirpates 
the Huns. 


791-96. Estab¬ 
lishes the mar- 
gravate of Aus¬ 
tria. 

800. Charlemagne 
founds the New 
Western Em¬ 
pire and is 
crowned at 
Rome King of 
Italy, Germany, 
and France. 

802. Receives an 
embassy from 
Haroun al Ras¬ 
chid. 

806. Charlemagne 
divides the em¬ 
pire among his 
sons, only one 
of whom sur¬ 
vived him — 
Louis I. 

817. Louis I. di¬ 
vides the em¬ 
pire. 


841. Another di¬ 
vision of the 
empire. 

Charles I., King 
of France; 
Louis I., King 
of Germany ; 
Lothaire, King 
of Italy. 
























70 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


841 


850 


872 


890 


900 


915 


939 

940 

941 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE —A. D. 841-1453 


Arts of Civilization 


Hereditary nobility 
and the clergy 
dominant in mat¬ 
ters of state. 


Roman and Common 
Law introduced. 


Clocks exported 
from Venice. 


Oxford University 
founded by Alfred 
the Great. 

Trial by Jury; fairs 
and markets in 
England. 

England divided in¬ 
to counties, hun¬ 
dreds, and tithings. 
County courts es¬ 
tablished. 


University of Cam¬ 
bridge founded. 


Cordova, in Spain, 
becomes famous as 
a center of science, 
learning, industry, 
and commerce. 

Mints established in 
England. 

The figures of arith¬ 
metic brought into 
Europe by the 
Saracens. 

Linens and woolens 
manufactured in 
Flanders. 


Italy and the Church 


844. Ignatius, Patriarch 
of Constantinople. 

Persecution of the 
Christians in Spain. 

846. The Saracens de¬ 
stroy the Venetian 
fleet and besiege 
Rome. 

850. Christianity propa¬ 
gated in Denmark 
and Sweden. 

858. Nicholas I. first 
Pope to be crowned. 

860. Schism of the 
Greeks begins. 


864. Bible translated 
into Slavonian. 

867. Eighth Council at 
Constantinople. 


912. The Normans in 
France embrace 
Christianity. 


921. The Bohemians 
adopt Christianity. 
929. Eudes, monk of 
Cluni. 


955. Baptism of Olga, 
and conversion of 
Russia to Christian¬ 
ity. 


Eastern Empire 


844. Decline of the Cali¬ 
phate begins. Fre¬ 
quent wars between 
the Greeks and the 
Saracens. 


867. Basil inaugurates 
the Macedonian dy¬ 
nasty. 


886. Leo VI., Emperor. 


890. Southern Italy sub¬ 
ject to the Greek 
Empire. 


904. Russian expedition 
under Oleg against 
Constantinople. 


917. Constantinople be¬ 
sieged by the Bul¬ 
garians. 

919. Romanus, general 
of the fleet, usurps 
the empire and 
places his son, Con¬ 
stantine VIII., on 
the throne. 


937. Romanus gains a 
naval victory over 
the Russians. 


945. The Empress Helen 
usurps the throne. 


The British Isles 


849. Alfred the Great 
born. 


867. The Danes con¬ 
quer Northumber¬ 
land. 

872. Alfred the Great 
defeats the Danes. 


891. Renewed invasion 
of the Danes. 


901. Edward the Elder 
the first to take the 
title of “Rex An- 
glcrum.” 


916. Agriculture at a 
low ebb. 


934. Athelstan, King. 


952. Malcolm I., King 
of Scotland. 

955. Dunstan, Abbot of 
Glastonbury, rises 
to great power. 























HISTORY 


71 


A. D. 

FROM THE 

DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 

OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE —A. D. 841-1453 


France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser Countries 

841 

Charles I. (the 

Bald), King. 

841. Louis I,, 

King. 

842. Ramiro I. 
elected King 
of Oviedo. 


846. The Saracens 
destroy the Ve¬ 
netian fleet and 
besiege Rome. 

858 

868 

Invasion of Louis 
the German, who 
is defeated. 

Lorraine annexed 
to France. 

856. Louis II. es¬ 
tablishes his 
court at Pavia, 
and rules Italy. 

857. Garcia 
Ximines 
founds the 
Kingdom of 
Navarre. 

862. Ruric the 
Norman, 
Grand Duke 
of Novgorod. 

860. Gorm united 
Jutland and the 
Danish Isles and 
becomes King of 
Denmark. 

861. Iceland dis¬ 
covered. 

885 

Paris besieged by 
the Normans. 

879. Louis III. 
and Carloman 
reign jointly. 
887. Arnold, Em- 

873. Sancho Ini¬ 
go, Count of 
Navarre. 


875. Harold, first 
King of Norway. 

898 

Charles III., King. 

peror. 

890. Arnold takes 
Rome. 

899. Invasion of 
the Hunga¬ 
rians. 



889. Arpad lays the 
foundation of 
Hungary. 

912 

The Normans, un¬ 
der Rolla, estab¬ 
lish themselves 
in Normandy. 

912. Conrad I., 
Emperor. 

910. Kingdom 
of Leon 
founded by 
Garcia. 

912. Arabs build 
the splendid 
city and pal¬ 
ace of Zehra. 

914. Beginning 
of the heroic 
age in Spain. 

907. Oleg in¬ 
vades the 
Greek Em¬ 
pire. 

901. Republics of 
Venice and Ge- j 
noa founded. 

923 

Civil Wars. 





936 

Louis IV., King. 

936. Otho the 
Great, Emper¬ 
or. 



930. Harold VI., 
first Christian 
King of Den- 

933. Eric, King of 
Norway. His 
cruelty leads to 
revolt of people. 

954 

Lothaire I. confers 
the dukedoms of 
Burgundy and 
Aquitaine on 
Hugh the Great. 

950. Bohemia an¬ 
nexed. 

940. Ramiro, 
King of Leon, 
defeats the 
Moors at 
Simancus. 

955. Sancho I., 
King of Leon. 

945. Swatoslav, 
King of Rus¬ 
sia. 

■\ t 



























72 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


982 


997 


1000 


1002 


1024 


1055 


1062 


1068 


FRO31 THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN E3IPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN E3IPIRE — A. D. 841-14.53 


Arts of Civilization 


Dublin a trade cen¬ 
ter. 


Italy and the Church 


959. St. Dunstan, arch¬ 
bishop of Canter¬ 
bury, attempts to 
reform the Church. 


Eastern Empire 


Venice and Genoa 
rise to great im¬ 
portance in com¬ 
merce. 

Firdusi, the.Persian 
Homer, flourished. 
(940 7-1020.) 

Paper made of cotton 
rags. 

Churches first built 
in the Gothic style 
of architecture. 

The French language 
begins to be writ¬ 
ten. 

Faint impulse given 
to art in Italy. 


Musical scale of six 
notes invented by 
Guido Aretius. 


989. Greek Christianity 
propagated in Rus¬ 
sia by Waldimir. 

993. First canonization 
of saints. 


999. Hungary becomes 
a fief of the Church. 


959. Emperor Romanus 
II. 


The British Isles 


985. Danish invasion 
under Sweyn. 


996. War with Bul¬ 
garia. 


1024. John XIX., Pope. 


First age of scholas¬ 
tic philosophy. 


Surnames first used 
among the Eng¬ 
lish nobility. 


Shoeing horses intro¬ 
duced into Eng¬ 
land. 


1048. Leo IX., the first 
Pope to keep an 
army. 


1054. Excommunication 
of the Patriarch of 
Constantinople and 
the Greeks. 


1059. Quarrel between 
the Popes and the 
German Emperors. 


1066. Pope Alexander II 
deposes Harold, and 
gives England to 
William the Con¬ 
queror. 

The papacy at the 
height of its power. 


1018. Bulgaria again re¬ 
duced to a Grecian 
province. 


1042. First invasion of 
the Seljuk Turks. 

1043. The Russians in¬ 
vade Thrace with 
100,000 men and are 
repulsed by the 
Greeks. 


1054. Theodora, last of 
the Macedonian dy¬ 
nasty. 


1002. Massacre of the 
Danes in England. 

1003. Scotland ruled by 
Malcolm II. 

1013. Danes, under 

Sweyn, become mas¬ 
ters of England. 

1016. Edmund II. fights 
six battles with Ca¬ 
nute, King of the 
Danes, with whom 
he divides the king¬ 
dom. 

1027. Brian Boru, sole 
Monarch of Ireland. 

1031. Canute subdues 
Scotland. 

1034. Duncan, King of 
Scotland. 


1039. Macbeth murders 
Duncan, and usurps 
the throne. 

1042. The Saxon line re¬ 
stored under Edward 
the Confessor. 


1051. William, Duke of 
Normandy, visits 
England. 


1067. Emperor Romanus 
III. defeated and 
taken prisoner by 
the Turks. 


1066. Harold II., King, 
killed at the battle 
of Hastings. 

William the Con¬ 
queror, King. End 
of the Anglo-Saxon 
line. 










































HISTORY 


73 


A. D. 


960 


986 

987 


996 


1031 

1032 


1046 


1066 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE—A. D. 841-1453 


1010 


France 


Hugh Capet, Duke 
of France. 


Louis V., last of the 
Carlovingians. 

Hugh Capet, King, 
and founder of 
the Capetian line 
of French kings. 


Robert II. succeeds 
his father on the 
throne. 


Notre Dame, Paris, 
rebuilt. 


Henry I., King. 
Burgundy annexed. 


Dispute between 
William the Con¬ 
queror and Wil¬ 
liam of Arques 
for the Duchy of 
Normandy. 


William, Dime of 
Normandy, 
claims the crown 
of England and 
wars on Harold 
to obtain it. 


Germany 


964. Italy united 
to the Empire 
of Germany. 

Tuscany be¬ 
comes a Duke¬ 
dom. 

979. Otho at war 
with Lothaire. 


1002. Henry II. 
Emperor. 


1024. Conrad II., 
first of the 
Franconian 
line. 


1039. Henry III. 
defeats the Bo¬ 
hemians and 
Hungarians. 


1053. Henry causes 
his son, Henry, 
to be pro¬ 
claimed King 
of the Romans. 
This title was 
applied for sev¬ 
eral centuries 
to the Emper¬ 
or’s eldest son. 


Spain 


976. Hixem, Ca¬ 
liph of Cor¬ 
dova. 


998. Division of 
the Moham¬ 
medan King¬ 
dom of Cor¬ 
dova. 

1000. Sancho the 
Great, King 
of Navarre, 
takes the title 
of Emperor. 


1035. Ramiro I., 
King of Ar¬ 
agon. 


1065. Alfonso, 
King of Cas¬ 
tile and Leon 


1068. Flight of 
Alfonso to 
Toledo. 


Russia 


981. Vladimir 
the Great, 
the first 
Christian 
ruler. 


1015. Russia di 
vided among 
the 12 sons 
of Vladimir. 


1036. Russia re¬ 
united by 
Jaroslav. 


1054. Russia di¬ 
vided a sec¬ 
ond time. 
Civil wars 
and great 
distress. 


Lesser Countries 


973. St. Stephen, 
first hereditary 
King of Hungary. 
Gives it written 
laws. 


985. Sweyn I., of 
Denmark, in¬ 
vades England. 


1016. Canute II., 
King of Den¬ 
mark. 

1019. Norway con¬ 
quered by Ca¬ 
nute. 

Danish as¬ 
cendancy. 


1055. The Turks re¬ 
duce Bagdad and 
overturn the Em¬ 
pire of the Ca¬ 
liphs. 

1059. Ingo I., first 
Christian King 
of Sweden'. 

1060. Robert Guis- 
card, Duke of 
Apulia. 

1065. Jerusalem 
taken by the 
Saracens. 


1067. Polish con¬ 
quests in Russia. 

1068. Olaf III., 

King of Norway. 

























74 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE —A. D. 841-1453 


Arts of Civilization 


Italy and the Church 


1073 


Booksellers first 
heard of. 


1084 

1090 


1100 


Rigid police system 
established in Eng¬ 
land. 

Fortresses at New 
Castle and Carlisle 
built. 


1118 

1120 


1140 


1150 


1158 


William of Poitou, 
first troubadour of 
note. 


Knights Templar 
instituted. 

Scholastic philosophy 
reaches a high 
point under Abel¬ 
ard. 

Aristotle’s logic 
comes into repute. 

Gratian collects the 
canon law. 

Magnetic needle* 
known in Italy. 


Bank of Venice es¬ 
tablished. 

Colleges of theology, 
philosophy, and 
law at Paris. 

Woolen manufac¬ 
tories established 
in England. 


1070. Lanfranc, Arch¬ 
bishop of Canter¬ 
bury. 


1073. Quarrel of Pope 
Gregory VII. (Hilde 
brand) with the 
Emperor Henry IV. 

1075. The Pope sends 
legates to the various 
courts of Europe. 

1076. Submission of 
Henry IV. to the 
Pope. 


1084. Triumph of Henry 
IV. over Gregory. 

The order of the 
Carthusians insti¬ 
tuted by Bruno. 


1095. Peter the Hermit 
preaches against the 

1096. The First Crusade. 


Eastern Empire 


1074. Syria and Palestine 
subdued by Melek 
* Shah. 


The British Isles 


1070. Feudal system 
introduced. 


1100. Study of theology 
receives new im¬ 
pulse. 


1123. First Lateran, or 
ninth General Coun¬ 
cil. 

1127. Pope Honoring II. 
makes war against 
Roger, King of Sici¬ 
ly. 

1139. Second Lateran, or 
tenth General Coun¬ 
cil. 

1147. The Second Cru- 

1154. Pope Adrian IV., 
an Englishman. 


1160. Waldenses and 
Albigenses begin to 
appear*. 


1081. Alexius I. (Comne- 
nus), Emperor. Rob¬ 
ert Guiscard invades 
the empire and de¬ 
feats Alexius. 

After the capture 
of Jerusalem by the 
Turks, the Christian 
pilgrims are insulted 
and oppressed, which 
gives rise to the Cru¬ 
sades — the great 
struggle between 
Christianity and Mo- 
hammedonism. 

Order, learning, 
and commerce re¬ 
vive in the last quar¬ 
ter of this century, 
and the empire is 
feared or respected 
by the nations of 
Europe and Asia. 

1099. Invasion by the 
Crusaders. 

1104. Battle of Acre. 


1109. Tripolis taken by 
Crusaders. 


1118. John I. reforms the 
manners of his peo¬ 
ple. 

Tyre taken by 
Crusaders. 


1143. Manuel Comnenus, 
Emperor. 


1156. Manuel forms the 
design of conquering 
Italy and the West, 
but fails. 


1076. Rebellion in 
Normandy. 


1087. William invades 
France and is killed 
at Nantes. 

1093. Malcolm III., of 
Scotland, invades 
England, and is slain 
near Alnwick Castle. 


1100. Henry I., King of 
England, unites the 
Normans and Sax¬ 
ons. 

1107. Henry quarrels 
with Anselm. 


1124. David I. promotes 
civilization in Scot¬ 
land. 


1154. Henry II., King of 
England. 

1158-64. Ascendancy of 
Thomas 4 Becket, 
Archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury. 





























HISTORY 


75 


A. D. 


1070 


1079 


1087 


1096 


1108 


1120 


1147 


1159 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE —A. D. 841-1453 


France 


Rise of the trouba¬ 
dours in 
Provence. 


Birth of Abelard. 


War with England. 
Robert, Duke of 
Normandy, op¬ 
poses William 
Rufus. 


Many French no¬ 
blemen take part 
in the First Cru¬ 
sade. 


Germany 


Abbe Sugar, minis¬ 
ter to Louis VI. 
of France. 


Rivalry between 
England and 
France begins. 


Louis VII. joins the 
Second Crusade. 


War with the 
English. 


1072. Henry IV. 
summoned be¬ 
fore the Pope 
for selling the 
investiture of 
bishops; treats 
the mandate 
with contempt. 

1073. Summoned 
again. 

1076. Henry sends 
an ambassador 
to depose the 
Pope, and is 
excommunicat¬ 
ed. Undergoes 
penance and 
submission. 

1080. Henry de¬ 
grades the 
Pope and 
triumphs. 


1093. The Popes 
continue their 
struggle 
against the 
empire. 


Spain 


1076. Time of the 
Cid. 


1085. Toledo 
taken from 
the Moors by 
the Cid. 

1086. Battle of 
Zalacca. 


1094. Pedro I., 
King of Na¬ 
varre and Ar¬ 
agon. 


1109. Henry V. en¬ 
ters Italy, 
takes the Pope 
prisoner, and 
compels him 
to crown him. 

1114. Henry V. 
marries Matil¬ 
da, of England. 

1125. Lothaire II. 
opposed by 
Frederick, and 
Conrad, Duke 
of Suabia. 

1141. Dissensions 
of the Guelphs 
and Ghibelines. 

1152. Frederick I., 
Emperor of 
Germany and 
Italy. 

1158. The Emperor 
Frederick re¬ 
ceives the title 
of King of Bo¬ 
hemia. 


1104. Alphonzo 
I., King of 
Navarre and 
Aragon. 


1118. Alphonzo 
captures Sar¬ 
agossa. 


1139. Portugal 
becomes a 
Kingdom un¬ 
der Henry of 
Besancon. 


1157. Castile and 
Leon divided. 


Russia 


Lesser Countries 


1070. Bergen, Nor¬ 
way, built. 


1084. Bohemia made 
a kingdom by 
Henry IV. of 
Germany. 


1090. Sicily taken 
from the Sara¬ 
cens by Roger 
the Norman. 


1105. War between 
Norway and the 
Wends. 


1119. War between 
Pisa and Genoa. 


1128. Riga on 
the Baltic 
founded. 


1147. Moscow 
founded. 


1150. Eric X., King 
of Sweden. 


1158. Venice a great 
maritime power. 






















7 6 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


1168 


1190 

1200 

1206 

1209 

1222 


1247 

1261 

1273 

1285 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 


Arts of Civilization 


Colleges of law, phi¬ 
losophy, and the¬ 
ology at Paris. 


The Jews become 
the principal bank¬ 
ers of the world. 


University of Bo¬ 
logna has 10,000 
students. . 

University of Paris 
founded. 

Period of the trouba¬ 
dours in France; 
the minstrels in 
England; minne¬ 
singers in Ger¬ 
many. 


University of Padua 


mversity 

founded. 


First war fleet in 
Spain. 


Parliament estab¬ 
lished in England. 


First patent of nobil¬ 
ity granted in 
France. 

Literature and science 
flourish in Spain 
under Alphonzo 
the Learned 

Institution of the 
three great courts 
of law in England. 

Cimabue, the first of 
modern painters at 
Florence. 


Italy and the Church 

Eastern Empire 

The British Isles 

1167. Borne taken by 
Frederick Barba- 



rossa. 


1172. Henry conquers 



Ireland. 

1178. Renewed activity 
of the Waldenses, 
forerunners of Pro- 



testantism. 



1179. Third Lateran, or 
eleventh General 
Council. 



1190. Third Crusade. 

1190. Iconium taken by 

1189. Richard I. engages 
in the Third Crusade. 

Frederick Barba- 

1193. John attempts to 

1198. Power of the Pope 

rossa, but after- 

seize the crown in 

supreme over tern- 

wards restored. 

the absence of Rich- 

poral matters. 


ard. 

1202. The Fourth Cru- 


1200. John, King of Eng¬ 
land. 

sade. Constantinople 

1204. The Crusaders 


taken. 

plunder Constanti- 


1215. Fourth Lateran 

nople. 

1215. Magna Charta 

Council, against the 


signed at Runny- 

Albigenses. 


mede. 


1216. Henry III., King. 

1217. Fifth Crusade. 



1243. Struggle of Pope 

1228. John of Brienne, 
King of Jerusalem, 
Emperor. 


Innocent IV. with 


1246. Henry marries 

the Emperor Fred- 


Eleanor of Provence. 

eric. 



1265. Dominion of Italy 

1260. Emperor Michael 
Palseologus recovers 
Constantinople. 

1258. Famous parlia¬ 
ment at Oxford. 

1265. First regular par- 

passes to the Pope. 

liament. 

1268. The Mongols in¬ 
vade Asia Minor and 
take Antioch. 

Civil War. 

1274. Fourteenth general 



Council at Lyons. 


1276. War between Eng- 


1281. Othman estab- 

land and Wales. 


lishes an independ- 

1283. England and Wales 


ent rule in the north 

united. 


of Asia Minor. 

Robert Bruce and 

1296. Struggle of the 


John Balliol contend 
for the crown of 
Scotland. 

1296. Scotland submits 

Church with France. 


to England. 


1299. Othman invades 

1297. Scotland rebels. 
War between Eng¬ 
land and Scotland 


Nicomedia, and es- 

follows. 


tablishes the Otto¬ 
man Empire. 

































HISTORY 


77 


A. D. 

FROM THE 

DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 


OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — 

A. D. 841-1453 



France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser Countries 



1167. Rome taken 



1167. League of the 

1170 

Rise of the Wal- 

by Frederick. 



Italian cities. 


denses. 



1171. Saladin, Sultan 






of Egypt, ex- 



1174. Frederick’s 



tends his domin- 


j 

fourth expedi- 



ions. Conquers 



tion into Italy. 



Syria, Assyria, 



1176. Defeated at 



and Arabia. 



the Battle of 
Legnano. 




1183 

The peace of Con- 

1183 Italy inde- 



1186. Directs all his 


stance reestab- 

pendent by 


1186. Incursion 


lishes the inde- 

treaty of Con- 

1188. Alphonzo 

of Huns and 

efforts against 


pendence of the 

stance. 

IX., King of 

Poles into 

the Crusaders. 


Italian republics. 


Leon. 

Russia. 


1190 

Philip Augustus 1 

1190. Henry VI., 
Emperor and 



1193. Battle of As- 


one of the lead- 




ers of the Third 
Crusade. 

King of Italy. 



calon. Saladin 
defeated. 

Death of Sala¬ 
din. 


1204 

Normandy reunit¬ 
ed to France. 




1206. Genghis Khan 





subdues the 

North of China. 




1212. Frederick 

1212. The Christ- 





II., Emperor. 

ians gain the 
Battle of 
Navas de To- 
losa. 

1213. Jurje II. 

1216. Tartary over- 






1217. Ferdinand, 


run by Genghis 




King of Cas- 


Khan. 




tile. 

1224. Mongolian 

1222. Hungarian lib- 

1223 

Louis VIII. con- 



invasion, 

erty assured by 

ducts crusade 



known as 

Charter of An- 


against the Al- 



the “Golden 

drew II. 


bigenses. 



Horde.” 


1226 

Louis IX., King. 


1230. Castile and 


1236. Mongolian in- 




Leon united 

1236. Second 




by Ferdinand 

Mongolian 

vasion of Europe 




III., who 

invasion. 

under Batu 




takes large 

Moscow 

Khan. 




territory 

burned. 





from the 

1238. Russian 




1243. The Hanse- 

Moors. 

independ- 




atic League. 


ence over- 





thrown by 


1248 

Louis IX. leads the 
Seventh Crusade. 

1250. Conrad IV., 


the Tartars. 
Khan of 



Emperor. 

1253. The Alham¬ 
bra founded. 

Kiptchak, 
Grand Duke. 

1259. Kublai Khan 








builds Pekin and 
makes it his 
capital. 




1266. Henry of 



1267 

Burgundy falls to 


Castile a Ro- 



1270 

the crown. 

Louis IX. sets out 


man senator. 



on the last Cru- 

1273. Rudolph, 

1274. Crown of 




sade. 

Emperor, 



1276 

France at war. with 

founds House 

Navarre 



Castile. 

of Habsburg. 

passes to 
France. 

1290. Khan of 

1290. Wenceslas, 






1291. James II., 

Kiptchak 

King of Bohemia, 


♦ 


King of Ar- 

wields strong 

takes Cracow. 




agon. 

-s rule in Rus- 


1297 

Invasion of 

1298. Adolphus, 
Emperor, de¬ 
posed, and Al¬ 
bert I. en- 


sia. 



Flanders. 



1299. Foundation of 
the Ottoman 
Empire. 



throned. 

























78 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE —A. D. 841-1453 


Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church 


1300 


1302 

1303 
1305 

1307 

1308 
1311 


1326 


1340 

1347 


1361 


1386 


1409 


1425 


Rapid advances in 
civilization — re¬ 
vival of ancient 
learning — im¬ 
provements in the 
arts and sciences — 
and general ex¬ 
pansion of liberty. 

Mariner’s compass 
invented at Naples. 

University Avignon. 

University Orleans. 

University Perugia. 

University Coimbra. 

Governmental re¬ 
forms extorted 
from Edward II. 
in England. 


Clocks constructed 
on mathematical 
principles. 


Gunpowder used at 
battle of Cressy. 

Manufactures and 
commerce improve 
in England. 


Parliament in Eng¬ 
land receives added 
powers. 


1303. Papal power de- 
clin e s 

1309. Seat of the Popes 
transferred to Avig¬ 
non. 


1311. General Council at 
Vienna. 


Eastern Empire 


1303. Genoese control 
trade of Black Sea. 


The British Isles 


1300. Silverplate used in 
England. 


1339. Struggle in Rome 
between the Colonna 
and the Ursini. 

1347. Democracy in 
Rome under Rienzi, 
last of the Tribunes. 

1354. Rienzi killed; pa¬ 
pal dominion re¬ 
stored. 


1320. Civil War in the 
Eastern Empire be¬ 
tween the Emperor 
and his son. 

1326. Orkhan, Sultan of 
the Turks, makes 
Prusa his capital. 


1306. Robert Bruce pro¬ 
claimed King of Scot¬ 
land. War with Eng¬ 
land continued. 


Jan Van Eyck in¬ 
vented oil painting. 


University of Leipsic 
founded. 


1378. Schism of the 
West; Pope Urban 

VI. acknowledged in 
England; Clement 

VII. in France, 
Spain, and Scotland. 


1355. John Palseologus, 
Emperor. 


1373. Treaty with Mu¬ 
rad, the Ottoman 
Emperor. 


Arts promoted in 
Italy. 


1409. The Council of 
Pisa. 


1414. Council of Con¬ 
stance. 

1416. Huss and Jerome 
burnt for heresy. 


1389. Bajazet, Sultan of 
the Turks. 


1402. Bajazet defeated 
and made prisoner 
by Tamerlane, at 
the battle of Angora 

1403. Solymon I., Sultan 
of the Turks. 


1327. Peace. Independ¬ 
ence of Scotland. 

1338. Struggle for the 
French crown be¬ 
gins; lasts 120 years. 
1346. Battle of Cressy. 


1356. Edward, the Black 
Prince, wins the bat¬ 
tle of Poitiers. 


1376. Death of the Black 
Prince. 


1425. Emperor John VII. 
visits Italy to ob¬ 
tain help against the 
Turks. 


1384. The Scots, assisted 
by France, invade 
England. 


1399. Henry IV., King. 
House of Lancas¬ 
ter begins. 


1406. James I., King of 
Scotland. 


1414. Henry V. claims 
the French crown. 

1415. Gains the battle of 
Agincourt. 

1422. Death of Henry V. 
Accession of Henry 

War with France. 





































HISTORY 


79 


A. D. 


1302 

1304 


1315 

1316 

1332 

1338 

1346 

1356 

1360 

1380 

1386 


1410 

1415 

1422 

1427 


FROM THE 

DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 

OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE —A. D. 841-1453 

France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser Countries 

First convocation 
of the States- 
general in France. 

War with Flanders. 

Edict for the en¬ 
franchisement of 
slaves. 

Philip V. succeeds 
by virtue of the 
Salic law, now 
first established. 

Revolt of the Flem¬ 
ings. 

War with England. 

Normandy overrun 
by Edward of 
England. 

King'John defeat¬ 
ed and taken 
prisoner at Poi¬ 
tiers. Charles, the 
Dauphin, Regent. 

John regains his 
liberty. Cedes 
much territory 
to England. 

Charles VI., King. 
Defeat of the 
Flemings at Ros- 
becq. 

Fruitless attempt 
to invade Eng¬ 
land. 

Civil War between 
Orleans and Bur¬ 
gundy. 

Defeat by the Eng¬ 
lish at Agincourt. 

Henry VI. pro¬ 
claimed at Paris 
King of France 
and England. 

Orleans besieged by 
the English. 

1304. Rise of the 
Swiss towns. 

1306. Rudolf of 
Austria, Em¬ 
peror. 

1308. Henry of 
Luxemburg, 
Emperor. 

General in¬ 
surrection in 
Switzerland. 

1314. Louis of Ba¬ 
varia and 
Frederick of 
Austria con¬ 
tend for the 
crown. 

1322. Frederick of 
Austria de¬ 
feated. 

1355. Promulgation 
of the Golden 
Bull. 

1378. Wenceslas 
(King of Bohe¬ 
mia), Emperor. 

1394. The Emperor 
imprisoned 
at Prague. 

1400. Robert, 

Count of Pala¬ 
tine, Emperor. 

1411. Sigismund 
(King of Hun¬ 
gary), Emper¬ 
or. 

1300. Dissensions 
in the Moor¬ 
ish state. 

1312. Alphonzo 
XI., King of 
Castile and 
Leon. 

1327. Arrival of 
200,000 

Moors to as¬ 
sist Granada. 

1340. Moors de¬ 
feated at 
Tarifa. 

1365. War be¬ 
tween Na¬ 
varre and 
France. 

1407. John II., 
King of Cas¬ 
tile. 

1416. Alphonzo 
V., King of 
Aragon and 
Sicily. 

1300. Moscow 
made the 
capital. 

1318. Finland in¬ 
vaded by 
Russians. 

1380. Tartar' 
War. Dimi¬ 
tri Ivano- 
vitch checks 
them at the 
Don. 

1382. Moscow 
burned. 

1395. Tamerlane 
invades Rus¬ 
sia. 

Russia 
under the 
Mongol Tar¬ 
tars until 
1462. 

1307. Swiss Republic 
founded. 

1319. The Oligarchy 
of Venice estab¬ 
lished. 

1326. Tamerlane 
born at Kesh, 
Tartary. 

1353. Establishment 
of the Ottomans 
in Europe. 

1359. Hungarian con¬ 
quests on the 
Danube. 

1369. Tamerlane 
makes Samar- 
cand the capital 
of his new Em¬ 
pire. 

1385. War between 
Austria and 
Switzerland. 

1399. Invasion of 
India by Tamer¬ 
lane. 

1419. The Hussite 
War in Bohemia. 
























80 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


1434 


1447 

1450 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 


Arts of Civilization 


Invention of printing 
at Mayence. 


Library of the Vati¬ 
can founded. 

Flourishing period of 
trade in Western 
Europe — particu¬ 
larly in Flanders, 
or modern Belgium. 


Italy and the Church 


1429. Schism of the West 
ended. 


1448. Concordat of As- 
chaffenberg, by 
which the liberties 
of the German 
Church are com¬ 
promised. 


Eastern Empire 


1444. Vladislas, King of 
Poland, defeated and 
killed by the Turks. 


1448. Constantine XII., 
last of the Greek 
Emperors. 

1453. Siege and capture 
of Constantinople by 
the Turks, ending 
the Eastern Empire. 


The British Isles 


1444. Truce with France. 
Marriage of Henry 
to Margaret of Anjou 


1450. Insurrection of 
Jack Cade. Wars of 
the Roses. Richard, 
Duke of York, 
claims the throne. 


From the fall of the eastern empire to the 

FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 


Arts of 
Civilization 


Italy and the 
Church 


Great Britain 


Germany 


Spain and 
Portugal 


1460 

1464 
| 1470 

1473 

1477 

1493 

1502 


1517 


Wood engraving in¬ 
vented. 


Post-offices in 
France and Eng¬ 
land. 

Beerhard invents 
the pedal to the 
organ. 

Printed musical 
notes. Large 
library founded 
at Ofen. 

Watches made at 
Nuremburg. 


Printing press at 
Copenhagen. 

Era of discovery in 
the New World 
begins. 

St. Peter’s and 
other great 
churches built. 


Luther and the Pro¬ 
testant Reforma¬ 
tion. 

Hans Sachs founds 
the German 
drama. 


1454. Struggle 
between Cos¬ 
mo de Medici 
and the aris¬ 
tocracy. 

1458. The French 
rule in Genoa. 


1463. Warof Ven¬ 
ice with the 
Turks. 

1469. Lorenzo de 
Medici suc¬ 
ceeds Pietro 
at Florence. 

1471. Increase of 
the power of 
the Medici. 
Rise of learn¬ 
ing. 

Sixtus IV., 
Pope. 


1492. Alexander 
VI., Pope. 


1500. Partition of 
Naples be¬ 
tween France 
and Spain. 

1503. Naples an¬ 
nexed to the 
Spanish 
crown. 

Julius II., 
Pope. 

1511. Council of 
Pisa. 

1513. Pope Leo 
X. patron of 
literature 
and the arts. 


1455. Wars of the 
Roses begin. 


1460. James III., 
King of Scotland. 

1461. Edward IV., 
King. House of 
York. 


1470. Henry VI. re¬ 
stored by War¬ 
wick. 

1471. Return of Ed¬ 
ward IV. Deaths 
of Warwick and 
Henry VI. 

1475. Edward IV. 
invades France. 

1480. War between 
England and 
Scotland. 

1492. Henry VII. in¬ 
vades France. 


1462. The Emperor 
besieged in 
court at Vi- 


1454. Henry IV. 
of Castile, 
King of 
Spain. 


1469. Invasion of 
the Turks. 


1477. Marriage of 
Maximilian and 
Maria of Bur¬ 
gundy. 


1493. Maximilian 
I., Emperor. 


1509. Henry VIII., 
King. 


1512. War with 
France. 

1513. Battle of Flod- 
den; James IV. 
killed. 

1515. Wolsey. chan¬ 
cellor and cardi¬ 
nal. 


1469. Marriage 
of Ferdi¬ 
nand of Ar¬ 
agon with 
Isabella of 
Castile. 


1479. Union of 
Castile and 
Aragon. 

1492. Conquest 
of Granada. 
Discovery of 
America by 
Columbus. 

1498. Vasco de 
Gama 
reaches 
India via 
Cape of 
Good Hope. 

1506. Columbus 
dies at Val¬ 
ladolid. 


1512. Maximilian 
divides the em¬ 
pire into 10 cir¬ 
cles. 


1517. Beginning of 
the Reforma¬ 
tion. 


1516. Charles, 
King of all 
Spain and 
the Nether¬ 
lands. 




































HISTORY 


81 


A. D. 

1429 

1431 


1453 


1461 

1475 

1477 

1491 

1499 

1510 

1515 


FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 
OF THE EASTERN E31PIRE —A. D. 841-1453 


France 

Germany 

Spain 

Russia 

Lesser Countries 

Saved by Joan of 
Arc. 

Charles VII. crown- 


1430. War be- 



ed at Rheims. 


tween Cas- 



Joan of Arc burned. 

1438. House of 

tile and 
Granada. 


1437-38. Rise of Por- 


Austria estab- 


1441. Kiptchak 

tugal. 


lished. Albert 
II. (King of 
Bohemia and 
Hungary), 
Emperor. 


Mongols di¬ 
vide Russia. 



1446. War with 





Hungary. 

1452. Civil War 


1450. Kingdom of 
Delhi enlarged. 



in Navarre, 



End of the French 

1453. Austria made 

in which Cas- 


1453. Poland’s inde- 

and English wars. 

an hereditary 

tile and Ar- 


pendence con- 

Duchy by Em- 

agon join. 


firmed by Diet 


peror Freder¬ 
ick III. 



of Petrekin. 


FRO31 THE FALL OF THE EASTERN E3IPIRE TO THE 
FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 


France 


Louis XI., King. 


War between France 
and Burgundy. 
Artois and Burgundy 
united to France. 


Bretagne united to 
the crown. 


Conquest of Milan. 


Council of Tours. 


Francis I. invades 
Italy. 


Russia 

Scandinavia 

1462. Ivan the 
Great takes 
the title of 
Czar. 


1472. Ivan mar¬ 
ries Sophia, 
niece of the 
Greek Em- 

1470. Sten Sture, 
Regent of 
Sweden. 

peror. 

1479. Great in¬ 
vasion of the 
Tartars. 

1481. Power of 
the Tartars 
annihilated. 

1481. John, King 
of Denmark, 
partially ac¬ 
knowledged 
in Sweden. 

1510. Renewed 
Tartar inva- 


sions. 

1513. Christian 
II., King of 
Norway and 
Denmark. 


Ottoman Empire 

Lesser Countries 


1454. Poland at 
war with the 
Teutonic Or¬ 
der. 

1458. Greece sub- 

1458. Hungary vig- 

jected to the 

orous under 

Turks. 

Mathias Cor- 
vin. 

1464. War with 


Hungary. 

1480. Otranto 
taken. 

1481. Bajazet II., 
Sultan. 

1466. Prussia a fief 
of Poland. 

1468. Uzun Has- 
san, master of 
Persia. 

1485. Mathias of 
Hungary takes 

1493. War with 

Vienna. 

Egypt, Hun- 

1492. America dis- 

gary, and Ven- 

covered by Co- 

ice. 

lumbus. 

1499. Voyage of 
Amerigo Ves¬ 
pucci. 

1502. Soufi sole 

1505. War with 

Sovereign of 

Persia. 

Pproi o 

1506. Poland un- 

1512. Selim I. de- 

der Sigismund 

thrones and 

the Great. 

puts to death 

1511. Cuba con- 

his father. 

quered. 

1514. Persians de- 

1512. Florida dis- 

feated; Kurdis- 

covered. 

tan added to 

1513. Discoveries 

the empire. 

of Balboa. 

1516. Cairo taken. 

1517. First patent 
granted by 
v Spain for the 
importation of 
negroes into 
America. 



























82 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM _THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 
FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 


1559 

1560 


1573 


1586 

1588 

1590 


1602 

1606 

1615 

1618 

1620 

1626 


Arts of 
Civilization 


1522 


1530 


1545 


1548 


Circumnavigation 
of the globe by 
^ Magellan. 

Xavier plants 
Christianity in 
India. 

Jorgens invents the 
spinning wheel 
for flax. 


Vasalius makes im¬ 
portant contribu¬ 
tions to study of 
anatomy. 

Orange trees intro¬ 
duced into Eu¬ 
rope. 


Carriages intro¬ 
duced into Paris. 
Knives first made 
in England. 


Italy and the 
Church 


Titian, colorist 
painter, at height 
of fame. 


Tobacco introduced 
into Europe. 

First newspaper in 
England. 

Telescopes invent¬ 
ed by Jansen, a 
German. 

Napier invents lo¬ 
garithms. 


English East India 
Company found¬ 
ed. 

Gilbert’s electrical 
discoveries. 


Coffee in Venice. 


Harvey discovers 
the circulation of 
the blood. 

Thermometers in¬ 
vented by Drebel. 

Negro slavery be¬ 
gins in Virginia. 

Kepler’s laws dis¬ 
covered. 


1525. Spanish as¬ 
cendancy by 
the victory 
of Pavia. 


1540. Order of 
Jesuits 
founded by 
Loyola. 

1545. Council of 
Trent. 


1550. Julius III., 
Pope. 


1559. Termina¬ 
tion of 
French wars 
in Italy. 


1569. Florence a 
grand duchy. 


1585. Pope Six¬ 
tus V. re¬ 
stores the 
Vatican li¬ 
brary. 

1592. The Rialto 
and Piazza di 
San Marco 
built at Ven- 


1609. Leghorn 
becomes the 
emporium of 
the Levant 
trade. 

1618. Conspiracy 
of Bedmar to 
subject Ven¬ 
ice to Spain. 


1626. St. Peter’s 
dedicated. 

1628. War fol¬ 
lowing death 
of the Duke 
Mantua. 


Great Britain 


1617. Sir Francis Ba¬ 
con, lord chan¬ 
cellor. 

1620. Pilgrims sail in 
Mayflower. 

1625. Charles I., 
King. 

1627. War with 
France. 


1532. The King mar¬ 
ries AnneBoleyn. 

1535. Henry excom¬ 
municated by the 
Pope. 

1543. Invasion of 
France. 

1547. Formal estab¬ 
lishment of Prot¬ 
estantism. 

Edward VI., 
King. 


1553. Mary, Queen of 
England. 

1554. Lady Jane 
Grey executed. 

1555. Persecution of 
the Protestants. 

1558. Elizabeth, 
Queen. 

Rise of the Pu¬ 
ritans. 


1568. Mary, Queen of 
Scots, takes ref¬ 
uge in England. 


1584. Raleigh’s col¬ 
ony in Virginia. 

1585. War with 
Spain. 

1588. Spanish Arma¬ 
da destroyed. 


1599. Troubles with 
Ireland. 

1600. English East 
India Company 
chartered. 

1603. Union of Eng¬ 
land and Scot¬ 
land. 

1607. English settle¬ 
ment at James¬ 
town. 


Germany 


Spain and 
Portugal 


1519. Charles V., 
King of Spain. 
1521. Diet of 
Worms. 

1529. Turks invade 
Germany. 


1543. Alliance with 
England 
against France 


1551. Treaty of 
Passau secures 
religious liberty 
to the Protest 
ants. 


1556. Charles V. ab¬ 
dicates. 


1564. Maximilian 
II., Emperor. 


1519. Conquest 
of Mexico by 
Cortez. 


1540. Lisbon, the 
market of 
the world. 


1576. Rudolph II., 
King of Bohe¬ 
mia and Hun¬ 
gary, Emperor. 


1594. Union of 
Protestants at 
Heilbronn. 


1608. Protestant 
union under 
Frederick the 
Elector. 


1564. Acquisi¬ 
tion of the 
Philippines. 

1567. Duke of 
Alva Govern¬ 
or of the 
Nether¬ 
lands. 

1570. War with 
Turkey. 
Battle of 
Lepanto. 

1580. Portugal 
passes under 
Spanish do¬ 
minion. 


1588. Defeat of 
the Spanish 
Armada. 


1618. Thirty Years’ 
War begins. 

1620. Massacre of 
Prague. 


1628. Victories of 
Wallenstein. 


1609. Expulsion 
of the Moors. 


1621. Dutch 
War. 

1625. Naval War 
with Eng¬ 
land. 












































HISTORY 


83 


A. D. 

FROM 

THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 

FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 


France 

| 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman Empire 

Lesser Countries 






1519. Spaniards, 




1520. Christian, 

1520. Soliman the 

under Cortez, 




King of Swe- 

Magnificent, 

conquer Mex- 




den. 

Sultan. 

ico. 

1521 

First War with 


1521. Gustavus 

1521. Belgrade tak- 



Charles V. 


Vasa throws 

en. 


1525 

Francis defeated and 


off the Dan- 




taken prisoner at 


ish yoke. 




Pavia. 


1523. Gustavus 

1526. Invasion of 


1527 

Second War with 


Vasa, King 

Hungary. 



Charles V. 


of Sweden. 

1529. Invasion of 


1532-44 

Struggle for posses- 


Union of 

Germany. 



sion of Italy. 

1533. Ivan the 

Calmar dis- 

Siege of Vi- 

1533. Cortez con- 



Terrible, 

solved. 

enna. 

quers Peru. 



Czar. 

1532. Union of 

1535. Barbarossa 





Norway and 

siezes Tunis. 





Denmark. 


1545. Mines at Po- 




1543. First stand- 


tosi discovered. 

1547 

Henry II., King; 


ing army in 

1547. Turks invade 



Catherine de 


Sweden. 

Persia. 



Medici, Queen. 



1551. Tripoli taken. 


1552 

Fifth War with 



1552. Invasion of 



Charles V. 



Hungary. 




1554. Siberia 



1556. Akbar raises 



discovered. 



the Indian Em- 






pire to its 






greatest splen- 





1559. Military 

dor. 




1560. Eric XIV., 

power of the 

1564. Coligny sends 




King of Swe- 

Turks at its 

a colony of Hu- 




den. 

greatest height 

guenots to 

1562 

Religious liberty 


War be- 

under Soliman. 

Florida. 


granted to the Hu- 


tween Swe- 




guenots. Hugue- 


den and Den- 




not Wars. 


mark. 






1570. Peace of 

1570. War with 





Stettin. 

Venice. 




1571. Russia de- 


1571. Battle of Le- 


1572 

Massacre of St. Bar- 

vastated by 


panto. 



tholomew. 

the Tartars 




1576 

The Catholic League. 

and Moscow 




1577 

Sixth Religious War. 

burned. 






1578. Alliance of 

1578. Alliance 





Sweden and 

with Poland. 


1579. Beginning of 



Poland 



the Republic 



against Rus- 



of Holland. 



sia. 



1585. Persia ac- 

1588 

Revolt of Paris. 


1588. Christian 


quires great 

1589 

House of Bourbon be- 


IV., King of 

1589. Revolt of 

power under 


gins with Henry 


Denmark. 

the Janizaries. 

Abbas the 


IV. 




Great. 

1590 

Siege of Paris raised 



1595. Power in 



by the Spaniards. 



Hungary de- 


1598 

Edict of Nantes—tol- 

1598. Borus Go- 


dines; revolt 



eration granted to 

dunov be- 


of Wallachia. 



the Protestants. 

gins a new 






dynasty. 

'' 






1604. Charles 

1605. Revolt in 

1605. Jehangir, Mo- 




IX., King of 

Syria. 

gul Emperor 




Sweden. 

1606. Commercial 

of India. 




1609. Gustavus 

treaty with 

1609. First English 




Adolphus, 

France and 

envoy of the 




King of Swe- 

Holland. 

East India 

1610 

Assassination of 


den. 


Company sent 


Henry IV. 

1613. Michael 

1611. War be- 


to India. 

1614 

Last assembly of the 

Fedorovitz, 

tween Swe- 




States-general. 

Czar, founds 

den and Den- 





the house of 

mark. 





Romanoff. 

1616. Sweden 





1617. Finland 

dominates 

1618. Great Per- 




ceded to 

the North. 

sian victory at 




Sweden, 


Shibli. 


1624 

Ministry of Cardinal 



1620. War with Po- 



Richelieu. 



land. 


1627 

War with England 






over the Hugue- 






nots. 


















84 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


1630 

1639 

1640 
1643 


1654 


1666 

1667 


1671 


1681 

1681 


1687 


1690 

1692 

1693 


1703 


FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 
FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 


Arts of 
Civilization 

Italy and the 
Church 

Great Britain 

Gazettes first pub- 

1631. Influenceof 


lished in Venice. 


Printing in America. 

France in¬ 
creases. 


Manufacturing in 


1642. Civil War and 

Sweden. 


Conde and Turenne 
the greatest gen- 

1646. Revolt of 

revolution. 

erals of the time. 

Naples under 

1649. Commonwealth 

Massaniello. 

Air pumps invented. 

under Cromwell. 

1652. War with Hol¬ 
land. , 

1653. Cromwell, 

Lord Protector. 

Canal of Languedoc 


1660. Charles II., 
King. 

Stuarts re¬ 
stored. 

1666. Great fire in 

built. 


London. 

Gobelin tapestry 
manufactured in 


1668. Triple alliance 

Paris. 

1669. Candia 

of England, Swe- 


taken from 

den, and Holland 


Venice. 

against France. 

Foundation of the 

1670. War be¬ 
tween Genoa 

Academy of Ar- 

and Savoy. 


chitecture at 
Paris. 

1676. Messina 
blockaded by 

1679. Habeas Corpus 


the Dutch 

act passed. 

Museum of Natural 

and Spanish 
fleets. 

History founded 



in London. 

Jardin des Plantes 


1685. James II., 

founded at Paris. 


King. 



Rise of the 
Whigs and To¬ 
ries. 

The earliest tele- 



graph instru- 


1688. Revolution. 

ments invented. 

1689. Alexander 

1689. William III., 


VIII., Pope. 

King, and Mary 

White paper first 


II., Queen. 

War with 
France. 

1690. Battle of the 

made in England. 


Bovne. 

First opera in Lon- 


James defeat- 

don. 


ed, returns to 

Bank of England 

1693. Battle of 

France. 

founded. 

Marsaglia. 

1697. General peace. 

Russian newspaper 

1702. French vie- 

1701. War of the 
Spanish succes¬ 
sion. 

1702. Queen Anne. 

tory of Luz- 

War against 

established at St. 

zace over the 

France and 

Petersburg. 

imperialists. 

Spain. 

Flourishing period 


1704. Gibraltar taken 

of French litera- 


by English. 

ture. 

1706. French 


driven from 
Italy by 
Prince Eu¬ 
gene. 



Germany 


1629. Gustavus 

Adolphus lands 
in Germany. 
1632. Battle of 
Lutzen. 


1640. Frederick 
William of 
Prussia. 


1648. Treaty of 
Westphalia. 


1657. Leopold I., 
Emperor. 


1665. Tyrol united 
to Austria. 


1673. War of Aus¬ 
tria and 
France. 

1676. General re¬ 
volt of the 
Hungarians. 

1680. Greater part 
of Alsace seized 
by France. 

1683. Siege of Vi¬ 
enna by the 
Turks. 

1686. Buda taken 
after being 
held by the 
Turks 145 
years. 

1687. Joseph I., 
King of Hun¬ 
gary. 


1690. Joseph I., 
elected King 
of the Romans. 


1697. Victories of 
Prince Eugene 
over the Sul¬ 
tan Mustapha 
at Zenta. 

1701. Hague alli- 
liance. 


Spain and 
Portugal 


1639. Loss of the 
Japanese 
trade. 

1640. Portugal 
regains in¬ 
dependence. 


1654. Brazil re¬ 
covered from 
the Dutch. 

1655. War with 
England. 

1661. Invasion 
of Portugal. 


1673. War with 
France to 
protect Hol- 


1689. Revolt in 
Catalonia in 
favor of 
France. 


1691. Incursion 
of the 
French into 
Aragon. 


1701. Philip V., 
King. 


1705. Barcelona 
taken by the 
Allies. 
















































HISTORY 


85 


A. D. 


FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 
FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 


France 


Russia 


Scandinavia 


1638 

1640 

1643 

1648 

1649 

1653 

1659 


1667 


1672 


1678 


1680 


1685 


1688 

1697 


1702 


1704 


Invasion of Spain. 


Turin taken by the 
French. 

Louis XIV., King. 

Wars of the Fronde. 
Siege of Paris. 


Mazarin enters Paris 
in triumph. 


Peace of the Pyrenees. 


War with Spain. 


War with Holland. 


Peace with Holland 
and Spain restores 
tranquillity to 
Europe. 

France the most for¬ 
midable power in 
Europe. 

Revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes. 


War of the Allies 
against France. 

General peace of Rys- 
wick between 
France and the 
Allies. 


1632. War with 
Poland. 
Poles ad¬ 
vance to 
Moscow. 


1654. Russian 
victories in 
Poland. 


Invasion of Holland. 
Revolt of the Hugue¬ 
nots. 

Defeat at Blenheim. 


1671. The Cos¬ 
sacks subju¬ 
gated. 


1682. Ivan and 
Peter, Czars. 


1689. Peter the 
Great, Czar. 
1692. First trade 
with China. 


1632. Christina, 
Queen of 
Sweden; Ox- 
enstiern, Re¬ 
gent. 


1645. Peace be¬ 
tween Swe¬ 
den and Den¬ 
mark. 


1657. War be¬ 
tween Den¬ 
mark and 
Sweden. 

1660. Arts and 
sciences 
flourish. 


1680. Diet of 
Stockholm. 


1700. Peter the 
Great wars 
with the 
Northern 
Powers. 

1703. St. Peters¬ 
burg found¬ 
ed. 


1693. The King 
of Sweden 
declared ab¬ 
solute. 

1699. Charles 
XII. begins 
to reign. 
Denmark, 
Poland, and 
Russia form 
an alliance 
against Swe¬ 
den. 

1700. Defeat of 
the Allies at 
Narva. 

1702-6. Charles 
XII. sweeps 
Poland and 
Russia. 


Ottoman Empire 


Lesser Countries 


1634. Murad in¬ 
vades Persia. 

1637. Troubles on 
the Tartar 
frontier. 

Bagdad 
taken by the 
Turks. 

1645. War with 
Venice. 


1657. Alliance with 
Sweden against 
Poland. 


1661. War with 
Austria. 

1662. Invasion of 
Hungary. 


1672. Invasion of 
Poland. 


1678. First War 
with Russia. 


1682. War with 
Austria. 

1683. Defeat at Vi¬ 
enna. 

1686. Russia' de¬ 
clares war. 

1687. Revolution 
in Constanti¬ 
nople, Soly- 
man II., Sul¬ 
tan. 

1690. Recovery of 
Belgrade from 
the Austrians. 


1699. Peace of Car- 
lowitz. The Ot¬ 
toman power 
broken. 


1703. Mustapha II. 
deposed by the 
Janizaries. 


1639. Great naval 
victory of Van 
Tromp, of Hol¬ 
land, over the 
Spanish fleet 
at the Downs. 

1640. Madras, In¬ 
dia, founded. 


1653. John de Witt, 
Grand Pension¬ 
ary of Holland. 


1660. Sobieski, Po¬ 
lish general, 
wins great vic¬ 
tory over the 
Tartars. 


1674. Sobieski, 

King of Poland. 


1686. Dekkan, In¬ 
dia, conquered, 


1692. Mogul power 
at its height in 
India. 

Jesuits gain 
large influence 
in China. 

1695. Brussels 

bombarded by 
the French. 


1704. Stanislaus I., 
King of Poland 



















86 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 
FALL OF NAPOLEON—1453-1815 


1709 

1714 


1721 


1728 


1740 


1750 

1761 

1767 

1774 


1784 


1786 


Arts of 
Civilization 


Prussic acid dis¬ 
covered. 

Rise of commerce 
in Austria. 


Italy and the 
Church 


1707. All Spanish 
possessions in 
Italy aban¬ 
doned. 


Inoculation for 
small pox intro¬ 
duced. 


Behring Strait dis¬ 
covered. 


Irish linen manu¬ 
factories and 
English steel and 
cutlery factories 
flourish. 


Franklin’s discov¬ 
eries in electricity. 
Potatoes first 

planted in France. 


First spinning ma¬ 
chine in England. 

Spinning-jenny in¬ 
vented by Ark¬ 
wright. 

Steam engines im¬ 
proved by Watt 
and Bolton. 


First American ves¬ 
sel in China. 

Institution for the 
deaf and dumb 
at Paris. 

Taylor’s system 
of stenography 
invented. 


1715. Siege of 
Corfu raised. 


1719. Sicily in¬ 
vaded by the 
Spanish. 


1730. Clement 
XII., Pope. 


1744. Italy in¬ 
vaded by the 
French and 
Spaniards. 


1746. French and 
Spaniards 
driven from 
Lombardy. 


1773. Jesuits ex¬ 
pelled from 
Rome. 


1782. Pontine 
Marshes 
drained. 


1796-7. Napo¬ 
leon’s Italian 
campaign. 

1798. Roman Re¬ 
public pro¬ 
claimed by 
the French. 


Great Britain 


1707. Act of union of 
England and 
Scotland. 

First united 
parliament of 
Great Britain 
meets. 

1713. Peace of 

Utrecht. Eng¬ 
land acquires 
large American 
possessions. 

1718. War with 
Spain. 


Germany 


1727. George II., 

King of England. 


1739. War with 
Spain. 


1711. Charles VI., 
Emperor. 


1718. Quadruple 
alliance against 
Spain. 


1725. Alliance of 
Vienna, Spain, 
and Austria. 


Spain and 
Portugal 


1725. Alliance 
with Aus¬ 
tria. 


1745. Troubles in 
Scotland. 

1756. Alliance with 
Prussia. 

1762. War with 
Spain. 

1763. Peace of Paris. 

1775. War with the 
American Colo¬ 
nies. 

1776. British army 
takes possession 
of New York. 

Hessians hired 
for service in 
America. 

1781. Surrender of 
Cornwallis at 
Yorktown. 

1783. Treaty of Ver¬ 
sailles. 

Independence 
of the United 
States acknowl¬ 
edged. 

1786. Impeachment 
of Warren Hast¬ 
ings. 

1793. First coalition 
against France 
directed by Eng¬ 
land. 

1797. Nelson de¬ 
stroys French 
fleet near Alex¬ 
andria. 

1798. Second coali¬ 
tion against 
France. 

1800. Union of Eng¬ 
land and Ireland. 


1733. War of the 
Polish succes¬ 
sion. 

1740. War of the 
Austrian suc¬ 
cession. 

Maria The¬ 
resa succeeds 
to the heredi¬ 
tary States. 

1745. Francis I., 
husband of 
Maria Theresa, 
Emperor. 

1756. Seven years’ 
war — Austria 
and Prussia. 

1772. Dismember¬ 
ment of Po¬ 
land. 


1778. War of the 
Bavarian suc¬ 
cession. Bava¬ 
ria seized by 
Germany. 


1788. The Emperor 
tries to control 
the universi¬ 
ties. 

1792. War with 
France. 

1793. First coali¬ 
tion against 
France. 

1797. Napoleon’s 
Austrian cam¬ 
paign. 


1734. Conquest 
of Sicily and 
Naples by 
Don Carlos. 


1746. Ferdinand 
VI., King. 


1767. Jesuits ex¬ 
pelled from 
Spain. 


1788. Charles 
IV., King. 






























HISTORY 


87 


A. D. 

FROM 

THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO 

THE 


FALL OF NAPOLEON — 

1453-1815 



France 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman Empire 

Lesser Countries 



1707. Revolt of 






the Cossack 
Mazeppa. 






1708. Charles 






XII. of Swe¬ 
den invades 
Russia. 






1709. Is defeated 




1713 

Peace of Utrecht — 

at Pultowa. 





perpetualsepara- 

1714. Finland 





tion of the crown 
of France and 
Spain. 

conquered. 

1715. Charles re- 



1715 

Louis XV., King. 



1715. Treaty of 



turns to Swe- 

1717. Turks lose 

Antwerp with 


• 


den. 

Belgrade. 

Austria. 

1718 

The Quadruple Alii- 


1718. Invades 



ance against Spain. 


Norway and 
is killed at 






the siege of 
Fredericshall. 






1720. Peace of 





1721. Peter as- 

Stockholm. 

1723. Turks and 

1723. Christians ex- 

1724 

Congress of Cambray. 

sumes the 


Russians at- 

pelled from 


title “Em- 


tempt to' dis- 

China. 



peror of all 
the Rus- 
sias.” 


member Persia. 




1725. Catherine 






I., Queen. 






1726. Alliance 






with Austria. 





' 

1727. Treaty 






with China. 




1733 

The Polish succession 

1730. Peter II., 

1730. Christian 


1733. Frederick 


involves France in 

last of the 

VI., King of 

1734. Turks driven 

Augustus II., 
King of Poland 


war. 

Romanoffs. 

Denmark. 

from Persia by 

1740 

The Austrian succes- 



Nadir Shah. 

1739. India invad- 

sion. 



1740. Renewed in- 

ed by Nadir 




1741. Swedes 

vasion of Tur- 

Shah,who takes 




driven out of 

key. 

Delhi. 

1744 

War with England 


Finland. 

1745. Defeat of 

1744. Hostilities 


and Austria. 



Turks at Kars. 

between the 

1747 

War with Holland. 




French and 
English in In¬ 
dia. 

1760 

Loss of all Canada. 




1756. Calcutta 


1762. Catherine 



taken by the 



II. reigns. 



Nabob of Ben- 



1768. War with 



gal. 



the Ottoman 



1765. Establish- 

1770 

Marriage of the 

Empire. 



ment of the 


dauphin to Marie 
Antoinette. 

1772. Despotism 
re-estab- 


English in In¬ 
dia. 




lished in Swe- 


1766. Power of the 




den by Gus- 


Mamelukes re- 

1774 

Louis XVI., King. 

1774. Revolts of 

tavus III. 


vived in Egypt 

1776 

Franklin in Paris. 

the Cossacks. 



under Rodvan 

1778 

Alliance with Amer- 



1784. The Crimea 

and Ali Bey. 

ica. 



ceded to Rus- 

1774. Warren Hast- 

1780 

Rochambeau sent to 



sia. 

ings first gov- 


aid the Americans. 

1787. War with 


1787. Disastrous 

ernor-general 



the Turks. 


war with Aus- 

of India. 





tria and Rus- 

1776. Lord Pigot 





sia. 

governor-gen¬ 
eral of the East 

1789 

French Revolution 




Indies. 


begins. 

Lafayette commander 






of the national 





1792 

guards. 

War with Germany. 


1792. Gustavus 


1794. Polish revolt 

France declared a re- 


III. assassi- 


at Cracow. 


public. 


nated. 



1793 

King and Queen be- 


Gustavus 




headed. 

Reign of Terror. 


IV., King. 



1795 

Napoleon Bonaparte 






commands the 
army. 

1796. Unsuccess- 




1796 

War in Italy. 



1797. Swiss revolu- 

1797 

Napoleon in Austria. 

ful war with 


1798. War with the 
French in 

1798 

1799 

Expedition to Egypt. 
Swiss campaign. 

Persia. 


tion. Helve¬ 
tian Republic 

ispo 

Battle of Marengo. 



Egypt. 

declared. 



















88 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


1801 


1807 

1808 

1810 

1814 

1815 


FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 
FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 


Arts of 
Civilization 


Iron railways in 
England. 


Fulton invents the 
steamboat. 

Lithography in¬ 
vented. 

First successful 
steamboat built 
in Europe. 


Steam carriages in 
England. Gas 
used for lighting 
the streets in 
London. 

Safety lamp in¬ 
vented by Davy. 


Italy and the 
Church 


1802. Napoleon 
President of 
the Italian 
Republic. 

1805. Napoleon 
crowned 
King of Italy. 


1808. Rome an¬ 
nexed by 
Napoleon to 
the King¬ 
dom of Italy. 


1814. Fall of Na¬ 
poleon. 

Kingdom 

ceases. 


Great Britain 


1803. Successful war 
in India. 

1805. Napoleon de¬ 
feated at Tra- 
falgar 

1806. Fourth coali¬ 
tion against 
France. 


1810. War with Swe¬ 
den. 

1812. War with the 
United States. 


1815. British defeat¬ 
ed at New Or¬ 
leans. 

Wellington vic¬ 
torious at Wa¬ 
terloo. 

The Allies 
enter Paris, and 
Napoleon is ban¬ 
ished to St. He¬ 
lena. 


Germany 


1804. The Emperor 
of Germany as¬ 
sumes the title 
of Emperor of 
Austria. 

Battle of 
Austerlitz. 

Confedera¬ 
tion of the 
Rhine. 

1809. Peace of Vi- 


1812. Austria in 
alliance with 
France against 
Russia. 

1813. War of Ger¬ 
man independ¬ 
ence. 

1815. German 
League. 

Congress of 
Vienna. 


Spain and 
Portugal 


1805. Battle of 
Trafalgar. 


1808. Madrid 
taken by the 
French. 

Joseph 

Bonaparte, 

King. 

1812. Battle of 
Salamanca. 


1814. Ferdinand 
VII. re¬ 
stored. 


FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 


Arts of Civilization 


1815 

1817 

1819 

1822 

1824 

1825 

1832 


1835 

1836 


The abolition of the 
slave trade by the 
Congress of Vienna. 
Public schools estab¬ 
lished in Russia. 


The steamship “Sa¬ 
vannah” makes 
the first trip across 
the Atlantic. 

Hieroglyphics deciph¬ 
ered by Champo- 
lion. 

Inland navigation 
stimulated in the 
United States. 


Steam navigation on 
the Rhine. 

Vast, increase in peri¬ 
odical literature in 
England, France, 
Germany, United 
States, etc. 

Trades unions in Eu¬ 
rope. 


Slavery abolished in 
British Colonies. 

Founding of the 
Smithsonian Insti¬ 
tution. 

Luxor obelisk erected 
in Paris. 


United States 


1816. U. S. Bank in¬ 
corporated. 

1817. James Monroe, 
President. 


1821. Monroe reelect¬ 
ed. 

Missouri com¬ 
promise bill 

r»o ocpfl 

1824 P Visit'of Lafay¬ 
ette. 

1825. Erie Canal 
opened. 

Protective 
tariff enacted. 

1825. J. Q. Adams, 
President. 

1829. Andrew Jack- 
son, President. 


1831. Northeastern 
boundary be¬ 
tween the U. S. 
and British prov¬ 
inces established, 
1833. President Jack- 
son reelected. 

Bank deposits 
removed from 
the U. S. Bank. 


Great Britain 


1816. Bombard¬ 
ment of Al¬ 
giers. The 
Dey com¬ 
pelled to abol¬ 
ish slavery. 

1823. The Cann¬ 
ing ministry. 
The Ashan- 
tees in Africa 
defeated. 


1828. Wellington 
ministry. 
Irish disturb¬ 
ances. 

1830. William 
IV., King. 

Difficulties 
with China. 


1834. Robert 
Peel, Pre¬ 
mier. Diffi¬ 
culties in 
Canada. 


Prussia 


1818. The Zoll- 
verein 
formed. 

1819. Death of 
Marshal 
Blucher. 

1821. Congress 
of monarchs 
at Laybach. 

Insurrec¬ 
tion in Mol¬ 
davia and 
Wallachia. 


1834. Zollverein 
includes 
most of the 
German 
States. 


Austria 


1817. Population, 
28,000,000. 

1818. Napoleon’s 
son made 
Duke of 
Reichstadt. 


1831. Austria in¬ 
terferes in 
Italian affairs 


1836. Visit of the 
Emperor of 
Russia. 

Ferdinand 
I., Emperor. 











































ABDICATION—NAPOLEON AT FONTAINEBLEAU 


HISTORY 


89 


a/d. 


FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 
FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 


1802 

1804 

1805 
1807 

1809 

1810 
1812 

1814 

1815 


France 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Ottoman Empire 

Lesser Countries 

Napoleon President 
of the Italian Re¬ 
public. 

War with England. 

Napoleon I., Emperor 
of the French. 

Battle of Austerlitz. 

1801. Alexander, 
Czar. 

1804. War with 
Persia. 

1805. Russia 
joins the co- 

1801. Denmark 
and Sweden 
accede to the 
alliance be¬ 
tween Eng¬ 
land and 
Russia. 

1803. Insurrection 
of Mamelukes 
at Cairo. 

1806. Louis Napo¬ 
leon, King of 

War with Russia. 

alition 


1807. War against 

Holland. 

Invasion of Portugal. 

against 

France. 

1807. Treaty of 

1808. Finland in¬ 
vaded by the 
Russians. 

Russia and 
England. 

Battle of Wagram. 

Continental peace ex¬ 
cept with Spain. 
Russian campaign. 

Tilsit. 

1812. Invasion 
of Napoleon. 
Moscow 
burned. 

1809. Charles 
XIII., King 
of Sweden. 

1809. Russians de¬ 
feated at Silis- 
tria. 

1813. Servia invad¬ 
ed by Turkish 
army. 

1812. The Poles de¬ 
clared a nation 
by Napoleon. 
Diet of War¬ 
saw. 

Allies enter Paris. 


1814. Union of 

1814. Malta falls to 

American 

House of Bourbon re¬ 
stored. 


Sweden and 
Norway as 

England. 

war with Eng¬ 
land. 

Napoleon returns 

1815. The Holy 

two king- 


1815. William I., 

from Elba. 

Alliance 

doms under 


King of the 

Hundred days’ war. 

Battle of Waterloo 
and defeat of Na¬ 
poleon. 

Abdication of Napo¬ 
leon. 

formed. 

one monarch. 


Netherlands. 

FRO31 THE FALL OF 

NAPOLEON TO 

THE PRESENT 

TI3IE 


France 

Spain and 
Portugal 

Italy and Greece 

Russia 

Lesser Countries 


1815. Union of 
Portugal and 

1815. Kingdom 
of Two Sici- 

1815. Poland 
united to 

1816. Lord Amherst’s un- 


Brazil under 

lies restored. 

Russia. 

successful mission to 

France joins in 
Holy Alliance. 

Death of Napo- 

John VI. 
1817. Slave 
trade abol¬ 
ished. 

1821. Austrian 

1819. Establish¬ 
ment of mili- 

China. 

1817. The Mahratta 
power completely 
overthrown in India 
by the British. 

1819. Bolivar, President 
of Colombia, South 

leon at St. 


invasion of 

tary colonies. 

America. 

Helena. 


Italy. 

liberty of 

Peru and Guate- 

Charles X., King. 

Algiers taken by 
the French. 
Revolution and 


1822. Greek revo¬ 
lution. 

Declaration 
ofIndepend- 
ence. 

1825. Death of 
Ferdinand, 

the press in 
Poland nul¬ 
lified. 

1826. Nicholas I. 

mala independent. 
Brazil independent. 
1822. Iturbide, Emperor 
of Mexico. 

1826. Missolonghi taken 

abdication of 


after reign of 

crowned at 

by the Turks. 

Charles X. 

Louis Philippe, 
King. 

1830. Salic 
law abol- 

sixty-six 

years. 

1827. Treaty be¬ 
tween Russia 
and Turkey 
respecting 

Moscow. 

War against 
Persia. 

1830. War against 

1829. Venezuela inde¬ 
pendent. 

1830. Polish struggles for 


ished. 

Greece. 

Poland. 

nationality. 

Abolition ofhered- 

1833. Isabella 

* 

1832. Poland 

1831. Leopold I., King 
of the Belgians. 

itary peerage 

II., Queen 
of Spain. 

1832. Kingdom 

in France. 

of Greece 

made part of 


Death of Lafay¬ 
ette. 

Insurrection at- 

Don Carlos 
claims the 
throne. 

Portugal a 
constitu¬ 
tional mon- 

founded. 

% 

empire. 

1833. Santa Ana, Presi¬ 
dent of Mexico. 

1836. Decree to expel all 

tempted by 
Louis Napoleon 
at Strasburg. 

1834. The Carlist 
War. 



British and other for¬ 
eigners from China. 


1818 


1821 


1824 

1830 


1831 


1834 

1836 






























90 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 

1837 

1840 


1845 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1850 


1851 

1852 

1853 


FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 


Arts of Civilization 


Morse patents the 
telegraph invented 
by him in 1832. 
Wheatstone’s tele- 

f raph patented in 
Ingland. 


Lord Rosse’s tele¬ 
scope completed. 
Gutta-percha used. 


Sewing machine 
patented. 


Great canal from 
Durance to Mar¬ 
seilles completed. 
Railroad building in 
Germany. 


Girard College opened. 


Tubular bridge in An- 
glesea, England. 
Magnetic clock in¬ 
vented by Dr. 
Locke of Cincinnati. 


Great agitation on 
slavery in United 

Sfnfpq 

The Pekin “Monitor,” 
a new paper, print¬ 
ed in China. 
Woman’s Rights con¬ 
vention at Worces¬ 
ter, Mass. 


Daguerre makes im¬ 
portant contribu¬ 
tions to photog¬ 
raphy. 

Railway between Mos¬ 
cow and St. Peters¬ 
burg opened. 

Telegraphs across the 
English Channel. 


First Norwegian rail¬ 
way opened. 
Perry’s expedition to 
Japan. 


United States 


1837. Independence 
of Texas ac¬ 
knowledged. 

Martin Van 
Buren, President. 


1841. W. H. Harri-l i 
son, President. 
Death of Harri¬ 
son and succes¬ 
sion of John Ty¬ 
ler. 

1844. Treaty with 
China. 

1845. Texas annexed 
to the U. S. 

James K. Polk, 
President. 

1846. War'with Mex¬ 
ico. 

The Oregon 
Treaty with 
Great Britain, 
settling the 
Northwestern 
boundary of the 
United States. 


1848. Treaty of Gua¬ 
dalupe Hidalgo 
ends Mexican 
war. 

Gold discov¬ 
ered in California. 

300,000 immi¬ 
grants arrive this 
year. 

1849. Zachary Tay¬ 
lor, President. 

Railroad from 
Boston to New 
York. 


1850. Attempted in¬ 
vasion of Cuba 
by filibusters. 

Death of Presi 
dent Taylor; Mil¬ 
lard Fillmore, 
President. 

Texas bound¬ 
ary settled. 

Fugitive Slave 
Law passed. 


1851. Erie Railway 
opened. 

Charleston Con¬ 
vention. 

Vigilance com¬ 
mittee organized 
in California. 

Kossuth arrives 
in New York. 


1853. Franklin Pierce, 
President. 

Gadsden Pur¬ 
chase. 


Great Britain 


1837. Victoria, 
Queen. 

1840. War with 
China over 
the opium 
trade. 

War in 
Syria; Great 
Britain an 
ally of Aus¬ 
tria and Tur¬ 
key. 

1841. Chinese 
War ended. 


1844. Daniel O’¬ 
Connell’s 
trial. 

Sentence 
reversed by 
the House of 
Lords. 

1846. Repeal of 
the English 
corn laws. 

1847. Severe fam¬ 
ine in Ireland. 


1848. Civil War 
in Ireland. 

Habeas 
Corpus Act 
suspended. 


1849. Multan in 
India taken. 


1850. The war in 
Lahore 
ended. 

The Punjab 
annexed to 
the British 
Crown. 

Death of 
Sir Robert 
Peel. 

English 
forces de¬ 
feated in 
South Africa 
by the Kafirs 

1851. Continu¬ 
ance of the 
Kafir War. 

Kossuth 
visits Eng¬ 
land. 


1853. Kafir War 
ended. 

Queen Vic¬ 
toria visits 
Ireland. 


Prussia 


Austria 


1840. Frederick 
William, 
King. 


1848. Insurrec¬ 
tion in Ber¬ 
lin. 


1849. The King 
declines the 
imperial 
crown. 

Armistice 
between 
Prussia and 
Denmark. 

1850. Hanover 
withdraws 
from the 
Prussian al¬ 
liance. 

Hesse- 

Darmstadt 

withdraws. 

Treaty of 

B eace with 
•enmark. 
New Con¬ 
stitution for 
Prussia. 


1853. Plot to 
overthrow 
the govern¬ 
ment. 


1838. Commer¬ 
cial treaty 
withEngland. 


1847. Austria 
takes posses¬ 
sion of Cra- 


1848. Revolution 
in Hungary. 

Francis Jo¬ 
seph, Em¬ 
peror. 

Kossuth 
withdraws 
his army 
from Vienna. 

1849. New con¬ 
stitution pro¬ 
mulgated. 


1851. Louis Kos¬ 
suth sen¬ 
tenced to 
death at 
Pest. 


1852. Emperor of 
Austria visits 
Emperor of 
Prussia at 
Berlin. 

































HISTORY 


91 


A. D. 

FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 

1 

TO THE PRESENT TIME 


France 

Spain and 
Portugal 

Italy and Greece 

Russia 

Lesser Countries 

1838 

Death of Talley¬ 
rand. 

1837. The mon¬ 
asteries in 
Spain dis¬ 
solved. 


1838. Smuggling 
carried on 
extensively. 

1839. Turkey at-war with 
Egypt. 

1840. William I. abdi¬ 
cates as King of Hol¬ 
land. 

1844 

WarwithMorocco. 

1842. Insurrec¬ 
tion in Bar¬ 
celona. 

1846. Marriage 
of Isabella 
to the Duke 
of Cadiz. 

Civil War 
in Portugal. 

1843. King Otho 
of Greece 
compelled to 
accept a con¬ 
stitution. 

1845. Emperor 
visits Eng¬ 
land. 

1842. Insurrection in In¬ 
dia. 

1847. Soulouque, Presi¬ 
dent of Hayti. 

1848 

Abdication of 
Louis Philippe, 
and a republic 
proclaimed. 

Louis Napoleon, 
President. 

Bloody insurrec¬ 
tion in Paris. 


1S48. Rising of 
the great 
Italian cities 
in revolution. 

Italian rev¬ 
olution. Ro¬ 
man republic 
overthrown. 


1848. Holland receives a 
constitution. 

Insurrection in 
Ceylon. 

Hungary declared 
independent. 

1850 

JeromeBonaparte, 

Field-Marshal. 


1849. Catania, 
Syracuse, 
and Palermo 
taken by as¬ 
sault. 

Mazzini’s 
proclama¬ 
tion of pro¬ 
visional gov¬ 
ernment. 

Victor Em¬ 
manuel,King. 

Rome sur¬ 
renders to the 
French; Gari¬ 
baldi leaves 
city. Bour¬ 
bon rule be¬ 
gins. 

1849. Aids Austria 
in subduing 
Hungary. 

1850. Harbor of 
Sebastopol 
completed. 

1850. Death of Emperor 
Tau-Kwang of China. 

Battle of Idstedt, 
Denmark. 



1851. Death of 
Godoy, 
“Prince of 
Peace.” 



1851. Discovery of gold 
in Australia. 

1851. Disturbances in 
south of China. 

1852 

Louis Napoleon 
declared Em¬ 
peror. 



1853. War de¬ 
clared against 
Turkey. 

1852. Buenos Ayres 
taken by the liberat¬ 
ing army. 

War between the 
Turks and Montene¬ 
gro. 

1853. Turkish-Russian 
War. 
























92 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 


1861 


1863 


1864 


1866 


1867 


1868 


Arts of Civilization 


1854 


1855 


1856 


1857 


1858 


1859 


Commercial treaty be¬ 
tween United 
States and Japan. 

First railway in Bra¬ 
zil. 

Panama railway com¬ 
pleted. 

Bessemer’s steel pro¬ 
cess patented. 

Submarine telegraph 
laid from Cape Bre¬ 
ton to Newfound¬ 
land. 

Dudley Observatory 
inaugurated at Al¬ 
ba^', N. Y. 

Peabody Institute 
founded at Balti- 


Great Eastern launch¬ 
ed at London. 

Laying of the Atlan¬ 
tic telegraph. 

Boston Public Li¬ 
brary opened. 

Telegraph communi¬ 
cation between In¬ 
dia and England. 


United States 


1854. Treaty with 
Japan. 

Kansas-Ne- 
braska bill passed 

Ostend Mani¬ 
festo issued. 

1855. Panama rail¬ 
road completed. 

Troubles in 
Kansas. 


Great Britain 


1857. Dred Scott de¬ 
cision. 

James Buchan¬ 
an, President. 

Great financial 
panic. 


International exhibi¬ 
tion at London. 


Abolition of slavery 
in the United 
States. 

Convention between 
France, Brazil, 
Italy, Portugal, and 
Spain for telegraph 
to America. 

Atlantic telegraph 
successfully com¬ 
pleted. 


Great Exposition at 
Paris. 


Suez Canal formally 
opened. 


1859. John Brown 
captures Harpers 
Ferry. 

1860. South Carolina 
passes ordinance 
of secession. 


1861. Secession of 
Southern States, 
and establish¬ 
ment of the Con¬ 
federate States 
under Jefferson 
Davis. 

Opening of the 
Civil War, 1861- 
65. 

Abraham Lin¬ 
coln, President. 


1865. Assassination 
of President Lin¬ 
coln; Andrew 
Johnson, Presi¬ 
dent. 

1866. Civil Rights 
bill passed. 

Atlantic tele¬ 
graph completed. 


1854. Crimean 
War. 

Treaty of 
alliance with 
France. 

1855. British fleet 
bombards 
and partially 
destroys Can¬ 
ton, China. 


1857. Rebellion 
in India be¬ 
gins. King 
of Delhi pro¬ 
claimed Sov¬ 
ereign of In¬ 
dia. 

1858. Completion 
of the Atlan¬ 
tic telegraph 
cable. 


1860. Rebellion 
in India sub¬ 
dued. 

Neutrality 
proclaimed 
during the 
American 
Civil War. 


Prussia 


1867. General am¬ 
nesty proclama¬ 
tion. 


1868. Burlingame 
Treaty with 
China. 


1865. Fenian out¬ 
breaks in Ire¬ 
land. 

British and 
French gov¬ 
ernments re¬ 
scind their 
recognition of 
the Confed¬ 
erate States 
of America. 


1854. Treaty 

with Austria, 
offensive and 
defensive. 


Austria 


1854. Alliance 
with England 
and France. 


1856. Hungarians 
granted am¬ 
nesty. 


1861. William I., 
King. 


1862. Bismarck, 
Premier. 

1863. King re¬ 
solves to gov 
ern without 
parliament. 

1864. War with 
Denmark. 


1866. Prussia 
prepares for 
war with 
Austria. 

Battle of 
Sadowa. 

Hanover 

annexed. 

First par¬ 
liament of 
the German 
Confedera¬ 
tion. 

1867. North Ger 
man consti¬ 
tution ac¬ 
cepted. 


1859. War with 
France and 
Sardinia. 

Austrians 
defeated at 
Montebella. 

Peace after 
Battle of Sol- 
ferino. 

Death of 
Prince Met- 
ternich. 

1861. New Con¬ 
stitution for 
the Austrian 
monarchy. 

Civil and 
political 
rights grant¬ 
ed Protest¬ 
ants. 

1862. Amnesty to 
political of¬ 
fenders in 
Hungary. 


1864. Alliance 
with Prussia 
against Den¬ 
mark. 


1866. War with 
Prussia and 
Italy. 


1867. Autonomy 
for Hungary 
announced. 

Emperor 
crowned 
King of Hun¬ 
gary. 


















































HISTORY 


93 


A. D. 

1854 

1856 


1859 

1860 


1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 


1867 


FRO31 THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TI31E 


France 

Spain and 
Portugal 

Italy and Greece 

Russia 

War declared 

1854. Military 


1854. War with 

against Russia. 

insurrection 

under 

O’Donnell. 

1855. Important 
concordat be- 

France and 
England. 

Siege of Se¬ 
bastopol. 
Battle of 
Balaklava. 
1855. Death of 
Nicholas I. 

• 

Peace with Rus¬ 
sia. 

• 

tween Italy 
and Austria. 

Alexander 
II., Emperor. 

1856. Destruction 
of Sebastopol 
docks. 

Evacua¬ 
tion of 

Crimea. 

1858. Partial 
emancipa¬ 
tion of the 
serfs. 

War with Austria. 

1859. War with 
Morocco. 

1859. War with 
Austria. 


Commercial treaty 

1860. Defeat of 

1860. Garibaldi 


with England. 

the Moors. 

1861. Annexa¬ 
tion of St. 
Domingo. 

Interven¬ 
tion in Mex¬ 
ico. 

lands in Sici¬ 
ly, and as¬ 
sumes dic¬ 
tatorship. 

Sicily and 
Naples an¬ 
nexed to Sar¬ 
dinia. 

1861. Victor Em¬ 
manuel. King 
of Italy. 

* 

Great distress 


1862. Garibaldi 

1862. Nesselrode, 

caused by Amer¬ 
ican Civil War. 


establishes a 
provisional 

Chancellor. 

The French oc- 


government. 

1863. Termina- 

cupy Mexico. 


Insurrec¬ 
tion in Greece 

tion of Serf¬ 
dom. 

Maximilian ac- 

1864. Rupture 

1864. Florence 

1864. Emigration 

cepts Mexican 

with Peru. 

made the 

of Caucasian 

crown. 


capital of 

tribes into 

Death of Proud- 

1865. Dispute 

Italy. 

Turkey. 

hon. 

with Chile. 

Ionian 

Isles made 
over to 
Greece. 



1866. Military 

1866. Austrian 

1866. Inaugura- 


insurrection 

War. Venetia 

tion of trial 


headed by 

proclaimed 

by jury. 


General 

a part of 

War with 


Prim. 

Italy. 

Bokhara. 

Great Exposition 

1867. Death of 

1867. Garibaldi 

1867. Russian 

in Paris. 

Marshal 

and the Papal 

America sold 

O’Donnell. 

1868. Queen de¬ 
posed. 

States. 

to the United 
States. 


Lesser Countries 


1855. Santa Ana abdi¬ 
cates the presidency 
of Mexico. 


1857. Mexican constitu¬ 
tion promulgated. 


1858. Massacre of Chris¬ 
tians in Turkey. 

Suez Railroad com¬ 
pleted. 


1861. Canton restored to 
the Chinese by the 
French and English. 


1864. Nankin, China, 
taken by Gordon for 
the Imperialists. 

Valparaiso bom¬ 
barded by Spanish 
fleet. 


1867. City of Mexico 

evacuated by French 
troops. 

Egypt declared by 
the Sultan to be a 
separate sovereignty. 

Execution of Maxi¬ 
milian in Mexico. 

























94 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 


1869 

1870 


1873 

1876 


1884 

1885 

1887 

1888 

1890 

1891 
1893 


1895 


1897 


1898 


Arts of Civilization 


French Atlantic tele¬ 
graph completed. 

Railway from Cal¬ 
cutta to Bombay. 

Mount Cenis tunnel 
completed. 


European calendar 
introduced into Ja¬ 
pan. 

Railway open be¬ 
tween Quebec and 
Halifax. 

Centennial Exposition 
at Philadelphia. 

Telephone invented 
by Bell. 


First public electric 
cars for city streets 
at Cleveland, Ohio. 


R evised version of the 
Old Testament pub 
lished. 

Great railway bridge 
at Lachine, Canada, 
completed. 

Typesetting machines 
perfected. 

Pasteur discovers cure 
for hydrophobia. 

Polygamy abolished 
in Utah. 


Canadian Pacific rail¬ 
way completed. 

World’s parliament of 
religions at Chicago. 

Electrical measure¬ 
ments established. 


Great refracting tele¬ 
scope made by 
Clark for Lick Ob¬ 
servatory. 

Discovery of Roent¬ 
gen Rays. 


Universal Postal Con¬ 
gress at Washing¬ 
ton. 


Reform edict issued 
in China. 


United States 


1869. U. S. Grant, 
President. 

Union Pacific 
Railway opened 
for traffic. 


1877. R. B. Hayes, 
President. 

1881. James A. Gar¬ 
field, President. 

President Gar¬ 
field assassinated, 
July 2d; Chester 
A. Arthur, Presi¬ 
dent. 

1885. Grover Cleve¬ 
land, President. 

Apache Indian 
War. 


1889. Benjamin Har¬ 
rison, President. 

Johnstown 

flood. 

1890. McKinley Ta¬ 
riff bill passed. 


1893. Grover Cleve¬ 
land, President. 

Chinese Exclu¬ 
sion bill ap¬ 
proved. 

World’s Colum¬ 
bian Exposition 
at Chicago. 


Great Britain 


Prussia 


1870. Irish Land 
Act passed. 


1897. William Mc¬ 
Kinley, Presi¬ 
dent. 

Hawaii an¬ 
nexed. 

1898. Destruction of 
the “Maine” at 
Havana. 

War with Spain. 


1873. Payment of 
Alabama 
claims to the 
UnitedStates. 

1876. Queen Vic¬ 
toria pro¬ 
claimed Em¬ 
press of India 


1882. Attempt on 
life of Queen 
Victoria. 


1887. Queen’s Ju¬ 
bilee. 


1889. Great labor 
strikes. 


1890. Stanley re¬ 
turns from 
Africa. 


1893. Bering 
Sea arbitra¬ 
tion. 

1894. Manchester 
ship canal 
opened. 


1897. Blackwell 
tunnel 

opened. The 
Queen’s Dia¬ 
mond Jubilee 
celebrated. 

1898. Death of 
Gladstone. 

Irish local 
government 
bill passed. 

Imperial 
penny post¬ 
age goes into 
effect. 


1870. War with 
France. 

Battle of 
Sedan. 

1871. King of 
Prussia pro¬ 
claimed Em¬ 
peror of Ger¬ 
many. 


Germany 
1871. William I., 
Emperor. 


Austria 


1877. Attempted 
assassination 
of Emperor. 


1888. Accession 
and death of 
Frederick 
III. William 
II., Emperor. 

1890. Resigna¬ 
tion of Bis¬ 
marck as 
chancellor. 

1891. Triple Al¬ 
liance re¬ 
newed. 

1893. Anti-Jesuit 
law repealed. 

1894. Commer¬ 
cial treaty 
with Russia. 

New par¬ 
liament 
house open¬ 
ed. 

1895. North Sea 
and Baltic 
Canal 
opened. 

Restric¬ 
tions im¬ 
posed on 
American 
insurance 
companies. 

1896. New civil 
code for the 
empire com¬ 
pleted. 


1898. Death of 
Bismarck. 

Emperor 
visits Con¬ 
stantinople 
and Jerusa¬ 
lem. 


1870. Concordat 
with Rome 
suspended. 

1871. New Ger¬ 
man Empire 
recognized. 


1878. Occupation 
of Bosnia. 

1882. 600th an¬ 
niversary of 
the House of 
Habsburg. 


1886. Army put 
on war foot¬ 
ing of 1,500,- 
000 men. 


1891. Renewal of 
Triple Alli¬ 
ance. 


1894. Commercial 
treaty with 
Russia rati¬ 
fied. 


1895. Anti-Sem¬ 
itic agitation. 


1896. Archduke 
Karl Ludwig, 
heir to the 
throne, dies. 

Millenial 
Exposition at 
Budapest. 

1898. Assassina¬ 
tion of the 
Empress by 
an anarchist 
at Geneva. 






















HISTORY 


95 


A. D. 

FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 

TO THE PRESENT TIME 


France 

Spain and 
Portugal 

Italy and Greece 

Russia 

Lesser Countries 

1869 

New Constitution 


1869. Vatican 




promulgated. 


Council open- 



1870 

War declared 

1870. Isabella 

ed at Rome. 


1870. Fenian raid in Can- 


against Prussia. 

II. abdi- 

1870. Rome is an- 


ada. 


Battle of Sedan. 

cates. Ama- 

nexed to 




Surrender of Metz. 

deus, King. 

Italy. 



1871 

Capitulation of 

1871. Sagasta, 

Declared 

1871. Electric 

1871. Military revolt in 


Paris. 

Prime Min- 

the Capital 

telegraph be- 

City of Mexico sup- 


Peace ratified. 

ister. 

of Italy. 

tween Russia 
and Japan. 

pressed. 


Marshal Mac- 




1872. Attempt to assassi- 

1873 



1873. Khiva cap- 

nate the Mikado of 


Mahon, Presi- 



tured. 

Japan. 


dent. 



1877. Waragainst 

1874 

Death of Guizot. 

1874. Alfonso 


Turkey. 

1874. Insurrection at 



XII., King. 

1878. Death of 

Nagasaki, Japan. 



1875. Civil War. 

1878. Spread of 

1878. Montenegro, Ser- 

1879 

Jules Grevy, 


Victor Em- 

Nihilism in 

via, and Roumania 


President. 


manuel II. 

the empire. 

independent. 




Humbert, 

1880. Many Ni- 




King. 

hilists im- 





Death of 

prisoned and 





Pius IX. 

executed. 





Leo XIII., 

1881. Alexander 





Pope. 

II. assassi- 





1882. Death of 

nated. 




1883. Sagasta 

Garibaldi. 

Alexander 

1883. Opening of the St. 



again min¬ 
ister. 


III., Em- 

Gothard Railway 




peror. 

from Milan to Lu- 




1885. War with 

1885. Ship canal 

cerne. 




Abyssinia. 

from St. 

1886. Upper Burmah an- 





Petersburg 

nexed to British In- 





to Cronstadt 
opened. 

dia. 





Trouble 



- 



with the Af¬ 
ghans. 


1887 

Sadi Carnot, 


1887. Alliance 

1886. Russia in- 



President. 

1889. Trial by 

with Austria- 

terferes in 




jury first 

Hungary and 

Bulgaria. 




put in force. 

Germany 

1888. Central 

1889. New constitution 



signed. 

Asian rail- 

promulgated in Ja- 




Crispi, 

way opened. 

pan. 

1890 

War with Daho- 

1890. Castileo, 

Prime Min- 

1890-92. Famine 

1890. First Japanese par- 


mey. 

Premier. 

ister. 

through the 

liament opened. 




1891. Treaty 

empire. 


1892 

Panama scandals. 

1893. War with 

with Great 
Britain rela- 

1893. Kruger, President 




Morocco. 

tive to East 
Africa. 


of the Transvaal. 

1894 

President Carnot 


Triple Al- 

1894. Death of 

1894. War between China 


assassinated at 


liance re- 

Alexander 

and Japan. 


Lyons. 


newed. 

III. 

1895. Cecil Rhodes a 


M. Casimir- 


1893. Pope’s Ju- 

Nicholas 

power in South Af- 


Perier, Presi- 


hi lee at 

II., Czar. 

rica. 


dent. 


Rome. 


Federation of Aus- 


Capt. Dreyfus 




tralia approved. 


tried and im- 




Congo State an- 


prisoned. 




nexed to Belgium. 

1895 

President Casimir- 


1896. Peace with 

1895. Diplomatic 

1896. Jamieson raid in 


Perier resigns. 


Abyssinia. 

relations with 

South Africa. 


M. Felix Faure, 


1898. Pope offers 

Abyssinia. 



President. 


to mediate 

Persecution 



Death of Pasteur. 


in the Cuban 

of the Jews. 





question. 

1896. First official 





census of the 






empire. 

1897. Judicial re- 

1897. Turko-GrecianWar. 

1897 

Ten-hour law for 

1897. Assassina- 


form in Si- 



railway em- 

tion of Pre- 


beria. 

1898. Hawaii annexed to 


ployees passed. 

mierCanovas 


1898. Port Ar- 


del Castileo. 


thur leased 

the United States. 



Scheme of 


from China. 

Switzerland votes 



Cuban Au- 



to take over all rail- 



tonomy ap- 



ways within her bor- 

1898 

Review of Drey- 

proved. 

1898. Spanish- 
American 



ders. 

Wilhelmina, Queen 


fus case grant- 



of Holland. 


ed. 

War. 






Treaty of 






Paris. 


















96 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


1899 

1900 


1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1900 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 


FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 


Arts of Civilization 


The “Open-door” 
policy for China 
agreed to. 

Jubilee of the year 
1900 proclaimed 
by the Pope. 

Opening of the Elbe 
and Trave Canal, 
Germany. 


Marconi wireless sys¬ 
tem established on 
Italian warships. 


Completion of the Pa¬ 
cific Cable. 

Message sent around 
the world in twelve 
minutes. 

New York subway 
opened. 

Bill introduced in 
France for separa¬ 
tion of church and 
state. 

Gigantic power plants 
erected at Niagara 
Falls. 


The Simplon Tunnel 
opened. 

Pan-American confer¬ 
ence meets at Rio 
de Janeiro. 

Wireless telegraphy 
conference at Ber¬ 
lin. 

The “Lusitania” 
makes her first 
voyage. 

Discoveries in the 
transmutation of 
metals. 

Great progress in 
aeronautics. 

Discovery of North 
Pole announced. 

Earth passed through 
tail of Halley’s 
comet. 

Woman’s suffrage 
agitation in Eng¬ 
land. 

Transcontinental 
flight of C. P. 
Rodgers. 

Amundsen discovers 
South Pole. 

Titanic disaster. 

Great progress in sur¬ 
gery. 

Scott reaches South 
Pole. 

Wireless messages be¬ 
tween New York 
and European cap¬ 
itals in less than ten 
minutes. 

Grand Central Ter¬ 
minal in New York 
oity opened. 


United States 


1899. Cuba passes in¬ 
to American pos¬ 
session. 

Philippines and 
Porto Rico ac¬ 
quired. 

1900. Civil govern¬ 
ment established 
in the Philip¬ 
pines. 

Chinese trou¬ 
bles. 

1901. Pan-American 
Exposition. 

Assassination 
of McKinley. 

TheodoreRoose- 
velt, President. 

1902. Cuban inde¬ 
pendence under 
Platt Amend¬ 
ment. 

President 
recommends the 
purchase of the 
Panama Canal. 

1903. Panama Canal 
treaty signed 
with Colombia. 

Commercial 
Treaty with 
China signed. 

1904. Great Balti¬ 
more fire. 

St. Louis Ex¬ 
position opened. 


1905. Protocol with 
Santo Domingo. 


1906. RiotatBrowns¬ 
ville, Texas. 

The President 
visited Panama. 

Great earth¬ 
quake at San 
Francisco. 

1907. Philippine 
Assembly opened. 

1908. Voyage of the 
Pacific fleet to 
Asiatic waters. 

1909. Wm. H. Taft, 
President. 

Tariff revised. 

1910. Newfoundland 
fisheries dispute 
settled by arbi¬ 
tration at The 
Hague. 

1911. Reciprocity 
bill defeated by 
Canada. 


1912. Progressive 
party organized. 


1913. Conviction of 
Judge Archbald. 

Woodrow Wil¬ 
son, President. 


Great Britain 


1899. The Boer 
War in South 
Africa. 


1900. Field-Mar¬ 
shal Roberts 
takes com¬ 
mand in 
South Africa. 

1901. Census of 
Indian Em¬ 
pire. 

Death of 
Victoria; ac¬ 
cession of 
Edward VII. 

1902. The Brit¬ 
ish-Japanese 
Alliance 
signed. 

Boer War 
ended. 


1903. King Ed¬ 
ward visits 
the King of 
Italy. 


1904. Col. Young- 
husband en¬ 
ters Tibet. 


1905. Resigna¬ 
tion of Lord 
Curzon as 
Viceroy of 
India. 

1906. King Ed¬ 
ward visits 
Paris. 


1907. King 

Edward and 
Emperor 
Franz Josef 
meet at Ischl, 

1909. Czar visits 
England. 


1910. Edward 
VII. died; 
George V. as¬ 
cends throne. 


1911. Coronation 
of George V. 
and Mary. 


1912. Minimum 
wage bill 
passed. 


1913. Home Rule 
bill passes 
House of 
Commons. 

England 
protests 
against Pan¬ 
ama Canal 
tolls. 


Germany 


Austria 


1900. Abolition 
of the Rom¬ 
an Law 
throughout 
Germany. 

1901. Bicente¬ 
nary of the 
coronation of 
the first King 
of Prussia. 


1902. Prince 
Henry of 
Prussia visits 
the United 
States. 


1904. German 
troops de¬ 
feated in 
Africa. 


1905. Interven¬ 
tion of Ger¬ 
many in 
Moroccan 
affairs. 

1906. Propagan¬ 
da against 
Socialism. 


1907. German 
Emperor 
visited 
London. 


1910. Roosevelt, 
as private 
citizen, re¬ 
viewed Ger¬ 
man army. 

1911. Moroccan 
disagree¬ 
ment with 
France. 

1912. Franco- 
German 
agreement 
over Mo¬ 
rocco. 


1900. Marriage of 
the heir 
apparent 
Francis 
Ferdinand. 


1902. Triple Alli¬ 
ance re¬ 
newed. 

The lan¬ 
guage ques¬ 
tion between 
Germany and 
Czechs. 

1903. New tariff 
bill. 

Visit of the 
Czar of Rus¬ 
sia. 

1904. Ultimatum 
to the Sultan 
issued. 

Great rail¬ 
way strike. 

1905. Treaty with 
Germany 
ratified. 


1906. Prince 

Schillingflirst 

succeeds 

Baron 

Gautch. 


1907. Universal 
Suffrage Bill 
passed. 


1909. Bosnia and 
Herzegovina 
acquired. 


1911. Austria 
strengthens 
her army 
and navy. 

1912. Riots in 
Hungarian 
Parliament. 
























HISTORY 


97 


A. D. 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 


France 


Spain and 
Portugal 


Italy and Greece 


Russia 


Lesser Countries 


1899. Death of 
Premier 
Canovas of 
Spain. 


1899. Czar pro¬ 
poses univer¬ 
sal peace. 


1899. Venezuela-Guiana 
boundary line estab¬ 
lished. 


1900. Assassina¬ 
tion of King 
Humbert. 

Victor Em¬ 
manuel III., 
King 


1900. Outbreak of the 
Boxers in China. 


Diplomatic rela¬ 
tions with Tur¬ 
key suspended. 


1901. Count 
Tolstoi 
excommuni¬ 
cated. 


1901. Submission of 
China to the allied 
powers. 

Federal govern¬ 
ment inaugurated in 
Australia. 


M. Combes forms 1902. Alfonso 
a new French XIII., King, 

ministry. 


1902. Venezuelan claims 
pressed by England 
and Germany. 


Dreyfus case re¬ 
opened. 

President Loubet 
visits King Ed¬ 
ward. 

Arbitration treat¬ 
ies with Hol¬ 
land, Spain, 
Sweden, Nor¬ 
way, and the 
United States. 

The Moroccan sit¬ 
uation grows in 
complexity. 


M. Failures, 
President. 

The Church con¬ 
troversy. The 
Pope’s ency¬ 
clical. 

M. Sareien, Pre¬ 
mier. 


1904. Death of 
Ex-Queen 
Isabella at 
Paris. 


1903. Death of 
Pope Leo 
XIII. 

Pope Pius 
X. 

1904. King and 
Queen of 
Italy visit 
England. 


1905. Attempted 
assassina¬ 
tion of the 
King in 

1906 P King Al¬ 
fonso mar¬ 
ried to 
Princess Vic¬ 
toria of Eng¬ 
land. 


1905. The rail¬ 
way bills 
passed in 
Italy. 

1906. Sonnino, 
Premier. 

Interna¬ 
tional Exhi¬ 
bition at 
Milan. 


1904. War with 
Japan over 
Manchuria 
begun. 


1905. Constitu¬ 
tion granted 
by Czar, and 
the Duma 
authorized. 

1906. The Czar 
opened the 
first Russian 
Duma. 

Attempted 
assassination 
of Premier 
Stolypin. 


Wine growers’ 
agitation. 
French occupation 
of Morocco. 


1907. King and 
Queen visit 
England. 

1908. Carlos 
assassinated. 

Manuel II., 
King. 


1907. Italy signs 
arbitration 
treaty with 
Argentina. 


1907. Third 
Russian 
Duma con¬ 
vened. 


Great railway 
strike sup¬ 
pressed by 
Premier Briand. 


Madame Curie 
receives Nobel 
prize for chem¬ 
istry. 

France strength¬ 
ens her navy. 

Morocco becomes 
French pro¬ 
tectorate. 


M. Poincar6, Pres' 
ident 


1910. Portugal 
becomes 
republic. 

Theophile 
Braga, Presi¬ 
dent. 

1911. Manuel de 
Arriaga, 
president of 
Portugal. 

1912. Premier 
Canalejas 
of Spain 
assassinated. 

Franco- 
Spanish 
treaty con¬ 
cerning 
Morocco. 


1910. King of 
Greece 
orders re¬ 
vision of 
constitution. 

1911. War with 
Turkey over 
Tripoli. 


1912. Tripoli 
ceded to 
Italy. 

Greece and 
Turkey at 
war. 


1910. Cholera 
epidemic 
destroys 
100,000. 

Death of 
Leo Tolstoi. 

1911. Treaty of 
1832 abro¬ 
gated by 
United 
States. 

1912. Fourth 
Duma as¬ 
sembles. 

Russia ap¬ 
propriates 
$215,000,000 
for navy. 


1913. Council 
abolishes 
serf class. 


1903. Peter I., King of 
Servia. 


1904. President Diaz of 
Mexico reelected. 

Death of Paul Kru¬ 
ger, in Switzerland. 


1905. Japan captures 
Port Arthur. End 
of war. 


1906. King Christian of 
Denmark died. 

Norway and Swe¬ 
den independent 
kingdoms. 

Emperor of China 
promises constitu¬ 
tional government. 

First Persian par¬ 
liament opened. 

1907. Abdication of 
Korean Emperor. 

Death of Oscar II. 
of Sweden. 


1909. Abdication of 
Abdul Hamid II. 

1910. Japan annexes 
Korea. 

Chinese senate 
opened. 


1911. Revolution in 
China against 
Manchus 

Diaz overthrown 
in Mexico 

1912. China a republic. 

Frederick VIII., 
King of Denmark, 
dies; Christian X. 
becomes King. 

Mutsuhito of Japan 
dies; Yoshihito suc¬ 
ceeds as Emperor. 

Warin theBalkans. 

1913. President Madero 
of Mexico assassi¬ 
nated. 























98 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF THE NEW WORLD 

I. SEMI-HISTORICAL PERIOD — 500 TO 1400 A. D. 

II. PERIOD OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY — 1400 A. D. TO THE PRESENT TIME 


A. D. 
500 
503 
600 
861 
982 
985 
1000 


1492 

1493 

1494 

1497 

1498 

1499 

1500 
1502 
1504 

1511 

1512 

1513 
1517 
1519 


Pre-Toltec period. 

Mexican history begins. 

Toltecs established throughout Mexico. 

The Norseman, Nadodd, discovers Iceland. 
Eric the Red discovers and names Greenland. 
Bjarni sights land at Cape Cod or Nantucket. 
Leif Ericson sails for Western lands. 


1002. Thorwald, Leif’s brother, visits Vinland. 

1004. Thorwald killed in a skirmish with the natives 

1005. Thornfinn Karlsefne lands in Rhode Island. 
1050. End of Toltec power in Mexico. 

1090. Aztecs begin their journey toward Mexico. 
1325. Aztecs found the City of Mexico. 

1349. Esquimaux appear in Greenland. 

1400. Communication with Greenland ceases. 


DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, AND CONQUEST FROM 1492 TO 1600 A. D. 


Columbus sails from Palos, Spain, and discovers 
Cuba. 

Columbus sails on his second expedition. 

Cattle first brought to America. 

Columbus discovers Jamaica. 

John Cabot discovers the North American con¬ 
tinent. 

Columbus sails on his third voyage. 

First voyage of Amerigo Vespuccius. 

Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador. 

Columbus sails on his fourth voyage. 

Cape Breton discovered by French fishermen. 
Velasquez subjugates Cuba; Havana founded. 
Florida discovered by Juan Ponce de Leon. 

The Pacific Ocean discovered by Vasco de Balboa. 
Fernando de Cordova discovers Mexico. 
Hernando Cortez lands in Mexico; Panama set¬ 
tled. ' 


1521. Cortez captures the City of Mexico; Mexico 
constituted a Kingdom. 

1524. Verrazzano enters the Bay of New York. 

1528. Spaniards land in Florida. 

1534. Jacques Cartier enters Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

1535. Grijalva’s expedition discovers California. 
1540. De Soto conquers Louisiana. 

1562. Jean Ribault explores coast of Florida. 

1565. St. Augustine, Florida, founded by Menendez. 

1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert takes possession of New¬ 
foundland. 

1584. Raleigh’s first expedition lands in Virginia. 

1585. John Davis discovers Davis Straits. 

1586. Sir Francis Drake visits Roanoke Inlet. 

1587. Virginia Dare, first English child born in 
America. 

1602. Bartholomew Gosnold discovers Cape Cod. 
1605. De Monts takes possession of Maine. 


FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN TO THE DECLARATION OF 

INDEPENDENCE —1607-1776 


1607 

1614 


1618 

1619 

1620 
1621 


1623 

1627 

1628 
1629 

1632 

1633 

1634 
1636 

1638 

1639 


British America 


English settlement at Jamestown. 
Captain John Smith rescued by Poca¬ 
hontas. 

New Amsterdam settled by the Dutch. 


Death of Powhatan, Indian chief. 

First slaves brought to Virginia by the 
Dutch. 

Mayflower lands at Plymouth, Mass. 
Peregrine White, first white child 
born in New England. 

Death of John Carver, first Governor of 
Plymouth Colony; succeeded by 
William Bradford. 

Miles Standish, Captain. 

Treaty between Plymouth Colony and 
Massasoit. 

Cotton-seed planted in Virginia. 

New Hampshire settled. 

Lord Baltimore founds a colony at 
Ferryland, Newfoundland. 

Swedes and Finns settle at Cape Henlo- 
pen. 

John Endicott Governor of Massachu¬ 
setts. 

John Winthrop Governor of Massachu¬ 
setts. 

Lord Baltimore receives the grant of 
Maryland. 

Connecticut settled by the English. 

Wouter Van Twiller Governor of New 
Amsterdam. 

English Catholics settle at St. Mary’s, 
Maryland. 

Roger Williams settles Rhode Island. 

Pequot War begins in Massachusetts. 

Swedes settle Delaware. 

John Harvard bequeaths his library to 
found a college. 

New Haven settled. 

Printing press established by Stephen 
Daye at Cambridge, Mass. 

First constitution of Connecticut. 


French America 


1608. Champlain settles Que¬ 
bec. 

1611. French Jesuits settle at 
Port Royal. 

1615. Indian missions estab¬ 
lished. 


1620. Champlain Governor of 
Canada. 


1628. Port Royal taken by 
the English. 

1629. Sir David Kirke cap¬ 
tures Quebec. 

1632. Richelieu obtains resto¬ 
ration of territory. 


1639. Ursuline Convent estab¬ 
lished at Quebec. 

1640. The French attempt a 
settlement at Green Bay, 
Wisconsin. 


Spanish America 


1610. Leon, Central America, 
founded. 

1611. Talamanca Indians, of 
Central America, mas¬ 
sacred by the Spanish. 


1620. Buenos Ayres sepa¬ 
rated from Asuncion. 


1630. Spaniards expel the 
Dutch from Brazil. 

Alvarado subdues Cen¬ 
tral American Indians. 

Hayti seized by French 
buccaneers. 

1635-8. French, English, and 
Dutch make numerous 
settlements in the West 
Indies. 


1640. Spanish fleet of 90 ves¬ 
sels arrives off coast of 
Brazil. 
















HISTORY 


99 


A. D. 


FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN TO THE DECLARATION OF 

INDEPENDENCE — 1607-1776 


British America 


French America 


1641. Montreal founded. 


Spanish America 


1642 

1643 
1645 

1647 

1652 

1653 

1655 

1656 


1664 

1665 


1670 

1671 


1673 

1675 

1676 


Sir William Berkeley Governor of 
Virginia. 

Swedes settle in Pennsylvania. 

Free schools established at Roxbury, 
Mass. 

Peter Stuyvesant, Governor of New 
Amsterdam. 

Mint established in Boston, John 
Hull mintmaster. 

North Carolina settled. 

Delaware brought under Dutch rule. 
Quakers arrive in Boston. 


Fort Amsterdam surrendered to the 
English. 

Provincial government established 
in Maine. 


South Carolina settled. 
French settle in Michigan. 


New York and New Jersey surren¬ 
dered to the Dutch. 

King Philip’s War in Massachusetts. 
Nathaniel Bacon’s rebellion in Virginia. 


1659. Laval, first Bishop of Que¬ 
bec. 

French fur traders explore 
Lake Superior. 


1668. Marquette establishes mis¬ 
sion at Sault Ste. Marie. 

1669. La Salle sails down the 
Ohio to the Mississippi. 

1670. Maine, east of the Penob¬ 
scot, occupied by the French. 

1672. Count de Frontenac Gov¬ 
ernor of Canada. 

1673. Marquette and Joliet in 
Iowa. 

Fort Frontenac (Kingston, 
Ont.) built. 

1679. French at Niagara Falls. 


1661. Dutch give up Brazil. 

1663. Spain denies the right 
of England to the Prov¬ 
ince of Carolina. 

1665. St. Augustine pillaged 
by English buccaneers. 


1671. Danes occupy St. 
Thomas. 


1681 

1683 

1690 

1700 

1701 


1719 


1729 

1732 

1739 

1744 

1745 

1752 

1753 

1754 

1755 

1758 

1759 

1760 

1762 

1763 


William Penn receives charter for 
Pennsylvania. 

First assembly in New York under 
English rule. 


Colonial Congress called in New York. 


Williamstown made capital of Vir¬ 
ginia. 

Philadelphia incorporated as a city. 


Scotch-Irish settle in New Hamp¬ 
shire. 


British Government formally recog¬ 
nizes colony of Newfoundland. 

First stage between Boston and New 
York. 

Richmond, Va., founded by William 
Byrd. 

Hostilities with the Six Indian Nations. 

Louisburg captured by New England 
troops. 


Franklin experiments with electricity. 
First theater opened in New York. 
Convention at New York to consider 
a Colonial Confederacy. 

French and Indian War. 

Braddock defeated at Ft. Duquesne. 

Battle of Lake George. 

Fort Frontenac surrendered to the 
English. 

Battle of Quebec — Wolfe and Mont¬ 
calm killed. 

Montreal surrendered to the British. 
France cedes Canada to the English. 
English settle in New Brunswick. 

Pontiac’s War. 

Massacre of Wyoming. 


1682. La Salle descends the Mis¬ 
sissippi to the Arkansas, and 
names the valley Louisiana. 

1685. French in Texas under La 
Salle. 

1689. French occupy Hudson 
Bay territory. 

Iroquois capture Montreal 
and Lachine. 

1691. Acadia retaken by the 
French. 


1702. Settlement in Alabama on 
Mobile River. 

1710. Port Royal captured by 
English fleet. 

1718. New Orleans founded. 


1729. Massacre of French at 
Natches by Indians. 


1745. Louisburg captured by the 
British. 

1749- Fort Rouille (Toronto) 
built. 

1752. Marquis Duquesne, Gov¬ 
ernor of Canada. 


1755. French defeat Braddock. 


1759. Quebec surrenders to the 
English. 

1760. Marquis de Vaudreuil, last 
French Governor of Canada. 

1762. Louisiana ceded to Spain. 

1763. Acadia permanently ceded 
to the British. 


1685. Dampier, English buc¬ 
caneer, sacks Leon. 


1693. Gold mining begins in 
Brazil. 


1710. French capture Rio'de 
Janeiro. 

1719. French capture Pensa¬ 
cola. 

1722. Pensacola restored to 
Spain. 

Treaty between Chil¬ 
eans and Spanish. 

1729. Spaniards establish 
themselves at Monte¬ 
video. 


1740. Governor Oglethorpe 
attacks Florida. 


1758. Jesuits expelled from 
Brazil. 


1762. Spain acquires Louis¬ 
iana from France. 

1763. Florida ceded to Great 
Britain. 

French Guiana colon¬ 
ized. 












100 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 

FROM THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN TO THE DECLARATION OF 

INDEPENDENCE —1607-1776 


British America 

Canada 

Spanish America 

1765 

Delegates of the Colonies assemble in 

1764. Population of Canada, 

1766. Large colony of Aca- 
dians arrive in Louisiana. 
1768. Revolt of the French 
* against Spanish rule in 
Louisiana. 

1770 

New York to resist the Stamp Act. 

Boston Massacre. 

about 60,000. 

1773 

Tea thrown overboard in Boston 
Harbor. 


1773. Santiago, Guatemala, 
destroyed by an earth- 

1774 

The Colonial Congress adopts a 
Declaration of Rights. 


quake. 

1775 

Beginning of the Revolutionary 

1775. Gen. Montgomery captures 

1776. Paraguay placed under 


War with the Battle of Lexington. 

Montreal and St. John. 

the jurisdiction of Bue- 


Articles of Union and Confederation 

Death of Montgomery at 

nos Ayres. 


adopted. 

Quebec and failure of Ameri- 

Buenos Ayres made 

1776 

Washington appointed commander- 
in-chief of the American forces. 
First Union flag unfurled at Cam¬ 
bridge, Mass. 

British evacuate Boston. 

Declaration of Independence at 
Philadelphia. 

can campaign. 

capital of the viceroy¬ 
alty. 


1777 

1778 

1779 

1780 

1781 

1782 

1783 

1784 

1785 

1786 

1787 

1788 


FROM THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE TO THE ADOPTION 
OF THE CONSTITUTION —1776-1789, A. D. 


United States 


Landing of Lafayette at Charleston. 

Battle of Princeton. 

Battle of Brandywine. 

British Army occupies Philadelphia. 

Surrender of Burgoyne. 

Articles of Confederation adopted by 
the Thirteen Colonies. 

Treaty of Alliance with France. 

Evacuation of Philadelphia by the 
British. 

Seventh Continental Congress meets 
at Philadelphia. 

Battle of Monmouth. 

British driven from South Carolina. 

Stony Point captured by Wayne. 

Paul Jones gains naval victory over 
the British off the coast of Scot¬ 
land. 

Major Andre hanged as a spy. 

Battle of Kings Mountain, S. C. 

Benedict Arnold turns traitor. 

Americans victorious at Cowpens. 

Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. 

Bank of North America established 
at Philadelphia. 

Holland recognizes the independence 
of the United States. 

British evacuate Charleston. 

French army embarks from Boston. 

Preliminary articles of peace signed 
at Paris. 

Denmark, Sweden, Spain, and Rus¬ 
sia recognize the independence of 
the United States. 

Treaty of peace signed with Great 
Britain. 

Eighth Continental Congress meets 
at Princeton, N. J. 

Congress adopts decimal currency 
system. 

Tenth Continental Congress meets 
at Trenton, N. J. 

Thomas Jefferson appointed Minis¬ 
ter to France; John Adams to 
Great Britain. 

Daniel Shay’s rebellion in Massa¬ 
chusetts. 

United States Mint authorized. 

Constitutional convention assem¬ 
bles at Philadelphia. 

Last Continental Congress adjourns. 


Canada 


1778. Frederick 
Haldinand, 
Governor of 
Canada. 


1779. Library 
founded at 
Quebec. 


1780. Coteau du 
Sack Canal 
built. 


1783. St. John, N. 
B., founded. 

Kingston 

founded. 


1784. N. E. Loyal¬ 
ists settle in 
Upper Canada. 

Liberty of 
conscience pro¬ 
claimed in 
Newfoundland. 


1788. King’s Col¬ 
lege, Windsor, 
Nova Scotia, 
founded. 


Spanish 
North America 


1779. Baton Rouge 
captured from 
the British. 


1783. Limits of 
Belize defined. 


1784. Island of St. 
Bartholomew 
transferred to 
Sweden. 


Spanish 
South America 


1780. Insurrection of 
Peruvians under 
Amaru. 

1781. The English 
Admiral Rodney 
takes possession 
of Guiana. 


1783. Dutch colonies 
restored to Hol¬ 
land. 


1786. Pacifications of 
the negroes and 
tribes m Dutch 
Guiana. 




























HISTORY 


101 


A. D. 


1789 

1790 

1791 

1792 

1793 

1794 

1795 

1796 

1797 

1798 

1799 

1800 

1801 

1803 

1804 

1805 
1807 

1809 

1811 

1812 


FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 

1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 

^ United States of America 

Canada 

Spanish 

North America 

Spanish 

South America 

George Washington, President; 


1789. Settlers from 

1789. Malaspina ex- 

John Adams, Vice-President. 


North Carolina 

plores the coast 

First Congress meets in New York. 


arrive in Louis- 

of South Amer- 

First Tariff bill passed. 

Cabinet departments and United 
States Supreme Court organized. 
Indian War in Northwest Territory. 
Death of Benjamin Franklin. 

First mechanical patent issued. 

Census enumeration ordered. 


iana. 

ica. 

Anthracite coal discovered in Penn- 

1791. Canada di- 

1791. Negroes of 


sylvania. 

vided into Up- 

Hayti revolt 


Vermont admitted as a State. 

Corner stone of White House laid. 
Kentucky admitted. 

Whitney invents the cotton-gin. 

per and Lower. 

1793. Toronto 

against France. 


Washington receives all the electoral 
votes for reelection. 

Corner stone of United States Capi¬ 
tol laid by Washington. 

Political parties assume names of 
Republican and Federalist. 

Third Congress opens at Philadel¬ 
phia. 

Foundations of United States Navy 
authorized. 

Whisky insurrection in Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

founded. Slav¬ 
ery abolished 
in Upper Can¬ 
ada. 

1794. Jay’s Treaty 
relative to com¬ 
merce, naviga¬ 
tion, and 

1795. Maroon War 


Anti-rent troubles in New York. 

boundary. 


Tennessee admitted. 

in Jamaica. 

1796. Guiana again 

Washington issues his “ Farewell Ad- 


Sugar first 

in British posses- 

dress.” 


produced from 

sion. 

John Adams, President; Thomas 

1797. Sault Ste. 

cane in Louisi- 


Jefferson Vice-President. 

Special session of Congress to con¬ 
sider relations with France. 

Alien and sedition laws passed. 
Commercial intercourse with France 
suspended. 

General post-office established. 

Death of George Washington. 

Marie Canal 
begun. 

ana. 


French spoliation claims adjusted. 

1800. The Sault Ste. 

1800. Louisiana 


Capital removed from Philadelphia 

Marie Canal in 

transferred to 


to Washington. 

Thomas Jefferson, President; 

Aaron Burr, Vice-President. 
Congress establishes the District of 

Canada com¬ 
pleted. 

France by 
Spain. 

1801. Toussaint 
l’Ouverture 
founds repub- 

1802. The Dutch re- 

Columbia. 


lie in San Do- 

Tripoli declares war against the 
United States. 


mingo. 

sume possession 
of British Guiana. 

Louisiana purchased for $15,000,000. 

1803. Slavery il- 

1803. French quit 

1803. British Guiana 

Ohio admitted. 

Vice-President Burr kills Hamilton 
in a duel. 

Jefferson re-elected; George Clin¬ 
ton, Vice-President. 

Embargo Act passed. 

Fulton’s steamboat, “Clermont,” 
steams from New York to Albany. 

legal in Lower 
Canada. 

Hayti. 

finally acquired. 

1807. Slave trade 
abolished in 

Dutch Guiana. 

1808. Royal family 
of Portugal ar¬ 
rived in Brazil. 

James Madison, President; 

1809. Steamer “Ac- 


1809. Ecuador at- 

George Clinton, Vice-President. 

commodation” 


tempts to throw 

Embargo Act repealed. 

Trading posts first established among 

arrived at Que¬ 
bec from Mon¬ 
treal. 


off the Spanish 
yoke. 

1810. Independence 
of Argentine Re- 

the Indians. 



public begins. 

Battle of Tippecanoe with Indians. 
First steamboat on the Ohio. 


* 

Independence 
of Chile. 

Louisiana admitted. 

1812. Sir George 

1812. Spanish con- 

1811. Paraguay de- 

War declared against Great Britain. 
American vessel “ Constitution ” cap- 

Prevost, Gov- 

stitution pro- 

dares its inde- 

ernor. 

mulgated in 

pendence of 

tures the British “Guerriere.” 
American vessel “Wasp” captures 
the British “ Frolic.” 


Costa Rica. 

Spain. 

Venezuela pro¬ 
claims its inde- 

American vessel “United States” 
captures the British “Macedo¬ 
nian.” 

American vessel “ Constitution ” cap¬ 
tures the British “Java.” 

Canada invaded. 



pendence; war 
ensues for ten 
years. 



















102 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 
1789 A, D., TO THE PRESENT TI31E 


1813 

1814 

1815 

1816 

1817 

Si 

1818 
1819 


1820 

1821 


1822 


1823 

1824 

1825 


1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 


United States of America 


Commodore Perry captures the Eng¬ 
lish fleet on Lake Erie. 

Madison re-elected; Elbridge 
Gerry, Vice-President. 

Toronto, Canada, captured. 

Battle of the Thames. 

Battle of Lundy’s Lane. 

British capture and burn Washing¬ 
ton. 

Hartford Convention meets to oppose 
war. 

Stonington, Conn., bombarded by 
British fleet. 

Jackson defeats the British at New 
Orleans. 

Treaty of Peace with Great Britain 
ratified. 

Algerian War. 

U. S. Bank chartered by Congress. 

The “Ontario” first steamboat on 
Great Lakes. 

Indiana admitted. 

American Colonization Society form¬ 
ed; founds Liberia. 

James Monroe, President; Daniel 
D. Tompkins, Vice-President. 

Mississippi admitted. 

First instruction of deaf mutes in 
America by T. H. Gallaudet, at 
Hartford, Conn. 

Seminole War. 

Illinois admitted. 

Pensions granted Revolutionary sol¬ 
diers. 

The “ Savannah,” the first transat¬ 
lantic steamship. 

Alabama admitted. 

Florida purchased by the United 
States. 

Maine separated from Massachusetts. 


Maine admitted. 

Missouri Compromise Bill passed. 
Missouri admitted. 

Liberia purchased. 

Andrew Jackson appointed Governor 
of Florida. 

Independence of Spanish South 
American States recognized. 
Gaslight introduced into Boston. 


President Monroe proclaims the 
“Monroe Doctrine.” 

Gen. Lafayette arrives in New York. 

John Quincy Adams, President; 

John C. Calhoun, Vice-President. 
Treaty with Russia ratified. 

Erie Canal finished. 


First railroad in United States built 
in Massachusetts. 


Protective Tariff bill passed. 


Andrew Jackson, President; John 
C. Calhoun, Vice-President. 

Great speeches of Webster and 
Hayne delivered in the U. S. Sen¬ 
ate. 


Canada 


Spanish 
North America 


1817. Ottawa 
founded. 

First bank 
note issued at 
Montreal. 


1820. Earl of Dal- 
housie, Gov¬ 
ernor. 


Spanish 
South America 


1817. Unsuccessful 
insurrection in 
Mexico. 


1829. Welland 
Canal from 
Port Dalhousie 
to Port Robin¬ 
son completed. 


1821. Mexico be¬ 
comes inde¬ 
pendent of 
Spain. 

Costa Rica 
independent. 

1822. Mexico an 
empire under 
Iturbide. 

Costa Rica 
united to Mex¬ 
ico. 

1823. Federal Re¬ 
public pro¬ 
claimed for 
Mexico. 

Federation of 
Central Ameri¬ 
can States. 


1826. First survey 
for Nicaraguan 
ship canal. 


1813. Chile recon¬ 
quered by Spain. 


1814. Montevideo 
captured by the 
revolutionary 
army of Buenos 
Ayres. 


1815. Brazil becomes 
a kingdom. 


1816. Argentina de¬ 
clares its separa¬ 
tion from Spain. 


1817. Chileans defeat 
Spanish and gain 
their independ- 


1829. Expulsion of 
Spaniards from 
Mexico de¬ 
creed. 


1822. Brazil declares 
its independence. 

Pedro I., Em¬ 
peror. 

Ecuador inde¬ 
pendent. 

1824. Bolivar, Dic¬ 
tator of Peru. 

1825. Argentina con¬ 
stitution decreed. 

Upper Peru in¬ 
dependent, takes 
the name of Bo¬ 
livia. 

Republic of 
Central America. 

1826. Gen. Sucre, 
President of Bo¬ 
livia; succeeded 
by Bolivar. 

War between 
Buenos Ayres 
and Brazil. 

1828. Ecuador in¬ 
vaded by Peru. 

Uruguay inde¬ 
pendent. 

1829. Venezuela sep¬ 
arates from New 
Granada. 

1830. Death of Boli¬ 
var. Gen. Flores 
first President of 
Ecuador. 



































A.. D. 

1831 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1835 

1836 

1837 

1838 

1839 

1840 

1841 

1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 

1846 

1847 

1848 


HISTORY 


103 


FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 
1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 


United States of America 


First locomotive built in United 
States. 

Chloroform discovered by Samuel 
Guthrie. 

First Democratic National Conven¬ 
tion. 

Black Hawk War. 

Nullification in South Carolina. 

United States Bank bill vetoed by 
the President. 


Canada 


Spanish 
North America 


Spanish 
South America 


1832. Newfound¬ 
land obtains a 
colonial legis¬ 
lature. 


1831. Revolution in 
Brazil. Abdica¬ 
tion of Dom Pe¬ 
dro. 

1832. Patagonia vis¬ 
ited by Charles 
Darwin, the sci¬ 
entist. 


Jackson re-elected; Martin Van 
Buren, Vice-President. 

Bank deposits removed from the Na¬ 
tional Bank. 

National debt extinguished. 

Whig party first takes its name. 

Attempted assassination of President 
Jackson. 

Seminole War begins. 

Massacre at Alamo, Texas. 

Arkansas admitted. 

SamHouston, first president of Texas. 

Martin Van Buren, President; 
Richard M. Johnson, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. 

Great commercial panic. 

Morse system of telegraphy patented. 

“Great Western ” and “ Sirius ” cross 
the Atlantic. 


1833. Constitu¬ 
tional govern¬ 
ment in New¬ 
foundland. 


1836. First railway 
in Canada 
opened. 

1837. Papineau and 
Mackenzie re¬ 
bellion. 


1838. Canadian re¬ 
bellion sup¬ 
pressed. 


Vulcanized rubber patented by Good¬ 
year. 


1833. Santa Ana, 
President of 
Mexico. 


1835. Texas de¬ 
clares her inde¬ 
pendence. 

1836. First Con¬ 
gress meets in 
Costa Rica. 


1838. Mexico de¬ 
clares war 
against France. 

Slavery abol¬ 
ished in Brit¬ 
ish West In¬ 
dies. 

1839. Termination 
of the Mexican- 
French War. 


1833. Chilean consti¬ 
tution formed. 


1838. Buenos Ayres 
blockaded by 
French fleet. 


Lieut. Wilkes discovers Antarctic con¬ 
tinent. 

William H. Harrison, President; 
John Tyler, Vice-President. 

Harrison dies April 4th; John Tyler, 
President. 

Failure of the United States Bank. 

Dorr’s Rebellion in Rhode Island. 

Ashburton Treaty with England 
signed. 

Application of ether as an anaes¬ 
thetic. 

Bunker Hill Monument dedicated. 

Texas annexed to the United States. 

Morse telegraph completed from Bal¬ 
timore to Washington. 

James K. Polk, President; George 
M. Dallas, Vice-President. 

Florida admitted. 

United States Naval Academy estab¬ 
lished at Annapolis. 

Texas admitted. 

Petroleum discovered near Pittsburg. 

Mexican War begins. 

Wilmot Proviso. 

Smithsonian Institution established 
in Washington. 

Iowa admitted. 

Elias Howe patents the sewing ma¬ 
chine. 

Salt Lake City founded by the Mor¬ 
mons, 


Gold discovered near Colonia, Cal. 
Peace signed with Mexico. Acquisi¬ 
tion of New Mexico and California. 
Wisconsin admitted. 

Corner stone of Washington Monu¬ 
ment laid. 


1840. Upper and 
Lower Canada 
reunited. 


1843. McGill Uni¬ 
versity, Mon¬ 
treal, opened. 


1844. Dominican 
Republic pro¬ 
claimed in 
Hayti. 


1846.' Earl of Cath- 
cart, Governor. 


1846. Gen. Mejia 
of Mexico is¬ 
sues proclama¬ 
tion of hostility 
to the United 
States. War 
with United 
States. 

1847. Mexico se¬ 
questers church 
property to 
raise war funds. 

Gen. Quit- 
man, military 
Governor of 
City of Mexico. 

1848. Peace be¬ 
tween United 
States and 
Mexico. 


1845. England and 
France blockade 
Buenos Ayres, 
pending Civil 
War. 

Venezuela's in¬ 
dependence rec¬ 
ognized by Spain. 






















104 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


1849 

1850 

1851 

1852 

1853 

1854 

1855 

1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 

1861 


1862 


FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 
1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 


United States of America 


Zachary Taylor, President; Millard Fill¬ 
more, Vice-President. 

Rush of gold hunters to California begins. 

Death of President Taylor, July 9th; 

Millard Fillmore, President. 

California admitted. 

Bulwer Clayton Treaty with Great Britain 
signed. 

Fugitive Slave Bill passed. 

Clay Compromise Bill passed. 

Great fire in library of Congress. 

United States Mint established at San Fran¬ 
cisco. 

Deaths of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. 

Franklin Pierce, President; Rufus King, 
Vice-President. » 

Walker’s filibustering expedition. 

Gadsden purchase. 

Treaty between United States and Japan. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill approved. 

Ostend Manifesto issued. 


Completion of Panama Railroad. 

Troubles in Kansas. 

First agricultural college in United States 
established at Cleveland. 

Civil strife in Kansas. 

First Republican National Convention. 

James Buchanan, President; J. C. Brecken- 
ridge, Vice-President. 

Dred Scott decision. 

Great financial panic in United States. 

First attempt to lay transatlantic cable. 

Minnesota admitted. 

Second treaty with China signed. 

First message over Atlantic cable. 


Oregon admitted. 
John Brown’s raid. 


Morrill high tariff bill approved. 

South Carolina passes ordinance of secession 
from the Union. 


Abraham Lincoln, President; Hannibal 
Hamlin, Vice-President. 

Secession of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, North 
Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. 

Attack on Fort Sumter. 

Kansas admitted. 

Southern States form a confederacy. 
McClellan appointed commander-in-chief. 
Mason and Slidell taken from British vessel. 


Fight between the 
“Merrimac” and 
“ Monitor.” 

Slavery abolished in 
District of Columbia. 


Confederate States 
of America 

1861. Jefferson Davis, 
President; A. H. 
Stephens, Vice- 
President. 

Battles of Bull 
Run. 

1862. Capture of Ft. 
Henry. 

Grant takes Ft. 
Donelson. 


Canada 

Spanish 
North America 

Spanish 

South 

America 

1850. Riots in Mon- 

1850. Cuba in- 

1850. Steam- 

treal; Parlia- 

vaded by 

ship line 

ment House 

American fili- 

from 

burned. 

busters under 

Brazil to 

Canadian 

Lopez. 

Europe 

clergy reserves 


inaugu- 

abolished. 

1851. Second in- 

rated. 


vasion of 

1852. Slave 


Cuba;- Lopez 

trade sup- 


shot. 

pressed in 


Hayti an 

Brazil. 

1853. The “ Geno- 

Empire under 

1853. Civil 

va,” first 
transatlantic 

Solouque. 

War in 

* 

Argen- 

steamer, arrives 


tine. 

at Quebec. 



1854. First petro- 

1854-60. Central 


leum wells 

America in- 

* 

bored. 

vaded by 
American fili¬ 
busters under 


1855. Suspension 

Walker. 


Bridge at Ni¬ 
agara Falls 
opened. 



1856. Grand Trunk 


1856. Ecuador 

Railroad 


adopts 

opened. 


French 

Allan Steam- 

1857. New Mexi- 

system of 

ship Line es- 

can constitu- 

coinage, 

tablished. 

tion estab- 

weights, 


lished. 

and meas¬ 
ures. 

1858. Ottawa made 

1858. Mexican 


the capital. 

constitution 


Decimal sys- 

annulled by 


tern of coinage 

Church party. 


adopted. 

Civil War 
in Mexico. 

Hayti a 
Republic. 

1859. Juarez of 
Mexico con¬ 
fiscates 

Church prop¬ 
erty. 


1860. Prince of 

1860. Civil War in 

1860. Revolu- 

Wales visits 

Mexico be- 

tions and 

Canada. 

tween Zulo- 

insurrec- 


aga and 

tions pre- 


Miramon. 

vail in 
Uruguay 
for next 

1861. Gold found 

1861. Juarez, Die- 

in Nova Scotia. 

tator of Mex- 

thirty 


ico. 

Mexican 
troubles with 
England, 
France, and 
Spain. 

Reunion of 
Santo Do¬ 
mingo with 
Spain. 

years. 

1862. Macdonald, 

1862. England 


Premier. 

and Spain dis¬ 
approve Mex¬ 
ican Mon¬ 
archy for 
Maximilian. 































I 


HISTORY 


105 


A. D. 

FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 

1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 


United States of America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North America 

Spanish 

South 

America 

1862 

Treaty with Great Brit¬ 
ain for suppression of 
slave trade. 

Congress passes act to 
prevent polygamy in 
the Territories. 

Gen. Jackson captures 
Harpers Ferry. 

Battle of South Moun¬ 
tain. 

Battle of Antietam. 

Greenbacks first issued. 

Confederate States 
of America 

1862. Battle of Shi¬ 
loh. 

Capture of 

New Orleans by 
Farragut and 
Butler. 

Battle of Fair 
Oaks. 

Robert E. Lee 
in command of 
Confederate ar¬ 
mies. 

Battles before 
Richmond. 

Battle of Mur¬ 
freesboro. 




1863 

Emancipation procla¬ 
mation. 

West Virginia admitted. 
Gen. Meade commander 
of the Army of the 
Potomac. 

Battle of Gettysburg. 

1863. Battle of Chan¬ 
cellors ville. 

Siege of Vicks¬ 
burg. 

Battle of Chick- 
amauga. 

Battle of Look¬ 
out Mountain. 


1863. Mexico oc¬ 
cupied by 
the French 
under 
Bazaine. 


1864 

U. S. Grant, Lieutenant 

1864. Grant’s Vir- 

1864. Confederates 

1864. Maximilian, 

1864. Hostili- 


General. 

ginia campaign. 

in Canada plan 

Emperor of 

ties be- 

1865 

Fight between “ Kear- 
sarge” and “Ala¬ 
bama.” 

Fugitive Slave Law re¬ 
pealed. 

Battle of Monocacy. 

Premium on gold, 285 
per cent. 

Nevada admitted. 

President calls for 500,- 
000 volunteers. 

Grade of Vice-Admiral 
established. 

Additional call for 300,- 
000 volunteers. 

Battle of Wil¬ 
derness. 

Battle of Spott- 
sylvania C. H. 

Battle of Cold 
Harbor. 

Atlanta cam¬ 
paign. 

Capture of Mo¬ 
bile. 

Battle of Win¬ 
chester. 

Sherman’s 
march to the sea. 

Thomas de¬ 
feats Hood at 
Nashville. 

raids. 

Mexico. 

tween 

Paraguay 

and 

Brazil. 

Ameri¬ 
can Con¬ 
gress at 
Lima, 
Peru. 

1865. Argen¬ 
tine in¬ 
vaded by 
Para- 
guans un¬ 
der Lo- 

Lincoln re-elected; 

1865. Confederate 

1865. Confedera- 

1865. Maximilian 

pez. 


Andrew Johnson, 

Congress ad- 

tion rejected 

proclaims 

War be- 


Vice-President. 

journs sine die. 

by New Bruns- 

Mexican- 

tween 


Peace conference at 
Hampton Roads. 
President Lincoln shot 
at Ford’s Theater, 
Washington, April 
14th. 

Andrew Johnson, 

Richmond 
evacuated by 
Confederates. 

Lee surrenders 
at Appomattox, 
April 9th. 

Johnston, Mor- 

wick. 

French 

War ended. 

United 
States pro¬ 
tests against 
French occu¬ 
pation of 

Brazil 
and Uru¬ 
guay. 

Treaty 

between 

Brazil, 

Uruguay, 

1866 

President; April 15th. 
General amnesty proc¬ 
lamation. 

Habeas Corpus restored 
in Northern States. 

gan, Taylor, and 
Kirby-Smith sur¬ 
render. 

Jefferson Davis 
captured. 

1866. Invasion of 
Canada threat- 

Mexico. 

Insurrection 
in Jamaica. 

1866. Napoleon 
III. agrees 

and Ar¬ 
gentine 
against 
Para¬ 
guay. 

Four 

years’ war 

Civil Rights Bill passed 

over President’s veto. 

ened by Feni- 

with United 

results. 


Fenian raid into Canada. 

ans. 

States to 

Relig- 

1867 

Atlantic telegraph completed. 

Canadian 
Parliament 
first meets at 
Ottawa. 

withdraw 
French troops 
from Mexico. 

ious toler¬ 
ation en¬ 
acted in 
Chile. 

Nebraska admitted. 


1867. Dominion of 

1867. Maximilian, 

Chile de- 


Alaska transferred by Russia to the United 
States. 

Canada formed 
by union of 
Upper and 
Lower Canada, 
Nova Scotia, 
and New 
Brunswick. 

Lord Monck, 
Viceroy of 
Canada. 

New Parlia¬ 
ment at Ot¬ 
tawa. 

Miramon, and 
Mejia tried in 
Mexico and 
shot. 

Republic 
re-established 
in Mexico. 

dares war 

against 

Spain. 

1866. Span¬ 
iards 
bombard 
Valpara¬ 
iso, Chile. 

Peru 

joins Chile 
in war 
against 
Spain. 































106 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 


FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 
1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 


United States of America 


1868 


1869 


1870 


1871 


1872 

1872 

1873 

1875 

1876 

1877 


1878 


1879 


1880 


1881 


President Johnson impeached, tried, 
and acquitted. 

Southern States readmitted to rep¬ 
resentation in Congress. 
Burlingame treaty with China signed, 
XIV. Amendment adopted. 


U. S. Grant, President; Schuyler 
Colfax, Vice-President. 

Union Pacific Railroad opened for 
traffic. 

Financial panic in New York. 
Soldiers’ monument at Gettysburg 
dedicated. 

Northern Pacific Railroad begun. 
XV. Amendment ratified. 


Legal Tender Act decided constitu¬ 
tional. 

“Tweed Ring ” in New York exposed 
Great fire in Chicago. 

District of Columbia a territorial gov¬ 
ernment. 


Geneva award of $15,500,000 made 
to the United States. 

Great fire in Boston; loss $80,000,- 

000 . 

Modoc War in California. 

Grant re-elected; Henry Wilson, 
Vice-President. 

Credit Mobilier investigation by Con¬ 
gress. 

One-cent postal cards issued. 

Financial panic in New York. 

Territorial government in District of 
Columbia abolished. 

Act authorizing the resumption of 
specie payments. 

Massacre of Custer’s troops by Sit¬ 
ting Bull. 

Centennial Exposition at Philadel¬ 
phia. 

Colorado admitted. 

Electoral Commission appointed. 

Rutherford B. Hayes, President; 
William A. Wheeler, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. 

Great railroad strike. 

“Molly Maguires” hanged in Penn¬ 
sylvania. 

War with the Nez Perces Indians. 

Edison announces his phonograph. 

Bland Silver Bill passed over Presi¬ 
dent’s veto. 

Electric lighting introduced by Edi¬ 
son. 

United States Government resumes 
specie payment. 

Women permitted to practice before 
United States Courts. 

French Atlantic cable laid. 

The Kearney agitation in California. 


James A. Garfield, President; 

Chester A. Arthur, Vice-President. 
President Garfield shot, July 2d; 
Chester A. Arthur, President, 
September 20th. 

International Cotton Exposition at 
Atlanta, Ga. 


Canada 


1868. Agitation 
against confed¬ 
eration in Nov; 
Scotia. 

Fenian raid 
repelled. 

Sir John 
Young, Gov¬ 
ernor-General. 

1869. Newfound¬ 
land refuses to 
join the Do¬ 
minion. 

Hudson Bay 
territory pur¬ 
chased by the 
Dominion. 

1870. Rupert’s 
Land made the 
Province of 
Manitoba. 

1871. British Co¬ 
lumbia united 
to the Do¬ 
minion. 

Departure of 
last battalion 
of Royal 
troops. 

Uniformity 
of currency es¬ 
tablished. 

1872. Lord Duf- 
ferin, Gover¬ 
nor-General. 


1873. Prince Ed¬ 
ward Island 
joins the Do¬ 
minion. 


1875. Icelanders 
settle in North 
west Territo¬ 
ries. 

1876. Intercolonial 
railroad opened 
from Quebec to 
Halifax. 

1877. Great fire at 
St, John, New 
Brunswick. 


1878. Marquis of 
Lome, Gover¬ 
nor-General. 

1879. Industrial 
Exhibition at 
Ottawa. 


1880. Royal Cana¬ 
dian Academy 
of Arts found¬ 
ed. 

1881. Contract for 
new Pacific 
railway rati¬ 
fied. 


Spanish 
North America 

Spanish 

South America 

1868. Insurrection 
of creoles in 
a Cuba under 

Cespedes. 


1869. Filibusters 
again attack 
Cuba. 

1869. Revolution in 
Ecuador. 

1870. Continual in¬ 
surrections in 
Cuba. 

1871. Civil War 
and insurrec¬ 
tions in Mexico. 


* 

1873. Slavery abol¬ 
ished in Porto 
Rico. 

1874. Religious or¬ 
ders suppressed 
in Mexico. 

1873. Treaty be¬ 
tween Argentina, 
and Brazil. 


1876. Venezuela re¬ 
nounces papal 
authority. 

1877. Porfirio Diaz, 
President of 
Mexico. 

* 


1878. Surrender of 
insurgent gov¬ 
ernment in 
Cuba. 

1879. War between 
Chile and Peru 
and Bolivia. 

1880. Manuel Gon¬ 
zales, President 
of Mexico. 

1880. Buenos Ayres 
made the capital 
of Argentina. 

1881. Lima occupied 
by the Chileans. 

Patagonia di¬ 
vided by Chile 
and Argentina. 

































HISTORY 


107 


A. D. 

FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 

1789 A. D„ TO THE PRESENT TIME 


United States of America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North America 

Spanish 

South America 

1882 

1883 

Star Route trials begin. 

War with the Apache Indians. 

Northern Pacific Railroad completed. 

1882. Northwest 
Territory be¬ 
yond Manitoba 
divided into 
Assiniboia, Sas¬ 
katchewan, Al¬ 
berta, and 
Athabaska. 

First colony 
of Russians set¬ 
tle in North¬ 
west Territory. 

1883. Conflicts be- 

1883. Ancient city 

1883. Peruvians de- 

Opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. 

tween Catholics 

discovered in 

feated with great 

1884 

Great floods in the Ohio Valley. 

and Orange¬ 
men in New¬ 
foundland. 

Standard 
time adopted. 

1884. Marquis of 

Sonora, Mexico. 

1884. Porfirio Diaz, 

loss by Chile. 

18S5 

Financial crises in New York. 

Grover Cleveland, President; 

Lansdowne, 

Governor-Gen- 

1885. The Riel in- 

President of 
Mexico. 

1885. Concessions 


1886 

Thomas A. Hendricks, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. * 

Apache War in New Mexico. 

World’s Industrial Exposition at 
New Orleans. 

Railroad strikes and anarchistic riots. 

surrection in 
Northwest. 

1886. Fisheries dis- 

to the Nicara¬ 
gua Canal Com¬ 
pany granted 
by Nicaragua. 

1886. Slavery abol- 


1888 

Silver certificates authorized. 
Bartholdi’s Statue of Liberty un¬ 
veiled. 

Chinese immigration prohibited. 

pute with 
United States. 

Vancouver 
City founded. 

1887. Great rail¬ 
way bridge at 
Lachine com¬ 
pleted. 

Anthracite 
coal first mined 
in Canada. 

1888. Lord Stanley, 

ished in Cuba. 

1888. Slavery totally 

1889 

Benjamin Harrison, President; 

Governor-Gen¬ 

eral. 


abolished in 

Brazil. 

1890 

Levi P. Morton, Vice-President. 
Johnstown flood. 

Pan-American Congress meets in 
Washington. 

North and South Dakotas, Washing¬ 
ton, and Montana admitted. 
Oklahoma opened for settlement. 
Idaho and Wyoming admitted. 

1890. Dominion 

1890. Union of Cen- 

1889. Revolution at 
Rio de Janeiro; 
emperor ban¬ 
ished; republic 
declared. 

First Brazilian 
Congress meets. 

1890. Great financial 


People’s Party convenes at Topeka, 

Commons pass- 

tral American 

crisis in Argen- 


Kan. 

ed a resolution 

States formed. 

tine. 

1891 

McKinley Tariff goes into effect. 
Sioux War; Sitting Bull killed. 
Massacre of Italians in New Orleans. 

of loyalty to 
Great Britain. 
1891. Canadian Pa- 


1891. Civil War in 

1892 

Behring Sea dispute referred to arbi- 

cific Railway 
completed. 

First Pacific 
mail steamer 
arrives at Van¬ 
couver from 
Yokohama. 

St. Clair tun¬ 
nel connecting 
Canadian and 
United States 
railways open¬ 
ed. 

1892. Dominion 


Chile. 

Mob at Valpa¬ 
raiso assaults 
United States 
sailors. 

1892. Revolutions 


tration. 

discriminates 


and insurrections 

1893 

Grover Cleveland, President; Ad- 

against United 
States in use of 
Welland Canal. 
1893. Canal tolls 


in Brazil. 

1893. Insurrections 
in Argentine. 
Naval revolt 


lai E. Stevenson, Vice-President. 

Columbian Exposition opened at 
Chicago. 

World’s Parliament of Religions 
meets at Chicago. 

Chinese Exclusion bill approved. 

Great financial depression. Silver 
bill approved. 

arranged with 
United States. 

Commercial 
treaty between 
France and 
Canada. 

Earl of Aber¬ 
deen, Govern¬ 
or-General. 


in Brazil, led by 
Admiral de 

Mello. 















108 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 
1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TI3IE 


United States of America 


1894 Wilson Tariff bill passed. 

Great railroad strike from Ohio to 
Pacific coast. 

Coal strike. 

Republic of Hawaii recognized. 

New treaty with Japan. 


1895 Free silver movement an important 
issue. 

Special message of the President on 
the Venezuelan question. 


1896 


Treaty with the Choctaw Indians. 


1897 


William McKinley, President; 

Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President. 
Universal Postal Congress meets in 
Washington. 

Treaty for annexation of Hawaii 
signed. 

Extensive strikes among coal and 
iron miners. 

Dingley Tariff bill goes into effect. 


1898 


City government of Greater New 
York inaugurated. 

Destruction of the “Maine” in Ha¬ 
vana Harbor. 

War with Spain; Congress orders 
forcible intervention in Cuba. 

Admiral Dewey destroys the Span¬ 
ish fleet at Manila. 

Naval battle at Santiago; destruc¬ 
tion of Cevera’s fleet. 

Miles invades Porto Rico. 

Treaty of Paris: United States ac¬ 
quires sovereignty over Cuba, 
Porto Rico, and the Philippines. 


1899 


Aguinaldo foments the Philippine 
War. 

Appointment of the First Philippine 
Commission. 

General Wood, Governor of Cuba. 


Canada 


1894. Intercolonial 
Congress open¬ 
ed at Ottawa. 


1895. First Exhibi¬ 
tion in North¬ 
west opened at 
Regina. 


1896. Sir Charles 
Tupper, Pre¬ 
mier. 

Newfound¬ 
land Govern¬ 
ment purchases 
railway system. 


1897. School ques¬ 
tion settled in 
Manitoba. 

Commission 
for Yukon gold 
region ap¬ 
pointed. 

British Sci¬ 
ence Associa¬ 
tion meets at 
Toronto. 

Joint com¬ 
mission ap¬ 
pointed to set¬ 
tle difficulties 
with United 
States. 

1898. Great influx 
of miners to 
Yukon gold 
region. 

Earl of Minto, 
Governor-Gen¬ 
eral. 


1899. Adjournment 
of the Joint 
High Commis¬ 
sion. 


Spanish 
North America 


1895. Renewed in¬ 
surrections in 
Cuba against 
Spanish rule. 

Cuba de¬ 
mands auton¬ 
omy from 
Spain. 

1896. Weyler issues 
his famous re- 
concentrado 
order in Cuba. 

Uniform 
education sys¬ 
tem in Mexico. 


1897. Weyler re¬ 
called from 
Cuba and 
Blanco ap¬ 
pointed cap¬ 
tain-general. 

Attempt to 
assassinate 
President Diaz 
of Mexico. 

United 

States of Cen¬ 
tral America 
formed. 


1898. Hostile dem¬ 
onstrations in 
Havana 
against Ameri¬ 
cans. 

Battleship 
“ Maine ” 
blown up at 
Havana. 

Invasion of 
Cuba and Por¬ 
to Rico by 
United States. 

Completion 
of great Mexi¬ 
can drainage 
canal. 

1899. Cuba and 
Porto Rico 
pass to United 
States by 
Treaty of Paris. 

Spanish 
power in Amer¬ 
ica ceases. 


Spanish 
South America 


1894. Naval scrim¬ 
mage between 
Admiral da 
Gama, Brazilian 
insurgent, and 
Admiral Ben- 
ham, United 
States Navy. 

1895. Chile adopts 
the gold stand¬ 
ard. 

Construction 
of Panama Canal 
in progress by 
the French. 

1896. Revolt of 

“ Fanatics ” in 
Brazil. 

Chile signs 
treaty of amity 
with Bolivia. 

Gold mines of 
great value dis¬ 
covered in Peru. 

1897. Venezuela rati¬ 
fies boundary 
treaty with 
Great Britain. 


1898. Argentine pro¬ 
vides for a com¬ 
plete network of 
railways. 


1899. Venezuelan 
boundary 
tribunal meets 
in Paris. 


1900 


1901 


Civil government established in the 
Philippines under act of Congress. 

Galveston flood and hurricane. 

Civil government in Alaska. 

American forces sent to China under 
General Chaffee. 

McKinley re-elected; Theodore 
Roosevelt, Vice-President. 

Platt Amendment relating to Cuban 
independence passed. 

President McKinley shot at Buffalo, 
N. Y., September 6th; Theodore 
Roosevelt, President, September 
14th. 

Cuban autonomy granted. 


1900. Great fire in 
Ottawa. 

Parliament¬ 
ary elections 
sustain the 
Liberal minis¬ 
try in power. 

1901. Population 
of Canada, 
5,338,883. 

Toronto Ex¬ 
hibition open¬ 
ed. 


1900. Cuba consti¬ 
tutional con¬ 
vention meets. 


1901. War declared 
between 
Venezuela and 
Colombia. 

















HISTORY 


109 


A. D. 

FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 

1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 


United States of America 

Canada 

Spanish 
North America 

Spanish 

South America 

1902 

President recommended purchase of 
the rights of the Panama Canal 
Company for $40,000,000. 

Civil government established in the 
Philippines and amnesty granted 
political prisoners. 

Decision of United States Supreme 
Court in Northern Securities case. 

1902. Canadian- 
Australian 
cable laid. 

Reciprocity 
treaty between 
Newfoundland 
and United 
States. 

1902. Revolution 
in Santo Do¬ 
mingo. 

Eruption of 
Mt. Pelee, St. 
Pierre, with 
30,000 people 
destroyed. 

1902. Gen. Uribe, 
Colombian insur¬ 
gent leader, 
surrenders. 

End of revolu- . 
tion in Venezuela. 

1903 

1904 

1905 

Department of Commerce and Labor 
created. 

Pacific cable completed. 

Canal treaty with Panama. 

Cuban Reciprocity Treaty ratified by 
U. S. Senate. 

Alaskan boundary dispute decided 
in favor of the United States. 

Commercial treaty with China. 

Arbitration treaty with France 
signed. 

Great fire in Baltimore. 

Theodore Roosevelt, President; 
Charles W. Fairbanks, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. 

President advocates control of rail¬ 
ways and corporate wealth. 

Arbitration treaties concluded with 
Great Britain, Germany, Italy, 
and other powers. 

1903. University of 
Ottawa found¬ 
ed. 

1904. Earl Grey, 
Governor-Gen¬ 
eral. 

1905. Decennial 
census act. 

1903. West Indian 
hurricane 
destroyed 
$15,000,000 in 
values and 
many lives. 

1903. The republic of 
Panama pro¬ 
claimed. 

Canal treaty 
with United 
States ratified. 

1904. Venezuelan 
diplomatic diffi¬ 
culties with 
United States. 

1906 

Destruction of San Francisco by 
earthquake and fire. 

Riot at Brownsville, Texas. 

President Roosevelt visits Panama. 

1906. British pref¬ 
erential tariff 
debated. 

Commission 
appointed to 
investigate 
life insurance 
in Canada. 

1906. Revolution* 
in Central 
America. 

President 
Palma resigns 
and appeals to 
United States 
for intervention 
in Cuba. 

1906. Pan-American 
conference at 

Rio de Janeiro. 

Earthquake at 
Valparaiso, 

Chile. 

1907 

Pure Food Law became effective. 
Jamestown Exposition opened by 
President Roosevelt. 

Standard Oil Company fined 
$29,240,000. 

Financial stringency in New York, 
and many bank failures. 

Oklahoma admitted as a State. 

1907. Riotous 

demonstrations 
against Japa¬ 
nese at Vancou¬ 
ver, British 
Columbia. 

Physical and 
military train¬ 
ing introduced 
into schools and 
colleges. 

1907. Tehuantepec 
National Rail¬ 
way opened by 
President Diaz 
of Mexico. 

Large part of 
Kingston, 
Jamaica, de¬ 
stroyed by 
earthquake. 

1907. Notable im¬ 
pulse given to 
South American 
trade and 
progress. 

1908 

The Aldrich Currency bill introduced 
in the U. S. Senate. 

1908. Tercentenary 
celebration 
held at Quebec. 

1908. Nord Alexis 
overthrown in 
Hayti. 

1908. Labor riot at 
Chilean mines. 

1909 

William H. Taft, President; 

James S. Sherman, Vice-President. 
Payne-Aldrich tariff. 

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition at 
Seattle. 

Peary reported discovery of North 
Pole, April 26. 

1909. Unusual im¬ 
migration from 
United States. 

Progress in 
railway devel¬ 
opment. 

1909. Earthquakes 
destroy 10,000 
in Mexico. 

Meeting of 
Taft and Diaz 
at El Chamizal. 

1909. Anarchist up¬ 
risings in Argen¬ 
tina suppressed. 

1910 

Insurgency in Congress. 

Commerce Court created. 

Thirteenth Census. 

Postal Savings Banks established. 

1910. Death of 

Goldwin Smith. 

1910. President 
Diaz reelected. 

1910. Mutiny of 
Brazilian navy. 

1911 

Postal deficit wiped out. 

Trust trials before United States 
Supreme Court. 

1911. Duke of Con¬ 
naught, Gov¬ 
ernor-General. 

Reciprocity 
with United 
States defeat¬ 
ed; downfall of 
Laurier min¬ 
istry. 

-Robert L. Bor¬ 
den, premier. 

1911. Diaz forced to 
resign. 

Francisco I. 
Madero, presi¬ 
dent. 

1911. The Rivada- 
via,largest bat¬ 
tle-ship in the 
world, launched 
for Argentine 
navy. 

1912 

Nation-wide investigation of dyna¬ 
mite conspiracy. 

Arizona and New Mexico admitted 
as states. 

1912. Duke of Con¬ 
naught visits 
United States. 

1912. Insurrection 
in Mexico. 

1912. Railroad across 
Andes completed. 
Great progress 
in education. 

1913 

Parcels Post established. 

Income tax law ratified by states. 
Woodrow Wilson, President; 
Thomas R. Marshall, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. 

1913 Unusual pros¬ 
perity through¬ 
out the do¬ 
minion. 

1913. Madero, 
president of 
Mexico, forced 
to resign. 

Madero is 
assassinated. 

1913. Panama Canal 
nears completion. 













110 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Feudal System. The name generally 
given to the system of land tenure and social 
arrangements which prevailed in Europe during 
the period commonly known as the Middle Ages. 
Its essence lay in the close connection which 
existed under it between social status and the 
ownership of land. The man who held land 
from another was looked upon as the dependant 
and subordinate of the latter. In England the 
system was not unknown under the Anglo-Saxon 
kings, but it received its complete development 
only at the Norman Conquest. The death of 
Harold left William in possession of vast crown 
lands, which he bestowed upon his principal 
officers. What the king did for his great lords 
they did for their captains, and these, again, 
for their vassals. Counties were divided into 
manors, and manors into farms; and in the 
most commanding part of every manor a strong 
castle arose, in which the baron ruled all but 
supreme, surrounded by armed retainers, and 
having always at his call the franklins, or free- 
tenants, who held the lands which constituted 
his estate. Under the Feudal System both spear 
and plough helped to pay the rent. Knight 
Service and Socage were required from every 
tenant — the former obliging him to serve, at 
the call of his landlord, for so many days each 
year in the field of battle; the latter to give occa¬ 
sional days of labor on the castle grounds, or to 
send fixed supplies of such things as beef or poul¬ 
try, meal or honey, to the castle larder. Num¬ 
bers of serfs, called Villeins, tilled little patches 
of ground under certain conditions, and these 
were held nominally to be freemen; but the 
lowest class of serfs took rank with the oxen 
and the swine which they tended, being, like 
them, the property of the master. Under this 
system, Aids had to be given to the crown; 
and also various Reliefs,. or Fines, which were 
paid by an incoming heir before he could take 
possession of his estate, or when a tenant sold 
or gave any part of his lands to a stranger. 
The Feudal System, though it has so long 
ceased to exist as a system of political and 
social relations, still survives as the basis of 
most of the laws relating to land; and the laws 
both of escheat and copyhold, as they at present 
exist, are direct outgrowths of the Feudal System. 

Fifth-monarchy Men. A clique of 
political fanatics who sided with Cromwell dur¬ 
ing the Protectorate. They derived this epi¬ 
thet from their entertaining a belief that Crom¬ 
well's accession to supreme power was a mani¬ 
festation of the advent of the fifth monarchy, 
in which the Saviour should reign with the saints 
on earth for the period of one thousand years. 

Florida. The name Florida, derived from 
a Spanish word meaning “flowery,” or perhaps 
because it was first visited on “Pascua Florida," 
or Easter Sunday, was originally applied to a 
much larger region than the present State, its 
boundaries extending to the Mississsippi, and on 
the north indefinitely. It was first discovered 
by Ponce de Leon in 1512, who landed near St. 
Augustine. It was subsequently visited by 
other Spanish adventurers, but it was not till 
1528 that an actual attempt at colonization was 
made by Panfilo de Narvaez, who had received 
a large land grant from Charles V. He and his 


colonists were exterminated by the Indians. 
In 1539, Fernando de Soto explored the State, 
and a few years later many French Huguenots 
sought refuge here. They were massacred by 
the Spaniards. Spain had no permanent foot¬ 
ing till 1565, when the fort was built at St. 
Augustine. Pensacola was settled in 1696. In 
1763, Florida was ceded to the English in ex¬ 
change for Cuba, but by the treaty of 1783 it 
was retroceded to Spain. A portion of Florida 
was seized by the United States in 1803, and in 
1819, Spain formally ceded the whole province. 
Florida was admitted as a State in 1845, seceded 
January 10, 1861, and resumed federal relations, 
1868. 

Forum (; fo'rtim ). In Roman cities, a public 
place where causes were judicially tried, and 
orations made to the people. It was a large, 
open parallelogram, surrounded by porticos. 
There were six of these forums, viz: the Roma- 
num, Julianum, Augustum, Palladium, Traja- 
num, and Sallustii forums. The chief was the 
Romanum, called, by way of eminence, the 
forum. In it was the rostrum, or pulpit, where 
the Roman orators pleaded before or harangued 
the people. These forums were styled fora 
civilia, in distinction from another description 
of forum serving as markets, which were known 
as fora venalia. 

France. Gallia was the name under which 
France was designated by the Romans, who 
knew little of the country till the time of Caesar, 
when it was occupied by the Aquitani, Celtae, 
and Belgae. Under Augustus, Gaul was divided 
into four provinces, which, under subsequent 
emperors, were dismembered, and subdivided 
into seventeen. In the Fifth Century it fell 
completely under the power of the Visigoths, 
Burgundians, and Franks. In 486 A. D., Clovis, 
a chief of the Salian Franks, raised himself to 
supreme power in the North. His dynasty, 
known as the Merovingian, ended in the person 
of Childeric III., who was deposed 752 A. D. 
The accession of Pepin gave new vigor to the 
monarchy, which, under his son and successor, 
Charlemagne, crowned Emperor of the West in 
800 (768-814), rose to the rank of the most 
powerful empire of the West. With him, how¬ 
ever, this vast fabric of power crumbled to 
pieces, and his weak descendants completed the 
ruin of the Frankish Empire by the dismember¬ 
ment of its various parts among the younger 
branches of the Carlovingian family. On the 
death of Louis V. the Carlovingian Dynasty 
was replaced by that of Hugues, Count of Paris, 
whose son, Hugh Capet, was elected king by 
the army, and consecrated at Rheims, 987 A. D. 
At this period the greater part of France was 
held by almost independent lords. Louis le 
Gros (1108-37) was the first ruler who succeeded 
in combining the whole under his scepter. He 
promoted the establishment of the feudal sys¬ 
tem, abolished serfdom on his own estates, 
secured corporate rights to the cities under his 
jurisdiction, gave efficiency to the central author¬ 
ity of the crown, carried on a war against Henry 
I. of England; and when the latter allied him¬ 
self with the Emperor Henry V. of Germany 
against France he brought into the field an army 
of 200,000 men. The oriflamme is said to have 



HISTORY 


111 


been borne aloft for the first time on this occa¬ 
sion as the national standard. Louis VII. 
(1137-80) was almost incessantly engaged in 
war with Henry II. of England. His son and 
successor, Philippe Auguste (1180-1223), recov¬ 
ered Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou 
from John of England. He took an active per¬ 
sonal share in the Crusades. Philippe was the 
first to levy a tax for the maintenance of the 
standing army. Many noble institutions date 
their origin from this reign, as the University of 
Paris, the Louvre, 'etc. St. Louis IX. effected 
many modifications in the fiscal department, 
and, before his departure for the Crusades, se¬ 
cured the rights of the Gallican Church by special 
statute, in order to counteract the constantly 
increasing assumptions of the papal power. 
Philippe IV. (1285-1314), surnamed Le Bel, 
acquired Navarre, Champagne, and Brie by 
marriage. Charles IV. {Le Bel ) (1321-28) was 
the last direct descendant of the Capetian line. 
Philippe VI., the first of the House of Valois 
(1328-50), succeeded in right of the Salic law. 
His reign, and those of his successors, Jean 
(1350-64) and Charles V. {Le Sage ) (1364-80), 
were disturbed by constant wars with Edward 
III. of England. Hostilities began in 1339; 
in 1346 the battle of Crecy was fought; at the 
battle of Poitiers (1356) Jean was made captive; 
and before the final close, after the death of 
Edward (1377), the state was reduced to bank¬ 
ruptcy. During the regency for the minor, 
Charles VI. {Le Bien Aime ) (1380-1422), the 
war was renewed with increased vigor on the 
part of the English nation. The signal victory 
won by the English at Agincourt in 1415 aided 
Henry in his attempts upon the throne. But 
the extraordinary influence exercised over her 
countrymen by the Maid of Orleans aided in 
bringing about a thorough reaction, and, after 
a period of murder, rapine, and anarchy, Charles 
VII. {Le Victorieux ) (1422-61) was crowned at 
Rheims. His successor, Louis XI. (1461-83), 
succeeded in recovering for the crown the terri¬ 
tories of Maine, Anjou, and Provence, while he 
made himself master of some portions of the 
territories of Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur¬ 
gundy. Charles VIII. (1483-98), by his mar¬ 
riage with Anne of Brittany, secured that pow¬ 
erful state. With him ended the direct male 
succession of the House of Valois. Louis XII. 
(1498-1515) {Le Pere du Peuple ) was the only 
representative of the Valois-Orleans family; 
his successor, Francis I. (1547), was of the 
Valois-Angouleme branch. The defeat of Fran¬ 
cis at the battle of Pavia, in 1525, and his sub¬ 
sequent imprisonment at Madrid, threw the 
affairs of the nation into the greatest disorder. 
In the reign of Henri II. began the persecutions 
of the Protestants. Henri III. (1574-89) was 
the last of this branch of the Valois. The mas¬ 
sacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) was perpetrated 
under the direction of the queen-mother, Catha¬ 
rine de’ Medici, and the confederation of the 
League, at the head of which were the Guises. 
The wars of the League, which were carried on 
by the latter against the Bourbon branches of 
the princes of the blood-royal, involved the 
whole nation in their vortex. The succession of 
Henri IV. of Navarre (1589-1610), a Bourbon 


prince, descended from a younger son of St. 
Louis, allayed the fury of these religious wars, 
but his recantation of Protestantism in favor of 
Catholicism disappointed his own party. Dur¬ 
ing the minority of his son, Louis XIII. (1610- 
43), Cardinal Richelieu, under the nominal 
regency of Marie de’ Medici, the queen-mother, 
ruled with a firm hand. Cardinal Mazarin, 
under the regency of the queen-mother, Anne of 
Austria, exerted nearly equal power for some 
time during the minority of Louis XIV. (1643- 
1715). The wars of the Fronde, the misconduct 
of the parliament, and the humbling of the no¬ 
bility gave rise to another civil war, but with 
the assumption of power by young Louis a new 
era commenced, and till near the close of his 
long reign the military successes of the French 
were most brilliant. Louis XV. (1715-75) suc¬ 
ceeded to a heritage whose glory was tarnished, 
and whose stability was shaken to its very 
foundations during his reign. The Peace of 
Paris, 1763, by which the greater portion of the 
colonial possessions of France were given up to 
England, terminated an inglorious war, in which 
the French had expended 1,350 millions of 
francs. In 1774 Louis XVI., a well-meaning, 
weak prince, succeeded to the throne. The 
American war of freedom had disseminated 
republican ideas among the lower orders, while 
the Assembly of the Notables had discussed and 
made known to all classes the incapacity of the 
government and the wanton prodigality of the 
court. The nobles and the tiers etat were alike 
clamorous for a meeting of the states, the 
former wishing to impose new taxes on the na¬ 
tion, and the latter determined to inaugurate 
a thorough and systematic reform. After much 
opposition on the part of the king and court the 
Etats Generaux, which had not met since 1614, 
assembled at Versailles on May 25, 1789. The 
resistance made by Louis and his advisers to 
the reasonable demands of the deputies on the 
17th of June, 1789, led to the constitution of the 
National Assembly. The consequence was the 
outbreak of insurrectionary movements at Paris, 
where blood was shed on the 12th of July. On 
the following day the national guard was con¬ 
voked, and on the 14th the people took posses¬ 
sion of the Bastile. The royal princes and all 
the nobles who could escape sought safety in 
flight. The royal family, having attempted in 
vain to follow their example, tried to conciliate 
the people by the feigned assumption of repub¬ 
lican sentiment; but on the 5th of October the 
rabble, followed by numbers of the national 
guard, attacked Versailles, and compelled the 
king and his family to remove to Paris, whither 
the Assembly also moved. A war with Austria 
was begun in April, 1792; and the defeat of the 
French was visited on Louis, who was confined 
in August with his family in the Temple. In 
December the king was brought to trial. On 
January 20, 1793, sentence of death was passed 
upon him, and on the following day he was 
beheaded. Marie Antoinette, the widowed 
queen, was guillotined; the dauphin and his 
surviving relatives suffered every indignity that 
malignity could devise. A reign of blood and 
terror succeeded. The brilliant exploits of the 
young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, in Italy, 



11?, 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


turned men's thoughts to other channels. In 
1795, a general amnesty was declared, peace was 
concluded with Prussia and Spain, ana the war 
was carried on with double vigor against Aus¬ 
tria. The Revolution had reached a turning- 
point. A Directory was formed to administer 
the government, which was now conducted in 
a spirit of order and conciliation. In 1797, 
Bonaparte and his brother-commanders were 
omnipotent in Italy. Austria was compelled 
to give up Belgium, accede to peace on any 
terms, and recognize the Cisalpine Republic. 
Under the pretext of attacking England a fleet 
of 400 ships and an army of 36,000 picked men 
were equipped; their destination proved, how¬ 
ever, to be Egypt, whither the Directory sent 
Bonaparte; but the young general resigned the 
command to K16ber, landed in France in 1799, 
and at once succeeded in supplanting the Direct¬ 
ory, and securing his own nomination as consul. 
In 1800, a new constitution was promulgated, 
which vested the sole executive power in Bona¬ 
parte. Having resumed his military duties, he 
marched an army over the Alps, attacked the 
Austrians unawares, and decided the fate of 
Italy by his victory at Marengo. In 1804, on 
an appeal by universal suffrage to the nation, 
Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor. By his 
marriage with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, 
daughter of the Emperor of Germany, Napoleon 
seemed to have given to his throne the prestige 
of birth, which alone it had-lacked. The dis¬ 
astrous Russian campaign, in which his noble 
army was lost amid the rigors of a northern 
winter, was soon followed by the falling away of 
his allies and feudatories. Napoleon himself 
was still victorious wherever he appeared in 
person, but his generals were beaten in numer¬ 
ous engagements; and the great defeat of Leipsic 
compelled the French to retreat beyond the 
Rhine. The Swedes brought reinforcements to 
his enemies on the eastern frontier, while the 
English pressed on from the west; Paris, in 
the absence of the emperor, capitulated after a 
short resistance, March 30, 1814. Napoleon 
retired to the island of Elba. On the 3d of 
May, Louis XVIII. (the brother of Louis XVI.) 
made his entry into Paris. On March 1, 1815, 
Napoleon left Elba, and landed in France. 
Crowds followed him; the soldiers flocked 
around his standard; the Bourbons fled, and he 
took possession of their lately deserted palaces. 
The news spread terror through Europe; and on 
the 25th of March a treaty of alliance was signed 
at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
England, and preparations made to put down 
the movement in his favor and restore the 
Bourbon dynasty. At first the old prestige of 
success seemed to attend Napoleon; but on the 
18th of June he was thoroughly defeated at 
Waterloo; and, having placed- himself under 
the safeguard of the English, he was sent to the 
island of St. Helena, where, on May 5, 1821, he 
breathed his last. In 1824, Louis XVIII. died 
without direct heirs, and his brother, the Due 
d’Artois, succeeded to the throne as Charles X. 
His reign was abruptly brought to a close by the 
revolution of 1830, and the election to the throne 
of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, as king, by 
the will of the people. Louis Philippe having 


abdicated (February 24, 1848), a republic was 
proclaimed, under a provisional government. 
Louis Napoleon was elected president of the 
republic in December, 1848; but by the famous 
coupe d’etat of December 2, 1851, he violently 
set aside the constitution, and assumed dicta¬ 
torial powers; and a year after was raised, by 
the almost unanimous voice of the nation, to 
the dignity of emperor as Napoleon III. The 
result of the appeal made to the nation in 1870, 
on the plea of securing their sanction for his 
policy, was not what he had anticipated. The 
course of events in the short but terrible Franco- 
German War of 1870-71 electrified Europe by 
its unexpected character. On September 2, 
1870, Napoleon, with 90,000 men, surrendered 
at Sedan. With the concurrence of Prussia, 
the French nation next elected representatives 
to provide for the exigency. A republic was 
proclaimed, and the first National Assembly met 
at Bordeaux in February, 1871. After receiving 
the resignation of the Provisional Government 
of Defense, the Assembly undertook to organize 
a republican government, and nominated M. 
Thiers President of the French Republic, but 
with the condition of responsibility to the 
National Assembly. The ex-Emperor Napoleon 
died in 1872, at Chiselhurst, England, where he 
had resided with his family since his liberation in 
March, 1871. In 1873, M. Thiers resigned, and 
was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon,' who re¬ 
signed in 1879, and was succeeded by M. Gr6vy. 
In 1887, Sadi-Carnot was chosen president. He 
was assassinated June 24, 1894. His successor 
was M. Casimir-Perier, who resigned January 15, 
1895, and was succeeded by M. Frangois F61ix 
Faure, January 17, 1895. President Faure was 
assassinated in 1899, and his successor was M. 
Loubet, during whose administration the famous 
Dreyfus case was reopened and disposed of. 
M. Armand Failures was elected to the presi¬ 
dency January 17, 1906, in succession to M. 
Loubet. The most important public act during 
his incumbency was the enforcement of the 
Separation Law, which leaves the administration 
of the Church of France in its own hands, rather 
than in the Vatican at Rome. Serious disturb¬ 
ances occurred during the same year (1907) in 
the wine-growing districts. In 1910, the Seine 
flooded Paris for a week, destroying over $200,- 
000,000 worth of property. France entered into 
an arbitration treaty with the United States 
in 1912. On January 17, 1913, M. Raymond 
Poincare was elected president to succeed M. 
Armand Failieres. 

French Revolution, The First. 

From May 5, 1789, to July 27, 1794. Chief 
Leaders of the First French Revolution : Comte 
de Mirabeau, 1789-1791; Danton, from the 
death of Mirabeau to 1793; Robespierre, from 
June, 1793, to July 27, 1794. Next to these 
three were St. Just, Couthon, Marat, Carrier, 
Hebert, Santerre, Camille Desmoulins, Roland 
and his wife, Brissot, Bernave, SieySs, Barras, 
Tallien, etc. 

Great Days of the First French Revolution: 
June 17, 1789, the Tiers Fiat constituted itself 
into the "National Assembly”; June 20th, the 
day of the Jue de Paume, when the Assembly 
took an oath not to separate until it had given 



HISTORY 


113 


France a constitution; July 14th, Storming of 
the Bastille; October 5th and 6th, the king and 
National Assembly transferred from Versailles 
to Paris. This closed the ancient regime of the 
court. June 20, 21, 1791, flight and capture 
of the king, queen, and royal family. June 20, 

1792, attack on the Tuileries by Santerre: Au¬ 
gust 10th, attack on the Tuileries and downfall 
of the monarchy; September 2d, 3d, and 4th, 
massacre of the state prisoners. January 21, 

1793, Louis XVI guillotined; May 31st, com¬ 
mencement of the Reign of Terror; June 2d, the 
Girondists proscribed; October 16th, Marie 
Antoinette guillotined; October 31st, the Giron¬ 
dists guillotined. April 5th, 1794, downfall of 
Danton; July 27th, downfall of Robespierre. 

Frisians or Frisii (later called Frisones). 
An ancient Germanic people, who inhabited the 
extreme northwest of Germany, between the 
mouths of the Rhine and Ems, and were sub¬ 
jected to the Roman power under Drusus. They 
were subdued by the Franks, and, on the division 
of the Carlovingian Empire, their country was 
divided into West Frisian (West Friesland) and 
East Frisian (East Friesland). The language 
of the Frisians is intermediate between the 
Anglo-Saxon and the Old Norse. Our knowl¬ 
edge of the old Frisian is derived from certain 
collections of laws; as the “Asegabuch,” com¬ 
posed about 1200; the “Brockmerbrief,” in the 
Thirteenth Century; the “GSpnsiger Domen,” 
about 1300, and some others. 

Fronde, a name given to a revolt in France 
opposed to the Court of Anne of Austria and 
Mazarin during the minority of Louis XIV. The 
war which arose, and which was due to the des¬ 
potism of Mazarin, passed through two phases; 
it was first a war on the part of the people and 
the parliament, called the Old Fronde, which 
lasted from 1648 till 1649, and then a war on the 
part of the nobles, called the New Fronde, which 
lasted till 1652, when the revolt was crushed by 
Turenne to the triumph of the royal power. 
The name is derived from the mimic fights with 
slings in which the boys of Paris frequently in¬ 
dulged, and which even went so far as to beat back 
at times the civic guard sent to suppress them. 

Garde Nationale, a guard of armed 
citizens instituted in Paris, July 13, 1789. At 
first it numbered 48,000 men, but was increased 
to 300,000 when it was organized throughout 
the whole country. Marquis de Lafayette was 
its first commander. It was reorganized by the 
Directory and by Napoleon, and again under the 
Bourbons and was dissolved in 1827. Under 
Louis Philippe it was resuscitated and contrib¬ 
uted to his overthrow. In 1851, the national guard 
was again reorganized, but in 1855 dissolved. 
In 1870, the national guard of Paris was formed 
for the defense of the city against the Prussians. 
The resistance of a section of the guard to the 
decree of disarmament led to the communal 
war, at the close of which the guard was de¬ 
clared dissolved by the National Assembly (1871). 

Geneva Convention, a convention 
signed by the chief European continental powers 
in 1864, providing for the succor of the sick and 
wounded in war. It has since been ratified by 
the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and 
about forty other nations. The chief provisions 


are: (1) The neutrality of ambulances and 
military hospitals. (2) The personnel of such 
ambulances and hospitals, including sanitary 
officers and naval and military chaplains, to be 
benefited by the neutrality. (3) The inhabit¬ 
ants of a country, rendering help to the sick and 
wounded, are to be respected and free from cap¬ 
ture. (4) No distinction to be made between 
the sick and wounded, on account of nationality. 
(5) A flag and uniform to be adopted, and an 
armlet for the personnel of ambulances and hos¬ 
pitals. The flag and armlet to consist of a red 
Greek cross on a white ground. The Turks use 
a red crescent in place of the cross. Other pro¬ 
visions have since been added intended to miti¬ 
gate the severity of naval combat, and cover 
cases of capture and sinking of vessels. To 
carry out the terms of this convention, the Inter¬ 
national Society for the Aid of the Sick and 
Wounded has been organized, with committees 
in the chief towns in the United States and in 
Europe. It first played an important part in 
the Franco-German War, every nation sending 
its contingent of ambulances, surgeons, etc. In 
the Spanish-American War the Cuban Central 
Relief Committee used the Red Cross Society 
as an agency in the distribution of relief. 

Georgia. Named after King George II. 
of England. Georgia was the latest settled of 
the thirteen colonies, which first formed the 
United States. The country was originally 
included in the charter of Carolina. In 1732 
the territory was granted to a corporation, 
which sent out the first colony under Sir James 
Oglethorpe the same year. In 1733 Savannah 
was founded. General Oglethorpe commanded 
the forces of Carolina and Georgia in the 
unsuccessful expedition against St. Augustine 
in 1740. In 1752, Georgia became a royal 
government under regulations similar to those 
of the other colonies. During the Revolution 
Georgia was overrun by the British, and 
Savannah captured in 1778. The Constitution 
of the United States was ratified January 2, 
1788. The State seceded January 19, 1861. 
The principal military events were those about 
Atlanta, resulting in its evacuation, and Sher¬ 
man’s March to the Sea, all in 1864. Georgia 
was formally readmitted to the Union July 15, 
1870. An International Cotton Exposition was 
held at Atlanta in 1881, which gave a pronounced 
impulse to that industry in the South. The 
State enacted a law in prohibition of the liquor 
traffic in 1907. 

Germany. After the gradual retirement 
of the Romans from Germany the country 
became divided into petty states and govern¬ 
ments, where the influence of France was soon 
made apparent on both sides of the Rhine, 
asserting supremacy over the whole of the west 
of Germany. Charlemagne, extending his con¬ 
quests from the North Sea to the Alps, and 
from the Rhine to Hungary, laid the foundation 
of that long line of emperors and kings who 
occupied the German throne for upward of 
1,000 years. On the extinction, in 911, of the 
Carlovingian dynasty, the archbishops, bishops, 
and abbots arrogated to themselves the right 
of electing their sovereign, who could not, how¬ 
ever, assume the imperial title till he was crowned 




114 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


by the pope. At this period there were in Ger¬ 
many five nations — the Franks, Saxons, Bava¬ 
rians, Swabians, and Lorrainers. Their choice 
of a ruler fell upon the Count of Franconia, who, 
under the title of Conrad I., reigned King of 
Germany from 911-18. He was succeeded by 
Henry, Duke of Saxony, who gained conquests 
over the Danes, Slavs, and Magyars, which was 
confirmed and extended by his son and suc¬ 
cessor, Otho I. (936-73), who carried the boun¬ 
daries of the empire beyond the Elbe and Saale. 
In 1039-56 Henry III. extended German 
supremacy over Hungary. In 1125 the male 
line of the Franconian dynasty became extinct 
by the death of Henry V.; Lothaire of Saxony 
occupied the throne till 1138, when the reins of 
power were assumed by Conrad III., Duke of 
Franconia, in whose reign the civil wars of the 
Guelphs and Ghibellines began. He was the 
first of the Hohenstauffen dynasty. He was 
succeeded by the famous Frederick I., sur- 
named Barbarossa, who, with the flower of his 
chivalry, perished in the Crusades. In 1273 
Rudolf I., the first of the Habsburg line, which 
still reigns in Austria, began his reign, and 
restored order by destroying the strongholds of 
the nobles. For the next 200 years, counting 
from 1292, the period of the accession of Adolph- 
phus, the history of the German Empire pre¬ 
sents few features of interest. In 1493 Maxi¬ 
milian I., succeeded his father, Frederick III., 
married Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold of 
Burgundy, and became, consequently, involved 
in the general politics of Europe, while his 
opposition to the reformed faith preached by 
Luther embittered the religious differences 
which marked the close of his reign. He was 
succeeded by Charles V., who, although opposed 
to the Reformation, left the princes of Germany 
to settle their religious differences among them¬ 
selves, and to quell the insurrection of the peas¬ 
ants in 1525, which threatened to undermine 
society. He abdicated in favor of his brother 
Ferdinand in 1556, who granted entire toleration 
to the Protestants. Ferdinand’s reign was dis¬ 
turbed by domestic and foreign aggressions. 
Anarchy, both civil and religious, now obtained 
in his dominions to such an extent as to culmi¬ 
nate in the Thirty Years’ War, which closed 
under Ferdinand III. by the treaty of West¬ 
phalia, 1648. This terrible war depopulated 
the rural districts of Germany, destroyed its 
commerce, crippled the powers of the emperors, 
burdened the people with taxes, and cut up the 
empire into a multitude of petty states, whose 
rulers exercised almost absolute power. The 
male line of the Habsburg dynasty expired with 
Charles Vi., 1740. The reign of this potentate 
and that of his predecessor, Joseph I., were 
signalized by the victories won by the imperialist 
general, Prince Eugene, and Marlborough, over 
the French. During the Seven Years’ War 
Frederick the Great, of Prussia, maintained his 
character for skillful generalship at the expense 
of Austria. During the life-time of Maria Theresa 
she retained her authority over all the Christian 
states, but on her death her son, Joseph II., was 
little more than nominal sovereign. In 1792 
Francis II. was crowned Emperor of Germany; 
in 1804 he assumed the title Francis I. Emperor 


of Austria; in 1806 he resigned the German 
crown and assumed the title of Emperor of 
Austria, having suffered a series of defeats by the 
armies of the French Republic. From this 
period till 1814-15 Germany was almost wholly 
at the mercy of Napoleon, who deposed the estab¬ 
lished sovereigns, and dismembered the states 
in the interest of his own favorites. Of the 300 
states into which the empire was divided there 
remained only forty — a number subsequently 
reduced to thirty-five. The Diet was now reor¬ 
ganized by all the allied states as the legislature 
and executive organ of the Confederation. The 
French Revolution of 1830 reacted sufficiently 
to constrain the rulers of some of the German 
states to give written constitutions to their sub¬ 
jects. This was insufficient to meet the demands 
of the people as a whole, so that in 1848, by 
open insurrectionary movements was compelled 
the convocation, by a provisional self-consti¬ 
tuted assembly, of a national congress of repre¬ 
sentatives of the people. The Archduke John 
of Austria was elected vicar of the newly organ¬ 
ized government, but his action embarrassed 
the progressive tendencies of parliament and 
dampened the hopes of the progressionists. The 
refusal of the King of Prussia to accept the 
imperial crown which was offered him by the 
parliament was followed by a provisional regency 
of the empire; but as there was no cohesion 
among the members of the parliament, and as 
Austria had been shut out from the German 
Confederation by a majority of one vote, the 
assembly soon lapsed into anarchy, which led to 
its dissolution. In 1850 the Diet was restored 
by Austria and Prussia. In 1859 the whole 
federal army was mobilized, and the Prussian 
prince regent made commander-in-chief. There 
is little doubt that the feeling of the German 
eople, as distinguished from the princes and 
ureaucracy, has, in recent times at least, been 
in favor of the purely German Prussia as their 
leader rather than Austria, the great mass of 
whose population are Slavs and Magyars. And 
when the Parliament of Frankfurt, in 1850, 
offered the imperial crown to the King of Prussia, 
the unity of Germany might have been secured 
without bloodshed had the monarch been resolute, 
or had he had a Bismarck for his .adviser. But 
that opportunity being let slip, and the incubus 
of the Bund being restored, it became apparent 
that the knot must be cut by the sword. By the 
treaty of Gastein, Austria and Prussia agreed to 
a joint occupation of the Elbe duchies; but to 
prevent collision it was judged prudent that 
Austria should occupy Holstein and Prussia 
Sleswick. Already a difference of policy had 
begun to show itself; Prussia was believed to 
have the intention of annexing the duchies, 
while Austria began to favor the claims of Prince 
Frederick of Augustenburg, and wished to refer 
the disposal of the matter to the Bund. At this 
crisis England, France, and Russia invited the 
disputants to a conference. Prussia and Italy 
readily consented; but nothing came of it, 
through the obstinate pride of Austria, who 
would not allow her position in Italy to be even 
taken into consideration. In the sitting of the 
German Diet, June 1, 1866, Austria, disregarding 
the Convention of Gastein, placed the whole 



HISTORY 


115 


matter at the disposal of the Bund, and then 
proceeded to convoke the states of Holstein 
“to assist in the settlement of the future desti¬ 
nation of the _ duchy.” Prussia protested 
against this as an insult and a violation of treaty. 
The Prussians lost no time, war was declared 
against Austria, and, following the example set 
by Frederick the Great, the troops immediately 
began to march into Bohemia, invading it at 
no less than three several points. This brief 
war ended in the utter defeat of Austria, and also 
in the restoration of Venetia to Italy. In 1870 
the famous Franco-Prussian War opened, to the 
utter humiliation of the French arms, and the 
cession of Alsace and German-Lorraine, 62,000 
square miles of territory, to the Germans, 
together with the payment of 5,000,000,000 
francs as additional indemnity for the expense 
of the war. The Germanic Empire, recon¬ 
structed in 1870, as a result of this fierce con¬ 
flict, grew out of the North German Confeder¬ 
ation, established in 1866, by treaties between 
the King of Prussia and the governments of 
Bavaria, Wtirttemberg, Baden, and Hesse, 
ratified by the Diet of north Germany, Decem¬ 
ber 10, 1870. The legislative power of the 
empire is vested in a Federal Council represent¬ 
ing the twenty-five states of which the Confed¬ 
eration is composed. Prussia has seventeen 
votes, Bavaria six, Wtirttemberg four, Saxony 
four, Baden three, Hesse three, Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin two, Brunswick two, and the rest of 
the states one vote each, the total number being 
fifty-eight. The executive is intrusted to the 
emperor and a ministry selected by him and 
presided over by the chancellor of the empire; 
ministers are responsible to the emperor only. 
On January 18, 1871, King William of Prussia 
proclaimed his assumption of the imperial power 
for himself and his successors. Whatever spirit 
of opposition there may have been on the part 
of the antagonists of the supremacy of Prussia 
was smothered in the general acclamations of 
triumph, He died 1888, and was succeeded by 
his son Frederick William (Frederick III.), who, 
however, reigned only three months, dying the 
same year of a throat affection. He was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son William, as William II. The 
early years of the present emperor’s reign were 
marked by the rise of the Social Democrats, the 
formation of the Triple Alliance with Austria- 
Hungary and Italy, the acquisition, since 1884, 
of foreign dependencies and spheres of influence, 
and the retirement of Bismarck in 1890. The 
Triple Alliance was renewed in 1912 for twelve 
years following its expiration in 1914. Thus 
Germany, Austria, and Italy are firmly united 
for purposes of mutual defense as opposed to the 
union of England, France, and Russia. 

Gettysburg, Battle of, fought July 1-3, 
1863, between the Union Army under General 
Meade, and the Confederates under General 
Lee. During May the armies lay fronting each 
other upon the Rappahannock. Early in June 
Lee began his movement for the invasion of 
Pennsylvania, crossing the Potomac on the 24th 
and 25th, and reaching Chambersburg, Pa., on 
the 27th. General Hooker, then in command 
of the Army of the Potomac, moved in the same 
general direction, but on the 28th was relieved, 


and the command given to Meade. In order 
to prevent his communications from being 
severed, Lee turned back toward Gettysburg to 
give battle. Meade had intended to give battle at 
a spot several miles from Gettysburg, near which 
was, however, a small portion of his army. This 
came into collision a little before noon, July 1st, 
with the advance of Lee, and was forced back, 
taking up a strong position on Cemetery Hill, 
in the rear of Gettysburg. Hancock, who had 
been sent forward to examine the position, 
reported that Gettysburg was the place at which 
to receive the Confederate attack, and Meade 
hurried his whole force to that point. The 
action on the second day, July 2d, began about 
noon with an attempt made by Lee to seize 
Round Top, a rocky hill from which the Union 
position could be enfiladed. When this day’s 
fighting closed Lee was convinced that he had 
greatly the advantage, and he resolved to press 
it the next day. On the morning of July 3d, an 
attempt was made upon the extreme Union 
right, but repelled. The main attack on the 
center was preluded by a cannonade from 150 
guns, which was replied to by eighty, little 
injury being inflicted by either side. About 
noon the Union fire was slackened in order to 
cool the guns, and Lee, thinking that the batter¬ 
ies were silenced, launched a column of 15,000 
or 18,000 against the Union lines. Some of this 
column actually surmounted the low works, and 
a brief hand-to-hand fight ensued. But the 
column was practically annihilated, only a small 
portion escaping death or capture. The forces 
on each side were probably about 80,000, though 
all were not really engaged. No official report 
of the Confederate loss was ever published; the 
best estimates put it at about 18,000 killed and 
wounded, and 13,600 missing, most of them 
prisoners. The Union loss was 23,187, 16,543 
of whom were killed and wounded. 

Ghibellines ( gib'el-lenz ). The name of a 
celebrated political faction which existed in Italy 
during the Thirteenth Century and sprung out of 
the disputed succession to the imperial throne of 
Germany, vacated in 1137 by the death of 
Lothaire II. Conrad of Hohenstauffen, his 
elected successor, found his claim disputed by 
Henry of Guelph (surnamed the Proud), Duke 
of Saxony and Bavaria. At the latter’s death 
his pretentions became personified in his son 
Henry the Lion, Duke of Brunswick, whose 
adherents called themselves Guelphs after his 
patronymic, in distinction from the Ghibellines, 
who derived their cognomen from Conrad’s 
lordship of Weiblingen, 1140. Their feud after 
a while extended to Italy, over which the German 
emperors claimed supremacy against the popes, 
the Guelphs becoming there the supporters of 
the latter. This strife did not terminate until 
the French invasion of Charles VIII. in 1495. 

Girondists ( ji-ron'dists ), the name given 
to the moderate Republicans in the first French 
Revolution. The name was derived from the 
department of Gironde, which chose for its rep¬ 
resentatives in the Legislative Assembly five men 
who greatly distinguished themselves by their 
oratory, and who, being joined by Condorcet, 
Brissot, and the moderate Republicans who were 
the adherents of Roland, formed a powerful 



116 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Conservative party. They fell during the Reign 
of Terror, and most of them perished on the 
scaffold. 

Gladiators, in Ancient Rome, professional 
combatants, who fought in the arena for the 
amusement of the people. They were at first 
slaves, prisoners, or convicts; but afterwards 
freemen fought in the arena, either for hire or 
from choice. When a gladiator was severely 
wounded, so as to be unable to fight any longer, 
his antagonist stood over him with his sword 
lifted, and looked up to the assembly for its fiat. 
If the majority turned their thumbs downwards, 
that was the signal of death. The practice was 
defended, even by Cicero, as serving to keep up 
a martial spirit and a contempt of death among 
the people. Constantine prohibited gladiators’ 
fights by an edict (A. D. 325), but the practice 
was not wholly extinct till the time of Theodoric 
(A. D. 500). 

God’s Truce, or The Truce of God. 

A singular institution of the Middle Ages, which 
originated in a council assembled at Limoges at 
the end of the Tenth Century, and in the council 
of Orleans, 1016. It consisted in the suspension 
for a stated time, and at stated seasons and festi¬ 
vals, of that right of private feud for the redress 
of wrongs, which, under certain conditions, was 
recognized by. mediaeval law or usage. It pre¬ 
vailed chiefly in France and the German Empire; 
and fell gradually into disuse when the right of 
private redress was restricted, and at last en¬ 
tirely abolished by laws. 

Goths. A powerful German people, who 
originally dwelt on the Prussian coast of the 
Baltic, at the mouth of the Vistula, but after¬ 
wards migrated south. About the beginning of 
the Third Century we find them separated into 
two great divisions, the Ostrogoths or Eastern 
Goths, and the Visigoths or Western Goths. 
The former were settled in Moesia and Pannonia, 
while the latter remained north of the Danube. 
At the beginning of the Fifth Century, the Visi¬ 
goths, under their King Alaric, invaded Italy, 
and took and plundered Rome (A. D. 410). A 
few years later they settled in the southwest of 
Gaul, and thence invaded Spain, where they 
founded a kingdom which lasted for more than 
two centuries. Meantime, the Ostrogoths ex¬ 
tended their dominion almost up to the gates of 
Constantinople, and, under their King Theodoric 
(A D. 489) obtained possession of the whole of 
Italy. Their dominion over Italy lasted, how¬ 
ever, only till 554, when it was overthrown by 
Narses, the general of Justinian. From this 
time, the Goths figure no longer in Western 
Europe, except in Spain, from which they were 
finally driven by the Arabs. But their name 
was perpetuated long after in Scandinavia, 
where a Kingdom of Gothia existed till 1161, 
when it was absorbed in that of Sweden. Of 
Gothic literature, in the Gothic language, we 
have the translation of the Scriptures by Ulphi- 
las, which belongs to the Fourth Century, and 
some other religious writings and fragments. 

Greece. Prior to the first recorded Olym- 

E iad, B. C. 776, little is certain in Greek history. 

ong anterior to this the country had been in¬ 
habited, but fact and fable are so mingled in 
the accounts that have come down to us that it 


is impossible to distinguish the true from the 
false. Starting, then, from the period above 
indicated, we shall give a brief r£sum£ of the 
chief historic events up to the conquest of Greece 
by the Turks in 1456 A. D.— Olympic Games 
revived at Elis, 884 B. C.; the first Olympiad 
dates from 776 B. C.; the Messenian Wars oc¬ 
curred from 743-669; the first sea-fight on rec¬ 
ord, between the Corinthians and the inhabitants 
of Corcyra, 664; Byzantium built, 657; the 
seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pitta- 
cus, Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourished 
about 593; Persian conquests in Ionia occurred 
in 544; Sybafis in Magna Graecia destroyed, and 
100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 300,000- 
Sybarites, 508; Sardis burned by the Greeks, 
which causes an invasion by the Persians, 504; 
Thrace and Macedonia are conquered, 496; 
Athens and Sparta defy the Persians, 490; the 
Persians are defeated at Marathon, 491; Xerxes 
invades Greece, but is repulsed at Thermopylae 
by Leonidas, 480; battle of Salamis occurs, 480; 
Mardonius is defeated and slain at Plataea, and 
the Persian fleet is destroyed at Mycale, 479; 
battle of Eurymedon, which ends the Persian 
War, 466; Athens attempts to obtain an ascend¬ 
ency over the rest of Greece, 459; the first 
“sacred war” begun, 448; Corinth and Corcyra 
involved in war, 435, which leads to the Pelopon¬ 
nesian War, lasting from 431-404; the Athenian 
expedition to Syracuse ends disastrously, 415- 
413; the retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon 
occurs, 400; Socrates dies, 399; great sea-fight 
at Cnidas, 394; the peace of Antalcidas, 387; 
Thebes arrives at the height of its power in 
Greece between the years 370-360; the battle 
of Mantinea, and death of Epaminondas, 362; 
Philip of Macedon reigns, 353; the sacred war 
is stopped by Philip, who captures all the towns 
of the Phocseans, 348; battle of Chseroneia, 338; 
Alexander enters Greece, conquers the Atheni¬ 
ans, and destroys Thebes, 335; he conquers 
the Persian Empire, 334-331; Greece invaded 
by the Gauls, 280; they are defeated at Delphi, 
279; and finally expelled, 277; internal feuds 
lead to interference by the Romans, 200; Mum- 
mius conquers Greece, and makes it a Roman 
province, 147-146. Under Augustus and Had¬ 
rian Greece was prosperous, 122-133 A. D.; 
Alaric invades Greece, 396; it is plundered and 
ravaged by the Normans from Sicily, 1146; 
conquered by the Latins, 1204; the Turks under 
Mohammed II. conquer Athens and part of 
Greece, 1456; thence, till 1822, the country was 
a province of Turkey. The revolt of the Greeks 
from Turkish rule took place March 6, 1821, 
under Alexander Ypsilanti, and on January 1, 
1822, they declared their independence. In 1825, 
the Turks partially reoccupied the country, but 
were finally forced to evacuate in 1828. At last, 
on February 3, 1830, a protocol of the allied 
powers declared the independence of Greece, 
which was recognized by the Porte on the 25th of 
April, of this year. The crown was offered to 
Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, and when he re¬ 
fused it, to Otho, a young prince of Bavaria, who 
was proclaimed king of the Hellenes at Nauplia 
in 1832. But his arbitrary measures, and the 
preponderance which he gave to Germans in the 
government, made him unpopular, and, although 




HISTORY 


117 


after a rebellion in 1843, a constitution was drawn 
up, he was compelled by another rebellion in 1862 
to abdicate. A provisional government was then 
set up at Athens, and the National Assembly 
offered the vacant throne in succession to Prince 
Alfred of England and Prince William George of 
Denmark. The latter accepted it, and on March 
30, 1863, was proclaimed as King George I. 
In 1864, the Ionian Islands, which had hitherto 
formed an independent republic under the 
protection of Britain, were annexed to Greece. 

From the first, Greece has sought an oppor¬ 
tunity of extending its frontier northwards, so 
as to include the large Greek population in 
Thessaly and Epirus. In January, 1878, after 
the fall of Plevna, Greek troops were moved 
into Thessaly and Epirus, but were withdrawn 
on the remonstrance of Britain. The promises 
held out to Greece by the Berlin Congress were 
in danger of being withdrawn, but the persist¬ 
ence of Greece led, in 1881, to the cession to her 
of Thessaly and part of Epirus, or about one- 
third less than the territory promised at Berlin. 
The situation, however, always remained some¬ 
what strained. The union of Eastern Rumelia 
with Bulgaria, in 1885, gave rise to a demand 
for a rectification of frontiers, and war with 
Turkey was prevented only by the great powers, 
who enforced peace by blockading the Greek 
ports. In 1896 war was declared against Turkey 
when the people of Crete demanded their right 
to become a portion of Grecian territory. The 
result was disastrous, Turkey pouring troops into 
Thessaly and defeating the Greek troops. The 
incompetency of the Greek generals was notori¬ 
ous, Prince George of Greece being held as 
mainly responsible. In 1904, the military service 
of the kingdom was reorganized, providing for 
an increased army and new armament. In 1912, 
disputing Turkish boundaries and authority, 
Greece, Bulgaria, Servia and Montenegro 
declared war on Turkey. 

Gunpowder Plot, The. Thenamegiven 
to a conspiracy projected by Guy Fawkes and 
some revolutionary associates against James 
I. and the members of the two Houses of 
Parliament, with a design to their destruction 
by undermining the building in which they were 
expected to assemble, placing there charges of 
gunpowder, and firing the same, November 5, 
1605. The plot, however, proved abortive, and 
the conspirators met the penalty of their crime. 

Hanse Towns. The name given to cer¬ 
tain towns in Germany, so called from the 
Hanseatic League, which was formed in 1241, 
for the protection of the ports against the piracies 
of the Swedes and Danes. At first the League 
consisted only of towns situated on the coast of 
the Baltic; but it became so powerful, and 
exercised so many privileges, that ultimately it 
included many of the principal cities of Europe. 
The League consisted, in 1370, of sixty-six cities 
and forty-four confederate towns. The Thirty 
Years’ War in Germany (1618-48) broke up 
the association, which had already begun to 
decline in the preceding century. The only 
towns now known as Hanse Towns are Ham¬ 
burg, Liibeck, and Bremen; and in their case 
the name has no significance, except so far as 
it indicates that they are still free cities. 


Habsburg, or Hapsburg (properly 
Habichtsburg or Habsburg, the hawk’s castle). 
A small place in the Swiss Canton of Aargau, on 
the right bank of the Aar. The castle was built 
about 1027 by Bishop Werner of Strassburg. 
Werner II., who died in 1096, is said to have 
been the first to assume the title of Count of 
Habsburg. After the death, about 1232, of 
Rudolf II., the family divided into two branches 
the founder of one of which was Albert IV. 
In 1273, Rudolf, son of Albert IV., was chosen 
Emperor of Germany, and from him descended 
the series of Austrian monarchs, all of the Habs¬ 
burg male line, down to Charles IV. inclusive. 
After that the dynasty, by the marriage of 
Maria Theresa to Francis Stephen of Lorraine, 
became the Habsburg-Lorraine. Francis II., 
the third of this line, was the last of the so-called 
“Holy Roman Emperors,” this old title being 
changed by him for that of Emperor of Austria. 
From the Emperor Rudolf was also descended 
a Spanish Dynasty which began with the Em¬ 
peror Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain), and 
terminated with Charles II. in 1700. The castle 
of Habsburg is still to be seen on the Wulpels- 
berg. In 1881 the Austrians proposed to pur¬ 
chase the castle of Habsburg and give it as a 
wedding gift to the Crown-prince of Austria; 
but the people of Aargau refused to hear of the 
sale. 

Helvetii. A powerful Celtic people, who 
dwelt in what is now the west of Switzerland. 
Their chief town was Aventicum. About 58 
B. C. they resolved, on the advice of Orgetorix, 
one of their chiefs, to migrate from their country 
with their wives and children, and to seek a 
new home in Gaul. They were, however, de¬ 
feated by Caesar, and driven back into their own 
territories, which became thenceforth a Roman 
colony. In the commotions that followed the 
death of Nero (A. D. 63) they were almost 
extirpated. 

Holland. Was an independent country 
from 863 to 1433; when Philippe of Burgundy 
united it to his vast estates. In 1477, Mary of 
Burgundy married Maximilian, and Holland, 
with many other estates, was united to Austria. 
After Karl V. it passed into the Spanish branch 
of the house, and in 1523, under the influence of 
Luther, it became Protestant. In 1579, Holland 
united with six other provinces in the “ Union of 
Utrecht,” threw off the Spanish yoke, and be¬ 
came a republic, called “The Seven Provinces,” 
with William of Orange as stadtholder. In 1621, 
Holland was united to France. In 1806, it was 
erected into the Kingdom of Holland by Napo¬ 
leon I. and given to his brother, Louis Bonaparte. 
In 1810, it was again united to France, but after 
the battle of Waterloo (1815) it was united to 
Belgium and formed “The Kingdom of the 
Netherlands” under the sovereignty of William I. 
In 1830, Holland and Belgium were divided into 
two kingdoms, called the “ Kingdom of Holland ” 
and the “Kingdom of Belgium”; the King of 
Holland still calls himself the “King of the 
Netherlands.” 

Holy Alliance. The name given to a 
treaty between the Emperors of Russia and 
Austria and the King of Prussia, ratified in Paris 
after the fall of the Emperor Napoleon (Septem- 




118 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ber 26, 1815), the object of which was professedly 
to pledge the respective monarchs to conduct 
their relations to each other under the guidance 
of Christian principles, but really to pledge each 
other to the maintenance of their respective 
dynasties. By the terms of this alliance, no 
member of the family of Napoleon was ever to 
occupy a European throne. 

Holy Roman Empire, The. The 
western part of the old Roman Empire, which 
was severed from the eastern part in 800, and 
was given by the pope to Charlemagne, who was 
crowned “Emperor of the Romans.” When 
Charlemagne’s empire was divided, Ludwig the 
German became Kaiser; but on the death 
of Karl the Fat the title fell into abeyance 
for seventy years. In 962, John XII. gave the 
title to Otto I. the Great, and changed it into 
“The Holy Roman Empire.” Francis II. re¬ 
nounced the titles of King of the Romans and 
Emperor of the Romans in 1806, and Napoleon 
added the Italian states to France, May, 1809.' 

Home Rule League (1870). Projected 
by Mr. Butt, who stoutly opposed the repeal of 
the Union, but agitated for an Irish parliament 
which should have no power to touch upon 
imperial matters, but should be empowered to 
deal with matters of Ireland of a purely local 
character. On the death of Mr. Butt, in 1879, 
his scheme passed into the hands of the Land 
League, and their watchword, “Ireland for the 
Irish,” meant separation from Great Britain. 
The term Home Rule survived the death of Mr. 
Butt, and in 1886, Mr. Gladstone, then prime 
minister, brought in a bill to give Ireland Home 
Rule, and exclude Irish members from West¬ 
minster. The measure broke up the great Whig 
party under the leadership of Lord Hartington, 
supported by Mr. Chamberlain (a Radical), Mr. 
Goschen, and others, who called themselves 
Unionists, and joined the great Tory party under 
the government of Lord Salisbury. 

Huguenots. A name formerly given to 
the Protestants in France. The story of the 
persecutions of the Huguenots is one of the sad¬ 
dest in history. In -1561 they took up arms 
against their persecutors; the struggle continued 
until the Edict of Nantes, establishing the 
rights of the Protestants, was signed by Henry 
of Navarre, April 13, 1598. The massacre of 
St. Bartholomew, in which, according to various 
authorities, from 2,000 to 100,000 Huguenots 
were murdered throughout the kingdom by 
secret orders from Charles IX., at the instiga¬ 
tion of his mother, Catherine de’ Medici, began 
on the night of August 24, 1572. 

Hundred Years’ War, The (1337— 
1453). A war between England and France, 
caused by Edward III.’s claim to the crown 
of France. When Charles IV. of France died, 
without male issue, his cousin Philip of Valois 
succeeded him as Philip VI., the French law 
excluding females from the throne. Edward III. 
of England claimed the crown because through 
his mother Isabella he was nephew to King 
Charles IV. The French replied that his claim 
was worthless since he could not inherit from 
one who could not herself have ascended the 
throne. After a long series of contests lasting 
more than a century, the war closed with the 


result that England lost all her possessions in 
France except Calais, which she retained for 
about a century longer. 

Hungary. The Magyars, an Asiatic people 
of Turanian race, allied to the Finns and the 
Turks, dwelt in what is now Southern Russia 
before they descended under Arpad into the 
plain of the Danube, towards the end of the 
Ninth Century, and conquered the whole of 
Hungary and Transylvania. During the first 
half of the Tenth Century their invasions and 
incursions spread terror throughout Germany, 
France, and Italy; but at length their total 
defeat by Otho I. of Germany put an end to 
their maraudings, and under their native dynasty 
of Arpdds they settled down to learn agriculture 
and the arts of peace. Stephen I. (997-1030) 
was the first who was successful in extending 
Christianity generally amongst the Hungarians, 
and was rewarded by a crown from Pope Syl¬ 
vester II. and with the title of apostolic king 
(1000). Stephen encouraged learning and litera¬ 
ture, and under him Latin became not only the 
official language of the government, but the 
vehicle of Hungarian civilization, which it un¬ 
fortunately continued to be for the next 800 
ears. In 1089 King Ladislaus extended the 
oundaries of Hungary by the conquest of 
Croatia and Slavonia, and King Coloman by 
that of Dalmatia in 1102. During the Twelfth 
Century the Hungarians first attained, through 
French connections, a certain refinement of life 
and manners. About the middle of the Thir¬ 
teenth Century King Bela induced many Ger¬ 
mans to settle in the country which had been 
depopulated by the Mongol invasions. With 
Andrew III. (1290-1301) the male line of the 
Arp&d Dynasty became extinct, and the royal 
dignity now became purely elective. Charles 
Robert of Anjou was the first elected (1309). 
Louis I. (1342-82) added Poland, Red Russia, 
Moldavia, and a part of Servia, to his kingdom. 
The reign of Sigismund (1387-1437), who was 
elected Emperor of Germany, is interesting from 
the invasion of Hungary by the Turks (1391), 
and the war with the Hussites. Sigismund 
introduced various reforms, and founded an 
academy at Buda. Matthias Corvinus (1458- 
90), combining the talents of a diplomatist and 
general, was equally successful against his ene¬ 
mies at home and abroad, and is even yet re¬ 
membered by the popular mind as the ideal of 
a just and firm ruler. He founded a university 
at Pressburg. During the reigns of Ladislaus II. 
(1490—1516) and Louis II. (1516-26) the rapacity 
of the magnates and domestic troubles brought 
the power of Hungary low, and the battle of 
Mohacs (1526) made a great part of the country 
a Turkish province for 160 years. The rest was 
left in dispute between Ferdinand of Austria 
and John Zapolya, but eventually, by the help 
of the Protestants, passed to the former, and has 
since remained under the scepter of the Habs- 
burgs. In 1686 Leopold I. took Buda and 
recovered most of Hungary and Transylvania. 
In 1724 Charles VI. secured by the Pragmatic 
Sanction the Hungarian Crown to the female 
descendants of the House of Habsburg, and the 
loyalty of the Hungarians to his daughter, Maria 
Theresa, saved the dynasty from ruin. Maria 



HISTORY 


119 


Theresa did much for the improvement of Hun¬ 
gary by the promulgation of the rural code called 
Urbarium, and by the formation of village 
schools. On the advent of the French revolu¬ 
tion, and during the wars which ensued, the 
Hungarians once more played a prominent part 
in support of the Habsburg Crown. Napoleon 
fell, but the revolution had given an impetus to 
ideas of national and popular rights which the 
Hungarians, long stifled under the Germanic 
traditions and tendencies of their rulers, were 
amongst the first to feel. For a time Francis I. 
and Metternich stood stiffly out against all 
concessions, and tried to govern by pure abso¬ 
lutism, but ended by summoning in 1825 a new 
diet. The diet distinguished itself by adopting 
the Magyar language in its debates instead of 
the Latin to which it had been accustomed. 
Succeeding diets in 1830 and 1832 made new 
demands in the direction of religious equality, 
a popular suffrage, and abrogation of the privi¬ 
leges of the nobles. The Austrian Government 
attempted to repress the Hungarian national 
movement by imprisoning De&k, Kossuth, and 
others of the leaders. The struggle continued 
till 1848, when the French Revolution of that 
year gave the impulse for a similar rising in 
Vienna. Prince Metternich fled to London, and 
the Viennese court made a formal concession of 
all important demands; but these had no sooner 
been granted than the government began secretly 
to work against their being put in operation. 
The dependencies of the Hungarian Crown, the 
Croats and the Wallachians of Transylvania, were 
privately encouraged to revolt, and in December 
of the same year an Austrian army took the 
field with the avowed object of annihilating the 
independence of Hungary; but a series of 
pitched battles resulted on the whole so much 
in favor of the Hungarians that Austria was 
obliged to call in the aid of Russia, which was 
at once granted. After a heroic struggle the 
Hungarians had to succumb. The nation was 
reduced to the position of a province, and some 
of the greatest statesmen and soldiers of Hungary 
perished on the scaffold. But the struggle was 
continued by the Hungarians in the form of a 
constitutional agitation, and at last, when the 
battle of Sadowa, in 1866, separated Austria 
from Germany, Austria, left face to face with a 
nation almost as powerful and numerous as 
itself, felt compelled to submit. In 1867 a 
separate constitution and administration for 
Hungary was decreed, and on June 8th the 
emperor and empress were crowned king and 
queen of Hungary with the utmost pomp, ac¬ 
cording to the ancient ceremonies of a Hunga¬ 
rian coronation. The dualism of the Austrian 
Empire was thus finally constituted. It was 
indeed but the partial recognition of the fact 
that the empire was a heterogeneous assemblage 
of communities differing widely in race, lan¬ 
guage, social habits and customs, and bound 
together only by the accident of having fallen 
to the House of Habsburg. 

Huns. The name given to several nomadic 
Scythian tribes, which devastated the Roman 
Empire in the Fifth Century. They inhabited 
the plains of Tartary, near the boundaries of 
China, many centuries before the Christian era; 


and they were known to the Chinese by the name 
of Hiongun, and also Han. It was in order to 
put a stop to the continual aggressions of the 
Huns that the great wall of China was built; 
and after this the Huns split up into two sepa¬ 
rate nations, named respectively the Northern 
and the Southern Huns. The first-mentioned 
of these gradually went west to the Volga, 
where they encountered the Alanni, whom they 
defeated. Here the Huns remained for about 
two centuries; but, under the Emperor Valens, 
they crossed the Bosphorus; afterward invading 
Rome, under their leader Attila. After the 
death of Attila the Huns broke up into separate 
tribes, and were driven back by the Goths 
beyond the Tanais. The Hungarians of the 
present day are the descendants of Huns, who 
once more immigrated into Europe. 

Hussites ( [h&s'itz ). The followers of John 
Huss ( q. v.), who avenged his death by one of 
the fiercest and most sanguinary civil wars ever 
known. They took the field under Ziska, 1418, 
gained the battle of Prague, July 14, 1420, and 
nearly annihilated the Imperialists at Deutschs- 
brod, January 8, 1422. After occupying the 
whole of Bohemia and Moravia, they threatened 
Vienna, and in 1426 gained the victories of 
Aussig and Mies. The Emperor Sigismund was 
at length too glad to come to terms with the 
Hussites, and the Treaty of Iglau, in 1436, ter¬ 
minated hostilities between Catholic and Prot¬ 
estant for the time being. 

Hyksos, The, or Shepherd Kings of Lower 
Egypt. A race of Arabs which invaded ancient 
Egypt, and continued dominant, according to 
ManStho, for 500 years, but according to others 
about half that time (B. C. 1842-1591). They 
formed or were contemporary with the Fifteenth, 
Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Dynasties of Upper 
Egypt. Amosis drove them out and established 
the Eighteenth Dynasty in Thebais, contem¬ 
porary with the Nineteenth and Twentieth. 
They were driven from the Thebais by Tot- 
mosis or Thotmosis, but continued to hold cer¬ 
tain cantons of Egypt long afterwards. It is 
supposed that Abraham went to Egypt in B. C. 
1806, while the Sixteenth Dynasty was regnant; 
and that Joseph was viceroy about B. C. 1713, 
in the same dynasty. 

Idaho. The region within the present lim¬ 
its of the State was included in the Louisiana 
Purchase of 1803. Idaho was included first in 
Oregon and subsequently in Washington. The 
first settlement of consequence was the Coeur 
d'Alene Mission, which was established in 1842. 
The permanent settlement of the territory did 
not begin until the discovery of gold in 1860. 
Idaho was created a Territory by an act of 
Congress March 3, 1863, and then embraced 
the present State of Montana and nearly all of 
Wyoming. It was admitted to statehood July 
3, 1890. 

Illinois. The name is derived from that 
of an Indian tribe, Illini, signifying superior 
men. First explored in 1673 by Marquette, and 
in 1679 by La Salle. French settlements were 
formed at Crevecceur, Kaskaskia, and Cahokia 
in 1682. With the subjugation of Canada, in 
1763, the French dominion east of the Missis¬ 
sippi became English. In 1783 Illinois was 



120 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ceded to the United States by England and 
became part of the Northwej^ Territory in 1787. 
After the successive severance of Ohio in 1800, 
of Indiana in 1805, and of Michigan in 1809, 
the remainder of the Northwest Territory was 
reconstituted as Illinois Territory, then embrac¬ 
ing Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. On De¬ 
cember 13, 1818, Illinois with its present limits 
was admitted as a State, being the eighth 
adopted under the Federal Constitution. The 
early history was an unbroken contest with the 
savages, the most notable incidents being the 
Fort Dearborn Massacre, August 15, 1812, and 
the Black Hawk War, 1832 to 1844. During 
the last half century Illinois has had a phenom¬ 
enal record in growth and progress. 

Incas. A Peruvian Dynasty (1130-1571) 
which succeeded the Aymara Dynasty, and was 
reigning when (in 1533) Pizarro conquered Peru. 
The Incas called themselves descendants of the 
Sun. The first Inca was Manco-Capac, 1130, 
and his successors were Sinchi-Roca, Lloqui- 
Yupanqui, Mayta-Capac, Capac-Yupanqui, Roca 
Yahuar-Huacac, Viracocha, Pachacutec, Yapan- 
qui, Tupac-Yupanqui, Huayna-Capac, Huascar, 
and Atahualpa (taken prisoners by the Span¬ 
iards and put to death in 1533). Tupac-Amaru 
was beheaded in 1571. 

India. The country was entered and partly 
subdued by Alexander the Great. About 126 
B. C. it was also invaded by the Tartars, or 
Scythians of the Greeks, and Sakas of the Hindus. 
From the Tenth to the Twelfth Century of the 
Christian era the Mohammedans overran and 
conquered considerable portions of Hindustan, 
and subsequently the Mogul Empire was formed. 
In 1498, India was first visited by Yasco de 
Gama, and later the Portuguese and Dutch 
established settlements on the peninsula; but 
the former never acquired more than a paltry 
territory on the west coast, and the latter a few 
commercial factories. The French influence in 
India, at one time considerable, also yielded to 
the superior enterprise of the British, and finally 
the French relinquished the field. In 1625, the 
first English settlement was made by a company 
of merchants in a small spot of the Coromandel 
coast, of five square miles, transferred in 1653 
to Madras. A short time previous a settlement 
had also been obtained at Hooghly, which after¬ 
ward became the Calcutta station. In 1687, 
Bombay was erected into a presidency. In 
1773, by act of the British Legislature, the three 
provinces were placed under the administration 
of a governor-general, and Calcutta was made 
the seat of a supreme court of judicature, the 
presidencies of Madras and Bombay being made 
subordinate to that of Bengal. Hitherto the 
affairs of India had been managed by the East 
India Company, but in 1784 a board of control 
was appointed by the government, the president 
of which became secretary of state for India. 
From the year 1750, when the warlike acquisi¬ 
tion of territory commenced under Lord Clive, 
a succession of conquests, almost forced upon 
the British contrary to their inclinations, 
has now placed nearly all India under their 
sway. The Court of Directors of the East 
India Company had the power of electing 
the governor-general, subject to the approval 


of the government, and they had also the 
power of his recall. The company also held 
the patronage of other appointments till the 
expiry of the act in 1854; but in 1833 their 
exclusive right to trade was abolished in favor 
of free trade. 

In 1858, the direct sovereignty of India, and 
the powers of government hitherto vested in 
the East Indian Company, were vested in the 
British Crown. Lord Canning returned to Eng¬ 
land early in 1862, and was succeeded by the 
Earl of Elgin, who died in 1863. Sir John 
(afterwards Lord) Lawrence was governor-gen¬ 
eral from 1863 to 1868, when he was succeeded 
by the Earl of Mayo, who did much to develop 
the material resources of the country by remov¬ 
ing the restrictions upon trade between the 
different provinces, and constructing roads, 
canals, and railways. He was assassinated by 
a Mohammedan fanatic in the Andaman Islands, 
February 8, 1872. Lord Northbrook became 
viceroy in 1872. During his administration a 
famine in Lower Bengal, successfully obviated 
by a vast organization of state relief (1874), 
the dethronement of the Gaekwar of Baroda 
for disloyalty (1875), and the tour of the Prince 
of Wales through India (1875-76), were the 
chief events. In 1876, Lord Lytton was ap¬ 
pointed viceroy, and on January 1, 1877, Queen 
Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India at 
Delhi. In 1877-78, another disastrous famine 
occurred, and despite the most strenuous efforts 
of the government over five million persons are 
said to have perished. In 1878, the intrigues of 
Shir Ali, emir of Afghanistan, with Russia, led 
to a declaration of war on the part of the British. 
After two campaigns Abdurrahman Khan was 
established on the Afghan throne by British 
arms. In 1880, Lord Ripon succeeded as vice¬ 
roy, being followed in 1884 by Lord Dufferin, 
who annexed Upper Burmah, 1888. Marquis 
of Lansdowne became viceroy in 1888. Hon. Geo. 
N. Curzon of Salisbury’s Cabinet was appointed 
viceroy, 1898, and in August, 1905, was succeeded 
by Lord Minto. In 1906, the twenty-second 
Indian National Congress was held at Calcutta 
for the purpose of discussing the political wants 
of all races, religions, and provinces of India. 

Indiana. Originally settled by the French 
at Vincennes in 1702, but little is known of its 
early history. In 1763, it became a British pos¬ 
session, and in 1783, by treaty with Great 
Britain, it became part of the United States. 
In 1787, it was made part of the Northwest 
Territory, this term being applied to all the 
public domain north of the Ohio River. This 
region was much devastated from 1788 to 1791 
by the Indians, but their defeat in the latter 
year gave the settlers peace for a time. Indiana 
was organized territorially July 4, 1800. In 
1811, an Indian war, instigated by Tecumseh, 
broke out, but the power of the savages was 
broken at Tippecanoe. Hostilities did not en¬ 
tirely cease till 1815. The State was admitted 
December 11, 1816. In 1827, the Erie Canal 
opened an outlet for the produce of the West, 
and the national road was commenced. These 
stimulated immigration, and the new State grew 
rapidly. A new constitution was adopted in 
1851, calculated especially to promote great 



HISTORY 


ublic works. A free banking law was passed 
y the legislature the same year. 

Iowa. The name of the State, originally 
applied to the river so called, is derived from 
the Indian, and signifies “beautiful land.” It 
was a part of the Louisiana Purchase, acquired 
in 1803. It was first visited by a Frenchman, 
who gave his name, Dubuque, to the place 
where he settled in 1788. In 1834, the territory 
now included in Iowa was placed under the 
jurisdiction of Michigan, and in 1836 under that 
of Wisconsin. In 1838 Iowa became a separate 
territory, including also the greater part of 
Minnesota and the whole of Dakota. The 
delimitation of the State occurred when it was 
admitted as such in 1846. The State capital 
was moved from Iowa City to Des Moines in 
1857. It was the sixteenth State admitted 
under the Federal Constitution. 

Ireland. According to ancient native 
legends, Ireland was in remote times peopled 
by tribes styled Firbolgs and Danauns, eventu¬ 
ally subdued by Milesians or Gaels, who acquired 
supremacy in the island. The primitive inhabit¬ 
ants of Ireland are now believed to have been of 
the same Indo-European race with the original 
population of Britain. Although Ireland, styled 
lernis, is mentioned in a Greek poem five cen¬ 
turies B. C., and by the names of Hibernia and 
Juverna by various foreign pagan writers, little 
is known with certainty of her inhabitants before 
the Fourth Century after Christ, when, under 
the appellation of Scoti, or inhabitants of Scotia, 
they became formidable by their descents upon 
the Roman Province of Britain. These expedi¬ 
tions were continued and extended to the coasts 
of Gaul till the time of Laogaire McNeill, mon¬ 
arch of Ireland, 430 A. D., in whose reign St. 
Patrick attempted the conversion of the natives. 
From the earliest period each province of Ireland 
appears to have had its own king, subject to the 
Ard-Righ, or monarch, to whom the central dis¬ 
trict called Meath was allotted and who usually 
resided at Tara. Each clan was governed by a 
chief selected from its most important family, 
and who was required to be of mature age, 
capable of taking the field efficiently when 
occasion required. The laws were peculiar in 
their nature, dispensed by professional jurists 
styled Brehons, who, as well as the poets and 
men of learning, received high consideration, and 
were endowed with lands and important 
privileges. Cromlechs, or stone tombs and 
structures, composed of large uncemented stones, 
ascribed to the pagan Irish, still exist in various 
parts of Ireland; lacustrine habitations, or 
stockaded islands, styled Crannogs or Crannoges, 
in inland lakes, also appear to have been in use 
there from early ages. It is remarkable that a 
greater number and variety of antique golden 
articles of remote ages have been found in Ireland 
than in any other part of northern Europe; and 
the majority of the gold antiquities illustrative of 
British history now preserved in the British 
Museum are Irish. In the Sixth Century exten¬ 
sive monasteries were founded in Ireland, in 
which religion and learning were zealously cul¬ 
tivated. From these establishments numerous 
missionaries issued during the succeeding cen¬ 
tury, carrying the doctrines of Christianity under 


121 

great difficulties into the still pagan countries of 
Europe, whose inhabitants they surprised and 
impressed by their self-devotion and asceticism. 
Among the eminent native Irish of these times 
were Columba, or Colum Cille, founder of the 
celebrated monastery of Iona; Comgall, who 
established the convent of Bangor, in the County 
of Down; Ciaran of Clonmacnoise; and Adam- 
nan, Abbot of Iona and biographer of Columba. 
Of the Irish missionaries to the continent the 
more distinguished were Columbanus, founder 
of Bobio; Gallus of St. Gall, in Switzerland; 
Dichuill, patronized by Clotaire; and Ferghal, 
or Virgilius, the evangelizer of Carinthia. The 
progress of Irish civilization was checked by 
the incursions of the Scandinavians, com¬ 
mencing . towards the close of the Eighth 
Century, and continued for upward of 300 
years. From the close of the Eighth to 
the Twelfth Century Ireland, although har¬ 
assed by the Scandinavians, produced many 
writers of merit, among whom were ^Engus, the 
hagiographer; Cormac McCullenan, King of 
Munster and Bishop of Cashel, the reputed 
author of Cormac’s Glossary; Cuan O’Lochain; 
Gilla Moduda; Flan of Monasterboice; and 
Tighernach, the annalist. Of the Irish architec¬ 
ture of the period examples survive at Cashel. 
The well-known round towers of Ireland are 
believed to have been erected about this era as 
belfries, and to serve as places of security for 
ecclesiastics during disturbances. But this is 
mere surmise, the date of their erection having 
never been established nor their use satisfac¬ 
torily explained. The skill of the Irish musi¬ 
cians in the Twelfth Century is attested by the 
enthusiastic encomiums bestowed by Giraldus 
Cambrensis upon their performances. The first 
step toward an Anglo-Norman descent upon 
Ireland was made by Henry II. in 1155. The 
chief Anglo-Norman adventurers, Fitz Gislebert, 
Le Gros, De Cogan, De Lacy, and De Curci, en¬ 
countered formidable opposition before they 
succeeded in establishing themselves on the 
lands which they thus invaded. The govern¬ 
ment was committed to a viceroy, and the 
Norman legal system was introduced into 
such parts of the island as were reduced to 
obedience to England. The youthful Prince 
John was sent by King Henry into Ireland 
in 1184, but the injudicious conduct of. his coun¬ 
cil having excited disturbances he was soon 
recalled to England. The country was wholly 
subdued in 1210; in 1315, it was invaded by 
Edward Bruce, who was crowned king 1316, and 
slain 1318. In 1361, the heiress of Ulster, 
Elizabeth de Burgh, married the English Duke 
of Clarence. In 1394, Richard II. landed at 
Waterford with a large army, and gained the 
adherence of the people by his munificence. In 
1494 was passed Poyning’s Law, making the 
Irish Parliament subject to the English Council. 
In 1542, Henry VIII. assumed the title of king , 
instead of lord of Ireland. In 1534 Thomas 
Fitzgerald, son of the viceroy of Henry VIII., 
revolted, but not meeting with adequate support 
from his Anglo-Irish connections he was, after a 
short time, suppressed and executed. Henry 
received the title of “King of Ireland” in 1541, 
by an act passed by the Anglo-Irish Parliament 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


in Dublin; and about the same period some of 
the native princes were induced to acknowledge 
him as their sovereign, and to accept peerages. 
The doctrines of the Reformation met little favor 
either with the descendants of the old English 
settlers or with the native Irish. The attempts 
of the English Government in Ireland to intro¬ 
duce the Reformed faith and English institutions 
stirred up great dissensions in Ireland. The 
country was divided into shires in 1569; printing 
in Irish characters introduced by Walsh, Chan¬ 
cellor of St. Patrick’s, Dublin, 1571; in 1601-02 
occurred the famous insurrection of Tyrone, 
who invited the Spaniards to assist him, but 
they were all defeated by the Lord Deputy 
Mount joy in the latter year. In consequence of 
repeated rebellions 511,465 acres of land in the 
Province of Ulster became forfeited to the 
English Crown, and James I. divided his land 
among such of his English and Scottish subjects 
as chose to settle there. In 1641 occurred More 
and Maguire’s Rebellion, which was an endeavor 
to expel the Protestant settlers in Ulster, many 
of whom are believed to have been massacred. 
Between the years 1649-56, Cromwell and his 
son-in-law, General Ireton, reduced the whole 
island to subjection. At the Revolution the 
native Irish generally took the part of James II., 
the English and Scotch “ colonists ” of William 
and Mary; and the war was kept up for four 
years (1688-92). From this time till 1778 his¬ 
tory records little beyond the passing of penal 
statutes against the Roman Catholics. In 1778, 
Parliament relaxed the stringent pressure of 
these acts; but the disaffection which they caused 
resulted in the rebellion of 1798, which was not 
suppressed till 1800. On January 1, 1801, the 
legislative union of Great Britain with Ireland 
was consummated, and the history of the country 
merges in that of Great Britain. In 1879, Ireland 
suffered severely from famine, and since 1880 
from agrarian and “home rule” disturbances. 
The Birrell home rule bill was defeated in 1907. 
In 1912 Premier Asquith introduced a home 
rule bill which was passed by the House of 
Commons but was rejected by the House of 
Lords. 

Ironsides, Cromwell’s troopers, a thousand 
strong, and raised by him in the Eastern counties 
of England, so-called at first from the invinci¬ 
bility displayed by them at Marston Moor; were 
selected by Cromwell “as men,” he says “that 
had the fear of God before them, and made 
conscience of what they did. . . . They 

were never beaten,” he adds, “and wherever 
they_ were engaged against the enemy, they beat 
continually.” 

Israelites (Hebrew Yisreeli), the descend¬ 
ants of Jacob, “the chosen people.” The twelve 
tribes descended from Jacob’s children were 
called “ Israel ” in Egypt, and throughout the Pen¬ 
tateuch, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, 
and Kings. The name was afterward given to 
the larger portion, or ten northern tribes, after 
the death of Saul, a distinction that obtained 
even in David’s time. But more definitely 
was the name applied to the schismatical 
portion of the nation, including all the tribes 
save Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, which 
set up a separate monarchy in Samaria after the 


death of Solomon. After the exile the two 
branches became blended, and are again called 
by the old name by Ezra and Nehemiah. But 
by degrees the name “Jews” ( q . v.) supplanted 
this appellation, especially among foreigners. 
The history of the Israelites, especially during 
the early periods, is inseparably bound up with 
that of their rulers, patriarchs, etc., as Abraham, 
Jacob, Moses, Joshua, the Judges, David, Solo¬ 
mon, etc., to all of which the reader is referred. 
The following is a short summary of the leading 
points in the history of the Israelites: Abraham 
called, B. C. 1921; Isaac born, 1896; Esau and 
Jacob born, 1837; death of Abraham, 1822; 
Joseph sold into Egypt, 1729; Moses born, 1571; 
institution of the Passover and the Exodus, 1491; 
promulgation of the Law from Sinai, 1491; the 
tabernacle set up, 1490; Joshua leads the 
Israelites into Canaan, 1451; the first bondage, 
1413; the second, 1343; the third, 1304; the 
fourth, 1252; the fifth, 1206; the sixth, 1157; 
Samson slays the Philistines, 1136; Samuel 
governs as Judge, about 1120; Samson pulls 
down the temple of Dagon, 1117; Saul made 
king, 1095; David kills Goliath, about 1063; 
death of Saul and accession of David, 1055; 
David captures Jerusalem and makes it his 
capital, 1048; Solomon lays the foundations of 
the temple, 1012; it is dedicated, 1004; death 
of Solomon and division of the kingdom, 975. 

In the reign of Solomon the prophet Ahijah 
was intrusted with the announcement to Jero¬ 
boam that, in punishment for the many acts of 
disobedience to the divine law, and particularly 
of the idolatry so extensively practiced by Solo¬ 
mon, the greater part of the kingdom would be 
transferred to him. This breach was never 
healed. A spirit of disaffection had long been 
rife, even in the reigns of David and Solomon, 
fostered by various causes, not the least among 
which was the burdensome taxes imposed by the 
latter monarch for the support of his luxurious 
court and for the erection of his numerous build¬ 
ings. But however much these causes may 
have operated to create a breach between the 
North and South districts of Palestine, certain 
it is that God Himself expressly forbade all at¬ 
tempts on the part of Rehoboam or his succes¬ 
sors to subdue the revolted provinces, and, with 
slight exceptions, the subsequent history of the 
two nations still more widely separated them. 
The precise amount of territory contained in the 
Kingdom of Israel cannot be accurately ascer¬ 
tained; it was approximately as nine to four 
compared with the sister Kingdom of Judah; the 
ten tribes included in Israel, it is supposed, were 
Ephraim and Manasseh (East and West), Issa- 
char, Zebulon, Asher, Naphtali, Gad, Reuben, 
and part of Dan; the population was probably, 
at the separation, about 4,000,000. It was not 
long before the new kingdom showed signs of 
weakness. It developed no new power, which 
is not surprising when we consider that it was 
but a section of David’s Kingdom shorn of many 
sources of strength. “The history of the King¬ 
dom of Israel is, therefore, the history of its 
decay and dissolution.” The first symptom of 
decline was shown in the emigration of many 
families who adhered to the old religion of 
the Israelites back to Judah; and to check 



HISTORY 


123 


this Jeroboam set up rival sanctuaries with 
'visible idols, 975 B. C., but which only in¬ 
creased the evil he wished to check. As 
soon as the golden calves were set up the priests 
and Levites flocked back to Judah, where they 
were warmly received. Jeroboam’s whole policy 
aimed singly at his own aggrandizement. To 
supply the want of a priesthood, divine in its 
origin, a line of prophets was raised up remark¬ 
able for their purity and austerity. Jeroboam 
reigned twenty-two years; his son Nadab was 
violently cut off after a brief reign of two years, 
with all his house, and so ended the line of Jero¬ 
boam. The fate of this dynasty was but a type 
of those that followed. Domestic famine, the 
sword of the foreigner, and internal dissensions 
helped the tottering kingdom on its downward 
way, and only one brief era of prosperity oc¬ 
curred, under the sway of Jeroboam II., who 
reigned forty-two years. The Syrian invasion, 
under Phul, 771 B. C., compelled Menahem, the 
King of Israel, to pay heavy tribute, and in the 
reign of Pekah we find them leading many of the 
Israelites into captivity. In 721 Samaria was 
taken by Shalmaneser, the ten tribes were 
carried into captivity, and an end was put to the 
Kingdom of Israel. See Jews for the subse¬ 
quent history of the chosen people. 

Italy. The ancient history of Italy is more 
conveniently treated under Rome. We, there¬ 
fore, glance at more modern times, after the 
Western Empire had fallen before a mixed 
horde of barbarous mercenaries, chiefly com¬ 
posed of the Heruli. Under the Hohenstaufen 
dynasty, Italy enjoyed an interregnum from 
foreign rule of about sixty years, which, however, 
was wasted in suicidal conflicts between the 
two factions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. 
The most terrible incident of this period was 
the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Not¬ 
withstanding the inveterate internecine feuds 
of Italy, it was a period of great splendor 
and prosperity. The free cities or republics 
of Italy rivaled kingdoms in the extent and 
importance of their commerce and manu¬ 
factures, the advancement of art and science, 
the magnificence of their public edifices and 
monuments, and the prodigious individual 
and national wealth to which they attained. 
Unhappily, a spirit of rivalry and intolerance 
grew up during this period of mediaeval splendor, 
and in the arbitrary attempts of these states to 
secure supremacy over each other they gradually 
worked their own destruction. After the battle 
of Waterloo the final reconstitution of Italy was 
decreed by the Congress of Vienna. The 
accession of Pius IX., in 1846, seemed the inau¬ 
guration of a new era for Italy. A general 
amnesty was followed by wise, liberal measures, 
which were also adopted by Tuscany and Pied¬ 
mont, in emulation of Rome. By a simultane¬ 
ous outbreak in Sicily and Milan in January, 
the great revolution of 1848 was inaugurated 
in Italy. The revolution of France in February 
imparted a strong impulse to that of Italy, and 
speedily Naples, Piedmont, and Rome conceded 
constitutional rights to the popular demands. 
The Milanese unanimously revolted against 
Austrian rule on the 17th of March, and after 
five days of heroic fighting the Austrians were 


expelled from the city, and Radetsky, with 
70,000 troops, compelled to retreat from its walls. 
On the 29th, Charles Albert entered Lombardy, 
the avowed champion of Italian independence 
and the leader of the national struggle. In the 
Congress of Paris, at the close of the Russian 
War (1856), Cavour forcibly exposed the un¬ 
avoidable dangers of a continuance of Austrian 
and papal misrule. He strongly urged the 
expediency of a withdrawal of French and Aus¬ 
trian troops from Rome and the legations. In 
the beginning of 1859, Victor Emmanuel pro¬ 
claimed from the Sardinian Parliament his in¬ 
tention of actively aiding in the deliverance of 
the oppressed Italian population from the yoke 
of Austria. The victories of Magenta and Sol- 
ferino were quickly followed by the abrupt and 
inconclusive Peace of Villafranca, July 11, 1859. 
On the 18th of March, Parma, Modena, and the 
Emilian provinces were incorporated with Sar¬ 
dinia, and the grand-duchy of Tuscany on the 
22d. On the 17th of March, the law by which 
Victor Emmanuel assumed the title of King of 
Italy was promulgated amid universal rejoicing. 
On the 6th of the ensuing May, Garibaldi, with 
about 1,000 volunteers, set sail from Genoa for 
Sicily, where a revolutionary outbreak had taken 
place. His swift and comparatively bloodless 
conquests of the two Sicilies is one of the most 
extraordinary incidents in modern history. At 
the close of the German-Italian War, Venetia, 
on the 3d of October, 1866, became part of the 
Kingdom of Italy by treaty with Austria. 
Turin, the chief town of Piedmont, was the 
capital from 1859 till 1865; the court was trans¬ 
ferred to Florence during the latter year. In 
1867, the French army was withdrawn from 
Rome. The last detachment left the pontifical 
territory on the 8th of August, 1870; and on 
the 20th of the following month the Italian 
troops, under General Cadrona, entered Rome 
after a short resistance by the pontifical troops, 
who ceased firing at the request of the pope. 
On the 2d of October, 1870, the Kingdom of Italy 
assumed the last of its extensive limits, when 
the whole of the papal states were absorbed by 
it, and Rome was its recognized capital. The 
last seven years of Victor Emmanuel’s reign were 
uneventful, but were marked by the further 
consolidation and progress of the kingdom. In 
1878, Victor Emmanuel died, and was succeeded 
by his son Humbert I., under whom the general 
history of the country has been uneventful. 
Bank scandals drove the Giolitti ministry from 
office in 1893, and Signor Crispi was invited by 
King Humbert to form a new cabinet. In 1896, 
attempting to establish a protectorate over 
Abyssinia, the Italians were defeated with great 
loss, and Crispi was succeeded by Marquis di 
Rudini. Humbert was assassinated July 29,1900; 
succeeded by Victor Emmanuel III. The cen¬ 
tenary of Garibaldi was celebrated on July 4th, 
1907. In 1911 Italy entered into war with 
Turkey over affairs in Tripoli; in February, 
1912, Tripoli was annexed by Italy. 

Jacobins, the members of a political club 
which exercised a very great influence _ during 
the French Revolution. It was originally 
called the Club Breton, and was formed at Ver¬ 
sailles, when the States General assembled there 





THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


in 1789. It then consisted exclusively of the 
members of the States General, all more or less 
liberal or revolutionary, but of very different 
shades of opinion. On the removal of the court 
and national assembly to Paris this club began 
to acquire importance. It now met in a hall of 
the former Jacobin Convent in Paris, whence it 
received the name of the Jacobin Club, which 
was first given to it by its enemies, the name 
which it adopted being that oj the Society of 
Friends of the Constitution. It now also ad¬ 
mitted members who were not members of the 
National Assembly, and held regular and public 
sittings. It exercised a great influence over the 
agitation, of which the chief seat and focus was 
in the capital, and this influence was extended 
over the whole country by affiliated societies. 
Its power increased, until it became greater 
than that of the National Assembly. It reached 
the zenith of its power when the National Con¬ 
vention met in September, 1792. The agitation 
for the death of the king, the storm which de¬ 
stroyed the Girondists, the excitement of the 
lowest classes against the bourgeoisie or middle 
classes, and the reign of terror over all France 
were the work of the Jacobins. But the over¬ 
throw of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, 
1794, gave also the death blow to the Jacobin 
Club; and on November 9, 1794, the Jacobin 
Club closed. The term Jacobin is often em¬ 
ployed to designate persons of extreme revolu¬ 
tionary sentiments. 

Janizaries (Turkish, Yehi-tcheri, new 
soldiers), an Ottoman infantry force, somewhat 
analogous to the Roman praetorians, part of 
them forming the guard of the sultan. They 
were originally organized about 1330, and sub¬ 
sequently obtained special privileges, which in 
time became dangerously great. The regular 
janizaries once amounted to 60,000, but their 
numbers were afterwards reduced to 25,000. 
The irregular troops amounted to 300,000 or 
400,000. Their power became so dangerous and 
their insurrections so frequent that several unsuc¬ 
cessful attempts were made to reform or disband 
them. At various times sultans had been de¬ 
posed, insulted, and murdered by the insurgent 
janizaries. At last, in June, 1826, they rebelled 
on account of a proposal to form a new militia, 
when the sultan, Mahmoud II., having displayed 
the. flag of the prophet, and being supported by 
their aga or commander-in-chief, defeated the 
rebels and burned their barracks, when 8,000 of 
them perished in the flames. The corps was 
abolished, and a curse laid upon the name. As 
many as 15,000 were executed, and fully 20,000 
were banished. 

Japan. Although Japan has passed through 
the successive eras of tribal government, pure 
monarchy, feudalism, anarchy, and modern 
empire, its ruling dynasty boasts of forty-six 
centuries of unbroken succession, and claims 
descent from Jimmu Tenno, first mikado, a 
fabulous, warrior, whose descent from the sun 
goddess is a matter of faith with the Japanese, 
who base upon it their claim of the mikado’s 
divinity. The empire claims to have had a 
previous existence of 2,479 years; but its history 
dates from Jimmu 667 B. C., and from his death 
until 571 A. D. thirty-one mikados ruled; the 


famous Yamato Dak6 and Sujin the Civilizer 
belong to this period. Jingu Kogo, Empress of 
Japan, 270 A. D., conquered Corea in person. 
In 552 A. D. Buddhism was introduced into 
Japan, and thenceforth became a potent influ¬ 
ence in the formation of character. About this 
time a succession of infant mikados contributed 
to loss of power in the mikadoate, and to the 
formation of noble families, who, one by one, 
gained ascendency, and ruled the mikados; the 
feudal system began its existence, and feuds 
between the rival families were constant. The 
Fujiwarra family were opposed by the Suga- 
wara, and succeeded by the Tairas and Mina- 
motos. In 1184, Yoritomo became first shogun, 
(a term meaning general), the dual system of 
government, which ended only in 1867, began, 
and the shogunate monopolized the real power 
of the nation, of which the mikado was nominal 
and spiritual head. From 1199 to 1333 both 
the mikadoate and the shogunate were under 
the power of the Hojo family, who set up and 
removed rulers at their own pleasure; but they 
promoted the arts, and defeated an invasion of 
the Mongol Tartars. The Ashi-Kaga family 
next came into power, and occasioned a fifty-six 
years’ war between the northern and southern 
dynasties, and strengthened feudalism at the 
time when all Europe was throwing off its 
chains. In 1536, Hideyoshi conquered the 
Coreans, and brought marine architecture to a 
higher state of perfection; he became taiko, 
and this period is called the age of taiko. In 
1542, Europeans landed on Tanigashima; fire¬ 
arms were introduced, Portuguese merchants 
were attracted, and in 1549, Francis Xavier 
landed, and with an interpreter preached Chris¬ 
tianity in various parts of the empire; he paved 
the way for the success of others, and priests 
and Jesuits flocked to Japan, when a total of 
600,000 converts was recorded. Wabunaga 
protected the Christians, as the latter persecuted 
the Buddhists, whom he hated; but by intrigues 
and quarrels among themselves the priests 
alienated the support of the shogun, who perse¬ 
cuted the native Christians. The Jesuits stirred 
them up to resistance, and after a brief battle 
between Hed6yori, leader of the Christians, and 
Iy6sayu; during which 100,000 men perished, 
the priests were exiled from Japan, 1615. In 
1624 all foreigners except the Dutch and Chinese 
were banished from Japan, the Japanese were 
forbidden to leave the country, and all larger 
vessels were destroyed. In 1637 the great mas¬ 
sacre of Christians began, the twenty or less 
Dutch traders were confined to the island of 
Deshima, and 100 years’ intercourse with Chris¬ 
tian nations resulted only in the adoption of 
gunpowder, fire-arms, and tobacco. For two 
centuries and a half after Iy6sayu, Japan had 
peace; feudalism and anarchy were perfected, 
and the Tokugawa was the most prominent of a 
number of families who divided Japan; the 
power of the shogun increased, the last four 
rulers of the shogunate being known to Euro¬ 
peans under the title of “Tycoon.” In 1853, 
Commodore Perry, with a fleet of American 
vessels, arrived at Yeddo, and the Perry treaty 
with the United States was concluded by hirn 
with the supreme ruler of Japan. This usurpa- 



HISTORY 


126 


tion of authority added fuel to the flames just 
ready to burst out and demolish the shogunate, 
and after a brief revolution feudalism was over¬ 
thrown, the tycoon retired, the government was 
changed to its ancient form, the mikado became 
the only ruler of Japan, and the empire took an 
important place in the family of nations. This 
occurred in 1868, since which time the United 
States and its customs have served as models 
for many improvements. The United States 
opened Japan to the world after the failure of 
the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and Russians 
to do so. 

In July, 1894, war was declared with China. 
The Japanese successes brought it to a trium- 
hant end in April, 1895. By the Treaty of 
himonoseki the terms of peace included recog¬ 
nition of Corean independence, which had been 
the chief cause of the war, the cession to Japan 
of Formosa and some smaller islands, with the 
peninsula of Liao-Tung, including Port Arthur, 
a large war indemnity, and a very great relaxa¬ 
tion of restrictions on foreign industry and 
commerce in China. In deference to the repre¬ 
sentations of the powers, Japan abandoned her 
claims on the mainland of China, but increased 
the indemnity. In 1904, war with Russia Was 
brought about in consequence of the Manchurian 
situation, and continued until the fall of Port 
Arthur in 1905. (See Russo-Japanese War.) The 
protectorate then accepted over Corea was ended 
by the annexation of that nation in 1910. 

Emperor Mutsuhito, whose reign of forty-five 
years saw Japan develop into one of the greatest 
nations of the world, died at Tokyo, July 30, 
1912. He was succeeded by his son Yoshihito. 

Jews (Heb. Yehuda). The history of the 
Jews begins with the return of the remnant of 
the kingdom of Judah from the Babylonish cap¬ 
tivity in consequence of the Edict of Cyrus. 
Below will be found a brief resume of the chief 
historical events in the history of the Jews 
according to the biblical narrative. According 
to Eusebius, the Scripture history ends in 442 
B. C., and thenceforward the Roman historians 
and Josephus furnish the best accounts. The 
Babylonish Captivity. — Daniel prophesies at 
Babylon, B. C. 603; Obadiah prophesies, 587; 
Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall, 
538; he prophesies the speedy^ return from 
bondage and the coming of a Messiah, 538. The 
Return from Captivity. — Cyrus, ruler of all Asia, 
authorizes the return of the Jews and the re¬ 
building of the Temple at Jerusalem, 536; 
Haggai and Zechariah flourish, 520; the second 
Temple finished, 515; Ezra arrives in Jerusalem 
to correct abuses, 458; beginning of the seventy 
weeks of years predicted by Daniel, being 490 
years prior to the crucifixion of Christ, 457 ; the 
walls of Jerusalem rebuilt, 445; Malachi flourishes, 
415. The Jews under the Macedonian Empire .— 
Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem 
to besiege it, but ultimately goes to the Temple 
and offers sacrifices to the God of the Jews, 332; 
Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter 320; the 
Scriptures translated (the Septuagint version) 
by seventy-two Jewish scribes, at the instance 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 277; Antiochus cap¬ 
tures Jerusalem, sacks the Temple, and massa¬ 
cres 40,000 of the people, 170; commencement 


of the government of the Maccabees, 166; a 
treaty, the first in Jewish history, made with 
the Romans, 161; Judas Hyrcanus assumes the 
title of “King of the Jews,” 107; Jerusalem 
captured by Pompey, 63. The Jews under the 
Roman Empire. — Antipater made ruler of Judea 
by Julius Caesar, 49; Herod, son of Antipater, 
marries Miriamne, daughter of the king, 42; 
Herod decreed king by the Roman Senate, 40; 
Jerusalem captured by Herod and Sosius, the 
Roman general, 37; Herod rebuilds the Temple 
on a scale of greater magnificence than ever 
before, 18; Jesus Christ, the long-looked-for 
Messiah, born four years before 1 A. D., 4 B. C.; 
Pontius Pilate procurator of Judea, A. D. 22; 
John Baptist commences his ministry, 25; is 
beheaded, 27; Christ's ministry and miracles, 
27-29; his death and resurrection, 29; the Jews 
are persecuted for refusing to worship Caligula, 
38; receive the right of Roman citizenship, 41; 
Claudius banishes them from Rome, 50; Titus 
captures Jerusalem, the city and Temple are 
sacked and burned, and 1,000,000 Jews perish, 70; 
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, names it Elia Capi¬ 
tolina, and erects a temple to Jupiter, 130; 
the rebellion of Bar-cocheba, 135-36; final deso¬ 
lation of Judea, more than 500,000 Jews are 
slain by the Romans, they are banished from 
Judea by an edict of the Roman Emperor, and 
are forbidden to return upon pain of death, 136. 
The Jews have since scattered over the world as 
the following estimates for 1913 will show: 


DISTRIBUTION OF JEWS AMONG THE NATIONS 

America,. 


2,107,586 

Argentina,. 

45,000 

Rest of South America,. 

3,909 

9,915 

4,000 

2,044,762 


Mexico, Central America,. 


Cuba,. 


United States,. 


Africa, 

313,722 

Abyssinia,. 

6,500 

127,500 

109,712 

70,010 

Algiers, Tunis (French),. 


Morocco,. 


Egypt, Tripoli, Crete, (Turkish), 

Asia,. 

513,464 

China, Japan,. 

2,143 

29,500 

463,686 

18,135 


Persia,. 


Turkey. 


Turkestan, Afghanistan,. 


British Empire,. 

433,229 

Australasia,. 

17,106 

244,697 

95,500 

18,226 

British Isles,. 


Canada,. 


India,.. 


South Africa,. 

50,000 

7,700 


Other Possessions,. 


Europe,. 

9,499,855 

Austria-Hungary,. 

2,088,228 

15,000 

Belgium,. 


Bulgaria,. 

37,653 

3,476 


Denmark,. 


France,. 

100,000 


Germany,. 

607,862 

8,350 

108,567 

35,617 

1,200 

4,554 

215,900 

6,243,712 

5,729 

5,000 

19,007 


Greece,. 


Holland, (and possessions),.. . . 
Italy,. 


Luxemburg,. 


Norway, Sweden,. 


Rumania,. 


Russia, . 


Servia,. 


Spain, Portugal,. 


Switzerl and. 


Total,. 

12,867,856 




The Jews have suffered much even in modern 
times and especially in Russia at the hands of 
the oppressor. In America only have they 
enjoyed at all times perfect freedom and all the 


















































THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


rights of citizenship. Full emancipation was 
granted to the Jews in England in 1858. 

Kansas , derived from an Indian name 
meaning “smoky water/' was visited by the 
Spaniards in 1541; afterward by the French in 
1719. It came to the United States through 
the Louisiana Purchase, and was a portion of 
the territory which, by the Missouri Compro¬ 
mise of 1820, was always to remain untouched 
by slavery. When the territory of Kansas was 
organized, in 1854, it was declared by Congress 
that the Missouri Compromise was abolished. 
This led to the Kansas troubles, which lasted 
till 1859, with various vicissitudes, when a free 
constitution was adopted, forever prohibiting 
slavery. This imbroglio played an important 
art in inflaming the passions of North and 
outh, and ripening the conditions which 
made the Civil War inevitable. Kansas was 
admitted to the Union in 1861. During the 
Civil War the State was the scene of irregular 
warfare, known as “jay-hawking," carried on 
by Confederate raiders from Missouri and Ar¬ 
kansas and the Unionists who opposed them. 
The only battle of prominence took place at 
Lawrence on August 21, 1863. In 1880, the con¬ 
stitution was amended, prohibiting liquor traffic. 
In 1912, the state granted suffrage to women. 

Kentucky. The name Kan-tuck-kee sig¬ 
nifies “darkened bloody ground," and the coun¬ 
try now included in the State was originally the 
common hunting ground for the Indian tribes 
living' north and south of it. The first white 
visit was that of John Finley and others, from 
North Carolina, in 1767. Daniel Boone began 
to explore Kentucky in 1769. Colonel James 
Knox planted a Virginian colony in 1770, fol¬ 
lowed by others in 1773-74, and James Harrod 
founded Harrodsburg in 1774. In 1775, the Chero- 
kees ceded the country to Boone, who acted as 
agent for Colonel Richard Henderson and his 
company. Kentucky was a part of Virginia till 
1790, when it became a separate Territory. It 
was admitted as a State into the Union in 1792, 
being the second admitted. A second constitu¬ 
tion was adopted in 1800, and the present one 
in 1850. Kentucky during the Civil War en¬ 
deavored to hold a position of neutrality. The 
chief battles fought in the State were Mill Spring, 
January 19, 1862, and Perryville, October 8, 
1862. In 1864, martial law was declared, and 
civil authority was not restored until October, 
1865. In 1900, William Goebel, contesting can¬ 
didate for governor, was assassinated. A series 
of notable trials followed. 

Khyber Pass. A British army of 16,000 
men was annihilated at Khyber Pass in the 
month of January, 1842, during the retreat 
from Kabul. The only persons who escaped 
were Dr. Brydon (a regimental surgeon) and a 
private soldier. In 1838, Lord Auckland, 
Governor-General of India, declared war against 
the Afghanistans because their ruler, Dost 
Mohammed, had unlawfully attacked a British 
ally, and because Dost Mohammed had usurped 
the throne of Shah Sujah, who was under British 
protection. On July 21st, Shah Sujah was restored 
to the throne of Kabul, and the British thought 
the matter was ended. This was a grand mistake, 
for at the beginning of winter Akbah Khan, the 


son of Dost Mohammed, attacked the British 
army in Kabul, and slew several of the officers. A 
capitulation was made, and when the British 
army were in the Khyber Pass on their way 
home they were cut to pieces. With women, 
children, and camp followers, 20,000 were slain. 

Lake Erie, Battle of. An important 
naval engagement in the war of 1812, between 
the United States and Great Britain, fought in 
Put-in-bay, Lake Erie, September 10, 1813. The 
American forces w;ere intrusted to Lieut. Oliver 
Hazard Perry who equipped a squadron of nine 
sail at Erie on Presque Isle bay, and, although 
blockaded by the British fleet under Capt. Bar¬ 
clay, succeeded in getting his squadron out of 
port, August 12, 1813. On the 28th Perry was 
made master commandant. On September 10th 
he lay in Put-in-bay when he discovered the 
British squadron and went out to meet it. It 
consisted of six vessels. 

The Americans had some advantage in able sea¬ 
men. Only the Lawrence and the Niagara of the 
American squadron were regular vessels of war, 
the others having been built for trading. Their 
guns were of heavier caliber than those of the Eng¬ 
lish, but of shorter range. This enabled the 
British to open the battle with advantage. Out of 
lOl officers and men on Perry's flagship Lawrence, 
only 18 were not disabled. In that desperate con¬ 
dition, Perry left the Lawrence and shifted his 
flag to the Niagara. The action now became 
general and, after a stubborn contest, Perry forced 
Barclay’s flagship Detroit and three other vessels 
to surrender. The remaining two attempted to 
escape, but were soon overtaken and captured. 

When Perry saw that victory was secure, he 
wrote with pencil on the back of an old letter, 
resting it on his navy cap, the despatch to Gen. 
Harrison: “We have met the enemy and they 
are ours—two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and 
one sloop." The contest had lasted about three 
hours with a loss on either side of about 130 in 
killed and wounded, Capt. Barclay himself among 
the latter. This victory completely established 
American supremacy on the lake. Congress 
bestowed gold medals on Perry and Master com¬ 
mandant Elliott, and minor rewards upon the 
other officers and men. 

Lancaster, the name of a royal English 
house which flourished in two lines in the Thir¬ 
teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries. 
The first commences with Edmund, son of Henry 
III. and Eleanora of Provence, and brother of 
Edward I. Thomas, his son and successor in the 
earldom, cousin-german to Edward II., headed the 
confederacy of barons against Piers Gaveston, and 
finally shared the responsibility of his death with 
Hereford and Arundel. Henry (previously Earl of 
Leicester), brother and heir of Thomas, joined 
the conspiracy of Isabella and Mortimer against 
Edward II., and received the king into his cus¬ 
tody at Kenilworth. Henry, his son (previously 
Earl of Derby), after vainly endeavoring to make 
peace with John, King of France, under the medi¬ 
ation of the pope at Avignon, was sent with an 
army into Normandy, and took part in the vic¬ 
tory of Poitiers and the subsequent French wars. 
The next Duke of Lancaster commences a new 
lineage, that of the princes opposed to the house 
of York. The first in the line was John of Gaunt, 




HISTORY 


127 


or Ghent, fourth son of Edward III. His name is 
one of the most celebrated in English history 
and in the chivalry of the Middle Ages. Henry 
of Hereford, the successor of John of Gaunt in 
the dukedom, was son to him by his first wife. 
He claimed the crown by descent, by the moth¬ 
er s side, from Edmund the first earl, who was 
popularly supposed to be the elder brother of 
Edward I., and to have been deprived of the suc¬ 
cession by his father for personal reasons. He 
became king by deposing Richard II., 1399, and 
was a prince of great ability and valor. He 
reigned as Henry IV. till his death in 1413, and 
was succeeded by his son, Henry V. The son of 
the latter also inherited the crown as Henry VI., 
and in his reign the feuds of York and Lancaster 
broke out, which ended in the union of the two 
houses in the person of Henry VII. 

Latin Union, The, a combination formed 
in 1865 by France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzer¬ 
land. These countries entered into an agree¬ 
ment by which the amount of silver to be coined 
yearly was fixed for each member of the union. 
The coinage of all the countries was of like charac¬ 
ter, and to be received without discount through¬ 
out the union on public and private account. 
Greece joined the union in 1868, Spain in 1871, and 
subsequently Servia and Rumania also became 
members. Some of the South American States 
also used the Latin Union coinage. Spain alone 
of the countries of the union coins a gold piece 
not used by the others. The unit of coinage in 
the Latin Union is the franc; it has different 
names elsewhere, as, in Italy the lira; in Servia, 
the dinar; in Spain, the peseta; but the value 
is always the same. It is the most widely circu¬ 
lated coinage system in Europe, being used by 
about 148,000,000 people. 

Lexington, a town of Massachusetts, ten 
miles northwest of Boston, noted as the scene of 
the first fight between the British and Americans 
in the war of the Revolution, April 19, 1775. 
On the evening of April 18th, General Gage, the 
British commander in Boston, sent 800 soldiers, 
under Major Pitcairn, to destroy the American 
supplies at Concord. Paul Revere, of Boston, 
escaping their sentinels, galloped out to Lexing¬ 
ton and Concord with the news, so when the 
British reached Lexington at daybreak, they 
found about seventy Americans waiting for 
them on the village common. Captain John 
Parker, their commander, ordered them not to 
shoot until the English did. Major Pitcairn 
rode forward and called out: “Disperse ye reb¬ 
els ! ” but though the Americans were outnum¬ 
bered ten to one, they stood firm. Then Pitcairn 
ordered his men to fire, and four Americans were 
killed and nine wounded. Some shots were 
fired in return, and three English soldiers were 
wounded; but after that the Americans retreated 
some being killed as they ran. The British 
marched on to Concord, but meanwhile the whole 
country was aroused, and as they came back, 
hundreds of Americans attacked them from 
behind the houses and stone walls by the road¬ 
side. They were only saved from destruction 
by the arrival of reinforcements under Lord 
Percy. Though not a very great battle, this 
was one of the most important ones that ever 
was fought. As soon as the Americans found 


that the war had really begun, hundreds of men 
hurried to the army, and not long after the Brit¬ 
ish were driven out of Boston. 

Lepanto (anciently Naupactus, now called 
by the Greeks Epakto), a small town of Greece, 
and the seat of a bishop; on the north side of the 
entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Near Lepanto 
took place the celebrated naval battle between 
the Turks on the one side and the papal galleys 
and those of the Venetians and the Spaniards 
on the other, on October 7, 1571, in which the 
Christians, commanded by Don John of Austria, 
achieved a decisive victory. Of the Turks 
30,000 fell or were taken prisoners, while 130 
Turkish vessels were captured, and 12,000 
Christian slaves liberated; the Christians lost 
8,000 men and fifteen galleys. In this battle 
Cervantes lost an arm. The town became Greek 
in 1829. 

Lollards, The ( lol'lardz ). A sect of early 
Reformers in Germany and England. The name 
was given in the first place to a class of persons 
in Germany and the Low Countries, who, in 
the Fourteenth Century, undertook spiritual 
offices in behalf o. the sick and the dead, and 
were greatly beloved by the people. Later, the 
term was conferred opprobriously upon heretics 
and schismatics in general, more particularly 
those who followed the teachings of John Wick- 
liffe. 

Lombards. A German people of the 
Suevic family, not very numerous, but of dis¬ 
tinguished valor, who played an important part 
in the early history of Europe The name is 
derived from Longobardi, Langobardi, a Latin¬ 
ized form in use since the Twelfth Century, and 
was formerly supposed to have been given with 
reference to the long beards of this people, but 
is now derived rather from a word parta, or 
barte, which signifies a battle-ax. About the 
Fourth Century they seem to have begun to 
leave their original seats (on the Lower Elbe, 
where the Romans seem first to have come in 
contact with them about the beginning of the 
Christian era) and to have fought their way 
south and east till they came in close contact 
with the eastern Roman Empire on the Danube; 
adopted an Arian form of Christianity, and, 
after having been for some time tributary to 
the Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of 
their power, and of that of the Gepidse, shortly 
after the middle of the Sixth Century, to the 
position of masters of Pannonia, and became 
one of the most wealthy and powerful nations 
in that part of the world. Under their king, 
Alboin, they invaded and conquered the north 
and center of Italy (568-569). The conversion 
of the Arian Lombards to the orthodox faith 
was brought about by the policy of Gregory the 
Great and the zeal of Theodolinda,wife of Autha- 
ria, and subsequently of his successor, Agilulf 
(590-615). 

Longobardi ( lon-go-btir'de ). A German 
tribe, of supposed Scandinavian extraction, 
which made their first appearance in history 
during the reign of Augustus, and in that of 
Justinian I., settled in Noricum and Pannonia. 
Led by their chief, Alboni, they successfully 
invaded Italy in 568, and there founded the 
Kingdom of Lombardy. 




m 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


LOST CITIES 

* The cities designated by asterisks were afterward rebuilt under the same name. 


Cities 


Abydos, in Asia Minor, on the Helles¬ 
pont; burned by Darius; conquered by 
Philip II.; by the Romans 188 B. C., . 
Aegina,* on the island of the same name, 
Greece; subjected by Pheidon 748 B.C., 
captured by the Athenians 455 B. C.; 
by Publius Sulpicius 210 B. C., ... 

Agrigentum, in Sicily, subjected by Pha- 
laris 570 B. C.; destroyed by Cartha¬ 
ginians 406 B. C.; captured by Romans 
262 B. C.; again destroyed by Cartha¬ 
ginians 255 B. C.,. 

Alexandria,* in Egypt, scene of a fright¬ 
ful massacre by Ptolemy Physcon 141 
B.C.; captured by Julius Caesar 48 B.C.; 
50,000 persons killed by earthquake 365 
A. D.; captured by Chosroes II. 616 
A. D.; by Amrou 640 A. D.; destroyed 

by the Turks 868 A. D.,. 

Antioch,* in Syria; conquered by Pom- 
pey 64 B. C.; destroyed by Chosroes I. 
541 A. D.; captured by Chosroes II. 611 
A. D.; Saracens 638 A. D.; Turks 1084 

A. D.; Crusaders 1098 A. D.; de¬ 

stroyed by Bibars, Sultan of Egypt, 
1268 A. D. 

Argos,* in Greece, under Phidon about 
750 B. C. leading state of the Pelopon¬ 
nesus ; lost Cynuria in wars with Sparta 
550 B. C.; fell into decay after defeat 

near Tiryns 524 B. C.,. 

Arsinoe, in Egypt, not far from Lake 
Moeris; received its name from Ptole¬ 
my Philadelphus in honor of his sister 
Arsinoe, originally called Crocodipolis 
by the Greeks; the ruins are near Medi- 

net-el-Fayoom,. 

Athens,* in Greece; captured by Xerxes 
480 B. C.; burnt by Mardonius 479 

B. C.; rebuilt by Themistocles 478 B.C.; 

439 B. C. at the height of its prosperity; 
taken by Lysander 404 B. C.; walls re¬ 
built by Conon 393 B. C.; submits to 
Alexander the Great 335 B. C.; con¬ 
quered by Cassander; surrendered to 
Antigonus Gonatas 200 B. C.; partly 
destroyed by Philip of Macedon 200 
B. C.; subdued by the Romans 146 
B.C.; walls and fortifications destroyed 
by Sulla 86 B. C.. 

Baalbec,* or Heliopolis, in Asia Minor; 
sacked by the Moslems 748 A. D.; by 

Timour Beg 1400 A. D.,. 

Babylon, in Asia; captured by Tiglath- 
Pileser 1.1130 B.C.; by Cyrus 538 B.C.; 
walls destroyed by Darius 518 B. C.; 
taken by Alexander III. 331 B. C.; 
by Seleucus Nicator 312 B. C., who de¬ 
stroyed Babylon to build Seleucia. Ex¬ 
plored by Rich, Kerr Porter, Layard, 
Frazer, Chesney, Botta, Loftus, and 

Rawhnson. 

Byzantium, in ancient Thracia (modern 
Turkey); captured successively by the 
Medes, Athenians, and Spartans; by 
the Romans 73 A. D.; destroyed by 
Severus 196 A.D. It was refounded 324 
A. D. and called Constantinople, . . 
Carthage, city in Africa; captured by 
Scipio after the battle of Zama 201 B C • 
burned by the Romans 146 B. C : 
rebuilt as a Roman colony 123 B C ’ 
captured by Genseric 439 A. D.* by 
Behsarius 533 A. D.; sacked by the 
6 ^ 7 A * D * ; des troyed by Hassan 

Corinth, in Greece; captured by the 
D. orian 0 9 1£74B. C.; by the Macedo¬ 
nians 338 B. C.; by Aratus 243 B. C.- 
Antigonus Doson 223 B. C.; destroyed 
by L. Mummius 146 B. C.; rebuilt by 
Julms Csesar 46 B. C.; sacked by Alaric 
396 A. D.,. 


Founded 


By Whom 


Milesians. 


Dorians. 


Colony 
from Gela. 


Alexander 
the Great. 


Seleucus 

Nicator. 


Inachus. 


Pharaoh in the 
12th Dynasty 
of Manetho. 


Date 


715 B. C. 


Destroyed 


How 


Cecrops. 


582 B. C. 


332 B. C. 


300 B. C. 


1856 B. C. 


2300 B. C. 


1558 B.C. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War and 
Decay. 


Decay. 


By Whom 


Turks. 


Date 


1330 A. D. 


Turks. 1536 A. D 


Carthaginians. 


Turks. 


Chosroes I. and 
Bibars. 


406 and 
205 B. C. 


868 A. D. 


541 and 
1268 A. D. 


524 B. C. 


Nimrod. 


Megarius 
under Byzas. 


Dido 


Phenicians. 


2247 B. C. 


667 B. C 


878 B. C. 


1520 B.C. 


War. 

War. 


Sulla. 

Timour Beg. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


War. 


86 B. C. 
1400 A. D. 


Seleuous 

Nicator. 


Severus. 


Romans and 
Hassan. 


L. Mummius 
and Alaric. 


312 B. C. 


196 A. D. 


146 B. C. 
and 

698 A. D. 


146 B. C. 
and 

396 A. D. 




















































HISTORY 


129 


LOST CITIES— Continued 


Cities 


Ctesiphon, in Assyria; captured by Tra¬ 
jan 116 A. D.; by Severus 198 A. D.; 

destroyed by Omar 637 A. D. 

Delphi, in Greece; temple burned 548 
B. C., and rebuilt by the Alcmaeonida'; 
plundered by the Phocians 357 B. C.; 
by Sulla 82 B. C.; lay Nero 67 A. D.; 
temple suppressed by Theodosius I., . 
Ephesus, in Asia Minor; burned by the 
Amazons 1141 B. C.; rebuilt by the 
Ionians 1045 B. C.; captured by 
Croesus 559 B. C.; by Cyrus 554 B. C.; 
destroyed by an inundation 322 B. C.; 
rebuilt 300 B. C.; nearly destroyed 

by an earthquake 17 A. D. 

Herculaneum, in Italy; its foundation 
ascribed to Hercules; partly ruined by 
an earthquake 63 A. D.; completely 
buried by an eruption of Vesuvius 79 
A. D.; a second settlement buried by 
Vesuvius 472 A. D. Fragments of 
statues were discovered 1709 A. D.; 
theater discovered 1738 A. D., .... 
Jerusalem,* in Palestine; captured by 
David 1049 B. C.; sacked by the Phi¬ 
listines and Arabs 887 B. C.; by Nebu¬ 
chadnezzar 586 B. C.; by Antiochus 
Epiphanes 170 B. C.; captured by 
Pompey 63 B. C.; by Herod 37 B. C.; 
destroyed by Titus 70 A. D., .... 

Memphis, in Egypt; partly destroyed 
by the Persians 525 B. C.; captured by 
Antiochus Epiphanes 171 B. C.; re¬ 
stored by Septimus Severus 202 A.D.; 
decayed under the Arabs in the Seventh 
Century, and Cairo built from its ruins, 
Mycenae, in Greece; destroyed by the 
Argives 468 B. C.; explored by Dr. 
Schliemann, who discovered tombs 
with immense treasures in 1877 A. D., 
Nineveh, in Assyria; received its name 
from Ninus 2182 B. C.; destroyed 
by Cyaxares and Nabopolassar from 
625 to 606 B. C. Layard began explor¬ 
ing the ruins 1840 A. D.,. 

Numantia, in Spain, destroyed by 
Scipio the Younger 134 B. C., . . . . 
Palmyra, Syria; submitted to Hadrian 
130 A. D.; destroyed by Aurelian 274 
A. D.; restored by Justinian I. 527 
A. D.; again destroyed by the Saracens 
744 A. D.; ruins discovered 1691 A. D.; 
explored by Wood and Dawkins 1751 

A. D.,. 

Persepolis, in Persia; supposed to have 
been founded by Jemshed; burned by 

Alexander III. 331 B. C.,. 

Petra, in Arabia, captured by the Naba- 
thseans in the Fourth Century B. C.; by 
Cornelius Palma 106 A. D.; fell into 
decay and is not mentioned after the 
Sixth Century A. D.; ruins discovered 

by Burckhardt 1812 A. D. 

Pompeii, in Italy; date of its founda¬ 
tion unknown; said to have been con¬ 
quered by the Samnites 440 B. C.; cap¬ 
tured by the Romans 360 B. C.; al¬ 
most destroyed by an"’earthquake 63 
A.D.completely buried by an eruption 
of Vesuvius 79 A. D.; accidentally dis¬ 
covered 1748 A. D.; excavations com¬ 
menced 1755 A. D., .. 

Saguntum, in Spain; said to have been 
founded by a colony of Greeks; burned 
by its citizens before surrendering to 

Hannibal 218 B. C.,.. 

Samaria, in Palestine; captured by 
Shalmaneser IV. 721 B. C.; by Alex¬ 
ander III. 336-332 B.C.; destroyed by 

John Hyrcanus 109 B. 0.,. 

Sardis, in Asia Minor; captured by the 
Cimmerians about 635 B. C.: by the 
Persians 554 B. C.; burned by the 
Greeks 499 B. C.: it was rebuilt; cap¬ 
tured by Alexander III. 334 B. C.; by 


Founded 

Destroyed 

By Whom 

Date 

How 

By Whom 

Date 

. 


War. 

Omar. 

637 A. D. 



War and 



Amphictyons. 

1263 B. C. 

Decay. 


395 A. D. 



Inundation 


322 B. C. 



and 


and 



Earthquake. 


17 A. D. 




79 and 

Hercules. 


Vesuvius. 


472 A. D. 

About 




. 

1913 B. C. 

War. 

Titus. 

70 A. B. 

Menes 

3890 B. C. 




or 

or 

War and 


600 to 

Misraim. 

2188 B.C. 

Decay. 


700 A. D. 


1431, 1313 





or 




Perseus. 

1282 B.C. 

. 

Argives. 

468 B. C. 


About 


Cyaxares and 

625 to 

Ashur. 

2245 B. C. 

War. 

Nabopolassar. 

606 B. C. 

. 


War. 

Scipio. 

134 B. C. 


About 


Aurelian and 

274 to 

Solomon. 

1001 B.C. 

War. 

Saracens. 

744 A. D. 

Jemshed. 

. 

War. 

Alexander. 

331 B. C. 





After 



Decay. 


600 A. D. 



Earthquake 





and 





Vesuvius. 

79 A. D. 

Greeks. 


Fire. 

Citizens. 

218 B. C. 

Omri. 

About 





925 B. C. 

War. 

John Hyrcanus. 

109 B. C. 










































130 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

LOST CITIES —Continued 


Cities 


Seleucus I. 283 B. C.; by Antiochus 
214 B. C.; by the Romans 190 B. C. ; 
destroyed by an earthquake 14-37 A.D. 
under Tiberius, who rebuilt it; cap¬ 
tured by the Turks in the Eleventh 
Century; destroyed by Tamerlane 

1402 A. D.. 

Sodom and Gomorrah, cities of Pales¬ 
tine; destroyed, according to the bibli¬ 
cal account, by fire from heaven 1897 

B. C... 

Susa, in Persia; mentioned on monu¬ 
ments 660 B. C.; captured by Alexan¬ 
der III. 331 B. C.; by Antigonus 315 
B. C.; by the Arabs 652 A. D.; after 
that it decayed; ruins were discovered 
by Williams and Loftus 1853 A. D.,. . . 
Sybaris, in Greece; destroyed by the 
Crotoniats 510 B. C. by turning the 

course of the River Crathis,. 

Thebes, or Luxor, in Egypt; flourished 
from 1600-800 B. C.; captured by the 
Persians 525 B. C.; destroyed by 

Ptolemy Lathyrus 86 B. C.,. 

Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; destroyed 
by the Greeks about 1184 B. C.; Dr. 
Schliemann discovered ruins, 1872 
A. D. ; which he considers ancient Troy, 
Tyre, in Asia Minor; destroyed by Neb¬ 
uchadnezzar 572 B. C.; rebuilt; cap¬ 
tured by Alexander III. 332 B. C.; by 
Antigonus 315 B. C.; by Antiochus III. 
218 B.C.; by the Crusaders 1128 A.D.; 
by Chalid 1291 A. D.; destroyed by 

the Turks 1516 A. D.,. 

Veii, in Italy; destroyed by the Romans 
after ten years’ siege 396 B. C., . . . 


Founded 

Destroyed 

By Whom 

Date 

How 

By W T hom 

Date 



War and 
Earthquake. 

Fire. 

Greeks 

and 

Tamerlane. 

499 B. C. 
and 

1402 A. D. 




1897 B. C. 



Decay. 

W ar. 


After 

652 A. D. 

Archseaus. 

720 B. C.- 

Crotoniats. 

510 B. C. 

Menes. 

2717 B. C. 

War. 

Ptolemy. 

Lathyrus. 

86 B. C. 



War. 

Greeks. 

1184 B. C. 


About 
2750 B. C. 

War. 

War. 

Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar and 
Turks. 

Romans. 

572 B. C. 
and 

1516 A. D. 

396 A. D. 




Louisiana. In 1541, De Soto discovered 
the Mississippi and in 1682 La Salle voyaged 
down this river to its mouth, naming the country 
Louisiana and taking possession of it in the name 
of the King of France. In 1716, Bienville estab¬ 
lished Fort Rosalie in the Natchez country and 
in 1718 founded New Orleans. In 1717, the 
Mississippi Company was formed by John Law 
for colonization purposes, and in 1732 resigned 
its claim to the territory, and Louisiana became 
a royal province. In 1733, the first settlement 
was made at Baton Rouge. In 1750, the culti¬ 
vation of cotton was begun in the territory. 
In 1755, Louisiana received a large increase in 
population from the Acadians, who were driven 
from their homes in Canada. By a secret treaty 
in 1762, France ceded Louisiana to Spain, and 
in 1768 the French drove the first Spanish Gov¬ 
ernor, Don Antonio de Ulloa, from the colony. 
In 1800, Louisiana was ceded to Napoleon by 
Spain, and in 1803, on April 30th, was purchased 
from France by the United States for 60,000,000 
francs. In 1806 and 1807, Aaron Burr’s scheme 
to set up an independent nation in the Mississippi 
Valley caused much disturbance in New Orleans, 
and in 1810 residents of eastern Louisiana 
formed the Republic of West Florida in an 
attempt to overthrow the Spanish Government 
there. The district was taken under the con¬ 
trol of the United States and made part of 
Louisiana during the same year after some 
trouble. 

In 1812, Louisiana was admitted to the Union 
as a State, with boundaries as they are now. 
That same year the first steam vessels on the 


Mississippi arrived from Pittsburg. The battle 
of New Orleans between the British and Ameri¬ 
cans was fought January 8, 1815, and it was 
the last battle of the War of 1812. During the 
period from 1815 to 1860 there was continual 
industrial activity and Louisiana soon became 
one of the leading agricultural States. In 1850, 
Baton Rouge became the seat of State govern¬ 
ment. On January 26, 1861, Louisiana passed 
the Ordinance of Secession. The first gun cast 
for the Confederate navy was made at Gretna, 
near New Orleans. Port Hudson, the last Con¬ 
federate stronghold on the Mississippi, was cap¬ 
tured by General Banks July 8, 1863, and on 
May 26, 1865, the war in Louisiana was ended 
by the surrender of General Kirby Smith. From 
1865 to 1874 a period of carpetbag government 
caused many disturbances, and on September 
14, 1874, it was overthrown and a representative 
government established. In 1884, the Industrial 
Cotton Exhibition was opened at New Orleans, 
celebrating the centennial of the first exporta¬ 
tion of cotton from the United States. In 1890, 
Chief of Police David C. Hennessy, of New Or¬ 
leans, was killed by an Italian criminal. In 
1891, an organized band of citizens killed eleven 
Italian prisoners in the parish prison at New 
Orleans. 

Lundy’s Lane, a locality in the province 
of Ontario, near the Falls of Niagara. Here, 
July 25, 1814, an obstinate and undecisive en¬ 
gagement was fought between an American 
force, numbering 3,000 men, under General 
Brown, and a body of about 2,000 British troops 
commanded by General Drummond. The loss 






































HISTORY 


131 


of the Americans was 743 men; that of the Brit¬ 
ish 878 men. 

LUtzen, a small town in the Prussian prov¬ 
ince of Saxony, famous for two great battles 
fought in its vicinity. The first, a brilliant 
victory of the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War, 
took place November 16, 1632. The battle on 
May 2, 1813, was fought somewhat farther to 
the south, at the village of Grosgoschen. It was 
the first great conflict of the united Russian and 
Prussian army with the army of Napoleon in 
that decisive campaign, and the French were 
left in possession of the field. 

Maine. Various but unsuccessful attempts 
at colonization in Maine were made between 
the years 1602 and 1620 by both the French and 
English. In 1620, Sir Ferdinanda Gorges, as 
head of the Plymouth Company, received a 
patent of all the region between 40° and 48° 
north latitude. In consequence of disputes 
afterward with the Massachusetts Colony, the 
company was dissolved, and in 1639 Gorges 
received a formal charter of the region between 
the Piscataqua and Kennebec, under the title 
of Maine. Internecine quarrels between the 
different settlements, on points of jurisdiction, 
caused the Massachusetts Colony in 1651 to set 
up a claim to the province under her charter, 
and parliament sanctioned it. In 1677, all 
claims of other grantees were purchased. From 
this time the history of the province was prac¬ 
tically merged in that of Massachusetts. The 
final separation occurred in 1820, when Maine 
was- admitted to the Union, being the tenth 
under the constitution. In 1842, the boundary 
dispute between Maine and Great Britain was 
settled. The “Maine Liquor Law” was passed 
in 1851. It was repealed in 1856 and passed 
again in 1858, being made a part of the Consti¬ 
tution in 1884. The death penalty was abol¬ 
ished in 1876, restored in 1883, and again abol¬ 
ished in 1887. The growth of the wood-pulp 
and paper-mill industry began about 1880, and 
in 1890 there was a rapid development of the 
lumber, granite, ice, and fishery trades. In 
1879-80 occurred a notable contest for the 
governorship between the Republicans and 
Fusionists. 

Mamelukes ( mam'a-lookz ). Originally, 
male slaves imported from Circassia into Egypt 
by the rulers of that country. They were in¬ 
structed in military exercises, but soon exhibited 
a spirit of insubordination, assassinating the 
Sultan, Turan Shah, and, in 1258, appointing 
Ibegh, one of their own number, Sultan of 
Egypt. They were at length conquered by 
Selim I., and Cairo, their Capital, was taken by 
storm, after they governed Egypt 263 years. 
During the French invasion of Egypt by Napo¬ 
leon I., the Mamelukes formed a fine body of 
cavalry, and for a time seriously annoyed the 
invaders, though many afterwards joined them. 
In 1811, Mehemet Ali annihilated their power 
by treacherously inveigling and destroying 470 
of their chief leaders. 

Manila Bay, Battle of. A remarkable 
engagement between the American Asiatic 
squadron, under command of Commodore George 
Dewey, and a Spanish naval force, under com¬ 
mand of Admiral Montojo, supported by land 


batteries, fought on May 1, 1898. When it 
became evident, in March, 1898, that war be¬ 
tween the United States and Spain was inevit¬ 
able, Commodore Dewey began to mobilize his 
vessels in the harbor of Hong Kong preparatory 
to striking a blow at the Philippine Islands on 
the breaking out of hostilities. By April 1st, 
he had gathered there his flagship, the “Olym¬ 
pia,” a steel protected cruiser; the “Boston,” 
a partially protected steel cruiser; the “Raleigh,” 
protected steel cruiser; the “Concord,” steel 
gunboat; and the “Petrel,” steel gunboat. 
Toward the close of the month, the “Baltimore,” 
a steel protected cruiser, the “Hugh McCulloch,” 
revenue cutter, and two newly-purchased ships 
loaded with coal and other supplies, joined the 
fleet. Lying in Manila Bay, one of the largest 
and most important in the world, was a Spanish 
squadron, comprising, the “Reina Christina,” 
steel cruiser; “Castilla,” wood cruiser; “Ve¬ 
lasco,” iron cruiser; “Don Antonio de Ulloa,” 
iron cruiser; “Don Juan de Austria,” iron 
cruiser; “Isla de Cuba,” steel protected cruiser; 
“Isla de Luzon,” steel protected cruiser; “Gen¬ 
eral Lezo,” gunboat; “El Cano,” gunboat; 
“Isla de Mindanao,” auxiliary cruiser; “Mar¬ 
ques del Duero”; and two torpedo boats. It 
was supposed that the harbor had been planted 
with mines and torpedoes and supplied with 
numerous searchlights, and that the forts on 
the shore had been strengthened in anticipation 
of an attack. 

The United States squadron entered the bay 
on the night of April 30th, and at 5 o’clock on 
Sunday morning, May 1st, opened fire on the 
Spanish squadron and the forts. Two engage¬ 
ments were fought, and during the brief internal 
the United States squadron drew off to the east 
side of the bay to enable officers and men to 
get their breakfast. The entire battle lasted 
less than two hours. The Spanish flagship, 
“Reina Christina,” was completely burned; the 
“Castilla” suffered the same fate; the “Don 
Juan de Austria ” was blown up by a shell from 
one of the United States vessels; one or more 
ships were burned; and the entire Spanish fleet 
was destroyed. After his second attack, in 
which he destroyed the water battery at Cavite, 
Commodore Dewey anchored off the city of 
Manila and sent word to the governor-general 
that if a shot was fired from the city at the fleet, 
he would lay Manila in ashes. The Spanish loss 
was about 2,000 officers and men. The United 
States squadron did not lose a ship or a man. 
Two vessels were damaged in their upper works, 
and eight men were variously injured. 

' Maryland. One of the thirteen original 
States, it was named after the mother of Charles 
II. The State was settled by Lord Baltimore 
in 1632, under a grant from Charles I. Puritan 
and Virginian colonies disputed the authority 
of the proprietary governors, and it was not till 
1714, after many broils and considerable blood¬ 
shed, extending over three-quarters of a century, 
that the rights of the Calvert family were finally 
settled. In 1649, the Assembly passed an act 
allowing Christians of all sects the public exer¬ 
cise of their faith. Baltimore was founded in 
1730. The Virginia boundary was adjusted in 
1668, that of Delaware and Pennsylvania, 




132 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


known in our history as “ Mason and Dixon’s 
Line,” in 1763. A republican constitution was 
adopted in 1776. The “Maryland Line” was 
famous in the Revolutionary War for its gal¬ 
lantry. The Federal Constitution was adopted 
in 1788. In the War of 1812, Maryland suffered 
much from Admiral Cockburn’s fleet; French- 
town, Havre de Grace, and Frederick were 
burned, and Fort McHenry unsuccessfully bom¬ 
barded. The only important battle fought 
within the State during the late Civil War was 
that of Antietam, in September, 1862. 

Mason and Dixon’s Line. This line 
was originally the parallel of latitude 39 degrees, 
43 minutes, 26.3 seconds which separates Penn¬ 
sylvania from Maryland. It received its name 
from Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two 
English mathematicians and astronomers, who 
traced the greater part of it between the years 
1763 and 1767, though the last thirty-six miles 
were finished by others. It was practically the 
dividing line between the free and the slave 
States in the East. During the discussion in 
Congress on the Missouri Compromise, John 
Randolph, of Roanoke, Virginia, made free use 
of the phrase, and thereafter it became popular 
as signifying the dividing line between the free 
and slave territories throughout the country. 
The boundary, as thus extended by popular 
usage, followed the Ohio River to the Mississippi, 
and west of that was the parallel of 36 degrees, 
30 minutes, the southern boundary of Missouri, 
though Missouri itself was a slave State. 

Massachusetts was one of the thirteen 
original States. Though first visited by the 
English under Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, 
the first permanent settlement was made by the 
Puritan colony, which landed from the “May¬ 
flower” at Plymouth in 1620. The expedition 
commanded by John Endicott, which arrived 
in 1628, acting under the auspices of the Massa¬ 
chusetts Bay Company, which had received a 
royal charter, gradually planted settlements at 
Charlestown, Boston, Watertown, Dorchester, 
Roxbury, Salem, Mystic, Saugus (Lynn), and 
other places. The restoration of the Stuarts 
threatened the rights of the colonists, but their 
charter was finally confirmed in 1662. King 
Philip’s War occurred in 1675-76, and put the 
colonists in great peril. In 1684, the Massachu¬ 
setts charter was declared forfeited to the Crown 
under Charles II., but it was restored after the 
accession of William and Mary. In 1692, the 
colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth 
were consolidated. The province took active 
part in .the various French and Indian wars, and 
contributed largely to the expedition which cap¬ 
tured Louisburg in 1745. The Boston Massacre in 
1770, the destruction of the tea in 1773, and the 
Port Bill in 1774 were important incidents pre¬ 
ceding the Revolution. At Lexington and Con¬ 
cord, in 1775, Massachusetts made the final 
appeal to arms. At this time the population of 
the province was 352,000. The State Constitu¬ 
tion, still essentially the organic law, was formed 
in 1780, and the Federal Constitution was rati¬ 
fied in 1788. The total expenditures of the 
State on account of the late Civil War amounted 
to $30,162,200. 

Mecklenburg Declaration. This dec¬ 


laration was adopted, it is said, in May, 1775, at 
a midnight meeting of representatives of the 
militia of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. 
It declares that the people of that county are 
free and independent of the British Crown, and 
not only is its general tenor that of the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence, but many phrases are 
word for word as they appear in that document. 
The minutes of the midnight meeting are said 
to have been destroyed by fire in 1800. Whether 
the Declaration of Independence followed the 
words of the Mecklenburg Declaration or whether 
the latter, having probably been replaced from 
memory, was tinctured with the former, is a 
disputed question. 

Mexico. The history of ancient Mexico 
exhibits two distinct and widely differing peri¬ 
ods — that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. 
The Eighth Century is the traditional date when 
the Toltecs are related to have come from the 
North. Their capital was established at Tula, 
north of the Mexican Valley. Their laws and 
usages stamp them as a people of mild and 
peaceful instincts, industrious, active, and enter¬ 
prising. It is related that a severe famine and 
pestilence all but destroyed the Toltec people in 
the Eleventh Century, and near the end of the 
next century, a fresh migration brought, among 
other kindred nations, the Aztecs into the land. 
Within two centuries and a half this last people 
had become predominant. But their rule was, 
in a great degree, a reversion to savagery. 

The Aztecs founded, about 1325, the city of 
Tenochtitlan, or Mexico; a hundred years later 
they had extended their sway beyond their 
plateau valley, and on the arrival of the Span¬ 
iards, their empire was found to stretch from 
ocean to ocean. Their government was an 
elective empire, the deceased prince being 
usually succeeded by a brother or nephew, who 
must be a tried warrior; but sometimes the 
successor was chosen from among the powerful 
nobles. The monarch wielded despotic power, 
save in the case of his great feudal vassals; 
these exercised a very similar authority over 
the peasant class, below whom, again, were the 
slaves. The Mexicans apparently believed in 
one supreme invisible creator of all things, the 
ruler of the universe; but the popular faith was 
polytheistic. At the head of the Aztec pantheon 
was the frightful Huitzilopochtli, the Mexican 
Mars. The victims were borne to the summit 
of the great pyramidal temples, where the 
priests, in sight of assembled crowds, bound 
them to the sacrificial stone, and, slashing open 
the breast, tore from it the bleeding heart and 
held it up before the image of the god. 

Cortez landed at Vera Cruz in 1519. Before 
his energy, and the superior civilization of his 
followers, the power of the native empire crum¬ 
bled away. In 1540 Mexico was united with 
other American territories — at one time all the 
country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island — 
under the name of New Spain, and governed 
by viceroys appointed by the mother country. 
The intolerant spirit of the Catholic clergy led 
to the suppression of almost every trace of the 
ancient Aztec nationality and civilization, while 
the commercial system crippled the resources of 
the colony; for all foreign trade with any coun- 



HISTORY 


133 


try other than Spain was prohibited on pain of 
death. Mexico ranked first among all the 
Spanish colonies in regard to population, mate¬ 
rial riches, and natural products. In 1810, the 
discontent broke into open rebellion, and a 
guerilla warfare was kept up until, in 1821, the 
capital was surrendered by O’Donoju, the last 
of the viceroys. In the following year, General 
Iturbide, who, in 1821, had issued the plan de 
Iguala, providing for the independence of Mexico 
under a prince of the reigning houses, had him¬ 
self proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader 
Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Ana 
raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he 
was banished to Italy with a pension. Return¬ 
ing the following year he was taken and shot, 
and the federal republic of Mexico was finally 
established. 

For more than half a century after this the 
history of Mexico is a record of nearly chronic 
disorder and civil war. In 1836, Texas secured 
its independence, for which it had struggled for 
several years, and which Mexico was compelled 
to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was 
incorporated with the United States; but its 
western boundary was not settled, and war 
ensued between Mexico and the United States. 
From the fall of Santa Ana in 1855, down to 
1867, great confusion prevailed. 

In 1853, Benito Juarez became president, but 
his claims were contested by General Miramon, 
the head of the reactionary or clerical party, 
and the country was plunged in civil war. Dur¬ 
ing this period of internal disorder, the Cortes 
passed an act suspending all payments to for¬ 
eigners for two years; the result was the dis¬ 
patch of a fleet of English, French, and Spanish 
ships into the Mexican Gulf for the purpose of 
enforcing satisfaction. In April, 1862, Emperor 
Napoleon formally declared war against Mexico; 
but the French finally had to withdraw, without 
permanent success, in 1867, largely because of the 
attitude of the United States. Maximilian, who 
had become Emperor of Mexico under French 
support, was executed in the same year, and 
Juarez returned to power. On his death in 
1872, the chief justice, Lerdo de Tejada, assumed 
the presidency, in which he was succeeded in 
1877 by General Porfirio Diaz, one of the ablest 
of Mexican soldiers and administrators. 

In 1910, a rebellion was started under Madero, 
but Diaz immediately took steps to suppress it. 
With the exception of one term Diaz held 
office continuously from the time of his first 
election up to 1911 when an insurrection again 
broke out under Madero and Diaz was forced to 
resign. Francisco I. Madero was made presi¬ 
dent in 1911. 

In 1912 an insurrection led by Felix Diaz, 
nephew of Porfirio Diaz, resulted in the over¬ 
throw of Madero, who was assassinated Febru¬ 
ary 24, 1913. 

Michigan. The name is derived from 
Indian words, meaning “a weir of fish.” The 
State was the thirteenth admitted under the 
Federal Constitution. Though visited as early 
as 1610 by French missionaries and fur-traders, 
the first European settlement was made at Sault 
Ste. Marie by Father Marquette in 1668. Fort 
Michilimackinac, now Mackinaw, was estab¬ 


lished three years later. In 1701 Antoine Cadil¬ 
lac founded Detroit. With other French pos¬ 
sessions it came into the ownership of England 
in 1763. This was followed by the conspiracy 
of Pontiac, and the massacre of the garrison at 
Michilimackinac. After the Revolutionary War, 
Michigan did not come into the possession of 
the United States till 1796, and it was then 
included in the government of the Northwest 
Territory. The Territory of Michigan was 
formed in 1805. In the War of 1812-15 it was 
the scene of several bloody contests and butch¬ 
eries perpetrated by the British and their Indian 
allies. Between 1819 and 1836 the Indians 
ceded their title to all of the Lower and part of 
the Upper Peninsula. In 1836, Congress passed 
a bill admitting Michigan as a State on condition 
that she give up a claim made on a strip of 
Ohio, and accept the whole region known as 
the Upper Peninsula instead. 

Minnesota. The name is derived from 
an Indian word, signifying “cloudy water.” 
Hennepin and La Salle visited the region as 
early as 1680. Extended explorations were made 
by John Carver in 1766 and by Lieut. Pike in 
1805, after which explorers and settlers followed 
in considerable numbers. Fort Snelling, at the 
mouth of the Minnesota River, was built and 
occupied in 1821. In 1837 lumbering industries 
began to attract immigration. The Territory 
established in 1849 embraced about twice the 
limits of the present State, the western limit 
extending to the Missouri and White Earth 
rivers. In 1851, the Sioux ceded all their lands 
west of the Mississippi to the Big Sioux River. 
The State was admitted to the Union May 11, 
1858. The portion of the State lying west of 
the Mississippi originally belonged to the Louis¬ 
iana Purchase, and the eastern portion was a 
part of what was known as the “Northwest 
Territory.” Minnesota was the nineteenth State 
admitted. It was the scene of the Sioux War 
and massacre in 1862-63. 

Mississippi. This region was first trav¬ 
ersed by De Soto in 1542, and in 1682 La Salle 
descended the Mississippi _ (the name derived 
from Indian words meaning “great water”), 
took formal possession, and called the adjacent 
country Louisiana. Iberville built a fort on the 
Bay of Biloxi in 1699, and in 1716 Fort Rosalie 
was erected on the site of Natchez. After the 
cession of the east portion of Louisiana (includ¬ 
ing what is now Mississippi) to Great Britain, 
in 1763, and until the Revolutionary War, immi¬ 
gration proceeded very slowly. The Territory 
of Mississippi was organized in 1798. In 1804 
the boundaries, were enlarged, and Mississippi 
was made to comprise the whole of the present 
States of Alabama and Mississippi north of the 
31st parallel. The region south of that line 
between the Pearl and Perdido rivers was added 
in 1812, though claimed by Spain. Alabama 
was organized as a Territory in 1817, and Mis¬ 
sissippi was admitted as a State, the seventh 
under the Federal Constitution. A new consti¬ 
tution was formed in 1832. The ordinance of 
secession was passed January 9, 1861. The 
principal military events within the State during 
the war of 1861-65 were the battles of Iuka and 
Corinth and the siege of Vicksburg, which sur- 



134 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


rendered on July 4, 1863. The State was form¬ 
ally readmitted to the Union in 1870. On Jan¬ 
uary 29, 1903, the Yazoo Canal was opened, 
restoring to Vicksburg the water front it lost ( 
during 1876, when the Federal Government 
attempted to dredge a canal through six miles 
of forest, tapping the Yazoo River above that 
city and diverting the flow of the Mississippi. 

Missouri. The name of the State signifies 
“big muddy.” The settlement and progress of 
Missouri were at first slower than in the lower 
ortions of French Louisiana. Its oldest town, 
te. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. In 1763, 
France ceded to Spain the portion west of the 
Mississippi, and to England the section east of 
the river. Numbers of French Canadians had 
settled along the whole line of the river, and an 
active trade had been carried on between upper 
and lower Louisiana. With liberal grants of lands 
to colonists, immigrants flocked hither from 
Spain. In 1775, St. Louis, originally a depot 
of the fur-trade, contained 800 inhabitants, 
while Ste. Genevieve had only 460. Spain sided 
with the colonists during the Revolution, and 
her arms were successful in lower Louisiana and 
Florida. In 1780, however, St. Louis was at¬ 
tacked by a force of English and Indians from 
Michilimackinac, and was relieved only by the 
arrival of General Clarke from Kaskaskia with 
American assistance. With the retrocession of 
Louisiana to France in 1800, and its subsequent 
sale to the United States by Napoleon three 
years later, its political ownership became fixed. 
Missouri was included in the Territory of Louis¬ 
iana, which had been set off in 1805, with St. 
Louis as the seat of territorial government. 
In 1812, with the admission of the present State 
of Louisiana into the Union, the name of the 
Territory was changed to Missouri. With rapid 
immigration the population had swelled in 1817 
to 60,000. In 1820, by the’celebrated compro¬ 
mise, Missouri was admitted to the Union as a 
slaveholding State, on condition that slavery 
should never exist north of latitude 36° 30', in 
lands farther west, out of which new States 
should be formed. During the late Civil War 
repeated efforts were made to force secession on 
Missouri, but unsuccessfully. Though no great 
battles were fought within the State limits, it 
was the field of active military operations and, 
in many sections, of bloody guerilla-fighting. 
The battle of Wilson’s Creek, on August 10, 
1861, where General Lyon, the Federal com¬ 
mander, was killed, and the capture of Lexing¬ 
ton by the Confederate general, Sterling Price, 
on September 20, 1861, were the most important 
events of the first year of the conflict. Several 
times General Price held more than half the 
State in his hands, and it was not till 1864 that 
the Confederates were finally expelled. In June, 
1865, a new constitution was ratified by the 
people. The fifteenth amendment to the Fed¬ 
eral Constitution was adopted by the legislature 
in 1869. Missouri was the eleventh State 
admitted under the Federal Constitution 

Montana. In 1743, Chevalier de la Veren- 
drye, with a party of French Canadians, entered 
Montana and discovered the Rocky Mountains, 
but made no attempt at settlement. The coun¬ 
try came into the possession of the United States 


by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1804 
and 1806, Lewis and Clark made exploring expe¬ 
ditions up the Missouri and across the mountains 
to the Pacific, crossing Montana twice. Alex¬ 
ander Henry, in 1808, led a party of fur-traders 
into the Yellowstone country, and in 1806-1810, 
John Colter, of Lewis and Clark’s expedition, 
engaged in hunting and trapping in the territory. 
Fort Union, the first permanent fort in Montana, 
was built in 1829 by Kenneth Mackenzie, and 
in 1832 the first steamer ascended the Missouri 
into Montana. Fort Benton was built in 1846 
by Alexander Culbertson. In 1853-54, Mon¬ 
tana was explored by a scientific and military 
expedition sent out by Governor Isaac J. Stevens, 
of Washington Territory. The Gold Creek 
mines were discovered in 1862, and in the same 
ear the development of the mines of Beaver- 
ead Valley and Bighole River began. In 1864, 
Montana was organized as a Territory and 
Helena and Butte City were founded. From 
1864 to 1879 there was war with the Sioux, 
Blackfeet, and Cheyennes. In 1874, Helena was 
made territorial capital. The battle of Little 
Big Horn, when General Custer and his men 
were massacred, occurred in 1876. In 1881, the 
first railroad reached Helena, and in 1883 the 
Northern Pacific Railroad was completed to 
this point, relieving the financial distress. In 
1889, Montana was admitted as a State. The 
Montana State University was opened at Mis¬ 
soula in 1895. 

Nebraska. The name first applied to the 
river is of Indian origin, and signifies “Shallow 
Water.” When originally organized as a Ter¬ 
ritory in 1854, it extended from latitude 40° 
north to the northern national boundary and 
west to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The 
Territory of Colorado was set off from this on 
February 28, 1861, and that of Dakota a few 
months later. At the same time Nebraska re¬ 
ceived from Utah and Washington Territories a 
tract of 15,378 square miles, lying on the south¬ 
west slope of the Rocky Mountains, which, how¬ 
ever, was taken from her with an additional 
portion in 1863 to form the Territory of Idaho. 
Nebraska was thus cut down to its present 
limits. Measures to form a State government 
were made in 1860 and in 1864, but the first was 
defeated by the popular vote, and the second 
(being an enabling act of Congress) was not 
acted on. The Civil War and Indian hostilities 
checked the growth of the Territory during 1861- 
65. In 1866, a constitution was framed and 
ratified by popular vote, and in 1867 Nebraska 
was admitted as a State, being the twenty- 
fourth under the Constitution. 

Nevada. The region within the limits of 
Nevada forms part of the Mexican cession of 
1848. It was organized by act of Congress as a 
Territory in 1861, from a portion of Utah, and 
embraced the region bounded north by the pres¬ 
ent boundary of the State, east by the 116th 
meridian, south by the 37th parallel, and west 
by California. A portion of California which 
had been included the latter-named State re¬ 
fused to transfer, and by an additional act of 
Congress, in 1861, a further portion of Utah 
was added, extending the east boundary the 
distance of one degree. Nevada became a 





HISTORY 


135 


State October 31, 1864. In 1866, a third portion 
of Utah was added, extending the east boundary 
to the 114th meridian, and at the same time 
the portion of the State south of the 37th 
parallel was added from Arizona. The earliest 
settlements were made by the Mormons in 1848. 
Gold was discovered in 1849; but the rapid 
advance in population dates from the discovery 
of silver in 1859. Among the earliest discover¬ 
ies was that of the world-renowned Comstock 
lode. In 1906-07 rich discoveries of gold were 
made at Goldfield and other points. The State 
was the twenty-fifth admitted under the Con¬ 
stitution. 

New Hampshire. One of the thirteen 
original States. The first settlements were made 
within the limits of New Hampshire at Dover 
and Portsmouth in 1623. The district was 
annexed to Massachusetts in 1641, became a 
royal province in 1679, and was again annexed 
to Massachusetts in 1689. It became a separate 
province in 1741 and remained so till the Revo¬ 
lution. Indian atrocities were frequent till the 
English conquered Canada. It was supposed 
till 1764 that the present State of Vermont was 
included in the province. The territory, how¬ 
ever, was claimed by New York; the contro¬ 
versy lasted till the independence of Vermont 
was acknowledged in 1790. In 1776, New Hamp¬ 
shire declared its independence and established 
a temporary government of its own. It took 
an active part in the Revolutionary War, and 
the battle of Bennington was fought within its 
limits. The Constitution of the United States 
was ratified in 1788. During the Civil War 
New Hampshire furnished 34,606 men to the 
Union cause. 

NeAV Jersey. The State of New Jersey, 
one of the thirteen original States, was originally 
a part of New York, and was first settled about 
1617 by the Dutch. A patent granted by 
Charles II. of England, to his brother, the Duke 
of York, in 1664, gave the latter a claim on all 
the country between the Delaware and Con¬ 
necticut rivers. An expedition under Colonel 
Nicolls conquered the whole territory. The 
portion of the province now named New Jersey 
received its name from Sir George Carteret, to 
whom the Duke of York had sold his claim, in 
memory of the Island of Jersey of which the 
former had been governor. A constitution was 
formed for it in 1665 as a separate colony. In 
1776, a State constitution was formed, and dur¬ 
ing. the Revolution the battles of Trenton, 
Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth 
were fought within the State limits. The Fed¬ 
eral Constitution was ratified December 18, 1787, 
the State capital established at Trenton in 1790, 
and the present constitution August 13, 1844. 
The State furnished 79,511 fully equipped troops 
to the Union army and navy during the Civil 
War. 

New Mexico. The earliest explorers of 
New Mexico were Spaniards who long held 
possession of the region. Though one of the 
most recently settled portions of the Union, it 
was among the earliest to be occupied by the 
white man, and Santa Fe, originally an Indian 
pueblo, claims the title of the oldest town in the 


country. When the Spaniards first visited this 
region, they found a people living in communities 
with substantial dwellings, and marking the decay 
of a civilization which had flourished in previous 
centuries. In 1822 the people of New Mexico, 
together with other inhabitants of Mexico, of 
which it then formed a part, threw off the Spanish 
yoke. In 1846 United States troops, under Gen. 
Stephen Kearney occupied New Mexico, which 
was surrendered by Mexico in the treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. It then included 
the greater part of the present Arizona and part 
of Nevada and of Colorado. The territorial 
government was organized in 1850 and inaugu¬ 
rated in 1851. In 1853 a large strip was added 
by the Gadsden Purchase. Arizona was set off 
in 1863, and in 1867 a section was annexed to 
Colorado. New Mexico became a state on Janu¬ 
ary 6, 1912, the 47th State to be admitted to 
the Union. 

New York. The Bay of New York and 
the river emptying into it were explored by 
Hendrik Hudson, a navigator in the employ¬ 
ment of the Dutch East India Company, in 
September, 1609. In 1614, the Dutch made 
settlements on Manhattan Island, and the name 
New Netherland was extended to all the uncon¬ 
quered regions lying between Virginia and Can¬ 
ada. Seven years later the Dutch West India 
Company was incorporated and took possession. 
In 1623, settlements were made at Albany and 
on Long Island, and in 1626, Peter Minuit, the 
Director-General, bought Manhattan Island of 
the Indians. In 1629, the company passed the 
act under which the manorial monopolies in 
land were established. In spite of Indian wars 
the colony grew so fast that it came in collision 
with the English on the Connecticut and the 
Swedes on the Delaware River. The claims 
made by the English to New Netherland on the 
score of Cabot's prior discovery were finally 
enforced in the charter granted by Charles II. 
to the Duke of York, and the armed expedition 
of Colonel Nicolls in 1664. The Dutch under 
Governor Stuyvesant surrendered, and New 
Netherland became New York, though the Dutch 
reconquered and held the province for a short 
period, before English rule became permanent. 
The tyranny exercised over the province by 
Francis Nicholson, the lieutenant of Andros, 
who had been appointed to be governor, caused 
the revolt in 1689 headed by Jacob Leisler, 
which was at first successful, though Leisler was 
two years later executed for treason. In 1687 
began the series of French and Indian wars in 
which the New York colonists bore so important 
a part. The first of these closed in 1697, with 
the Peace of Ryswick. The second, or Queen 
Anne's War, lasted from 1702 to 1713. The 
most important act in this long conflict between 
the French and English for the sovereignty of 
North America, and the end of the historic 
drama, began in 1754. The contest lasted with 
varying fortunes until the French were finally 
driven from their line of fortresses on the lake 
and the war was ended by General Wolfe’s expe¬ 
dition, which resulted in the capture of Quebec 
and the final overthrow of French power in 
Canada in 1759. The province of New York 
entered zealously into the Revolutionary cause, 



136 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


though it contained a large loyalist faction. 
Many of the most important military operations 
were conducted within its limits. The two lead¬ 
ing battles fought were that of Long Island on 
August 27, 1776, whereby the British secured 
and held possession of New York City till the 
end of the war; and the battle of Saratoga, on 
October 17, 1777, which occasioned the surrender 
of General Burgoyne’s army. On November 25, 
1783, New York was evacuated by the British. 
In 1790, the conflicting claims of New York and 
New Hampshire were settled by the erection of 
the disputed territory into the State of Vermont. 
In 1797, Albany was made the capital of the 
State, and slavery was abolished in 1817.. Dur¬ 
ing the War of 1812 the more notable incidents 
within State limits were the battle of Lundy’s 
Lane, on the Niagara frontier, fought by General 
Winfield Scott, and Commodore McDonough’s 
naval defeat of the British on Lake Champlain, 
both in 1813. The Erie Canal, originally pro¬ 
jected in 1800, was, through DeWitt Clinton’s 
influence, completed in 1825. During the Civil 
War, the State furnished 455,568 Union troops. 

Normandy. Ah ancient northwest prov¬ 
ince of France, extending along the English 
channel, from a point south of the mouth of the 
Somme to the bay of Cancale, now divided into 
the departments of Seine-Inferieure, Eure, Cal¬ 
vados, Orne, and La Manche. Rouen was the 
capital and the chief town of Upper Normandy, 
and Caen the chief town of Lower Normandy. 
The Romans included the territory in Gallia 
Lugdunensis Secunda. It formed part of Neus- 
tria under the Merovingians, and received the 
name of Normandy from the Northmen, who 
occupied it in the beginning of the Tenth Century. 
In 912, Charles the Simple gave his sanction to 
their conquests, and Rollo, their chief, received 
the title of Duke of Normandy. The sixth suc¬ 
cessor of Rollo, William, became in 1066 the 
conqueror and first Norman king of England. 
On his death (1087) England and Normandy were 
separated, the latter reverting to Robert Courte- 
heuse, while William Rufus seized upon the 
former. Henry I. ruled over both, but his 
daughter Matilda was only Duchess of Normandy. 
Her son, Henry II., accomplished another re¬ 
union. From King John Normandy was wrested 
by Philip Augustus of France; but it was twice 
again held by the English, first under Edward III., 
and a second time, from 1417 to 1450, under 
Henry V. and Henry VI. Charles VII. of France 
made it an integral portion of his kingdom. 

North Carolina. In 1663 eight noble¬ 
men received from Charles II. the patent of the 
province of Carolina, but a few years prior to this 
settlements had been made by Dissenters from 
Virginia and from New England. Albemarle, 
the name given to the portion now North 
Carolina, was rapidly augmented by settlers 
from Virginia, New England, and Bermuda. In 
1729, Carolina became a royal government, all 
but one of the proprietors having sold out to the 
Crown, and North and South Carolina were 
formally declared distinct provinces. In 1765, 
North Carolina received large accessions in 
parties of Irish Presbyterians, Scotch High¬ 
landers, and Moravians. In 1769, the Provincial 
Assembly declared against the right of taxation 


without representation, and in 1774 represen¬ 
tatives were sent to the first Continental Con¬ 
gress, which adopted the declaration of colonial 
rights. In the revolution North Carolina was 
a leader and its territory was a scene of some 
important campaigns. In 1776, it united with 
the other colonies in the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, and a State constitution was formed 
the same year. Aside from partisan warfare, 
the only battle fought in the State was that of 
Guilford Court House in 1781, between Generals 
Green and Cornwallis. The State seceded from 
the Union May 21, 1861, and the military 
operations which followed were notable. The 
most important were the capture of Fort 
Hatteras in 1861, of Roanoke Island and Fort 
Macon in 1862, and the combined land and naval 
assault ending in the capture of Fort Fisher 
in 1865. The State ratified the 14th Amend¬ 
ment in 1868, and the 15th Amendment in 1869. 

North Dakota. The Territory of North 
Dakota, of which North and South Dakota 
were formed, originally constituted part of the 
Territory of Minnesota, which was organized in 
1849 from part of the Louisiana Purchase of 
1803. In 1854 the Territory of Nebraska was 
formed, comprising then the present State of 
Nebraska and all of Dakota. On March 2, 1861, 
the Territory of Dakota was organized, com¬ 
prising then the States of Montana and Wyom¬ 
ing. The first permanent settlements by whites 
were made in 1859 in Clay, Union, and Yankton 
counties. On November 2, 1889, the Ter¬ 
ritory was divided and the States of North and 
South Dakota formed and admitted to the Union 
at the same time. The history of the settlement 
and growth of the country is identical with that 
of the territories of which it originally formed 
a part. 

North German Confederation, The, 

was formed after the famous “Seven Weeks’ 
War” and the “Peace of Prague,” when Austria 
was entirely excluded from Germany. The. 
confederation included Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, 
Nassau and Frankfort (all incorporated with 
Prussia), and the states north of the Main united 
to Prussia in a bund. Strictly speaking, there¬ 
fore, the confederation was Prussia and the states 
north of the Main. In 1870, during the Franco- 
German War, the “North German Confedera¬ 
tion,” being joined by Bavaria, Wtirttemberg, 
Baden, and Hesse - Darmstadt, became the 
“German Confederation,” and two months 
afterwards (January 18, 1871), the King of 
Prussia had the title of “German Emperor” 
given him. 

Northmen. A name applied to the ancient 
inhabitants of Scandinavia, or Norway, Sweden, 
and Denmark, but more generally restricted to 
those searovers called Danes by the Saxons, 
who sailed on piratical expeditions to all parts 
of the European seas, made their first appear¬ 
ance on the coast of England in 787, and from 
the year 832 repeated their invasion almost 
every year, till they became masters of all the 
country under their King Canute, and reigned 
in England during the next fifty years, down 
to 1042, when the Saxon Dynasty was restored 
in the person of Edward the Confessor. In 885, 
they laid siege to Paris, but were at length 



HISTORY 


137 


bought off by Charles the Fat. Rollo, one of 
the most renowned of the Norman chieftains, 
after ravaging Friesland and the countries 
watered by the Scheldt, accepted the hand of 
a daughter of Charles the Simple, and received 
with her, under the tie of vassalage, possession 
of all the land in the valley of the Seine, from 
the Epte and Eure to the sea, which then went 
by the name of. Normandy. They rapidly 
adopted the more civilized form of life that pre¬ 
vailed in the Frankish Kingdom — its religion, 
language, and manners — but inspired every¬ 
thing they borrowed with their own vitality. 
Their conquest of England, in 1066, gave that 
country an energetic race of kings and nobles 
on the whole well-fitted to rule a brave, sturdy, 
but somewhat torpid people like the Anglo- 
Saxons. 

Norway. The early history of Norway is 
comprised in that of the other Scandinavian 
countries, and is, like theirs, for the most part 
fabulous. It is only towards the close of the 
Tenth Century, when Christianity was intro¬ 
duced under the rule of Olaf I., that the mythical 
obscurity in which the annals of the kingdom 
had been previously plunged begins to give 
place to the light of historical truth. 

The introduction of Christianity, which was 
the result of the intercourse which the Norwe¬ 
gians had with the more civilized parts of Europe, 
through their maritime expeditions, destroyed 
much of the old nationality of the people with 
the heathenism which they had hitherto cherished, 
although the sanguinary feuds which had raged 
among the rival chiefs of the land can scarcely 
be said to have lost their ferocity under the sway 
of a milder religion. Olaf II., or the Saint 
(1015-1030), who zealously prosecuted the con¬ 
version of his countrymen, raised himself to 
supreme power in the land by the subjection 
of the small kings or chieftains, who in the times 
of heathenism had subdivided the kingdom 
among them. The war between Olaf and King 
Knud the Great of Denmark, which terminated 
in 1030 with the battle of Sticklestad, in which 
the former was slain, brought Norway under 
the sway of the Danish conqueror; but at his 
death in 1036, Olaf’s son, Magnus I., recovered 
possession of the throne, and henceforth, till 
1319, Norway continued to be governed. by 
native kings. The death in that year of Haakon 
V., without male heirs, threw the election of a 
new king into the hands of the National Assem¬ 
bly, who, after many discussions, made choice of 
Magnus VIII., of Sweden, the son of Haakon’s 
daughter. He was in turn succeeded by his son 
Haakon, and his grandson Olaf IV., who having 
been elected King of Denmark in 1376 became 
ruler of the sister Scandinavian kingdoms on the 
death of his father in 1380. This young king, 
who exercised only a nominal sway under the 
guidance of his mother, Queen Margaret, the 
only child of Valdemar III. of Denmark, died 
without heirs in 1387. Margaret’s love of power 
and capacity for government brought about her 
election to the triple throne of the Scandinavian 
lands, and from this period till 1814, Norway 
continued united with Denmark; but while it 
shared in the general fortunes of the latter state, 
it retained its own constitutional mode of gov¬ 


ernment, and exercised its right of electing to 
the throne, until, like the sister kingdom, it 
agreed of its own free will to relinquish this 
privilege in favor of hereditary succession to 
the throne. The Napoleonic crisis may be said 
to have severed this union, which had existed 
for more than 400 years; for Denmark, after 
having given unequivocal proofs of adhesion to 
the cause of Bonaparte, was compelled, after 
the disastrous War of 1813, to purchase peace 
at the cost of this long united partner of her 
state. Crippled in her resources, and almost a 
bankrupt, she saw herself constrained to sign 
the treaty of Kiel in 1814, by which it was stip¬ 
ulated by the allied powers that she should 
resign Norway to Sweden, receiving in return, 
by way of indemnity, some portion of Swedish 
Pomerania and the island of Riigen, which were 
subsequently exchanged with Prussia for Lauen- 
burg on the payment by that state of two 
million rix dollars. The Norwegians, having 
refused to admit the validity of the treaty of 
Kiel, nominated Prince Christian, the heir-pre¬ 
sumptive to the throne of Denmark, regent and 
subsequently King of Norway. This nomina¬ 
tion was made by the National Diet, or Storthing, 
which met at Ejdsvold, where they drew up a 
constitution based on the French Constitution 
of 1791. These measures found, however, 
neither supporters nor sympathizers among the 
other nations; and with the sanction of the 
great allied powers, Charles John Bernadotte, 
Crown-Prince of Sweden, led an army into 
Norway, and after taking Frederickstad and 
Fredenckshald, threatened Christiania. Den¬ 
mark being unable to support the cause of 
Prince Christian, and Norway being utterly 
destitute of the means necessary for prosecuting 
a war, resistance was of no avail, and the Nor¬ 
wegians, in this untoward conjuncture of affairs, 
were glad to accept the proposals made to them 
by the Swedish King for a union with Sweden, 
on the understanding that they should retain the 
newly promulgated constitution, and enjoy full 
liberty and independence within their own 
boundaries. These conditions were agreed to, 
and strictly maintained, a few unimportant 
alterations in the constitution, necessitated by 
the altered conditions of the new union, being 
the only changes introduced in the machinery 
of government. Charles XIII. was declared 
joint King of Sweden and Norway in 1818. 
After the union, Norway firmly resisted every 
attempt on' the part of the Swedish monarchs 
to infringe upon the constitutional prerogatives 
of the nation; and during the reign of the first 
of the Bernadotte Dynasty, the relations be¬ 
tween him and his Norwegian subjects were 
marked by jealousy and distrust on both sides; 
but after his death the people generally became 
more contented and Norway continued to make 
rapid progress towards a state of political 
security and material prosperity far greater 
than it ever enjoyed under the Danish dominion. 

The dissolution of the union with Sweden 
which had endured since 1814, took place June 
7, 1905, following a dispute between the two 
countries as to their diplomatic representation 
abroad. Prince Charles of Denmark became 
King, as Haakon VII. 



138 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY 


Dates 

Historic Name 

Leading Battles 

Chief Leaders 

B. C. 

1193-1184 

Trojan War. Greeks capture Troy. 

Siege of Troy. 

Hector; Agamemnon. 

743-669 

Messenian War. Sparta conquers 
Messenia. 



504-469 

Perso-Grecian War. Greece suc¬ 
cessfully resists Persian invasion. 

Marathon; Thermopylae; 
Salamis; Platea; Mycale. 

Miltiades; Leonidas; Themis- 
tocles; Pausanius. 

595-586 

448-447 

Sacred Wars of Greece. Largely 
intestinal, and without results. 



357-346 

431-404 

Peloponnesian War. Athens con¬ 
quered by Laced^monia. 

Battles chiefly naval. 

Pericles; Alcibiades; Lysander 

334-331 

Greco-Persian War. Greece con¬ 
quers Persia. 

Granicus; Issus; Arbela. 

Alexander the Great; Darius. 

343-290 

Samnite War. Romans conquer 
Samnites. 

Caudine Forks; Sentinum. 

Fabius Maximus; Caius Pontius 

264-146 

200-146 

Panic Wars. Romans destroy 
Carthage. 

Greco-Roinan War. Greece sub¬ 
dued by Rome. 

Ticinus; Trebia; Thrasy- 
menus; Cannae; Metau- 
rus; Zama. 

Cynoscephalae; Pydna. 

Fabius; Scipio; Hannibal. 

Flaminius; ^Emilius Paulus; 
Mummius; Perseus. 

112-106 

Jugurthine War. Romans con¬ 
quer Numidia. 

Muthal; Cirta. 

Jugurtha; Metellus; Marius. 

90-88 

Roman Social War. Right of Ro¬ 
man citizenship granted the Socii. 


Samnites; Marsians. 

88-63 

Mithridatic War. Mithridates, 
King of Parthia, defeated. 

Chaeronea; Cabira. 

Lucullus; Pompey; Sulla. 

73-71 

Gladiatorial War. Gladiators de¬ 
feated. 

Petelia. 

Spartacus; Crassus. 

58-51 

Gallic W r ar. Gauls conquered by 

Caesar. 


Csesar. 

50-31 

A. D. 

70 

Roman Civil War. Roman Em¬ 
pire established. 

Jewish-Roman War. Jerusalem 
taken; temple destroyed. 

Pharsalia; Thapsus; Mun- 
da; Philippi; Actium. 

Siege of Jerusalem. 

Caesar; Pompey; Brutus; Cas¬ 
sius; Antony; Augustus. 

Titus. 

86-100 

Dacian War. Country beyond 
Danube conquered. 


Trajan. 

409-553 

Barbarian Wars. Teutonic hordes 
capture Rome and ravage Italy. 

Sack of Rome. 

Alaric; Genseric; Attila. 

710-1492 

Saracen Conquests. The Saracens 
occupy Northern Africa and Spain; 
defeated in France. 

Xeres; Tours; Tarifa; Gra¬ 
nada. 

Musa; Tarik; Charles Martel; 
Cid Rodrigo. 

1095-1291 

1337-1453 

1385-1389 

The Crusades. Christians capture 
Jerusalem and ports of Spain, but 
are finally repulsed. 

Hundred Years’ War. England 
lost all her possessions in France 
except Calais. 

Austro-Swiss War. Independence 
of Switzerland. 

Siege of Jerusalem; Acre. 

Cr6cy; Calais; Poitiers; 
Agincourt. 

Sempach; Nafels. 

Geoffrey of Bouillon; Conrad 
III.; Louis VII.; Fred¬ 
erick II.; Philip Augustus; 
Richard the Lion-Hearted; 
Louis IX.; Edward I.; Sala- 
din. 

Edward III. of England; Ed¬ 
ward the Black Prince; 
Henry V. of England; Joan 
of Arc. 

Arnold Von Winckelried; Leo¬ 
pold II. 

1419-1436 

Hussite War. Religious toleration 
secured. 

Prague. 

John Ziska; Sigismund. 

1455-1485 

1562-1598 

Wars of the Roses. House of 
York supplants that of Lancaster 
on English throne. 

French Civil War. Edict of Nantes, 
Protestant toleration. 

St. Albans’ Bloreheath; 
Wakefield ;Towton; Bar- 
net; Tewksbury. 

Dreaux; St.-Denis; Jarnac; 
Moncontour; Ivry. 

Richard, Duke of York; Ed¬ 
ward, Duke of York; Earl of 
Warwick; Queen Margaret; 
Henry VI. 

Duke of Anjou; Henry III.; 
Henry IV.; Cond6. 

1567-1609 

Spanish-Netherlands War. In¬ 
dependence of the Netherlands 
achieved. 

Zutphen; Nieuport; vari¬ 
ous sieges and naval con¬ 
flicts. 

William of Orange; Maurice of 
Nassau; Duke of Alva; Alex¬ 
ander Farnese; Duke of Par- 

1618-1648 

Thirty Years’War. Religious free¬ 
dom secured. 

Dessau; Leipsie; Lech; Liit- 
zen; Nordlingen. 

m£t# 

Gustavus Adolphus; Wallen¬ 
stein; Tilly; Turenne. 

























HISTORY 


139 


NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY —Continued 


Dates 

Historic Name 

Leading Battles 

Chief Leaders 

A. D. 
1642-1649 

English Civil War. English Com¬ 
monwealth established. 

Edgehill; Marston Moor; 
Naseby; Dunbar; Wor¬ 
cester. 

Prince Rupert; Fairfax; 

Charles I.; Cromwell. 

1701-1714 

Spanish Succession. French and 
Spanish crowns disunited. Prot¬ 
estant succession in England. 

Blenheim; Ramillies; Tu¬ 
rin; Oudenorde, Malpla- 
quet. 

Duke of Marlborough; Prince 
Eugene; Marshals Tallard 
and Villars. 

1700-1709 

Swedish-Russian War. Defeat of 
Charles XII. 

Narva; Pultowa. 

Charles XII. of Sweden; Peter 
the Great. 

1740-1748 

Austrian Succession. Many pre¬ 
vious treaties affirmed; Maria 
Theresa, Empress of Austria. 

Dettinger; Fontenoy; Pla¬ 
centia; Laffeldt. 

Marshal Saxe; George II. of 
England; Duke of Cumber¬ 
land. 

1756-1763 

Seven Tears’ War. Prussia gains 
a high rank. 

Prague; Kollin; Rosbach; 
Lissa; Torgau. 

Marshal Dann; Frederick the 
Great. 

1775-1783 

American Revolutionary War. 

United States achieve their inde¬ 
pendence. 

Bunker Hill; Saratoga; 
Monmouth; Yorktown. 

C 

Washington; Greene; Bur* 
goyne; Cornwallis; Clinton; 
Howe; Lafayette; Gates; 
Montgomery. 

1792-1799 

French Revolution. Bourbons de¬ 
feated. 

Valmy; .Temappe; Wattig- 
nies; Lonato; Lodi; Ar¬ 
eola; Pyramids. 

Kellerman; Dumauriez; Jour- 
dan; Morcan; Hoche; Bona¬ 
parte. 

1800-1815 

Napoleonic Wars. France ad¬ 
vances to the first place in Europe. 

Marengo; Trafalgar; Aus- 
terlitz; Jena; Eylau; 
Friedland; Wagram; Bo¬ 
rodino ; Leipsic; Ligny; 
Waterloo. 

Napoleon; Wellington; Nelson; 
Blucher; Alexander I.; 

Francis I.; Frederick Wil¬ 
liam III.; Ney. 

1812-1815 

War of 1812. United States en¬ 
tirely independent of Great Brit¬ 
ain. 

Battles chiefly naval; New 
Orleans; Burning of 

Washington. 

Com. Perry; Admiral Cock- 
burn; Ross; Jackson. 

1821-1828 

War for Greek Independence. 

Greece independent of Turkey. 

Missolonghi; Navarino. 

AdmiralCanaris; Byron; Ibra¬ 
him Pasha. 

1846-1847 

Mexican War. Boundary between 
United States and Mexico estab¬ 
lished. 

Buena Vista; Cerro Gordo; 
Capture of Mexico City. 

Taylor; Scott; Santa Ana. 

1854-1856 

Crimean War. Independence of 
Turkey guaranteed. Peace of 
Paris. 

Alma; Balaklava; Inker- 
man; Malakoff. 

Lord Raglan; St. Armand; 
Prince Menchikoff; Gen. Can- 
robert. 

1859 

Italian War. Papal States and 
two Sicilies annexed to Italy. 

Magenta; Solferino. 

Napoleon III.; Victor Emman¬ 
uel; Franz Josef I. 

1861-1865 

American Civil W T ar. Abolition 
of slavery. 

First and Second Bull Run; 
Shiloh; Seven Days; An- 
tietam; Murfreesboro; 
Chancellors ville; Vicks¬ 
burg ; Gettysburg; Chick- 
amauga; Chattanooga; 
Virginia Campaign; At¬ 
lanta Campaign. 

McClellan; Grant; Sherman; 
Sheridan; Jackson; Thomas; 
Lee; Johnston; Meade. 

1866 

Seven Weeks’ War. Prussia de¬ 
feats Austria and unifies Germany. 

Langensalza; Koniggratz 
or Sadowa. 

Marshal Benedek; William I.; 
Benst. 

1870 

Franco-Prussian War. Paris 

taken and Alsace and Lorraine 
added to German Empire. 

Worth; Gravelotte; Sedan; 
Metz; Capture of Paris. 

William I.; Von Moltke; Fred¬ 
erick of Prussia; Prince Fred¬ 
erick Charles; Napoleon 
III.; MacMahon; Bazaine; 
Trochu. 

1877 

Russo-Turkish War. Rumania, 
Servia, Montenegro, independent 
of Turkey. Treaty of San Stefano, 
Berlin. 

Plevna; Shipka Pass; Kars. 

% 

Good Duke Nicholas; Gourko; 
Skobeloff; Todleben; Osman 
Pasha; Muktar Pasha. 

1894-1895 

Chinese-Japanese War. Indem¬ 
nity to Japan; independence of 
Korea. 

Occupation of Korea by 
Japanese; Port Arthur; 
WeiHaiWei; Nieuchang. 

Oyama; Prince Arisugawa; 
Prince Komatsu. 

1898 

Spanish-American War. End of 
Spanish rule in America; Cuba, 
Porto Rico, and Philippines pass 
to United States. 

Manila Bay; Santiago; San 
Juan; El Caney. 

Admirals Dewey, Schley, Samp¬ 
son, Montejo, Cervera; Gen¬ 
erals Shafter, Toral. 

1904-1905 

Russo-Japanese War. Mutual 
concessions, confirmed by treaty 
of Portsmouth. Japan a world 
power. 

Destruction of Russian 
fleet; Liao yang; Mukden; 
Siege of Port Arthur; 
Shako; Telissu; Wafang- 
kan; Yalu. 

Admiral Makaroff; Kuropatkin; 
Linievitch; Stoessel; Oyama; 
Kuroki; Admiral Togo; Ad¬ 
miral Kamimura; Admiral 
Rojestvensky; Nogi; Oku; 
Admiral Uriu. 














140 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Ohio. The French made the first explora¬ 
tions in what is now Ohio, La Salle’s discoveries 
dating from about 1680. The English, whose 
patents covered a portion of the region which 
the French traders aimed to monopolize, came 
in hostile contact with the latter. It was in 
this connection that Washington’s name first 
became notable through the Braddock Expedi¬ 
tion. In 1763 Canada and the whole region 
West to the Mississippi previously claimed by 
France were surrendered to Great Britain. 
After the Revolutionary War, the United States 
assumed control over the region afterward 
known as the Northwest Territory, acknowledg¬ 
ing the claim made by Virginia to 3,709,848 
acres near the rapids of the Ohio, and a similar 
claim by Connecticut to 3,666,621 acres near 
Lake Erie, which became known as the “ Western 
Reserve.” These claims were admitted in the 
sense of ownership, but in no way as question of 
State jurisdiction. The first permanent settle¬ 
ment was made at Marietta, in 1788. The 
early years of the Northwest Territory were 
harrassed by Indian warfare, which did not 
cease till the crushing defeat inflicted on them by 
General Anthony Wayne in 1794. In 1799, the 
Northwest Territory was organized, and shortly 
afterward Ohio (the name being derived from the 
Indian signifying “beautiful river”) was formed 
into a separate territorial government. In 1803, 
the Territory was admitted as a State, the fourth 
under the Federal Constitution. The seat of 
government was in Chillicothe till 1810, in 
Zanesville till 1812, and in Chillicothe again till 
1816, after which the State capital was fixed at 
Columbus. In 1818, the first steamboat, the 
“ Walk on the Water,” was launched on Lake Erie. 
In 1836, the first western railroad was opened, 
from Toledo, Ohio, to Adrian, Michigan, with 
horse power at first and, in 1837, with steam 
power. The State began to be noted for wheat 
growing about 1840, and in 1863 her coal and 
iron mines began to be developed. Manufactur¬ 
ing became an important industry about 1865, 
and for a decade grew rapidly. The Standard 
Oil Company was formed in 1870, and during 
the. next two decades the State’s oil fields were 
rapidly developed. During the Civil War Ohio 
furnished one-eighth of the federal troops. 

Oklahoma. The history of Oklahoma 
before it was constructed into a separate Terri¬ 
tory is identical with that of the region of 
which Texas and New Mexico formed a part. 
When Indian Territory was created as a home 
for all the Indian tribes most of what is now 
Oklahoma was within its bounds. Some time 
in the early seventies the name first appeared in 
political history, the occasion being a bill intro¬ 
duced into Congress to create a Territory out 
of part of Indian Territory, to be known as 
Oklahoma. The measure failed of passage and 
for more than a decade nothing was heard of the 
country. It was not forgotten, however, as in 
March, 1889, an amendment was tacked on to 
the Indian Appropriation Bill providing for the 
opening to homestead settlers of the little area 
of land embracing less than 3,000,000 acres and 
lying m the center of what is now the great 
State. Ihe land was opened in April, 1889, and 
the first rush of Oklahoma “boomers” took 


place. In June, 1890, the territorial govern¬ 
ment first came into existence, and by the act 
which brought this about a strip of land known 
as “No Man’s Land,” consisting of 3,681,000 
acres, was added as Beaver County. Other sec¬ 
tions were added from time to time until the 
Territory contained 24,933,120 acres. In 1906, 
Congress provided an enabling act whereby 
Oklahoma and Indian Territory might be created 
into a State and admitted into the Union. On 
November 16, 1907, the conditions of this act 
having been complied with, the President of the 
United States signed the Constitution of Okla¬ 
homa, and issued a proclamation announcing its 
admission. The first State legislature con¬ 
vened December 2, 1907. 

Oregon. The original region named Ore¬ 
gon was the whole province claimed by the 
United States on the Pacific Coast, extending 
from latitude 42° to 54° 40' north. Until 1846 
joint possession was held by Great Britain and 
the United States, and then the latter, by the 
northwest boundary treaty, abandoned all 
claim to the country north of the 49th parallel, 
and the name Oregon was restricted to the region 
south of that line, which was given up by Great 
Britain. The first accurate knowledge of the 
territory was brought back by Captain Robert 
Gray, an American navigator, who entered the 
mouth of the Columbia River in 1792, and gave 
the name of his ship to it. The sale of Louisiana 
to the United States, in 1803, endowed this 
country with a title of ownership, and the expe¬ 
dition of Lewis and Clark, in 1804-1806, 
strengthened the claim. Though a trading-post 
was established in 1811, by the Pacific Fur 
Company, under the Astor regime, at the mouth 
of the Columbia River, the region was largely 
inhabited by Indians and the employes of the 
Hudson Bay Fur Company until the active 
emigration of Americans, between 1833 and 1850, 
introduced a new element. The territorial 
organization took place in 1848. In 1853, 
Washington Territory was instituted out of the 
region north of the Columbia River on the west 
and of the 46th parallel on the east. In 1858, 
Oregon was admitted as a State. A Lewis and 
Clark Centennial Celebration was held at Port¬ 
land in 1905. Suffrage was granted to women 
in 1912. 

Pennsylvania. Delaware River and Bay 
were first explored under the auspices of the 
Dutch East India Company, from 1604 to 1624, 
and military jurisdiction was established. Till 
1664 they continued in possession of both sides 
of the bay without much colonization, though 
a Swedish colony settled at Chester, on the west 
bank of the river, in 1638, where their industry 
and peacefulness prefigured the characteristics 
of the Quakers, who were to come later. Under 
a charter given by Charles II., in 1681, the region 
west of the Delaware was granted to William 
Penn, the Quaker, who colonized it and founded 
Philadelphia in 1682. Under this grant was 
included Delaware, and the whole region was 
ruled under the same proprietary until 1699, 
when a separate legislature, though not a sepa¬ 
rate governor, was allowed to this section of the 
province. This union lasted till 1776. The 
letter of the Penn charter included territory 



HISTORY 


141 


already covered in the vague grants made to the 
New England colonies Virginia and Maryland. 
All the boundary-lines, however, were easily 
settled, except that separating Pennsylvania 
and Maryland, which was not defined until the 
completion of the Mason and Dixon Survey, 
in 1767. The original Swedish immigrants 
readily coalesced with the Quaker colonists, 
and the remarkable thrift of the people, com¬ 
bined with their peaceful Indian policy, soon 
made Pennsylvania a flourishing region. Large 
additional bodies of immigrants, Scotch-Irish 
between 1715 and 1725, and Germans from 1730 
onward, rapidly swelled population and wealth. 
The government instituted by William Penn 
remained in force until 1776, when the province 
joined the other colonies in the fight for inde¬ 
pendence, and a provisional constitution was made 
by a convention presided over by Benjamin 
Franklin. Philadelphia was occupied by the 
British forces from September, 1777, to June, 
1778. All the earlier sessions of the Continental 
Congress were held in this city. The battle of 
Germantown was fought within the present 
chartered limits of the city in 1777. From 1790 
to 1800 it was the seat of the Government of the 
United States. In 1790, a new State constitu¬ 
tion was formed. In 1794 occurred the disturb¬ 
ance known as the “ Whiskey Rebellion ” in the 
western part of the State, growing out of oppo¬ 
sition to the excise laws. In 1799, the seat of 
the State government was removed to Lancaster, 
and thence in 1812 to Harrisburg, which still 
remains the capital. In 1862, during the late 
Civil War, the State was threatened with inva¬ 
sion by the Confederates, but the tide of attack 
then stopped with invading Maryland. In 1863 
General Lee carried out his interrupted purpose, 
and overran the south portion of the State to 
within a short distance of Harrisburg. On his 
retreat General Meade joined battle with him 
at Gettysburg, near the Maryland line. The 
battle, beginning July 1st, lasted three days, 
resulting in the Confederate defeat. This Fed¬ 
eral victory was probably the important turning- 
point of the war. As the seventh in the geo¬ 
graphical order of the original States, Pennsyl¬ 
vania has become historically the “Keystone” 
State. Disastrous riots occurred about Pitts¬ 
burg and elsewhere in 1877 and 1892. In 1908, 
the famous “State House Cases” were brought 
to trial, as the result of an alleged $5,000,000 
steal by the contractors of the new State capitol, 
at Harrisburg, and their accomplices. 

Persia. The original country of the Per¬ 
sians occupied a small portion of modern Persia 
on the north of the Persian Gulf. After being 
under the Assyrians, and next under the Medes, 
Cyrus (B. C. 559-529), by conquering and unit¬ 
ing Media, Babylonia, Lydia, and all Asia Minor, 
became the founder of the Persian Empire. The 
empire was further extended by his son and 
successor, Cambyses (B. C. 529-522), who con¬ 
quered Tyre, Cyprus, and Egypt; and by 
Darius I., who subdued Thrace and Macedonia, 
and a small part of India. His son Xerxes 
(486-465 B. C.) reduced Egypt, which had 
revolted under his father, and also continued 
the war against the European Greeks, but 
was defeated at Thermopylae and at Salamis 


(480 B. C.), and obliged to defend himself 
against their attacks in a disastrous war. Artax- 
erxes I. (465-425 B. C.) had a long and com¬ 
paratively peaceful reign. Artaxerxes was fol¬ 
lowed by Darius II. or Darius Nothus, Artax¬ 
erxes II. (Mnemon), Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), 
and Darius III. (Codomannus, 338-330 B. C.), 
the last of this dynasty, known as the Achae- 
menian Dynasty. He was defeated by Alex¬ 
ander the Great in three battles, lost his life, 
and the empire passed into the hands of his 
conqueror. On the dissolution of the Mace¬ 
donian Empire, after the death of Alexander 
(323), Persia ultimately fell to his general, 
Seleucus and his successors, the Seleucidse (312). 
They reigned over it till 236 B. C., when the last 
Seleucus was defeated and taken prisoner by 
Arsaces I., the founder of the dynasty of the 
Arsacidse and of the Parthian Empire, of which 
Persia formed a portion, and which lasted till 
226 A. D. The supremacy was then recovered 
by Persia in the person of Ardishfr Babigan 
(Artaxerxes), who obtained the sovereignty of 
all Central Asia, and left it to his descendants, 
the Sassanidse, so called from Sassan, the grand¬ 
father of Ardishfr. This dynasty continued to 
reign for about 417 years, under twenty-six 
sovereigns. The reign of Sapor II., called the 
Great (310-381), and that of Chosroes I. (Khos- 
ru, 531-579), were perhaps the most notable of 
the whole dynasty. The latter extended the 
Persian Empire from the Mediterranean to the 
Indus, from the Jaxartes to Arabia and the con¬ 
fines of Egypt. He waged successful wars with 
the Indians, Turks, Romans, and Arabs. Chos¬ 
roes II. (591-628) made extensive conquests, 
but lost them again in the middle of the reign 
of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. His son, 
Ardishfr (Artaxerxes) III., but seven years old, 
succeeded him, but was murdered a few days 
after his accession. He was the last descendant 
of the Sanssaidse in the male line. Numerous 
revolutions now followed, until Yezdigerd III., 
a nephew of Chosroes II., ascended the throne 
in 632, at the age of sixteen. He was attacked 
and defeated by Caliph Omar in 639-636, and 
Persia became for more than 150 years a prov¬ 
ince of the Mohammedan Empire. The Arab 
conquest had a profound influence on Persian 
life as well as on the language and religion. 
The old Persian religion was given up in favor 
of Mohammedanism, only the Guebres, or 
Parsees, adhering to the faith of their fathers. 
About the beginning of the Ninth Century the 
Persian territories began to be broken up into 
numerous petty states. The Seljuks, a Turkish 
Dynasty, who first became powerful about 1037, 
extended its dominions over several Persian 
provinces, and Malek-Shah, the most powerful 
of them, conquered also Georgia, Syria, and 
Asia Minor. Through Genghis Khan the Tartars 
and Mongols became dominant in Persia about 
1220, and they preserved this ascendency till the 
beginning of the Fifteenth Century. Then ap- 
eared (1387) Timurlenk (Tamerlane) at the 
ead of a new horde of Mongols, who conquered 
Persia and filled the world from Hindustan to 
the extremities of Asia Minor with terror. But 
the death of this famous conqueror in 1405 was 
followed not long after by the downfall of the 



142 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Mongol dominion in Persia, where the Turko¬ 
mans thenceforward remained masters for 100 
years. The Turkomans were succeeded by the 
Sufi Dynasty (1501-1736). The first sovereign 
of this dynasty, Ismail Sufi,, pretended to be 
descended from Ali, the son-in-law of Moham¬ 
med. He assumed the title of shah, and intro¬ 
duced the sect of Ali (the Shiite or Shiah sect). 
The great Shah Abbas (1587-1628) introduced 
absolute power, and made Ispahan his capital. 
Under Shah Soliman (1666-94) the empire 
declined, and entirely sunk under his son Hus¬ 
sein. A period of revolts and anarchy followed 
until Kuli Khan ascended the throne in 1736 as 
Nadir Shah, and restored Persia to her former 
importance by successful wars and a strong 
government. In 1747 Nadir was murdered by 
the commanders of his guards, and his death 
threw the empire again into confusion. Kerim 
Khan, who had served under Nadir, succeeded, 
after a long period of anarchy, in making him¬ 
self master of the whole of Western Iran or 
modern Persia. He died in 1779. New dis¬ 
turbances arose after his death, and continued 
till a eunuch, Aga Mohammed, a Turkoman 
belonging to the noblest family of the tribe of 
the Kajars, and a man of uncommon qualities, 
seated himself on the throne, which he left to 
his nephew, Baba Khan. The latter began to 
reign in 1796 under the name of Futteh Ali Shah, 
and fixed his residence at Teheran. This mon¬ 
arch's reign was in great part taken up with 
disastrous wars with Russia and Turkey. In 
1813 he was compelled to cede to Russia all his 
possessions to the north of Armenia, and in 
1828 his share of Armenia. Futteh Ali died in 
1834, leaving the crown to his grandson, Me- 
hemet Shah. He died in 1848, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son, Nasr-ed-Din, born 1829. He 
had to suppress a number of insurrections, and 
in 1851 a serious rebellion of the pure Persian 
party in Khorassan, who refused obedience to 
the Kajar Dynasty on religious grounds. In 
May, 1852, he annexed the Sultanate of Herat, 
but was compelled to relinquish it by the Brit¬ 
ish, and a second occupation in 1855 resulted 
in the landing of a British force on the Per¬ 
sian Gulf, the capture of Bushire, and the 
Peace of Paris (March 3, 1857). Persia has 
since come into the possession of portions 
of territory formerly belonging to Oman, 
Afghanistan, and Beluchistan. On the north¬ 
east the boundary between Persia and the 
Russian territory beyond the Caspian, after re¬ 
maining long uncertain, was settled in the end 
of 1881, the lower course of the river Atrek, 
and farther east certain mountain- ridges north 
of that river, forming the new boundary. Shah 
Nassr-ed-Din visited Europe thrice, and his 
successor, Muzaffer-ed-Din, in 1905. Upon the 
death of the latter he was succeeded in January, 
1907, by Mahommed Ali, who, after an attempt 
to overcome the constitution granted by his 
father, abdicated in 1909 in favor of Ahmed 
Mirza. 

Philippine War. When the Philippines 
were taken by the United States an insurgent 
army was operating against Spain. After assist¬ 
ing the United States troops, Aguinaldo turned 
upon them, desiring absolute freedom of control. 


February 4, 1899, Aguinaldo's army of Filipinos 
made a night attack near Manila. Although the 
insurgents were driven back with great loss, the 
Americans lost forty-nine soldiers, and 148 were 
wounded. Admiral Dewey's ships could not 
begin their firing until daylight, their second 
Sunday morning engagement in Eastern waters. 
Then they did effective work in shelling the 
trenches of the insurgent army. About 13,000 
men of the Eighth Army Corps, under Major- 
General E. S. Otis, participated in this initial 
fight of the new conflict in the Philippines. 
From this time on with general success the 
Americans gained ground, though slowly. April 
26th the insurgents, using artillery for the first 
time, were defeated by Colonel Funston, who 
captured many prisoners. May 23d, _ Lawton, 
under orders of General McArthur, arrived with 
his command at Malolos, having marched 120 
miles in twenty days; had twenty-two fights, 
captured twenty-eight towns, destroyed 300,000 
bushels of rice, killed 400 insurgents, wounded 
double that number, and lost only six men 
killed and wounded. July 30th, near Calamba, 
an American detachment suffered a loss of seven 
killed and twenty-three wounded. In August a 
treaty-like arrangement was made with the Sultan 
of the Sulu Islands; a part of the agreement 
provides for the United States continuing the 
ension of $4,000 per annum formerly paid by 
pain; the United States flag to be paramount, 
and the Sultan to repress piracy, being among 
the stipulations. In this month, also, Agui¬ 
naldo, the insurgent chief, was successful in 
eluding all efforts to capture him, until April, 
1901, when he was secured by means of a strata¬ 
gem by General Funston, of Kansas Volunteers; 
he was rewarded by being breveted Brigadier- 
General in the regular army. December 3, 1900, 
the gallant General Lawton was killed while 
assisting a wounded soldier. A series of desul¬ 
tory skirmishes have since occurred with the 
half-civilized natives, which could not be inter¬ 
preted as actual warfare. 

Portugal. The name Portugal is a cor¬ 
rupted form of that of the hill fort, Partus Cale, 
which stood on the south bank of the Douro, 
and is now one of the suburbs of Oporto (“the 
harbor"). The Carthaginians under Hamilcar 
subdued the region, and were followed by the 
Romans. In the Fifth Century A. D., Lusi¬ 
tania, like the rest of the peninsula, was overrun 
by the Visigoths, and in the Eighth Century was 
conquered by the Arabs. The warlike Fernando, 
King of Leon and Castile, in the course of 
marauding expeditions conquered and occupied 
the important city and stronghold of Coimbra, 
in 1064. His son, Alonso IV., seized his brother’s 
territory of Galicia, which included part of the 
north of Portugal. Meanwhile the long wars 
were attracting to the Christian courts and 
camps of Spain the flower of European chivalry. 
Two knights of the House of Burgundy, Counts 
Raymond and Henri, acquired the highest favor 
with Alonso. Count Raymond received, with 
the hand of the king’s daughter, the government 
of Galicia and Portugal, but after a terrible 
defeat near Lisbon, in 1095, he was deemed too 
weak to hold the outlying viceroyalty, which 
was given to Count Henri, the husband of 



HISTORY 


143 


Alonso’s natural daughter. Henri was made 
governor of the whole district between Minho 
and Tagus, and died in 1114. Alfonso I. de¬ 
feated a large Saracen army in the plain of 
Ourique, Alemtejo, in 1139, took the great 
stronghold of Santarem, and with the aid of a 
fleet of English, German, and Flemish crusaders 
carried Lisbon itself by siege in 1147. Before 
his death, in 1185, he had kindled the fire of 
patriotic loyalty in the nation, which his 
sword had extended to the Mediterranean Sea. 
The Burgundian Dynasty founded by him con¬ 
tinued to rule Portugal till 1580. The war 
with the Infidels was continued by Alfonso’s 
immediate successors, and Alfonso III. was 
called the Restorer, on account of his recon¬ 
quest of Algarve. His son, Dinis, the founder 
of the university at Lisbon, and a liberal pa¬ 
tron of learning, laid the foundation of the 
commercial greatness of Portugal in the next 
century. 

Henrique the Navigator gathered together 
voyagers and men of science and sent forth the 
various expeditions which explored the west 
coast of Africa, and discovered the Azores, 
Madeiras, Canaries, Cape Verde, and other 
islands. The prince bore the expense of these 
expeditions till a national interest was awakened 
in the West African trade. Maritime discovery 
and colonization continued during the reign of 
Alfonso V., and culminated during that of 
Joao II., one of the ablest of Portuguese mon- 
archs. In 1486-87 Bartholomeo-Diaz doubled 
the Cape of Good Hope, and sailed along the 
Kafir coast as far as the Great Fish River in 
two small vessels fitted out by Joao. In 1495 
Manoel succeeded Joao, and in his reign Vasco de 
Gama made his famous voyage to India, and 
Cabral discovered Brazil (1500). The great 
navigator Magalhaens was a Portuguese. The 
cradle of discovery and home of commerce, 
Portugal at this period attained its greatest 
intellectual eminence. Its plate and goldsmith’s 
work had great artistic value, its Burgundian 
Gothic style in architecture was noted for no¬ 
bility of proportion and richness of tracery, and, 
above all, its glory had been sung in the Lusiads 
of Camoens. 

When Joao III. ascended the throne in 1521, 
Portugal was one of the first kingdoms in Europe, 
and Lisbon one of the wealthiest cities; but in 
1536 the Inquisition was put in force against 
the Jews, and this was followed by the first 
admission of the Jesuits. Under their influence 
Joao’s grandson, Sebastian, a youth of fourteen 
years, started on a Quixotic expedition to 
Africa against the Infidels, which ended in the 
defeat of the Portuguese and the loss of their 
king at Alcazar, in 1578. Cardinal Henrique, 
Sebastian’s uncle, reigned only till 1580, and his 
death marks the extinction of the old Burgun¬ 
dian line. The nation clung to the hope that 
Sebastian was still alive in the hands of the 
Infidels and would return, but, meantime, num¬ 
erous aspirants were struggling for the throne, 
and eventually Philip II. of Spain annexed 
Portugal to his own dominions. Portugal was 
now worse ruled than ever, and was burdened 
with much of the expense and misery of the 
Spanish wars in Germany and the Netherlands. 


Moreover, as a penalty of its identification with 
Spain, it lost to the Dutch great part of its 
foreign possessions. But at last, after a shame¬ 
ful union of sixty years, Portugal regained its 
liberty by a conspiracy which placed Joao de 
Braganga, a descendant of the royal family, on 
the throne in 1640. After a war which lasted 
till 1668, Spain ceded all claims to Portugal by 
the Treaty of Lisbon. The Dutch also restored 
Brazil to the Portuguese, and in 1683 a com¬ 
mercial alliance was entered into with England; 
but nothing could bring back to Portugal her 
old prosperity. 

In the reign of Jos6 I. the minister Pombal 
effected certain reforms and procured the expul¬ 
sion of the Jesuits in 1759. But Portugal lapsed 
into maladministration during the reign of Maria 
Isabella (1777-89). In the war between France 
and Spain Jo&o VI. was ordered by Napoleon to 
seize the British merchandise in Portugal, and 
on his refusal was declared to have forfeited 
the throne. He solicited the protection of 
England, and, setting sail with his family, trans¬ 
ferred the seat of government to Rio de Janeiro 
in 1807. The French occupied Portugal, but 
were forced to withdraw on their defeat at 
Vimiera by the English and Portuguese allies, 
under Sir Arthur Wellesley, in 1808. Welling¬ 
ton’s defense of the triple lines of Torres Vedras 
against Marshal Massena (1810) completed the 
deliverance of Portugal from Napoleon’s tyranny. 
Joao continuing to reside in Brazil, a revolution 
took place at Lisbon in 1820, when, without 
bloodshed, a constitution was proclaimed in 
place of the old absolute monarchy. In 1821 
Joao returned, but was not allowed to land till 
he had ratified the acts of the Cortes. Adopting 
a liberal policy, he accepted the constitution, 
and in 1825 acknowledged the independence of 
Brazil, under his brother, Dom Pedro, retaining 
himself merely the imperial title. Joao was 
succeeded in 1826 by Pedro IV., who organized 
the state and then abdicated in favor of his 
daughter, Dona Maria de Gloria. In 1828, 
Miguel the “ absolutist,” uncle of Dona Maria, 
usurped the throne, and plunged Portugal into 
three years of anarchy. In 1832, Dom Pedro 
landed with a strong force (partly English) and 
after a feeble resistance Miguel capitulated. 
Pedro died in 1834, and Dona Maria, who had 
assumed royal authority, married Prince Ferdi¬ 
nand of Saxe-Coburg in 1836. The disorders of 
her reign were checked, but only for a time, by the 
armed intervention of the great powers in 1847. 
Maria died in 1853, and her son ascended the 
throne as Pedro V. On the death of the latter 
in 1861, his brother became king as Luis I. 

Under constitutional government, Portugal 
remained tranquil until recently. Some years 
ago, the country took an honorable part in the 
work of African exploration, and thereby se¬ 
cured valuable colonial possessions. In 1907, 
there were numerous riotous outbreaks in Por¬ 
tugal, which culminated in the assassination of 
King Carlos and the Crown Prince on Feb. 1, 1908. 

Manuel II. succeeded to the throne, but a 
revolution in 1910 turned the monarchy into a 
republic under the presidency of Theophile 
Braga. The young king sought refuge in 
England. 



144 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED 


Name 


1. George Washington, 

2. John Adams, . . 

3. Thomas Jefferson, 

4. James Madison, . 

5. James Monroe, 

6. John Quincy Adams 

7. Andrew Jackson, . 

8. Martin Van Buren, 

9. William H. Harrison 

10. John Tyler, . . 

11. James K. Polk, 

12. Zachary Taylor, , 

13. Millard Fillmore, 

14. Franklin Pierce, 

15. James Buchanan,. 

16. Abraham Lincoln, 

17. Andrew Johnson, 

18. Ulysses S. Grant, 

19. Rutherford B. Hayes 

20. James A. Garfield, 

21. Chester A. Arthur, 

22. Grover Cleveland, 

23. Benjamin Harrison, 

24. Grover Cleveland, 

25. William McKinley, 

26. Theodore Roosevelt 

27. William H. Taft, . 

28. Woodrow Wilson, 


BORN 

PARENTS 

Paternal 

A NCF.RTRY 

When 

Where 

Father 

Mother 


1732 

Bridge’s Creek, Va.,. . . . 

Augustine, . . . 

Mary Ball, .... 

English, . . 

1735 

Braintree, Mass.,. 

John, . 

Susanna Boylston, . 

English, . . 

1743 

Shadwell, Va.,. 

Peter,. 

Jane Randolph, . . 

Welsh, . . . 

1751 

Port Conway, Va., .... 

James, .... 

Nelly Conway, . . 

English, . . 

1758 

Westmoreland Co., Va., . . 

Spence, .... 

Eliza Jones, . . . 

Scotch, . . . 

1767 

Quincy, Mass., .. 

John,. 

Abigail Smith, . . 

English, . . 

1767 

Mecklenburg Co., N. C., . . 

Andrew, .... 

ElizabethHutchinson, 

Scotch-Irish, 

1782 

Kinderhook, N. Y., .... 

Abraham, . . . 

Maria Hoes, . . . 

Dutch, . . . 

1773 

Berkeley, Va.,. 

Benjamin, . . . 

Elizabeth Bassett, . 

English, . . 

1790 

Charles City Co., Va., . . . 

John,. 

Mary Armisted, . . 

English. . . 

1795 

Mecklenburg Co., N. C., . . 

Samuel. 

Jane Knox, .... 

Scotch-Irish, 

1784 

Orange Co., Va. 

Richard. 

Sarah Strother, . . 

English, . . 

1800 

Summer Hill, N. Y., . . . 

Nathaniel, . . . 

Phebe Millard, . . . 

English, . . 

1804 

Hillsborough, N. Ii., . . . 

Benjamin, . . . 

Anna Kindreck, . . 

English, . . 

1791 

Stony Batter, Pa., .... 

James. 

Elizabeth Speer, 

Scotch-Irish, 

1809 

Nolin Creek, Ky., .... 

Thomas, .... 

Nancy Hanks, . . 

English, . . 

1808 

Raleigh, N. C. 

Jacob, . 

Mary M’Donough, . 

English, . . 

1822 

Point Pleasant, Ohio, . . . 

Jesse Root, . . 

Harriet Simpson, . 

Scotch, . . . 

1822 

Delaware, Ohio,. 

Rutherford, . . 

Sophia Birchard, 

Scotch, . . . 

1831 

Orange, Ohio, ....;. 

Abram, .... 

Eliza Ballou, . . . 

English, . . 

1830 

Fairfield, Vt.,. 

William. 

Malvina Stone, . . 

Scotch-Irish, 

1837 

Caldwell, N. J„. 

Richard Falley, . 

Anna Neal, .... 

English, . . 

1833 

North Bend, Ohio, .... 

John Scott, . . 

Elizabeth Irwin, 

English, . . 

1837 

Caldwell, N. J. 

Richard Falley, . 

Anna Neal, .... 

English, . . 

1843 

Niles, Ohio,. 

William. 

Nancy C. Allison, . 

Scotch-Irish, 

1858 

New York City, N. Y., . . 

Theodore, . . . 

Martha Bullock, . . 

Dutch, . . . 

1857 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Alphonso, . . . 

Louise M. Torrey, . 

English, . . 

1856 

Staunton, Va.,. 

Joseph R., . . . 

Jessie Woodrow, . . 

Scotch-Irish, 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED 


Name 

Mar¬ 

ried 

Wife’s Name 

1. George Washington, 

2. John Adams,.... 

1759 

1764 

Mrs. Martha Custis,. 

Abigail Smith, . 

3. Thomas Jefferson, . 

4. James Madison, . . 

5. James Monroe, . . . 

1772 

1794 

1786 

Mrs. Martha Skelton. 

Mrs. Dorothy Todd. . 

Eliza Kortwright. 

6. John Quincy Adams, 

1797 

Louisa C. Johnson. 

7. Andrew Jackson, . . 

1791 

Mrs. Rachel Robards,. 

8. Martin Van Buren, . 

1807 

Hannah Hoes (Goes), .... 

9. William H. Harrison, 

1795 

Anna Symmes,. 

10. John Tyler, . . . j 

1813. 

1844 

Letitia Christian,. 

Julia Gardiner,. 

11. James K. Polk, . . 

12. Zachary Taylor, . . 

1824 

1810 

Sarah Childress. 

Margaret Smith,. 

13. Millard Fillmore, . 

14. Franklin Pierce, . . 

1826 

1858 

1834 

Abigail Power,. 

Mrs. Caroline McIntosh,. . . . 
Jean Means Appleton, .... 

15. James Buchanan,. . 

.... 

Unmarried,.. 

16. Abraham Lincoln, . 

1842 

Mary Todd,. 

17. Andrew Johnson, . . 

18. Ulysses S. Grant, . . 

19. Rutherford B. Hayes, 

20. James A. Garfield, . 

1827 

1848 

1852 

1858 

Eliza McCardle,. 

Julia Dent,. 

Lucy Ware Webb,. 

Lucretia Rudolph,. 

21. Chester A. Arthur, . 

1859 

Ellen Lewis Herndon. 

22. Grover Cleveland, . 

23. Benjamin Harrison, -j 

24. Grover Cleveland, . 

25. William McKinley, . 

26. Theo. Roosevelt, . 1 

27. William H. Taft, . . 

28. Woodrow Wilson, . 

1886 

1853 

1896 

i87i 

1880 

1886 

1886 

1885 

Frances Folsom,. 

Caroline Lavinia Scott, .... 
Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick, . 

(See above),. 

Ida Saxton,. 

Alice Lee, . 

Edith Carow,. 

Helen Herron,. 

Helen Louise Axson,. 


CHILDREN 

Boys Girls 

Inaug¬ 

urated 

Residence When 
Elected 

Age 

When 

Inaug¬ 

urated 



1789 

Mt. Vernon, Va., . . 

57 

3 

2 

1797 

Quincy, Mass. 

62 


6 

1801 

Monticello, Va., . . 

58 



1809 

Montpelier, Va., . . 

58 


2 

1817 

Oakhill, Va., . . . 

59 

3 

1 

1825 

Quincy, Mass., . . . 

58 

3 


1829 

Hermitage, Tenn.,- . 

62 

4 


1837 

Kinderhook, N. Y., . 

55 

6 

4 

1841 

North Bend, O., . . 

68 

3 

4 

1 J 

1841 

Williamsburg, Va., . 

51 



1845 

Nashville, Tenn., . . 

50 

1 

3 

1849 

Baton Rouge, La., . 

65 

1 

* } 

1850 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

50 

3 


1853 

Concord, N. H., . . 

49 



1857 

Wheatland, Pa., . . 

66 

4 


1861 

Springfield, Ill., . . 

52 

3 

2 

1865 

Greenville, Tenn., 

57 

3 

1 

1869 

Washington, D. C., . 

47 

7 

1 

1877 

Fremont, Ohio,. . . 

54 

4 

1 

1881 

Mentor, Qhio, . . . 

49 

1 

1 

1881 

New York City, . . 

51 

2 

3 

1885 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

48 

1 

1 1 

1889 

Indianapolis, Ind., . 

' 55 



1893 

New York City, . . 

56 


O 

1897 

Canton, Ohio, . . . 

54 

4 

1 \ 

1901 

Oyster Bay, N. Y., . 

43 

2 

1 

1909 

Cincinnati, Ohio, . . 

51 


1 3 

1913 

Princeton, N. J., . . 

57 








































































































HISTORY 


145 


STATES —TABLE I 


Father’s 

Business 

Educational Advantage 

Early 

Vocation 

Poli¬ 

tics 

Profession 

Religious 

Connections 

Name 

Planter, , . 

Common School,. 

Surveyor, 

Fed., 

Planter, . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Washington. 

Farmer, . . 

Harvard College, 1755,. 

Teacher, 

Fed., 

Lawyer, . . 

Unitarian, . . . 

Adams. 

Planter, . . 

College of William and Mary, 1762, 

Lawyer, 

Rep. 

Lawyer, . . 

Liberal,. 

Jefferson. 

Planter, . . 

Princeton College, 1771,. 

Lawyer, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Madison. 

Planter, . . 

Entered College, William and Marv. 

Lawyer, 

Rep., 

Politician, . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Monroe. 

Lawyer, . . 

Harvard College, 1787,. 

Lawyer, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Unitarian, . . . 

Adams, J.Q. 

Farmer, . . 

Self Taught,. 

Lawyer, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Presbyterian, . . 

Jackson. 

Farmer, . . 

Academy,. 

Lawyer, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Reformed Dutch,. 

Van Buren. 

Statesman, . 

Entered Hampden-Sidney College, 

Medicine, 

Whig, 

Army, . . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Harrison. 

Jurist, . . . 

College, William and Mary, 1806, . 

Lawyer, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Tyler. 

Farmer, . . 

University of North Carolina, . . 

Lawyer, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Presbyterian, . . 

Polk. 

Planter, . . 

Common School,. 

Soldier, 

Whig, 

Army, . . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Taylor. 

Farmer, . . 

Public School,. 

Tailor, 

Whig, 

Lawyer, . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Fillmore. 

Farmer, . . 

Bowdoin College, 1824,. 

Lawyer, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Pierce. 

Merchant, 

Dickinson College, 1809,. 

Lawyer, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Presbyterian, . . 

Buchanan. 

Farmer, . . 

Self Taught,. 

Farmer, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Liberal,. 

Lincoln. 

Sexton, . . 

Self Taught,. 

Tailor, 

Reo., 

Politician, . 

Liberal. 

Johnson. 

Farmer, . . 

West Point Militarv Academy, 1843, 

Tanner, 

Rep., 

Army, . . . 

Methodist,.... 

Grant. 

Merchant, 

Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842, . . . 

Lawyer, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Methodist,. . . . 

Hayes. 

Farmer, . . 

Williams College, 1856,. 

Teacher, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Disciples, .... 

Garfield. 

Clergyman, . 

Union College, 184S,. 

Teacher, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Episcopalian, . . 

Arthur. 

Clergyman, . 

Common School,. 

Teacher, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Presbyterian, . . 

Cleveland. 

Farmer, . . 

Miami University, Ohio, 1851, . . 

Lawyer, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Presbyterian, . . 

Harrison. 

Clergyman. . 

Common School,. 

Teacher, 

Dem., 

Lawyer, . . 

Presbyterian, . . 

Cleveland. 

Iron Manfr., 

Entered Allegheny College, . . . 

Lawyer, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . . 

Methodist,.... 

McKinley. 

Merchant, 

Harvard,. 

Publicist, 

Rep., 

Publicist, . . 

Reformed Dutch,. 

Roosevelt. 

Lawyer, . . 

Yale, 1878. 

Lawyer, 

Rep., 

Lawyer, . *. 

Unitarian, . . . 

Taft. 

Clergyman, . 

Princeton, 1879,. 

Lawyer, 

Dem., 

Teacher, . . 

Presbyterian, . . 

Wilson, 


STATES —TABLE II 


Served as 
President 

Died 

Age at 
Death 

Cause of Death 

Place of Death 

Place of Burial 

7 yr., 10 mo., 4 d. 

1799 

67 

Acute laryngitis, .... 

Mt. Vernon, Va., . . . 

Mt. Vernon, Va. 

4 yr. 

1826 

90 

Natural decline, .... 

Quincy, Mass., .... 

Unitarian Church, Quincy, 
Mass. 

8 yr. 

1826 

83 

Chronic diarrhoea. 

Monticello, Va., . . . 

Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va. 

8 yr. 

1836 

85 

Natural decline, .... 

Montpelier, Va. 

Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va. 

8 yr.,. 

1831 

73 

Natural decline. 

New York City, . . . 

Originally, 2d Avenue Ceme¬ 
tery, N. Y. Transferred, 
1858, to Hollywood Ceme¬ 
tery, Richmond, Va. 

4 yr. 

1848 

80 

Paralysis,. 

Hall of Congress, Wash¬ 
ington, D. C. 

Unitarian Church, Quincy, 
Mass. 

8 yr.,. 

1845 

78 

Dropsy, . 

Hermitage, near Nash¬ 
ville, Tenn., .... 

Hermitage, near Nashville, 
Tenn. 

4 vr.,. 

1862 

79 

Asthma, . 

Kinderhook, N. Y., . . 

Village Cemetery, Kinder¬ 
hook, N. Y. 

1 mo. 

1841 

68 

Pleurisy fever,. 

White House, Washing¬ 
ton, D. C.,. 

North Bend, Ohio. 

3 yr., 11 mo., . . 

1862 

72 

Bilious attacks, with bron¬ 
chitis, . 

Ballard House, Rich¬ 
mond, Va., . 

Hollywood, Richmond, Va. 

4 yr . 

1849 

53 

Chronic diarrhoea, .... 

Nashville, Tenn., . . . 

Nashville, Tenn. 

1 yr., 4 mo., 5 d., . 

1850 

65 

Cholera morbus and ty¬ 
phoid fever,. 

White House, Washing¬ 
ton, D. C.,. 

Near Louisville, Kentucky 
(Springfield). 

2 yr., 7 mo., 6 d., . 

1874 

74 

Paralysis. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y. 

4 yr.,. 

1869 

64 

Dropsy and inflammation 
of stomach,. 

Concord, N. H., ... 

Minot Cemetery, Concord, 
N. H. 

4 yr. 

1868 

77 

Rheumatic gout, .... 

Lancaster, Pa., .... 

Woodward Hill Cemetery, 
Lancaster, Pa. 

4 yr., 1 mo., lid., . 

1865 

56 

Assassinated by Booth, . 

Washington, D. C., . . 

Oak Ridge Cemetery, Spring- 
field, Ill. 

3 yr., 10 mo., 19 d., 

1875 

66 

Paralysis . 

Greenville, Tenn., . . . 

Greenville, Tenn. 

8 yr . 

1885 

63 

Cancer of the tongue, . . 

Mt. McGregor, N. Y., . 

Riverside, New York City. 

4 vr., . 

1893 

71 

Neuralgia of the heart, 

Fremont, Ohio, .... 

Fremont, Ohio. 

6V mo., . 

1881 

49 

Assassinated by Guiteau, 

Elberon, Long Branch, 
N. J., ...... . 

New York City, .... 

Lake View Cemetery, Cleve¬ 
land, Ohio. 

Rural Cemetery, Albany, N.Y. 

3 yr., 5£ mo., . . 

1886 

56 

Bright’s disease, culminat¬ 
ing in paralysis and apo¬ 
plexy, . 

Heart failure . 

8 yr. 

1908 

71 

Princeton, N. J., ... 

Princeton, N. J. 

4 yr. 

1901 

67 

Pneumonia, . 

Indianapolis, Ind., . . 

Crown Hill Cemetery, Indian¬ 
apolis, Ind. 

4 yr., 6 mo., 10 d., 

1901 

58 

Assassinated by Czolgosz, 

Buffalo, N. Y . 

Cemetery, Canton, Ohio. 

7 yr., 5 mo., 20 d., 



















































































































146 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Rhode Island. Supposed to be identical 
with the ancient Vinland of the Icelandic Sagas, 
historians credit the first discovery of Rhode 
Island to the Norsemen about 1000 A. D. The 
navigator Verrazzano visited Narragansett Bay 
and its shores in 1524. The State was settled 
at Providence in 1636, by Roger Williams and 
his companions, who had been banished from 
Massachusetts by religious intolerance. In 1638, 
the Island of Aquidneck, afterward called Rhode 
Island, was settled at Newport and Portsmouth. 
A third settlement was formed at Warwick in 
1643. The same year Roger Williams went to 
England and obtained a patent for the united 
government of the settlements. In 1663, this 
patent gave way to a charter by Charles II., 
incorporating the colony of Rhode Island and 
Providence Plantations, which remained in force 
for 180 years. The colony suffered severely in 
King Philip’s War, 1675-76, which resulted in 
the destruction of the Wampanoag and Narra¬ 
gansett tribes of Indians. In 1687, Sir Edmond 
Andros, who had been made Governor of New 


York, New England, etc., abrogated the charter, 
but it became again the ruling constitution after 
his recall. In the wars between France and 
England, Rhode Island furnished valuable aid 
by land and sea for the expeditions against 
Louisburg, Crown Point, Oswego, and Canada. 
In 1756, she had fifty privateers at sea. During 
the War of the Revolution the State supplied 
many ships and sailors for naval operations. 
Rhode Island was invaded by the British, and 
vain attempts were made for several years to 
drive them thence by Count d’Estaing’s fleet and 
General Sullivan’s army. The State was the 
last to accept the Federal Constitution, May 29, 
1790. Dorr’s insurrection occurred in 1842, an 
imbroglio growing out of the bigoted suffrage 
laws, an inheritance from colonial times. It 
was only in 1861 that the boundary line be¬ 
tween Rhode Island and Massachusetts was 
finally settled. In 1901, Massachusetts re¬ 
voked the edict of banishment against Roger 
Williams, which had stood for nearly three cen¬ 
turies. 


RULERS OF THE WORLD 


ROMAN EMPERORS 


Name 


Augustus, 

Tiberius, . 
Caligula, . 

Claudius, 

Nero, . . 

Galba, . . 

Otho, . . 
Vitellius, . 
Vespasian, 
Titus, . . 
Domitian, 


Nerva,. 

Trajan. 

Hadrian. 

Titus Antoninus Pius, 
Marcus Aurelius An¬ 
toninus, . 


Commodus, . . 
Pertinax, . . . 
Didius Julianus, 
Septimus Severus, 
Caracalla, . . . 
Macrinus, . . . 
Heliogabalus 
(Elagabalus), . 
Alexander Severus 
Maximin, . . . 
Pupienus and 
Balbinus, . . 
Gordian, .... 

Phillip. 

Decius. 

Gallus,. 

ACmilianus, . . . 
Valerian, . . . 
Gallienus, . . . 
Flavius Claudius, 
Aurelian, . . . 

Tacitus. 

Florian, .... 
Probus, .... 
Carus, ..... 


Lineage 

Period of Rule 

Birth 

Death 

THE CAESARS 

B.C. 

A. D. 

B. C. 

A. D. 

A title conferred by the Senate,. 

30 

A. D. 

14 

63 

14 

Stepson of Augustus,. 

Youngest son of Germanicus, nephew of Tibe- 

14 

37 

42 

37 

rius. 

37 

41 

12 

41 

Grandson of Tiberius,. 

41 

54 

10 

A. D. 

54 

Son of Domitius Ahenobarbus. 

54 

68 

37 

B. C. 

68 

Was proclaimed Emperor. 

68 

69 

3 

A. D. 

69 

Was proclaimed Emperor. 

69 


32 

69 

Was proclaimed Emperor,. 

69 

69 

15 

69 

Was proclaimed Emperor,. 

70 

79 

9 

79 

Son of Vespasian,. 

79 

81 

41 

81 

Second son of Vespasian. 

81 

96 

51 

96 

THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS 





Was proclaimed Emperor, ......... 

96 

98 

32 

98 

Adopted son of Nerva, .. 

98 

117 

53 

117 

Nephew of Trajan,. ' . . . 

117 

138 

76 

138 

Adopted son of Hadrian,. 

138 

161 

86 

161 

Nephew of Antoninus Pius. 

161 

180 

121 

180 

THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM 





Son of Marcus Aurelius. 

180 

193 

161 

192, Dec. 31 

Was proclaimed Emperor,. 

193 


126 

193 

Was proclaimed Emperor,. 

193 



193 

Was proclaimed Emperor,. 

193 

212? 

146 

211 

Son of Septinius Severus,. 

212 

217 

188 

217 

Was proclaimed Emperor,. 

217 

218 

164 

218 

First cousin of Caracalla,. 

218 

222 

205? 

222 

Cousin of Heliogabalus, by whom he was adopted, 

222 

235 

205 

235 

Was elevated by soldiers. 

235 

238 


238 

Appointed by the Senate,. 

238 

238 

, . 

5 238 

1 238 

Grandson of Gordianus I.,. 

238 

244 

224 

244 

Murdered Gordian and usurped the throne, . 

244 

249 


249 

Proclaimed Emperor by the army,. 

249 

251 

0 9 

251 

Was elected Emperor by Senate and soldiers, 

251 

254 


254 


254 


208? 

254? 

Son of Valerian,. 

254 

260 


269 

260 

268 


268 

Was designated by Claudius,. 

268 

270 

214 

270 

270 

275 

212 

275 

Proclaimed Emperor,. 

275 

276 

200 

276 

276 

277 

? 

Choice of the army,. 

277 

282 


282 

Elevated to throne.by soldiers,. 

282 

283 

222 

283 











































































HISTORY 


147 


ROMAN EMPERORS — Continued 


Name 


Lineage 

Period of Rule 

Birth 

Death 

Carinus and 

Numervian, . . 
Diocletian and 
Maximian, . . . 


Elder son of Carus.) 

Son of Carus,.) 

Was proclaimed Emperor by the army, . . ) 

Was made Caesar by Diocletian.) 

A. D. 

283 

284 

A. D. 

284 

305 

A. D. 

( . . 

? . . 
j 245 

A. D. 
285 

313 

310 

Constantius and 
Galerius, . . . 


Was created Caesar,. 

305 

306 

| 250 

306 

311 

Constantine the Great, 


Eldest son of Augustus Constantius Chlarus, . 

306 

336 

272 

337 

Constantius II., . . . 
Julian the Apostate, . 


Third son of Constantine the Great,. 

336 

361 

317 

361 


Son of Julius Constantine, .. 

361 

363 

331 

363 

Jovian,. 


Elevated to the throne by the army. 

ROMAN EMPERORS OF THE WEST 

363 

364 

332 

364 

Valentinian I. 


Proclaimed Emperor by the army. 

364 

375 

321 

375 

Gratian,. 


Son of Valentinian I. 

375 

383 

359 

383 

Maximinius, . . . . 


Made Emperor by the legions in Britain, 

383? 


? 

398 

Valentinian II. 


Son of Valentinian I.,. 

383? 

388 

371 

392 

Eugenius,. 


Assumed the purple. 

388 

394 


Theodosius the Great, 


Son of Flavius Theodosia,. 

394 

395 

346 

395 

Honorius,. 


Second son of Theodosius,. 

395 

423 

384 

423 

Valentinian III., . . 


Son of Constantius,. 

423 

455 

419 

455 

Maximus,. 


By force of arms,. 

455 


395? 

455 

Avitus. 


455 

457 


457 

Marjorian or Majarian, 

Was elected by Ricimer. 

457 

461 


f 

Severus. 


Raised to imperial dignity by Ricimer, .... 

461 

467 


465-7? 

Anthenius. 


Son-in-law of Emperor Marcian, . 

467 

472 


? 

Olybrius,. 


Made Emperor by Ricimer, . 

472 

473 


? 

Glycerus, . 


Proclaimed Emperor,. 

473 

, - 


? 

Nepos. 


Proclaimed Emperor by order of Leo, .... 

473 

475 


480 

Romulus Augustulus. 


Son of Orestes. 

Augustus is deposed and banished by Odoacer, 
who thus puts an end to the Western Empire 
of Rome. 

475 

476 


476 


KINGS, EMPERORS, AND PRESIDENTS OF FRANCE 


Period of Rule 

Birth 

Death 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

420 

428 



428 

448 



448 

457 

4ii? 

457 

458 

481 


481 

481 

511 

465 

511 

511 

558 

495 

558 


.... 

.... 

534 

558 

56i 

'497 

56i 

562 

584 

.... 

.... 

584 

628 

j 570 

1 584 

596 

628 

628 

638 

602 

638 

638 

665 

j 633 

1 652 

656 

679 

665 

673 

652? 

670? 

673 

691 

652? 

691 

691 

695 

681 

695 

695 

711 



711 

715 

699 

715 

715 

720 

? 

720 

720 

747 

712 

747 

747 

751 

? 

755 

751 

768 

714 

768 

768 

814 

742 

814 

814 

840 

778 

840 

843 

877 

823 

877 

877 

879 

846 

879 

879 

884 

863 

882 



? 

? 

884 

888 

839? 

888 

888 

898 

? 

898 

898 

922 

879 

929 

922 

936 

? 

? 

936 

954 

921 

954 

954 

986 

941 

986 

986 

987 

966 

987 


Name 


Pharamond, . 
Clodian, . . . 
Meroveus, . . 
Childeric, . . 
Clovis I., . . 

Childebert I.,. 
Thierry I., . . 
Clodomir and 
Clothaire I., „ 


Charibert,.1 

Grothan, ... . . I 

Chilperic I., . . . . I 

Sigebert,. J 

Childebert II., . . . / 

Clothaire II., ... \ 

Dagobert I.,. 

Clovis II. and | 

Dagobert II. j 

Clothaire III., .... 

Thierry II.,. 

Clovis III. 

Childebert III., . . . 
Dagobert III., .... 

Chilperic II.,. 

Thierry IV. 

Childeric III. 

Pepin the Little 

(or Short). 

Charlemagne, or Charles 

the Great,. 

Louis le Debonnaire, . 


Charles the Bald, . . . 

Louis II.,. 

Louis III., and 

Carloman. 

Charles the Fat, . . . 

Count Eudes. 

Charles the Simple, . . 
Raoul (Rudolf of Bur¬ 
gundy), . 

Louis IV.,. 

Lothaire,. 

Louis V. 


Lineage 


THE MEROVINGIANS 


Son of Pharamond (obscure), .... 
Founder of the Merovingian Dynasty, 
Son of Meroveus, King of the Franks, 

Son of Childeric. 

Son of Clovis,. 

Son of Clovis,. 

Son of Clovis,. 

Fourth son of Clovis,.* . 


Kingdom Divided into Four Parts: 

Reigns at Paris,. 

King of Orleans and Burgundy. 

King of Neustria at Soissons,. 

King of Austrasia at Metz,. 

Son of Sigebert I. of Austrasia,. 

Son of Chilperic I.. 

Son of Clothaire II., . 


The Young ” son of Dagobert I. 


Son of Clovis II., 
King of Neustria, 
King of Neustria, 
King of Neustria, 


Son of Dagobert III., . . . . 
Son of Childeric II. (obscure), 


THE CARLOVINGIANS 
Son of Charles Martel. 


Son of Pepin the Short,. 

Son of Charles the Great,. 

CARLOVINGIAN KINGS 
Younger son of Louis le Debonnaire, 

Son of Charles the Bald,. 

Sons of Louis II.,. 

Reigns two years, . .. 

Son of Louis the German,. 


Son of Louis the Stammerer, 


Son of Charles the Simple, 
Son of Louis IV., .... 
Son of Lothaire. 




















































































































148 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


KINGS, EMPERORS, AND PRESIDENTS OF FRANCE — Continued 


Name 


Louis 


Hugh Capet, . 
Robert II., . 
Henry I., . . 
Phillip I., . . 
Louis the Fat, 
Louis VII., 

Phillip Augustus, 
Louis VIII., 

Louis IX., or St 
Phillip the Bold, 
Phillip the Fair, 
Louis X., ... 
Phillip the Hardy. 
Charles the Fair, 


Phillip of Valois, . . . 
John the Good, . . . 
Charles the Wise, . . . 

Charles VI. 

Charles the Victorious, 

Louis XI.,. 

Charles VIII., . . . . 

Louis XII.,. 

Francis I.,. 

Henry II.,. 

Francis II.,. 

Charles IX.,. 

Henry III. 

Henry IV.,. 

Louis XIII.,. 

Louis XIV.,. 

Louis XV.,. 

Louis XVI. 


National Convention, 
Directory nominated, 


Bonaparte,. 
Cambaceres, 
Lebrun, . . 
Bonaparte,. 
Bonaparte,. 


Napoleon I., 
Napoleon II. 


Louis XVIII., 
Charles X., 


Louis Phillipe, . . 


Provisional Government 

formed,. 

Louis Napoleon, . . . 


Lineage 


Napoleon III., 


Committee of Public De 
fense,. 

L. A. Thiers, .... 
Marshal MacMahon 
Jules Grevy, .... 
Marie F. S. Carnot, . 
Jean Cassimir Perier, 
Felix Francois Faure, 

M. Emile Loubet, . . 
Armand Clement Fal 

litres,. 

Raymond Poincarg,, 


HOUSE OF CAPET 

Son of Hugh the Great,. 

Son of Hugh Capet,. 

Son of Robert II. 

Son of Henry I. 

Son of Phillip I. 

Son of Louis VI.,. 

Son of Louis VII.,. 

Son of Phillip Augustus. 

Son of Louis VIII.,. 

Son of Louis IX.*. 

Son of Phillip III.,. 

Son of Phillip IV.,. 

Second son of Phillip IV.,. 

Youngest son of Phillip the Fair. 

HOUSE OF VALOIS 

Son of Charles of Valois. 

Son of Phillip VI.,. 

Son of John II.,. 

Son of Charles V.,. 

Son of Charles VI.,. 

Son of Charles VII.,. 

Son of Louis XI.,. 

A descendant of the younger son of Charles V., 
Son of Charles, Count of Angouleme, .... 

Son of Francis I.,. 

Eldest son of Henry II., *. 

Second son of Henry II., . 

Third son of Henry II.,. 

HOUSE OF BOURBON 

Son of Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre, 

Son of Henry IV.,. 

Son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, . . . 

Great-grandson of Louis XIV.,. 

Grandson of Louis XV.,. 

FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1792 TO 
THE FIRST REPUBLIC 

First sat September 21, 1792, . 

November 1, 1795,. 


THE CONSULATE 
December 24, 1799,. 


Consul for ten years, May 6, 1802,. 
Consul for life, August 2, 1802. . . 


THE EMPIRE 

Decreed Emperor, May 18, 1804, 
Never reigned,. 


THE RESTORATION 

Brother of Louis XVI., reentered Paris May 3, 

1814.; 

Younger brother of Louis XVIII., deposed July 
30, 1830. 

HOUSE OF ORLEANS 

Son of Phillipe Egalite, abdicated February 24, 
1848. 

THE SECOND REPUBLIC 


Elected President,.) ’ 

THE SECOND EMPIRE 

Nephew of Napoleon I., elected Emperor. De¬ 
posed 1870,. 

THE THIRD REPUBLIC 


Elected 

Elected 

Elected 

Elected 

Elected 

Elected 

Elected 


President,. 
President,. 
President,. 
President,. 
President,. 
President,, 
President,. 


Elected President,. 
Elected President,. 


Period of Rule 

Birth 

Death 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

987 

996 

? 

996 

996 

1031 

971 

1031 

1031 

1060 

1011? 

1060 

1060 

1108 

1052 

1108 

1108 

1137 

1078 

1137 

1137 

1180 

1120 

1180 

1180 

1223 

1165 

1223 

1223 

1226 

1187 

1226 

1226 

1270 

1215 

1270 

1270 

1285 

1245 

1285 

1285 

1314 

1268 

1314 

1314 

1316 

1239 

1316 

1316 

1321 

1294 

1322 

1321 

1328 

1294 

1328 

1328 

1350 

1293 

1350 

1350 

1364 

1319? 

1364 

1364 

1380 

1337 

1380 

1380 

1422 

1368 

1422 

1422 

1461 

1403 

1461 

1461 

1483 

1423 

1483 

1483 

1498 

1470 

1498 

1498 

1515 

1462 

1515 

1515 

1547 

1494 

1547 

1547 

1559 

1519 

1559 

1559 

1560 

1543 

1560 

1560 

1574 

1550 

1574 

1574 

1589 

1551 

1589 

1589 

1610 

1553 

1610 

1610 

1643 

1601 

1643 

1643 

1715 

1638 

1715 

1715 

1774 

1710 

1774 

1774 

1793 

1754 

1793 

1792 

1795 



1795 

1799 





( 1769 

1821 

1799 

1804 

•< 1753 

1824 



( 1739 

1824 


1804 


1814 

1824 

1830 

Feb.22, 
1848 
1848 

1852 


1870 

1871 
1873 
1879 
1887 

1894 

1895 
1899 

1906 

1913 


1814 


1824 

1830 

1848 

Dec. 19, 
1848 
1852 

1870 


1871 

1873 

1879 

1887 

1894 

1895 
1899 
1906 

1913 


1811 

1755 

1757 

1773 

1808 

1808 


1797 

1808 

1807 

1837 
1847 
1841 

1838 

1841 

1860 


1832 

1824 

1836 

1850 

1873 

1873 


1877 

1893 
1891 

1894 
? 

1899 

















































































































HISTORY 


149 


SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA 


Name 

Lineage 

Period of Rule 

Birth 

Death 


HOUSE OF RURIC 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

Ivan the Great,. . . . 

Grand Duke of Moscow,.. 

1462 

1505 

1438 

1505 

Vasily IV. 

Son of Ivan the Great,. 

1505 

1533 

? 

? 

Ivan the Terrible,. . . 

Son of Vasily IV., . 

1533 

1584 

1529 

1584 

Feodor I. 

Son of Ivan the Terrible,. 

1584 

1598 

1557 

1598 

Boris Godonof, .... 

Was elected to the throne. 

1598 

1604 

1552 

1605 

Demetrius,. 

Usurped the throne, . 

1604 

1606 


1606 

Zuiski (Vasily IV.), . . 


1606 

1610 



An Interregnum, . . . 


1610 

1613 

.... 

.... 


HOUSE OF ROMANOFF 





Michael Romanoff, . . 

Unanimously elected Czar. 

1613 

1645 

1598 

1645 

Alexis,. 

Son of Michael Feodorovitch. 

1645 

1676 

1629 

1676 

Feodor II.,. 

Eldest son of Emperor Alexis,. 

1676 

1682 

1656 

1682 

Ivan V., and I 

Half-brother of Peter the Great, in whose favor 1 




1696 

Peter,.f 

he resigned, ..f 

1682 

1689 

| 1666 


Peter the Great, . . . 

Son of Alexis. 

1689 

1725 

i672 

i725 

Catharine I.,. 

Was married to Peter the Great in 1707, . . . 

1725 

1727 

1679? 

1727 

Peter II.,. 

Grandson of Peter the Great,. 

1727 

1730 

1715 

1730 

Anna,. 

Daughter of Ivan V.,. 

1730 

1740 

1693 

1740 

Ivan VI.,. 

Son of Antoin Ulrich Leopoldovina and Anna, 

1740 

1741 

1740 

1764 

Elizabeth,. 

Daughter of Peter the Great,. 

1741 

1762 

1709 

1762 

Peter III.,. 

Son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein, . 

1762 


1728 

1762 

Catharine II., . . . . 

Wife of Peter III.,. 

1762 

1796 

1729 

1796 

Paul,. 

Son of Peter III.,. 

1796 

1801 

1754 

1801 

Alexander I. 

Son of Paul,. 

1801 

1825 

1777 

1825 

Nicholas,. 

Third son of Paul I.. 

1825 

1855 

1796 

1855 

Alexander II. 

Son of Nicholas I.,. 

1855 

1881 

1818 

1881 

Alexander III., .... 

Son of Alexander II.,. 

1881 

1894 

1845 

1894 

Nicholas II.,. 

Son of Alexander III.,. 

1894 


1868 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY 


Name 

Lineage 

Period of Rule 

Birth 

Death 


CARLOVINGIAN EMPERORS 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

Louis, “The German” 
and Lothaire, .... 

Son of the Emperor Louis I. He is regarded as 
the founder of the German Empire, .... 

843 

855 

804 

876 

Louis II. 

Son of the Emperor Lothaire I.,. 

855 

875 

795 

822 

855 

875 

Charles the Fat, ... 

Son of Louis, the German,. 

875 

887 

839 

888 

Arnolph. 

Illegitimate son of Karlmann,. 

887 

898 

850 

899 

Louis the Child, . . . 

Son of the Emperor Arnolph,. 

898 

911 

893 

911 

Conrad I. 

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA 

Duke of Franconia. 

911 

919 

? 

Dec., 918 

Henry the Fowler, . . . 

HOUSE OF SAXONY 

Son of the King of Saxony, . 

919 

936 

876 

936 

Otho the Great. 

Son of Henry I.,. 

936 

973 

912 

973 

Otho II. 

Son of Otho I.,. 

973 

983 

955 

983 

Otho III.. 

Son of Otho II.,. 

983 

1002 

980 

1002 

Henry the Saint, . . . 

Son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, . . 

1002 

1024 

972 

1024 

Conrad II.,. 

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA 

Was crowned Emperor. 

1024 

1039 

? 

1039 

Henry III.,. 

Son of Conrad II.,. 

1039 

1056 

1017 

1056 

Henry IV.,.". 

Son of Henry III.,.. 

1056 

1106 

1050 

1106 

Henry V.,. 

Son of Henry IV. 

1106 

1125 

1081 

1125 

Lothaire II.,. 

HOUSE OF SAXONY 

Was elected King and crowned by the Pope, . 

1125 

1138 

? 

Dec., 1137 

Conrad III.,. 

THE HOHENSTAUFFENS 

Elected in an irregular manner. 

1138 

1152 

1093 

1152 

Frederick Barbarossa, . 

Nephew of Conrad III.,. 

1152 

1190 

? 

1189 

Henry VI.,. 

Son of Frederick Barbarossa,. 

1190 

1197 

1165 

1197 

Otho IV. and ( 

Phillip Swabia, . . ( 

Second son of Henry the Lion,.( 

Youngest son of Frederick Barbarossa, ... ) 

1197 

1208 

( 1174 
l 1177 

1218 

1208 

Frederick II.,. 

Son of Henry VI.,. 

1218 

1250 

1194 

1250 

An Interregnum, . . . 

1250 

1273 

. . . 

. . . 

Rudolph of Habsburg, . 

HOUSE OF HABSBURG 

Son of Albert IV. 

1273 

1291 

1218 

1291 

Adolph,. 

HOUSE OF NASSAU 

Elected. 

1291 

1298 

1252 

1298 

Albert,. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA 

Eldest son of Rudolph I.,. 

1298 

1308 

1250 

1308 

Henry VII.,. 

HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG 

Son of the Count of Luxemburg,. 

1308 

1313 

1262 

1313 







































































































150 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


EMPERORS OF GERMANY — Continued 


Name 

Lineage 

Period of Rule 

Birth 

Death 


HOUSE OF BAVARIA 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

Louis V. or IV. 

Son of the Duke of Bavaria. 

HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG 

1313 

1347 

1286 

1347 


Son of John of Luxemburg. 

1347 

1378 

1316 

1378 

Wenceslaus. 

Son of the Emperor Charles IV. 

HOUSE OF PALATINATE 

1378 

1400 

1361 

1419 

Rupert,. 

Was chosen King,. 

HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG 

1400 

1410 

1352 

1410 

Sigismund. 

Son of Charles IV... 

HOUSE OF HABSBURG 

1410 

1438 

1361 

1438 

Albert. 

Frederick III., .... 

Third son of Frederick I. 

1438 

1440 

1414 

1486 

Was elected Emperor,. 

1440 

1493 

1415 

1493 

Maximilian,. 

Son of Frederick III.,. 

1493 

1519 

1459 

1519 

Charles V.,. 

Son of Phillip of Burgundy,. 

1519 

1556 

1500 

1558 

Ferdinand I.,. 

Younger brother of Charles V.,. 

1556 

1564 

1503 

1564 

Maximilian II., .... 

Son of Ferdinand I.,. 

1564 

1576 

1527 

1576 

Rudolph II. 

Son of the Emperor Maximilian II. 

1576 

1612 

1552 

1612 

Mathias,. 

Younger son of Maximilian II.,. 

1612 

1619 

1557 

1619 

Ferdinand II., . . . . 

Son of Charles, Duke of Styria,. 

1619 

1637 

1578 

1637 

Ferdinand III., .... 

Son of Ferdinand II.,. 

Second son of Ferdinand III.,. 

1637 

1657 

1608 

1657 

Leopold I.,. 

1657 

1705 

1640 

1705 

Joseph I.,. 

Son of Leopold I.,. 

Son of Leopold I.,. 

HOUSE OF BAVARIA 

1705 

1711 

1678 

1711 

Charles VI.. 

1711 

1741 

1685 

1740 

Charles VII. 

Son of Maximilian Emmanuel,. 

HOUSE OF LORRAINE 

1741 

1745 

1697 

1745 

Francis I.,. 

Son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine. 

1745 

1765 

1708 

1765 

Joseph II.,. 

Son of Francis I.,. 

1765 

1790 

1741 

1790 

Leopold II., . . . . 

Third son of Francis I. 

1790 

1792 

1747 

1792 

Francis II.,. 

Son of Leopold II.,. 

1792 

1806 

1768 

1835 


THE CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE 

1806 

1815 

.... 

.... 


THE GERMANIC CONFEDERATION 

1815 

1866 


.... 


THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION 

THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN 

1866 

1871 


.... 

William the Victorious, 

Second son of Frederick William III., . . . 

1871 

1888 

1797 

1888 

William II.,* . . . . 

Son of Frederick III. and Grandson of William I., 

1888 


1859 



KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND 


Name 

Lineage 

Period of Reign 

Birth 

Death 

Egbert,. 

ANGLO-SAXON KINGS 

First King of all England. 

A. D. 
827 

A. D. 
837 

A. D. 
775? 

A. D. 

837 

Ethelwulf. 

Son of Egbert,. 

838 

857 


858 

5 Ethelbald, . . . 

Son of Ethelwulf, .. 

857 

860 


860? 

(Ethclbert, . . . 

Second son of Ethelwulf, „. 

860 

866 


866? 

Ethelred I. 

Third son of Ethelwulf, ... 

866 

871 


871 

Alfred the Great, . . . 

Fourth son of Ethelwulf, .. 

871 

901 

849 

901 

Edward the Elder, . . 

Son of Alfred,.... 

901 

924 

870? 

924 

Athelstan,. 

Eldest son of Edward, . ......... 

925 

940 

895? 

941 

Edmund I., ..... 

Brother of Athelstan,. 

940 

946 

923 

946 or 8 

Edred,. 

Brother of Edmund L,. 

946 

955 

955? 

Edwy. 

Son of Edmund I. 

955 

959 

939? 

959 

Edgar. 

Second son of Edmund I., . 

959 

975 

943? 

975 

Edward the Martyr . . 

Son of Edgar,... 

975 

978 

961? 

978 

Ethelred II.,. 

Half-brother of Edward.. 

978 

1016 

1016 

Edmund Ironside,. . . 

Eldest son of Ethelred. 

1016 

1017 

989 

1017 

Canute. 

DANISH KINGS 

By conquest and election,. 

1017 

1035 

995 

1035 

Harold I. (Harefoot). . 

Son of Canute,. 

1035 

1040 

1040 

Hardicanute. 

Another son of Canute,.. 

1040 

1042 

ioi9 

1042 

Edward the Confessor, . 

SAXON KINGS 

Son of Ethelred II.,. 

1041 

1066 

1004 

1066 

Harold II. 

Brother-in-law of Edward. 

1066 

1022 

1066 

William I.,. 

William II. 

NORMAN KINGS 

Obtained the Crown by conquest,. 

1066 

1087 

1027 

1087 

Third son of William I.,. 

1087 

1100 

1056 

1100 

Henry I.,. 

Youngest son of William I.,. 

1100 

1135 

1068 

1135 

Stephen,. 

Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois, .... 

1135 

1154 

1105 

1154 

Henry II. 

THE PLANTAGENETS 

Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, .. 

1154 

1189 

1133 

1189 


‘Frederick III., sod of William I., was emperor from March 9 to June 15, 1888. 





























































































































HISTORY 


151 


KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND — Continued 


Name 

Lineage 

Period of Reign 

Birth 

Death 

Richard I. the Lion- 


A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

A. D. 

hearted, . 

Eldest surviving son of Henry II., .... 

1189 

1199 

1157 

1199 

John, . 

Youngest son of Henry II.,. 

1199 

1216 

1166 

1216 

Henry III.,.. 

Eldest son of John,. 

1216 

1272 

1207 

1272 

Edward I.. 

Eldest son of Henry III.,. 

1272 

1307 

1239 

1307 

Edward II. 

Eldest surviving son of Edward I. 

1307 

1327 

1284 

1327 

Edward III. 

Eldest son of Edward II.,. 

1327 

1377 

1312 

1377 

Richard II.,. 

Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III. 

1377 

1399 

1366 

1400 


HOUSE OF LANCASTER 





Henry IV. 

Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., 

1399 

1413 

1366? 

1413 

Henry V. 

Eldest son of Henry IV. 

1413 

1422 

1388 

1422 

Henry VI. 

Only son of Henry V.,. 

1422 

1461 

1421 

1471 


HOUSE OF YORK 





Edward IV. 

His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, 






fifth son of Edward III. 

1461 

1483 

1441 

1483 

Edward V.,. 

Eldest son of Edward IV.,. 

1483 


1470 

1483 

Richard III.,. 

Younger brother of Edward IV. 

1483 

1485 

1452 

1485 


HOUSE OF TUDOR 





Henry VII.,. 

Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by 






Katharine, widow of Henry V.; his mother, 






Margaret Beaufort, was great-granddaughter 






of John of Gaunt,. 

1485 

1509 

1457 

1509 

Henry VIII. 

Only surviving son of Henry VII.,. 

1509 

1547 

1491 

1547 

Edward VI.,. 

Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour. 

1547 

1553 

1537 

1553 

Mary I. 

Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katharine of Aragon, 

1553 

1558 

1516 

1558 

Elizabeth,. 

Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, . . 

1558 

1603 

1533 • 

1603 


HOUSE OF STUART 





James I.,. 

Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, granddaughter of 






James IV., and Margaret. 

1603 

1625 

1566 

1625 

Charles I. 

Only surviving son of James I.,. 

1625 

1649 

1600 

1649 

„ . \ 

Commonwealth declared May 19,. 





Commonwealth, . . . •< 

Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector,. 

{ 1649 

1658 

1599 

1658 

( 

Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector. 



1626 

1712 


HOUSE OF STUART RESTORED 





Charles II. 

Eldest son of Charles I. 

1660 

1685 

1630 

1685 

James II., .. 

Second son of Charles I.,. 

1685 

1688 

1633 

1701 

William III. ( 

Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, 





and •< 

daughter of Charles I.,. 



1650 

1702 

Mary II., ( 

Eldest daughter of James II.,. 

i(389 

i702 

1662 

1694 

Anne,. 

Second daughter of James II.,. 

1702 

1714 

1665 

1714 


HOUSE OF HANOVER 





George I. 

Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter 






of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., .... 

1714 

1727 

1660 

1727 

George II. 

Only son of George I.,. 

1727 

1760 

1683 

1760 

George III.,. 

Grandson of George II. 

1760 

1820 

1738 

1820 

George IV.,. 

Eldest son of George III.,. 

1820 

1830 

'1762 

1830 

William IV. 

Third son of George III.,. 

1830 

1837 

1765 

1837 

Victoria. 

Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III., 

1837 

1901 

1819 

1901 


HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG 





Edward VII.,. 

Son of Victoria. 

1901 

1910 

1841 

1910 

George V.,. 

Son of Edward VII.,. 

1910 


1865 



GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF CANADA 


Governor-General 

Lineage 

Term of Office 

Birth 

Death 

The Right Hon. Vis¬ 
count Monck, G. C. M. 

G.,. 

The Right Hon. Lord 
Lisgar, G. C. M. G., . 

Charles Monck, British statesman, made a peer 
of the United Kingdom in 1866,. 

1867 

1869 

1819 

1894 

Baron Lisgar, a British politician (Sir John 
Young). 

1869 

1872 

1807 

1876 

The Right Hon. the Earl 
of Dufferin, K. P., K. 

Was created Marquis of Dufferin in 1888 (Fred¬ 
erick Temple, Hamilton Blackwood), . . . 

1872 

1878 

1826 

1902 

C. B., G. C. M. G., . 
The Right Hon. the Mar¬ 
quis of Lome, K. T., 
G. C. M. G., P. C., etc., 

Eldest son of the eighth Duke of Argyll (John 
George Henry Douglas Sutherland Camp¬ 
bell). 

1878 

1883 

1845 


The Most Hon. the Mar¬ 
quis of Lansdowne, 

Fifth Marquis of Lansdowne (Petty-FitzMau¬ 
rice, Henry Charles Keith). 

1883 

1888 

1845 


G. C. M. G. 

The Right Hon. Lord 
Stanley of Preston, G. 

O "R 

The Right Hon. the Earl 
of Aberdeen, K. T., 

Sixteenth Earl of Derby (Frederick Arthur 
Stanley),. 

1888 

1893 

1841 

1908 

Seventh Earl of Aberdeen (John Campbell 
Hamilton Gordon),. 

1893 

1898 

1847 


G. C. M. G., . . . . 
The Right Hon. the Earl 
of Minto, G. C. M. G., 

Fourth Earl of Minto (Gilbert John Elliot- 
Murray Kynynmound),. 

1898 

1904 

1845 


The Right Hon. the Earl 

Fourth Earl Grey (Albert Henry George), . . 

1904 

1911 

1851 

.... 

Grey, G. C. M. G., . 

HisRoyal Highness,the 
Duke of Connaught, 

Duke of Connaught (Prince Arthur William 
Patrick Albert),. 

1911 


1850 

.... 

































































































152 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PREMIERS OF CANADA 


Name 


Rt. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald,. 

Hon. Alexander Mackenzie,. 

Rt. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald,. 

Hon. Sir J. J. C. Abbott,. 

Rt. Hon. Sir J. S. D. Thompson,. 

Hon. Sir Mackenzie Bowell,. 

Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, Bart,. 

Rt. Hon. Wilfrid Laurier,. 

Hon. Robert L aird Borden,. 

Russia. The origin of the Russian Empire 
is involved in much obscurity, but it is usually 
regarded as having been founded by Rurik, a 
Scandinavian (Varangian), about 862, his domin¬ 
ions and those of his immediate successors com¬ 
prising Novgorod, Kieff, and the surrounding 
country. Vladimir the Great (980—1015), the 
Charlemagne of Russia, introduced Christianity 
and founded several cities and schools. But 
from this period down to the time when the 
country was overrun by the Tartars, Russia was 
almost constantly the scene of civil war. For 
more than two centuries Russia was subject to 
the Tartars. But Russia’s real foundation may 
be said to date from the accession of Peter the 
Great in 1689, who first secured to the country the 
attention of the more civilized nations of Europe. 
His first military achievement was his conquest 
of Azov from the Turks in 1696, which, however, 
he lost again in 1711. He also completed the 
conquest of Siberia; and, what was of more 
importance, obtained from Sweden by the Peace 
of Nystad, in 1721, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, 
or part of Karelia, the Territory of Viborg, Oesel, 
and all the other islands in the Baltic from 
Courland to Viborg. Catharine I., widow of 
Peter I., succeeded on the death of the latter, 
but died after a reign of only two years. The 
throne was then occupied successively by Peter 
II., 1727-30; by Anna, 1730-40; by Ivan VI., 
1740-41; by Elizabeth, 1741-62; by Peter III., 
about six months in 1762; by Catharine II., 
wife of Peter III., 1762-96; by Paul, 1796-1801; 
by Alexander I., 1801-25; by Nicholas, 1825- 
55; by Alexander II., 1855-81. During all 
these reigns the growth of the empire was con¬ 
tinuous. The Kirghiz Cossacks were subdued 
in 1731, the Ossetes in 1742; the Finnish Prov¬ 
ince of Kymenegard was gained by the Treaty 
of Abo in 1743. The three partitions of Poland 
took place under Catharine II. in 1772, 1793, 
and 1795. Russia acquired nearly two-thirds of 
this once powerful state. By the Peace of Kut- 
chuk-Kainarji in 1774, the Turks gave up Azov, 
part of the Crimea (the other part was taken 
possession of in 1783), and Kabardah; and by 
the Peace of Jassy in 1792, Oczakov. Georgia 
also came under the protection of Russia in 1783, 
and Courland was incorporated in 1795. A por¬ 
tion of Persian Territory had already been ac¬ 
quired; and in 1801 the formal annexation of 
Georgia was effected. The Peace of Fredriks- 
hamn, 1809, robbed Sweden of the whole of 
Finland, which now passed to Russia; the Peace 
of Bucharest, 1812, took Bessarabia from the 
Turks; that of Tiflis, 1813, deprived the Per¬ 
sians of parts of the Caucasus; and then the 
Vienna Congress of 1815 gave the remainder of 


Service 

Born 

Died 

Term 

Years 

1867-1873 

6 

1815 

1891 

1873-1878 

5 

1822 

1892 

1878-1891 

3 

(see above) 

(see above) 

1891-1892 

1 

1821 

1893 

1892-1894 

2 

1844 

1894 

1894-1896 

2 

1823 


1896-Jan. 15 to July 8, 


1821 


1896-1911 

is' 

1841 


1911-_ 


1854 



Poland to Russia. After fresh wars, the Persians 
lost the provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan 
in 1828; and the Turks lost Anapa, Poti, Akhal- 
zik, etc., by the Peace of Adrianople in 1829. 
The desire to possess further dominions of the 
sultan led to a war against Turkey in 1853, in 
which England, France, and Sardinia also took 
part in 1854, and which ended in the Peace of 
Paris, 1856. The Russians were compelled to 
restore to Moldavia the left bank of the Danube 
in Bessarabia. This district, however, was again 
restored to Russia by the Congress of Berlin in 
1878, which followed the Russo-Turkish War of 
1877-78. In 1858, Russia acquired by agree¬ 
ment with China the sparsely populated but 
widely extended district of the Amur; the sub¬ 
jection of Caucasia was accomplished in 1859 
and 1864, and considerable conquests have fol¬ 
lowed since 1866 both in Turkestan and the rest 
of Central Asia. A ukase of 1868 annihilated 
the last remains of the independence of Poland 
by incorporating it completely in the czardom. 
On the other hand, Russian America was sold 
to the United States in 1867. The following 
table will show at a glance the extent of these 
continuous accessions of territory: 

The extent of Russian Territory under — 
Ivan the Great, . . 1462, about 382,716 sq. m. 


Vassili Ivanovitch, . 1505, 
Ivan the Terrible, . 1584, 
Alexis Michaelovitch, 1650, 


Peter I. 

Anna, .... 
Catharine II., . 
Alexander II., . 
Alexander II., . 
Alexander III.,. 
Nicholas II., 


1689, 

1730, 

1775, 

1868, 

1881, 

1892, 

1909, 


510,288 

1,530,864 

5,039,094 

5,953,360 

6,888,888 

7,122,770 

7,866,940 

8,325,393 

8,644,100 

8,647,657 


The population from 14,000,000 in 1722 has 
grown to 160,095,200 in 1909. The extension 
of the Russian Empire in the East is still going 
on. In 1881, the Tekke Turcomans were sub¬ 
jected; in 1884, Merv was taken, and Penjdeh 
was occupied and annexed in 1885, which led to 
considerable friction between Russia and Britain. 
Of late years a great disturbing element to the 
Government of Russia has sprung up in Nihilism. 
Alexander II. was killed by their agency, and 
many attempts have been made to murder the 
succeeding emperors. In 1891, flour and grain 
were sent by the United States to relieve distress 
caused by failure of the harvest. Oppressive 
measures against the Jews have excited unfav¬ 
orable comment. Alexander III. died Novem¬ 
ber 1, 1894, and was succeeded by his son, Nicho¬ 
las II. In 1900, following the Boxer Rebellion, 
China gave to Russia exclusive mining and rail¬ 
way privileges in Manchuria, and the command 






























HISTORY 


153 


of all the Chinese troops there to the Russian 
authorities. This occupation was to end in 
three years, and the delay in the withdrawal of 
Russian troops led to open hostilities between 
Russia and Japan in 1894. (See Russo-Japanese 
War.) During 1905-06, Russia was much per¬ 
turbed by internal and insurrectionary disturb¬ 
ances. In October of 1905 the Czar issued a 
manifesto, assuring civil liberty, freedom of the 
press, extension of the suffrage, and limited 
representative government. A continual strug¬ 
gle over its interpretation has existed between 
the Imperial Government and the Duma since 
that time. Premier Stolypin was assassinated in 
1911, and Vladimir Kokovtzov became premier. 

Russo-Japanese War. Awarbetween 
Russia and Japan, waged in Manchuria (1904-05). 
The chief cause of the war was the occupation 
(continued notwithstanding repeated promises 
of withdrawal by the Russian Government) of 
Manchuria by Russia after the Boxer uprising 
of 1899-1900, with the consequent endanger- 
ment of the Japanese preponderance in Korea, 
which was regarded by Japan as essential to her 
safety. An earlier cause of irritation was the 
action of Russia, Germany, and France in pre¬ 
venting the retention by Japan of Port Arthur 
and the Liao-tung peninsula after the Chinese- 
Japanese War of 1894-95, and the subsequent 
leasing of this territory from China by Russia. 
The principal events of the war were the follow¬ 
ing: rupture of diplomatic relations with Russia 
by Japan, February 6, 1904; attack by torpedo- 
boats of the Japanese fleet under Admiral Togo 
upon the Russian squadron under Admiral 
Stark at Port Arthur, February 8, 1904; general 
attack by the Japanese fleet, February 9, 1904, 
these two attacks resulting in great injury to 
the Russians; naval fight off Chemulpo, result¬ 
ing in the destruction of the Russian cruiser 
“ Variag” and the gunboat “Koriqtz,” February 
9, 1904; war declared by Japan, February 10, 
1904; Admiral Makaroff succeeded Admiral 
Stark, February 17, 1904; General Kuropatkin 
appointed Russian commander-in-chief in Man¬ 
churia, February 21, 1904; agreement between 
Japan and Korea signed at Seul, February .23, 
1904; Vladivostok bombarded by Admiral 
Kamimura, March 6, 1904; Port Arthur bom¬ 
barded, March 21-22, 1904; Wiju occupied by 
the Japanese, April 6-7, 1904; destruction of 
the Russian battleship “Petropavlovk” by a 
mine and death of Admiral Makaroff, April 13, 
1904; Russian Vladivostok squadron appeared 
off Yuen-san, April 25, 1904; defeat of the Rus¬ 
sians under Sassulitch by the Japanese First 
Army under Kuroki, May 1, 1904; the entrance 
to Port Arthur blocked for battleships and 
cruisers, May 3, 1904; Japanese battleship 
“Hatsuse” sunk by a mine, May 15, 1904; 
Japanese victory at Kin-chau (capture of Nan- 
shan Hill), May 27-28, 1904; occupation of 
Dalny by the Japanese, May 29-30, 1904; Rus¬ 
sians defeated at Telissu and Wafangkau, June 
14-15, 1904; unsuccessful sortie of Russian fleet 
from Port Arthur, June 23, 1904; investment of 
Port Arthur (after severe preliminary fighting), 
July 31, 1904-January 1, 1905; sortie of the 
Port Arthur fleet, resulting in a sea battle, in 
which most of the Russian vessels were driven 


back to Port Arthur and the rest dispersed with 
the death of Admiral Withoft, August 10, 1904; 
Vladivostok squadron defeated by Admiral 
Kamimura (“Rurik” sunk), August 14, 1904; 
battle of Liao-yang, resulting in the success of 
the Japanese under Oyama, the Russians retir¬ 
ing upon Mukden, August 27-September 4, 1904; 
battle of the Shaho, in which the Russian attack 
was repulsed, October 9-14, 1904; the Baltic 
fleet under Rozhestvensky sailed for the Far 
East, October, 1904, and attacked the Hull fish¬ 
ing fleet on the Doggerbank, on the night of 
October 21-22, 1904; Port Arthur surrendered, 
January 1, 1905; Russians crossed the Hun 
River and attacked the Japanese at Haikautai, 
but were repulsed January 25-29, 1905; battle 
of Mukden, resulting in the complete defeat of 
Kuropatkin and the capture of the city, Feb¬ 
ruary 19-March 10, 1905; Kuropatkin relieved 
of his command and succeeded by Linievitch, 
March 16, 1905; the Baltic fleet reached Kam- 
ranh Bay, April 12, 1905; battle of the Sea of 
Japan and the annihilation of the Baltic fleet by 
Admiral Togo, May 27-28, 1905; President 
Roosevelt urged the Russian and Japanese Gov¬ 
ernments to negotiate for peace, June 8, 1905; 
plenipotentiaries met at Portsmouth, New Hamp¬ 
shire, August 9, 1905; treaty of peace signed, 
September 5, 1905. 

Sabines. An ancient people of Italy, sup¬ 
posed to have been named from “Sabus,” one 
of their deities. Little is known of their history. 
They were at war with the Romans at a very 
early period. A contest broke out between 
them, 504 B.C., and a body of the Sabines mi¬ 
grated to Rome, where they were welcomed, 
and founded the powerful family and tribe of 
Claudii. The Sabines carried their ravages to 
the very gates of Rome, 469 B. C. On their 
defeat by Marcus Horatius, 449 B. C., their camp 
was found full of plunder obtained in the Roman 
territories. They were again at war with the 
Romans, 290 B. C., and having been vanquished, 
many of them were sold as slaves. The remain¬ 
ing citizens received the Roman franchise. 

St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, a 
massacre of the Huguenots which took place in 
Paris, France, beginning on the night of August 
23-24 (St. Bartholomew’s Day), 1572. A large 
number of prominent Huguenots had been 
invited to the royal palace to participate in the 
wedding festivities of Henry of Navarre. While 
these guests were in the palace they were slaugh¬ 
tered without mercy, and at a signal the massacre 
quickly spread over the city.. The anti-Hugue- 
not leaders were Charles IX., the Queen-mother 
Catharine de’ Medici, and the Duke of Guise. 
The massacre spread over France and it is 
variously estimated that 2,000 to 100,000 lives 
were lost. 

Salic, or Salique Law, The (sdl'-ik). 
An ancient fundamental law of the Ripuarian 
Franks, which excluded females from inheriting 
the French throne. It is supposed to have been 
established by Pharamond or Clovis, and to 
have derived its name from the River Saale, in 
Saxony, whence those Franks originally came. 
This body of law was revised and reconstituted 
by Charlemagne; according to it u no portion of 
Salic land can fall to females;” but what was 



154 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


meant by Salic land has been long debated 
among French antiquaries. It was the cause 
of long wars between England and France, when, 
in opposition to it, Edward III. claimed the 
throne of France by a title prior to that of 
Philip of Valois. It has been recognized in all 
countries of which the crown has devolved on 
a member of the blood royal of France; it 
formed the foundation of the pretensions of Don 
Carlos to the Spanish Crown. It was observed 
with reference to the great fiefs which had been 
granted to princes of the blood, by way of 
appanage; and hence, on the death of Charles 
the Bold of Burgundy, without a male heir, that 
duchy reverted to Louis XI. 

Scotland was first visited by the Roman 
troops under Agricola, who penetrated to the 
foot of the Grampian Mountains. It was after¬ 
ward exposed to the ravages of the Norwegians 
and Danes, with whom many bloody battles were 
fought. Various contests were also maintained 
with the kings of England. Robert Bruce, how¬ 
ever, secured the independence of the country 
and his title to the throne by the decisive battle 
of Bannockburn in 1314. He was succeeded by 
his nephew, Robert Stewart, and he by his eldest 
son, Robert. The latter was a weak prince, and 
the government was seized by the Duke of 
Albany, who stoned to death the eldest son of 
the king. James, his second son, to escape a 
similar fate, fled to France; in the year 1424 he 
returned to Scotland, and, having excited the 
jealousy of the nobility, he was assassinated in 
a monastery near Perth. James II., his son, an 
infant prince, succeeded him in 1437. He was 
killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege 
of the castle of Roxburgh. James III. ascended 
the throne at the age of seven years. His reign 
was weak and inglorious, and he was murdered 
in the house of a miller, whither he had fled for 
protection. James IV., a generous and brave 
prince, began his reign in 1488. He was slain 
at the battle of Flodden. James V., an infant 
of less than two years of age, succeeded to the 
crown. He died in 1542, and was succeeded by 
his daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary. She 
was succeeded by her son James, who, in 1603, 
ascended the throne of England, vacant by the 
death of Queen Elizabeth, when the two king¬ 
doms were united into one great monarchy 
which was legislatively united in 1707. At the 
union of the kingdoms the political system of 
Scotland was almost entirely incorporated with 
that of England. 

The Court of Sessions is the Supreme Civil 
Court of Scotland. The Court of Justiciary, or 
Criminal Court, composed only of judges of the 
Court of Sessions, is supreme in the highest sense, 
since its decisions in criminal cases are not sub¬ 
ject to any review. The principal subordinate 
judicatories are sheriff courts, established in 
each county. or stewartry. Sheriff substitutes, 
or judges ordinary, one or more holding separate 
courts in different districts, decide in the first 
instance, subject to the review of the principal 
sheriff or sheriff depute, whose decisions, though 
final within the limits of his jurisdiction, are 
re viewable by the Court of Sessions. Besides 
the sheriff court, each county or district of a 
county has its justice of peace courts, in which 


judges decide on principles of equity in minor 
crimes; and in every town of any importance 
are bailie, dean, or guild, and police courts, 
with limited jurisdictions. 

Seven Years’ War, The (1756-63), 
was the third, last, and most terrible of the con¬ 
tests between Frederick the Great of Prussia 
and Maria Theresa (with the other powers of 
Europe on one side or the other) for the pos¬ 
session of Silesia. In 1763 Maria Theresa, 
sorely against her will, was finally compelled to 
conclude the peace of Hubertusburg, which 
acknowledged Frederick as Lord of Silesia. This 
long and desperate conflict made no change in 
the territorial distribution of Europe, but it 
increased tenfold the moral power of Prussia, 
and gave its army a prestige which it retained 
till the battle of Jena. It cost Europe 1,000,000 
lives, and prostrated the strength of almost all 
the powers who had engaged in it. 

Shays’s Rebellion. At the close of 
the Revolution, the United States were burdened 
with a very heavy foreign and domestic debt. 
They were impoverished by the long war, and it 
was difficult to raise the means to meet the 
arrears of pay due the soldiers of the Revolution. 
On the recommendation of Congress, each State 
endeavored to provide means for raising its 
quota by a direct tax. This effort produced 
much excitement in some of the States, and, 
finally, in 1787, a portion of the people of Massa¬ 
chusetts openly rebelled. Daniel Shays, who 
had been a captain in the Continental Army, 
marched at the head of a thousand men, took 
possession of Worcester, and prevented a ses¬ 
sion of the Supreme Court. He repeated his 
performance at Springfield, and the insurrection 
soon became so formidable that the governor 
was compelled to call out several thousand 
militia under General Lincoln, to suppress it. 
This was speedily accomplished. Though some 
of the insurgents were sentenced to death, none 
was executed. A free pardon was finally given 
to all. 

Sicilies, The Two, a former kingdom of 
Italy, consisting of Naples (or South Italy) and 
Sicily. In 1047, while Greeks and Saracens 
were struggling for the possession of Lower Italy 
and Sicily, the twelve sons of Tancred de Haute- 
ville, a count in Lower Normandy, came in with 
their followers. Robert Guiscard, one of these 
brothers, subdued Apulia and Calabria, taking 
the title of duke, and his youngest brother, 
Count Roger, conquered Sicily. Roger’s son 
and successor, Roger II., completed the conquest 
of all Lower Italy by subduing Capua, Amalfi, 
and Naples, at that time celebrated commercial 
republics, and in 1130 took the title of king, 
calling his kingdom the Kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies. In 1759, when Charles IV. ascended 
the Spanish throne under the name of Charles 
III., he conferred the Kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies on his third son Ferdinand, and decreed 
at the same time that it should never again be 
united to the Spanish Monarchy. The reign of 
Ferdinand extended through the stormy period 
of the French Revolution and the subsequent 
European commotions. A varied experience 
followed, during which the country was succes¬ 
sively subject to Germany, France, and Spain. 



HISTORY 


155 


In 1860, an insurrection broke out in Sicily, and 
an expedition of volunteers from Piedmont and 
other Italian provinces under Garibaldi sailed 
from Genoa to the assistance of the insurgents. 
The result was that the Neapolitan troops were 
driven from the island. Garibaldi, following 
up his success, crossed over to the mainland, 
where he met little or no opposition; Francis 
II. fled from Naples; the strong places in his 
hands were reduced; and by a popular vote 
the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to 
exist as such and became an integral part of the 
Kingdom of Italy. 

Sicilian Vespers, the name given to a 
massacre of the French in Sicily, March 30, 1282. 
On the evening of Easter Monday the conspira¬ 
tors were already assembled at Palermo; but 
the massacre was precipitated by an outrage 
offered by a Frenchman to a Sicilian bride, who 
was passing along the streets with her train. 
Instantly the Frenchman was killed, and, the 
populace being aroused by the conspirators, all 
the French who could be found in the city were 
slaughtered. Eight thousand were slain in 
Palermo alone, and the massacre afterwards 
spread over the island, the French being even 
dragged out of the churches to which they had 
fled for protection. The six hundredth anni¬ 
versary of the Sicilian Vespers was celebrated 
with much enthusiasm at Palermo in 1882. 

Slavery. The establishment of one man’s 
right to control the liberty, property, and even 
life of another. Slavery probably arose at an 
early period of the world’s history out of the 
accident of capture in war. Savages, in place 
of massacring their captives, found it more 
profitable to keep them in servitude. All the 
ancient Oriental nations of whom we have any 
records, including the Jews, had their slaves. 
In Greece in general, and especially at Athens, 
slaves were mildly treated, and enjoyed a large 
share of legal protection, while by the Romans 
they were used with considerable rigor. The 
English word slave is simply the name of the 
Sclavonian race. The wars of the Frankish 
kings and emperors filled Saracenic Spain with 
Sclavonic captives to such an extent that in its 
language, as well as in those of other European 
countries, a natural name meaning, in its own 
tongue, glorious, became the title of servitude. 
The African slave trade was commenced by the 
Portuguese in 1442; it was, however, of only 
trifling extent till the Sixteenth Century. But 
the importation of negroes into the West Indies 
and America having once begun, it gradually 
increased, until the vastness and importance of 
the traffic rivaled its cruelty and guilt. The 
slave trade was abolished in England in 1807 
but it was only in 1834 that slavery itself was 
abolished throughout the British dominions. 
Long before that time, several of the North 
American States had decreed the extinction of 
slavery. Vermont abolished it in 1777, before 
she had joined the Union. Pennsylvania in 1780, 
Rhode Island and Connecticut shortly after, 
New York in 1797, and New Jersey in 1804, 
provided for the gradual emancipation of their 
slaves. In Massachusetts the Supreme Court 
declared that slavery was abolished by the act 
of adopting the State Constitution of 1780. In 


1820, the United States passed a law declaring 
the slave trade to be piracy, but no conviction 
was obtained under the statute until November, 
1861, when Nathaniel Gordon, master of a vessel 
called the “Erie,” was convicted and hanged at 
New York. Finally, the abolition of slavery, 
cause and fruit of the gigantic war of secession, 
was definitively consecrated in 1865 by the 
Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the 
United States. The French emancipated their 
negroes in 1848, and the Dutch in 1863. Slavery 
was also partially abolished in Brazil in 1871, 
and gradual emancipation has been adopted in 
Cuba. 

South Carolina. The first attempt to 
colonize the territory now included in South 
Carolina was made by Jean Ribault, a French¬ 
man, in 1562. The first permanent settlement 
was made by English colonists, who planted 
themselves on the banks of the Ashley in 1670, 
but removed to the site of Charleston in 1680. 
The province was created by Charles II. in 1683. 
Both the Carolinas were included under a com¬ 
mon name and proprietary government till 1729, 
when the king formed the province into two 
royal colonies. Large numbers of French Hugue¬ 
nots had arrived in 1685, and subsequently 
Swiss, Irish, and German colonists. South 
Carolina suffered severely from Indian depreda¬ 
tions, and joined with Georgia, under Oglethorpe, 
in a contest with Spanish Florida. She took 
an active part in the Revolution, and the battles 
of Fort Moultrie, Charleston, Camden, King’s 
Mountain, Cowpens, Eutaw Springs, etc., were 
fought on her soil. The United States Constitu¬ 
tion was ratified in 1788. In 1832, the State 
passed the Nullification Act, which threatened 
civil war, then happily averted, but afterward 
precipitated in 1861 by the firing on Fort Sum¬ 
ter. The important military operations were the 
capture of Hilton Head in 1861, the unsuccessful 
attack on Charleston in 1863, and the march 
of General Sherman in 1865. The State was 
readmitted to federal relations in 1868. From 
1865 until 1871 there were reconstruction trou¬ 
bles, ending with the election of Wade Hampton 
as Governor of the State and his recognition by 
President Hayes. In 1886 Charleston suffered 
from a severe earthquake which caused much 
property loss. A State dispensary law for the 
regulation of the liquor traffic was passed in 
1892. The present State constitution was 
adopted in 1897. 

South Dakota. South Dakota became 
a State November 2, 1889, when the Territory 
of Dakota was divided into two States. The 
history of that part of the country will be found 
under Minnesota, Nebraska, and North Dakota. 

Spain, the Spania, Hispania , and Iberia of 
the Greeks, and known to the Romans by the 
same names, is supposed to have been originally 
inhabited by a distinct race called Iberians, 
upon whom a host of Celts are supposed to have 
descended from the Pyrenees. These two races 
coalesced and formed the mixed nation of the 
Celtiberians. About the middle of the Third 
Century B. C. the Carthaginian influence began 
to be felt in Iberia, and a considerable tract of 
territory was brought under subjection to 
Carthage by Hamilcar, who founded the city of 



156 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Barcelona. The Romans had driven the Car¬ 
thaginians from the peninsula in 206 B. C., and 
the country was erected into a Roman Province. 
From the time of the complete supremacy of the 
Romans till the death of Constantine the con¬ 
dition of Spain was eminently prosperous. 
Everywhere throughout the country towns of 
purely Roman character sprang up, and numer¬ 
ous aqueducts, bridges, amphitheaters, etc., were 
built. Spain was for three centuries the richest 
province of the Roman Empire. In 409 A. D., 
hordes of barbarians, Alans, Vandals, and Suevi, 
crossed the Pyrenees and swept over and des¬ 
olated the peninsula. About 412 the Visigoths 
invaded the country, and their king, Athaulf, 
established the Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. 
In 711 the Moors obtained mastery of nearly 
the whole of Spain. The Moors held Spain for 
the first few years as a dependency of the 
province of North Africa; but after the down¬ 
fall of Musa the country was governed (717) 
by emirs appointed by the Caliph of Damascus. 
During the period of Moorish domination the 
small independent kingdom of Asturias, or Leon, 
had been growing in power and extent. In 758 
a second independent Christian Kingdom was 
founded imSobrarve, which was in 801 swallowed 
up by the caliphate of Cordova. Thirty-six 
years afterward was founded the third Christian 
Kingdom, that of Navarre, and in 933 another 
independent mona rchy was founded in Castile, 
which, from its ceiflMfcposition and consequent 
greater facilities fo^wmnsion, soon became the 
most powerful of^KeSpanish states. The 
Kingdom of AidfjiHpBfe the last Christian 
kingdom formed in Spain. The rest of the 
history of the Spanish kingdoms before their 
union is undeserving of a detailed account. 
Ferdinand II., the last sovereign of Aragon, by 
marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile, in 1469, 
by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and that of 
Navarre in 1512, united the whole of Spain 
(and French Navarre) under one rule. Charles 
I. (Charles V. of Germany) succeeded Ferdinand, 
and in his reign Mexico and Peru were added to 
the possessions of Spain. Philip II., by his 
enormous war expenditure and maladminis¬ 
tration, laid a sure foundation for the decline 
of the country; and the reigns of Philip III. and 
IV. witnessed a fearful acceleration in the 
decline. That of Charles II. was still more 
unfortunate, and the death of the latter was the 
occasion of the War of the Spanish Succession. 
Philip V. was the first of the Bourbon Dynasty 
who occupied the throne of Spain. Under 
Charles III. (1759-88) the second great revival 
of the country commenced, and trade and com¬ 
merce began to show signs of returning activity. 
During the inglorious reign of Charles IV. 
(1788-1808) a war broke out with Britain, which 
was productive of nothing but disaster to the 
Spaniards and by the pressure of the French 
another arose in 1804, and was attended with 
similar ill success. Charles’s eldest son ascended 
the throne as Ferdinand VII. Forced by Napo¬ 
leon to resign all claims to the Spanish Crown, 
Ferdinand became a prisoner of the French, and 
Joseph, the brother of the French Emperor, was 
declared King of Spain and the Indies. But 
before this time an armed resistance had been 


organized throughout the whole country. The 
various provinces elected juntas, or councils, 
consisting of the most influential inhabitants 
of the respective neighborhoods, and it was 
their business to administer local rule. The 
Supreme Council of Seville declared war against 
Napoleon and France in 1808. England, on 
solicitation, made peace with Spain, recognized 
Ferdinand VII. as king, and sent an army to 
aid the Spanish insurrection. After many 
bloody campaigns the French were driven from 
the country. The reign of Ferdinand’s daughter, 
Isabella II., was disturbed by the Carlist rebel¬ 
lion, 1834-39. Frequent changes of ministry, 
occasiMfll revolts, the banishment of Queen 
Christina, the war with the Moors, the annexa¬ 
tion of Santo Domingo in 1861, and the quarrels 
between Spain and her former colonies, Peru 
and Chile, were the most marked events in the 
more recent history of Spain. In 1868, Isabella 
was driven from the throne by a general revolt; 
and the Cortes, in 1871, elected Prince Amadeo 
of Italy to be king. Finding the task of ruling 
constitutionally hopeless, Amadeo abdicated in 
1873, upon which the form of government was 
changed into a republic. During the remainder 
of 1873, and the whole of 1874, Spain was the 
scene of general anarchy and much bloodshed. 
In December, 1874, Alfonso, son of ex-Queen 
Isabella, was declared King of Spain at Santan¬ 
der, under the title of Alfonso XII. He died 
in 1886, and his widow. Queen Maria Christina, 
was chosen regent during the minority of the 
infant Prince Alfonso XIII. The Prince reached 
his majority, May 17, 1902, and became king. 
On May 31, 1904, he married Princess Ena of 
Battenberg. Industrial and revolutionary dis¬ 
turbances in 1911 culminated in the assassination 
of Premier Canalejas in November, 1912. His 
administration is regarded as the most stable 
Spain has had in many years. 

Spanish-American War. In 1898, 
a crisis in Cuban affairs brought on war with the 
United States, known as the Spanish-American 
War, which from its opening to its close lasted 
114 days. In that time the United States 
land and sea forces destroyed two Spanish 
fleets, received the surrender of more than 
35,000 Spanish soldiers, took by conquest the 
fortified cities of Santiago de Cuba, in Cuba, 
Ponce*, in Porto Rico, and Manila, on the island 
of Luzon, in the Philippines, and secured con¬ 
trol, pending negotiations of peace, of the entire 
Spanish possessions in the West Indies, the 
Philippines, and Guam of the Ladrone Islands. 
The Americans suffered no loss of ships or territory 
and but 279 killed and 1,465 wounded in battle, 
while the cost to Spain, aside from prisoners, 
ships, and lost territory, was 2,199 killed, and 
2,948 wounded. The cost to the United States 
in money was $141,000,000. 

The principal events preceding and during the 
war and the dates on which they occurred are 
as follows: 

February 15th—The United States battleship 
“Maine” was blown up in the harbor of 
Havana. According to the report of the 
Court of Inquiry appointed by the United 
States the explosion was due to an external 
mine. 



HISTORY 


157 


April 20th—President McKinley, authorized by 
Congress to intervene in Cuba, using the 
United States military and naval forces, 
sent an ultimatum to Spain. The Spanish 
minister at once left Washington, and the 
next day the United States minister left 
Madrid. 

April 22d—A proclamation was issued by the 
President blockading the principal ports of 
Cuba. 

April 23d—President McKinley issued a call for 
125,000 volunteers to serve for two years. 

April 27th—The batteries of Matanzas, Cuba, 
were shelled by Admiral Sampson's flagship, 
the “New York," with the monit(^lfiuri- 
tan” and the cruiser “Cincinnati." 

April 29th—The Spanish fleet, commanded by 
Admiral Cervera, consisting of the “Cristo¬ 
bal Colon," the “Almirante Oquendo," the 
“Maria Teresa" and the “Viscaya," and 
the torpedo boats “Furor," “Terror," and 
“Pluton," left the Cape Verde Islands for 
Cuba. 

May 1st—Commodore Dewey, commanding the 
United States Asiatic squadron, destroyed 
the entire Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, 
Philippines, without losing a man. 

May 11th—The “Wilmington," “Winslow," and 
“Hudson" engaged the Spanish batteries 
at Cardenas. Ensign Bagley and four of the 
“Winslow's" crew were killed. Major- 
General Wesley Merritt was ordered to the 
Philippines as military governor. 

May 12th—A United States fleet, commanded 
by Rear-Admiral Sampson, bombarded the 
fortifications of San Juan, Porto Rico. 

May 19th—Admiral Cervera's fleet reached San¬ 
tiago de Cuba, and a few days later was 
“bottled up" there by the “flying squad¬ 
ron " of Commodore Schley. 

May 25th—President McKinley called for 75,000 
more volunteers. Twenty-five hundred 
United States troops sailed from San Fran¬ 
cisco for Manila, several thousand more 
following at a later date. 

May 31st—The “Massachusetts,” “Iowa," and 
“New Orleans" bombarded the fortifica¬ 
tions at the mouth of Santiago Harbor. 
They were bombarded again several times 
after Admiral Sampson took command of 
the fleet. 

June 3d—Assistant Naval Constructor Hobson 
with seven men ran the collier “Merrimac" 
to the mouth of Santiago Harbor and sank 
her in the -channel under the fire from the 
Spanish forts Hobson and his men were 
taken prisoners. 

June 10th—Six hundred marines were landed at 
Caimanera, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, where 
sharp skirmishing continued for several 
days, several Americans being killed. 

June 12th—The 5th Army Corps, commanded 
by General Shatter, sailed from Tampa on 
twenty-nine transports for Santiago, arriv¬ 
ing off there on June 20th. 

June 13th—President McKinley signed the War 
Revenue Bill, providing for the raising of 
revenues by a stamp tax and providing for 
a popular bond loan which was immediately 
subscribed. 


June 17th—A Spanish fleet under Admiral 
Camara left Cadiz for the Philippines, but 
returned after passing through the Suez 
Canal. 

June 22d—General Shatter’s troops began dis¬ 
embarking at Daiquiri and Siboney, near 
Santiago. 

June 14th—Roosevelt's Rough Riders were at¬ 
tacked while advancing toward Santiago; 
sixteen Americans were killed and forty 
more wounded before the Spaniards were 
repulsed. 

July Ist-yGeneral Lawton took El Caney, near 
Santiago, and General Kent, commanding 
the 1st division of the 5th Army Corps, 
which included the 2d, 6th, 9th, 10th, 13th, 
16th, and 24th infantry, and the 71st New 
York volunteers, took San Juan Hill after 
heavy fighting. Official reports gave the 
American losses 231 killed and 1,364 
wounded and missing. 

July 3d—Admiral Cervera's squadron made a 
dash out of Santiago Harbor, and every 
vessel was sunk or disabled by the American 
fleet. General Shatter demanded the sur¬ 
render of Santiago. The seizure of Guama, 
in the Ladrone Islands, by the “Charles¬ 
ton " was reported at this time. 

July 7th—President McKinley signed resolutions 
passed by the Senate annexing the Hawaiian 
Islands to the United States, and the “Phil¬ 
adelphia " was orderqAg| Honolulu to raise 
the American flag. » 

July 17th—General Torah^Hcommand of the 
Spanish troops General Linares 

being wounded, surrendered his forces and 
the east portion of the province of Santiago 
de Cuba to General Shatter. 

July 21st—General Leonard R. Wood, formerly 
colonel of the 1st Volunteer cavalry, was 
appointed military governor of Santiago. 

July 25th—United States troops, under General 
Nelson A. Miles, landed at Guanica, Porto 
Rico, the town having surrendered to the 
“Gloucester." 

July 26th—Through the French ambassador, the 
government of Spain asked President Mc¬ 
Kinley on what terms he would consent to 
peace. 

July 28th—Ponce, the second largest city in Por¬ 
to Rico, surrendered to General Miles, and 
he was received by the residents with joyful 
acclamations. Capture of several other 
towns, with little or no fighting, followed. 

July 30th—President McKinley's statement of 
the terms on which he would agree to end 
the war was given to the French ambassador. 
The President demanded the independence 
of Cuba, cession of Porto Rico and one of 
the Ladrones to the United States, and the 
retention of Manila by the United States 
pending the final disposition of the Philip¬ 
pines by a joint commission. 

July 31st—United States troops engaged the 
Spaniards at Malate, near Manila, in the 
Philippines, and repulsed them, with some 
loss on both sides. 

August 9th—The French ambassador presented 
to President McKinley Spain's reply, 
accepting his terms of peace. 



158 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


August 12th—Protocols agreeing as to the pre¬ 
liminaries for a treaty of peace were signed 
by Secretary Hay and the French ambas¬ 
sador. United States military and naval 
commanders were ordered to cease hostili¬ 
ties. The blockades of Cuba, Porto Rico, 
and Manila were lifted and hostilities ended. 
August 13th—Manila surrendered after a com¬ 
bined assault by the army under General 
Merritt and Dewey’s fleet. 

Sparta or Lacedaemon. A celebrated 
city of ancient Greece; capital of Laconia and 
of the Spartan state, and the chief city in the 
Peloponnesus; on the west bank of the Eurotas 
River, and embraced a circuit of six miles. 
Sparta was a scattered city consisting of five 
separate quarters. Unlike Athens, it was 
plainly built, and had few notable public build¬ 
ings; consequently, there are no imposing ruins 
to be seen here as in Athens, and the modern 
Sparta is only a village of some 4,000 inhabitants. 

The Spartan state was founded, according to 
tradition, by Lacedaemon, son of Zeus. The 
most celebrated of its legendary kings was 
Menelaus. Shortly after their settlement in the 
Peloponnesus it is probable that the Spartans 
extended their sway over all the territory of 
Laconia, a portion of the inhabitants of which 
they reduced to the condition of slaves. They 
also waged war with the Messenians, the Arca¬ 
dians, and the Argives, against whom they were 
so successful that before the close of the Sixth 
Century B. C. they were recognized as the 
leading people in all Greece. 

Early in the following century began the Per¬ 
sian wars, in which a rivalry grew up between 
Athens and Sparta. This rivalry led to the 
Peloponnesian War, in which Athens was humil¬ 
iated and the old ascendency of Sparta regained. 
Soon after this the Spartans became involved in 
a war with Persia, and Athens, Thebes, Corinth, 
and some of the Peloponnesian States took this 
opportunity to declare war against them. This 
war, known as the Boeotian or Corinthian War, 
lasted eight years and increased the reputation 
and power of Athens. To break the alliance of 
Athens with Persia, Sparta, in 387 B. C., con¬ 
cluded with the latter power the peace known 
by the name of Antalcidas; and the designs of 
Sparta became apparent when she occupied, 
without provocation, the city of Thebes, and 
introduced an aristocratical constitution there. 
Pelopidas delivered Thebes, and the celebrated 
Theban War (378-363) followed, in which 
Sparta was much enfeebled. During the fol¬ 
lowing century Sparta steadily declined, though 
one or two isolated attempts were made to 
restore its former greatness. 

Stadtholder (Dutch, Stadhouder), the 
name formerly given to the chief magistrate of 
the United Provinces of Holland. The last 
Stadtholder was William V., who had to fly to 
England in 1795, at the invasion of the French 
Republican army. After the Congress of 
Vienna (1815), Holland, with Belgium, was 
erected into a kingdom, and William V., was 
the first king, under the name of William I. 

Star-Chamber, an ancient English tribu¬ 
nal, said to have existed from a very early period, 


but revived during the reign of Henry VII. One 
derivation of the name is from the star-covered 
roof or ceiling of the room in which the tribunal 
assembled; but this derivation is at least doubt¬ 
ful. The tribunal consisted of privy councillors, 
and of certain judges, who acted without the 
intervention of a jury. As this was a violation 
of Magna Charta, and as the tribunal had been 
guilty of the most grave excesses, especially in 
the time of Charles I., the Star Chamber was 
abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641, at 
the same time as the High Commission Court. 

Sumter, Fort (named after General 
Thomas Sumter, 1734-1832), an American fort 
associated with both the beginning and the end 
of the Civil War; built of brick, in the form of 
a truncated pentagon thirty-eight feet high, on 
a shoal partly artificial, in Charleston Harbor, 
three and one-half miles from the city. On 
the withdrawal of South Carolina from the 
Union in December, 1860, Major Anderson, in 
command of the defenses of the harbor, aban¬ 
doned the other forts, and occupied Fort Sumter, 
mounting sixty-two guns, with a garrison of 
some eighty men. The attack on the fort was 
opened by General Beauregard April 12, 1861, 
and it surrendered on the 14th; this event 
marked the beginning of the war. The Confed¬ 
erates strengthened it, and added ten guns and 
four mortars. In April, 1863, an attack by a 
fleet of monitors failed. In July batteries were 
erected on Morris Island, about 4,000 yards off, 
from which in a week 5,000 projectiles, weighing 
from 100 to 300 pounds, were hurled against the 
fort; at the end of that time it was silenced and 
in part demolished. Yet the garrison held on 
amid the ruins and in September beat off a naval 
attack; and in spite of a forty days’ bombard¬ 
ment in October-December, 1863, and for still 
longer in July and August, 1864, it was not till 
after the evacuation of Charleston itself, owing 
to the operations of General Sherman, that the 
garrison retired, and the United States flag was 
again raised April 18, 1865; an event soon fol¬ 
lowed by the evacuation of Richmond and the 
Confederate surrender. 

Sweden. When we first hear of Sweden 
the country was inhabited by numerous tribes, 
kindred in origin, but politically separate. Two 
rincipal groups are recognizable, Goths in the 
outh and Swedes in the North. Ingiald Hrada, 
the last ruler of the old royal family of the 
Ynglingar, who drew their origin from Njord, 
sought to establish a single government in Swe¬ 
den and perished in the attempt. To the 
Ynglingar followed, in the Upland, the dynasty 
of the Skioldungar. Erik Edmundsson acquired 
the sovereignty of the whole of Sweden about the 
end of the Ninth Century. The dawn of Swedish 
history now begins. Efforts to introduce 
Christianity were made as early as 829 A. D., 
but it was not till 1000 A. D., that Olaf Skotko- 
nung, the Lap King, was baptized. Erik 
undertook a crusade against the pagan Finns, 
and having compelled them to submit to bap¬ 
tism, and established Swedish settlements 
among them, he laid the foundation of the union 
of Finland with Sweden. Erik’s murder in 1160 
by the Danish prince, Magnus Henriksen, who 
had made an unprovoked attack upon the Swe- 




HISTORY 


153 


dish king, was the beginning of a long series of 
troubles. In 1389, the throne was offered by 
the Swedish nobles to Margaret, Queen of Den¬ 
mark and Norway, who threw an army into 
Sweden, defeated the Swedish king, Albert of 
Mecklenburg, and by the union of Calmar, in 
1397, brought Sweden under one joint scepter 
with Denmark and Norway. In 1523, Sweden 
emancipated itself from the union with Denmark, 
which had become hateful to the Swedes, and 
rewarded its deliverer, the young Gustaf Vasa, 
by electing him king, and declaring its independ¬ 
ence of Denmark. Gustaf Vasa, on his death, 
in 1560, left to his successor an hereditary and 
well-organized kingdom, a full exchequer, a 
standing army, and a well-appointed navy. 
Sigismund, grandson of Vasa, who had been 
elected king of Poland through the influence of 
his Polish mother, was compelled to resign the 
throne in 1599 to his uncle Karl. The deposition 
of Sigismund gave rise to the Swedo-Polish War 
of Succession, from 1604-60; and on the death of 
Karl, in 1611, his son, the great Gustavus Adol¬ 
phus, found himself involved in hostilities with 
Russia, Poland, and Denmark. The young 
king soon concluded treaties of peace with his 
northern neighbors, and placed the internal 
affairs of his kingdom in order, and, although he 
ranks as one of the greatest military commanders 
of his age, the extraordinary number of benefits 
which he conferred on every department of the 
administrative system of Sweden entitle him to 
still greater renown as the benefactor of his 
native country. The reign of Christina was 
disastrous. Karl X. was occupied in generally 
unsuccessful wars against Poland and Denmark ; 
while the long rule of his son, Karl XI.— from 
1660-97 — was characterized by success abroad 
and in the augmentation of the regal power, 
which was declared by Charles XII. In 1697, 
the male line of the Vasas expired, and his sister 
and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, 
were called to the throne by election. The 
weak Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, 
who was called to the throne on the death of 
Frederick in 1751, did little to retrieve the evil 
fortunes of the state; but his son, Gustavus III., 
(1771-92), skillfully recovered the lost power 
of the Crown. Gustavus IV. was forcibly de- 
osed in 1809, and obliged to renounce the 
rown in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The 
dominant party in Sweden elected General 
Bernadotte to the rank of crown-prince, the 
latter assumed the reins of government, and 
by his steady support of the allies against the 
French Emperor secured to Sweden, at the Con¬ 
gress of Vienna, the possession of Norway, 
when that country was separated from Denmark. 
Under the administration of Bernadotte, who 
in 1818 succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV., 
the united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway 
made great advances in material prosperity, 
and in political and intellectual progress; and 
although the nation at large entertained very 
little personal regard for their alien sovereign, 
his son and successor, Oscar (1844-59), and his 
grandsons, the late king, Charles XV., and the 
late king, Oscar II., who came to the throne 
in 1872, so identified themselves with their sub¬ 
jects that the Bernadotte Dynasty secured the 


loyal affections of every section of the united 
nations of Sweden and Norway down to 1903. 

In that year serious difficulty arose between 
Norway and Sweden, owing to the desire of the 
former for autonomous government. In 1905 
the two nations separated, and Oscar II. con¬ 
tinued monarch of Sweden until his abdication 
and death December 8, 1907, when he was 
succeeded by his oldest son, Gustave V. 

Switzerland was in Roman times inhab¬ 
ited by two races — the Helvetii, supposed to 
have been Celts, on the northwest, and the 
Rhaetians on the southeast. After the conquest 
of Gaul both races adopted the language and 
habits of Rome. When the invasions took place 
the Burgundians settled in Western Switzerland, 
while the Alemanni, another Germanic tribe, 
took possession of the country east of the River 
Aar. A third Teutonic people, the Goths, en¬ 
tered the country from Italy and took possession 
of the country of the Rhaetians. The Helvetii 
retained their old pagan creed until the Seventh 
Century, when they were converted by Irish 
monks. During the Eleventh and Twelfth Cen¬ 
turies the greater part of Switzerland was ruled 
on behalf of the emperors by the lords of Zahr- 
ingen, who, however, became extinct in 1218. 
In 1273, Rudolf of Habsburg, a Swiss nobleman, 
became emperor. Schwyz, Uri, and Unter- 
walten, with Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and 
Berne, eight cantons in all, in 1352, entered into 
a perpetual league which was the foundation of 
the Swiss Confederation. In 1415 the people of 
the cantons invaded Aargau and Thurgau, parts 
of the Austrian territory, and annexed them; 
three years later they crossed the Alps, and 
annexed Ticino, and constituted all three sub¬ 
ject states. In 1481 the towns of Freiburg and 
Soleure were admitted into the confederacy. 
Basel and Schaffhausen (1501) and Appenzell 
(1513) were next received into the confedera¬ 
tion, and its true independence began. War 
broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and 
Protestants, and the former were successful. 
During the Thirty Years' War Berne and Zurich 
contrived to maintain the neutrality of Switzer¬ 
land, and in the Treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, 
it was acknowledged by the great powers as a 
separate and independent state. In 1798, Swit¬ 
zerland was seized by the French. At the peace 
of 1815 its independence was again acknowledged. 
In 1847, the Jesuits were expelled and the monas¬ 
teries were suppressed. An attempt was madir 
by diplomatic notes to intimidate the Swiss 
Government, but the revolution of 1848 broke 
out and prevented further interference. In the 
same year the radical party carried the consti¬ 
tution of 1848. After a rebellion against the 
King of Prussia, as Prince of Neufchatel, the 
canton was declared a republic, with a constitu¬ 
tion similar to that of the other Swiss states. 

Tarpeian Rock (ttir-pe'yan), a precip¬ 
itous rock forming part of the Capitoline Hill at 
Rome over which persons convicted of treason 
to the state were hurled. It was so named, 
according to tradition, from Tarpeia, a vestal 
virgin of Rome, and daughter of the governor of 
the citadel on the Capitoline, who, covetous of 
the golden bracelets worn by the Sabine soldiery, 
opened the gate to them on the promise of receiv- 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ing what they wore on their left arms. Once 
inside the gate they threw their shields upon her, 
instead of the bracelets. She was buried at the 
base of the Tarpiean Rock. 

Tartary, properly Tatary, the name under 
which, in the Middle Ages, was comprised the 
whole central belt of Central Asia and Eastern 
Europe, from the Sea of Japan to the Dnieper, 
including Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turk¬ 
estan, Independent Turkestan, the Kalmuck and 
Kirghiz steppes, and the old khanates of Kazan, 
Astrakhan, and Crimea, and even the Cossack 
countries; and hence arose a distinction of 
Tartary into European and Asiatic. But lat¬ 
terly the name Tartary had a much more limited 
signification, including only Chinese Turkestan 
and Western Turkestan. It took its name from 
the Tatars or Tartars. 

Temple, Solomon’s, the building reared 
by Solomon as a habitation for Jehovah. David 
had planned the Temple, but was divinely for¬ 
bidden to erect it, as he had shed so much blood 
in his wars. He made great preparations for 
his son and successor, who, he learned from the 
prophet Nathan, was destined to achieve the 
work. It was built on Mount Moriah, chiefly by 
Tyrian workmen, and had massive foundations. 
The stone for its erection was dressed before its 
arrival, so that the edifice arose noiselessly; 
the floor was of cedar, boarded over with planks 
of fir; the wainscoting was of cedar, covered 
with gold, as was the whole interior. It was 
modeled inside on the tabernacle, which was 
Jehovah’s dwelling while journeyings were con¬ 
tinually taking place. There was a Holy and 
Most Holy Place. The temple was surrounded 
by an inner court for the priest. There was also 
a Great or Outward Court, called specially the 
Court of the Lord’s House. This temple was 
destroyed by the Babylonians during the siege 
of Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar. On the 
return from Babylon, a temple, far inferior to 
Solomon’s was commenced under Zerubbabel, 
B. C. 534, and, after a long intermission, was 
resumed B. C. 520, and completed B. C. 516, 
under Darius Hystaspes. The second temple 
was gradually removed by Herod, as he pro¬ 
ceeded with the building or rebuilding of a temple 
designed to rival the first rather than the second. 
The work was commenced B. C. 21 or 20; the 
temple itself was finished in about a year and a 
half, the courts in eight years, but the subse¬ 
quent operations were carried on so dilatorily 
that the Jews reckoned forty-six years as the 
whole time consumed. In the courts of this 
temple Jesus preached and healed the sick. It 
caught fire during the siege of Jerusalem under 
Titus, and was burned to the ground. 

Tennessee. The name is derived from 
“Tanase,” the Indian appellation of the Little 
Tennessee River. The first permanent white 
settlement was made on the Tennessee River, 
about thirty miles from the site of Knox¬ 
ville, and Fort Loudon built. Indian wars 
lasted till 1761, when the savages were reduced to 
terms. From 1777 to 1784 the territory formed 
a portion of North Carolina. During the four 
years subsequent, the settlers maintained an 
organization as the State of Franklin, but were 
reunited to North Carolina in 1788. In 1789 


the Territory, with that of Kentucky, was organ¬ 
ized by the United States Government, which 
had received its cession from North Carolina. 
In 1794, a distinct territorial organization was 
made, and in 1796 Tennessee was admitted as a 
State, the third under the Federal Constitution. 
The State seceded in June, 1861. The principal 
military events within her limits during the Civil 
War were the capture of Forts Henry and Donel- 
son, in February, 1862; the battle of Pittsburg 
Landing, or Shiloh, in April, 1862; the battle of 
Murfreesboro, in January, 1863; the battle of 
Chickamauga, in September, 1863; the battles 
about Chattanooga, and the battles of Franklin 
and Nashville, in November, 1864. State was 
readmitted in 1866. The Centenary of the 
State was celebrated by an Exposition at Nash¬ 
ville in 1897. In 1907 the National Rivers and 
Harbors Convention met at Memphis and was 
attended by the President. 

Teutones, a tribe of Germany, which, 
with the Cimbri, invaded Gaul in B. C. 113. In 
B. C. 102, they were defeated with great slaughter 
near Aquae Sextiae (Aix in the department of 
Bouches du Rhone) by the Roman general Mari¬ 
us. A tribe of the same name is mentioned by 
Pliny and others as inhabiting a district north of 
the Elbe, which appears to have been the original 
settlement of the Teutones before their invasion 
of Gaul. 

Teutonic Knights, a military religious 
order of knights, established toward the close of 
the Twelfth Century, in imitation of the Templars 
and Hospitallers. It was composed chiefly of 
Teutons or Germans who marched to the Holy 
Land in the Crusades, and was established in 
that country for charitable purposes. In the 
Thirteenth Century they acquired Poland and 
Prussia, and they long held sway oyer a great, 
extent of territory in this part of Europe. The 
order began to decline in the Fifteenth Century, 
and was finally abolished by Napoleon in 1809. 

Texas. The first attempt at colonization 
known to history was made by La Salle, who 
sailed into Matagorda Bay, and erected Fort St. 
Louis on the Lavaca in 1685. Four years later 
the French were ousted by the Spaniards. The 
two nationalities contested the dominion of the 
country with bitterness, though the right of pos¬ 
session was for the most part with the Spaniards. 
In 1715, the name of New Philippines was given 
to the country, and the Marquis de Aguayo was 
made governor-general, under whose rule Span¬ 
ish settlements were rapidly multiplied. In 
1762-63, France settled the feud by her cession 
of the Louisiana territory to Spain. The reces¬ 
sion of Louisiana to France in 1803, and the sale 
by the latter power to the United States, still 
left the boundary of the old Spanish possessions 
west of Louisiana open to controversy, as there 
had previously been no well-defined line. In 1806, 
the territory between the Sabine and Arroya 
Honda was established as a neutral ground by 
the Spanish and American generals commanding 
on the frontier. In the absence of any national 
settlement, a series of revolutionary intrigues 
began with the projected movement of Aaron 
Burr in 1806. Filibustering expeditions into 
Texas from the United States led to several 
severe battles, and it was not till 1819 that the 



HISTORY 


161 


Sabine River was finally established as the Texan 
boundary. The revolutionary spirit, which 
made Texas a region of turmoil, did not cease 
when Mexico became independent under the 
leadership of Iturbide. Invasions from the 
United States continued, and, though several 
peaceable and thrifty American colonies had 
been planted, the dictator Bustamante, in 1830, 
forbade the people of the United States from 
further immigration. The long bitterness be¬ 
tween the two races culminated in 1835, and the 
Americans in the province, after fighting several 
engagements, organized a provisional govern¬ 
ment, with Sam Houston as Commander-in-Chief 
of the Texan forces. A series of sanguinary 
battles ensued between the Mexican troops 
under General Santa Ana and the Texan revo¬ 
lutionists, and the atrocities of the Mexicans 
awakened deep sympathy for the Texans. 
The issue of the contest was practically settled 
with the battle of San Jacinto, April 21, 1836, 
when Santa Ana was taken prisoner. General 
Houston was elected president of the Texan 
Republic the same year, and in March, 1837, the 
United States formally recognized the new gov¬ 
ernment. Intermittent hostilities continued be¬ 
tween Mexico and Texas, which, in 1839-40, 
had been recognized by the leading European 
governments; but the threats of the former 
nation to subjugate the Texans were rendered 
negative by her own weakness and the growing 
power of the young State. The annexation of 
Texas to the United States, which led to the 
Mexican War, occurred by her admittance as a 
State in 1845, the fifteenth under the Constitu¬ 
tion. After the election of Abraham Lincoln the 
State seceded, February 23, 1861, by force of a 
popular vote, ratifying the ordinance of the con¬ 
vention called for that purpose. General Twiggs, 
on February 18th, surrendered to the State au¬ 
thorities all the United States posts, troops, and 
munitions of war in the department. No very im¬ 
portant military operations occurred within the 
State limits during the war. The last fight of 
the war took place in Texas, ending in a Federal 
defeat, on May 13, 1865, and General Kirby 
Smith surrendered the last Confederate army 
here on May 26th. Texas was readmitted to 
her full rights in the Union, March 30, 1870. A 
period of lawlessness existed in the State for a 
number of years, but was finally suppressed by 
the Texas Rangers in 1879. A storm and tidal 
wave destroyed Galveston in 1900. In the next 
year vast oil fields were discovered near Beau¬ 
mont. Colored United States soldiers engaged in 
a riot at Brownsville in 1905, and were dismissed 
from the service by the President. 

Thebes ( thebz ). The principal city of 
Bceotia, seated on the River Ismenus. Its fame 
was great in legendary Greece; it was built by 
Cadmus; Amphion reared its walls: the Sphinx, 
(Edipus, and the fatal combat of Eteocles and 
Polynices, figured in its story. It played a 
subordinate part in the history of Greece, until 
the time of Epaminondas, when by his genius 
it was raised to the first rank among the states 
of Hellas. But it fell with his death, and never 
recovered from the destructive siege by Alex¬ 
ander the Great, in 336 B. C.—A city of Egypt, 
on the Nile, called No in the Old Testament, and 


in the Iliad celebrated for its 100 gates, and its 
vast military forces. Amun, or Ammon, was 
especially worshiped there. Among its ruins 
are the magnificent temples of Luxor and Kar- 
nak, on the east bank of the Nile. 

Thermopylae, a celebrated pass of 
Ancient Greece, leading from Thessaly into 
Locris, between Northern and Southern Greece. 
It lay between Mount (Eta (celebrated mytho¬ 
logically as the mountain on which Hercules 
burnt himself to death) and a morass which 
fringed the Malic or Maliac Gulf; both the east¬ 
ern and the western entrance to the pass approach¬ 
ing so close to the morass as to leave room for 
only a single carriage. In this pass, Leonidas, 
King of Sparta, was appointed to oppose the 
invading armies of Xerxes (480 B. C.). These 
were driven back with immense slaughter, in 
their repeated attempts to force the pass, till 
at last Ephialtes, a Malain, guided a body of 
Persians over the mountain, and thus enabled 
them to fall on the rear of the Greeks, who were 
all slain (Leonidas included), with the exception 
of one man. The pass derived its name from the 
hot springs, sacred to Hercules, by which it was 
distinguished. 

Thirty Tyrants of Rome. The collec¬ 
tive title given to a set of military usurpers who 
sprung up in different parts of the empire during 
the fifteen years (253-268 A. D.) occupied by 
the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, and, amid 
the wretched confusion of the time, endeavored 
to establish themselves as independent princes. 
The name is borrowed from the Thirty Tyrants 
of Athens, but, in reality, historians can reckon 
only nineteen: Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista, 
Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; Postumus, 
Lollianus, Victorinus and his mother Victoria, 
Marius, and Tetricus, in the West; Ingenuus, 
Regillianus, and Aureolus, in Illyricum and the 
countries about the Danube; Saturninus, in 
Pontus; Trebellianus, in Isauria; Piso, in Thes¬ 
saly; Valens, in Achaea; JEmilianus, in Egypt; 
and Celsus, in Africa. 

Thirty Years’ War (1618 to 1648), a 
war in Germany, at first a struggle between 
Roman Catholics and Protestants. Subse¬ 
quently it became a struggle for political ascend¬ 
ancy in Europe. On the one side were Austria, 
nearly all the Roman Catholic princes of Ger¬ 
many, and Spain; on the other side were, at 
different times, the Protestant powers and 
France. The occasion of this war was found 
in the fact that Germany had been distracted 
ever since the Reformation by the mutual jeal¬ 
ousy of Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. 
Certain concessions had been made to the Prot¬ 
estants of Bohemia by Rudolph II. (1609), but 
these were withdrawn by his successor Matthias 
in 1614, and four years afterward the Bohemian 
Protestants were in rebellion. Count Thurn at 
the head of the insurgents repeatedly routed the 
imperial troops, compelling them to retire from 
Bohemia, and (1619) invaded the archduchy 
of Austria. Matthias having died in 1619, he 
was succeeded by Ferdinand II., who was a 
rigid Catholic, but the Protestants elected as 
their king, Frederick, Elector Palatine, who 
was a Protestant. Efforts at mediation having 
failed, the Catholic forces of Germany marched 




162 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


against Frederick, who, with an army of Bohemi¬ 
ans, Moravians, and Hungarians, kept the field 
till November 8, 1620, when he was totally 
routed at Weissenberg, near Prague, by Duke 
Maximilian of Bavaria. The Protestant cause 
was now crushed in Bohemia, and the people of 
that province were much embittered. The 
dominions of Frederick, the Palatinate of the 
Rhine included, were now conquered, the latter 
being occupied by Count Tilly, assisted by the 
Spaniards under Spinola. At the Diet of Ratis- 
bon (March, 1623) Frederick was deprived of 
his territories, Duke Maximilian receiving the 
Palatinate. Ferdinand, whose succession to the 
throne of Bohemia was thus secured, sought for¬ 
eign assistance, and a new period of war began. 
Christian IV. of Denmark, induced partly by 
religious zeal and partly by the hope of an ac¬ 
quisition of territory, came to the aid of his 
German co-religionists (1624), and being joined 
by Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced 
into lower Saxony. There they were met by 
Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland, who in 1626 
defeated Mansfeld at Dessau, while Tilly was also 
successful in driving Christian back to Denmark. 
In the peace of Liibeck which followed (May, 
1629), Christian of Denmark received back all 
his occupied territory, and undertook not to 
meddle again in German affairs. After this sec¬ 
ond success, Ferdinand again roused his people 
by an edict which required restitution to the 
Roman Catholic Church of all church lands and 
property acquired by them since 1552. 

To the assistance of the Protestants of Germany 
came Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who 
landed (1630) with a small army on the coast of 
Pomerania. Joined by numerous volunteers, 
and aided by French money, he advanced, and 
routed Tilly at Breitenfeld (or the battle of 
Leipsic, September, 1631), victoriously trav¬ 
ersed the Main and the Rhine valleys, defeated 
Tilly again near the confluence of the Lech and 
the Danube (April, 1632), and entered Munich. 
Meanwhile the emperor sought the aid of Wal¬ 
lenstein, by whose ability and energy Gustavus 
was obliged to retire to Saxony, where he gained 
the great victory of Liitzen (November, 1632), 
but was himself mortally wounded in the battle. 
The war was now carried on by the Swedes under 
the chancellor Oxenstiema, till the rout of the 
Swedish forces at Nordlingen (September, 1634) 
again gave to the emperor the preponderating 
power in Germany. The Elector of Saxony, 
who had been an ally of Gustavus, now made 
peace at Prague (May, 1635), and within a few 
months the treaty was accepted by many of the 
German princes. The Swedes, however, thought 
it to their interest to continue the war, while 
France resolved to take a more active part in the 
conflict. Thus the last stage of the war was a 
contest of France and Sweden against Austria, 
in which the Swedish generals gained various 
successes over the imperial forces, while the 
French armies fought with varied fortunes in 
West Germany and on the Rhine. Meanwhile 
the emperor had died (1637), and had been suc¬ 
ceeded by his son, Ferdinand III. The struggle 
still continued till, in 1646, the united armies of 
the French under the great generals Turenne 
and Conde, and the Swedes advanced through 


Suabia and Bavaria. The combined forces of 
Sweden, Bavaria, and France were then about to 
advance on Austria, when the news reached the 
armies that the peace of Westphalia (1648) was 
concluded, and that the long struggle was ended. 

Ticonderoga, a village in Essex County, 
N. Y., on Lake Champlain. Ticonderoga fig¬ 
ured prominently during the colonial and revo¬ 
lutionary periods. In 1755 the French erected 
a fort here and named it Carillon. Two years 
later Montcalm started from this place with 
9,000 men and captured Fort William Henry on 
Lake George. In 1758 General Abercrombie 
endeavored to take the French fort, and was 
repulsed after losing 2,000 men; but in 1759 it 
fell into the hands of General Amherst together 
with Crown Point. Both were then enlarged 
and strengthened at a heavy expense. In 1775 
the works were taken by Ethan Allen while 
weakly garrisoned. Two years later the fort 
surrendered to General Burgoyne, and after 
being dismantled was abandoned. 

Tiers Etat ( te-arz a-tah'). [Fr., the third 
estate.] This term was universally applied in 
France to the mass of the people under the old 
regime. Before the cities rose to wealth and 
influence, the nobility and clergy possessed the 
property of almost the whole country, and the 
people were subject to the most degrading hu¬ 
miliations. But as trade and commerce began 
to render men independent, and they were able 
to shake off their feudal bonds, the Tiers Etat 
gradually rose into importance; and at length 
the third estate, during the Revolution, may be 
said to have become the nation itself. 

Tilsit, a town of Germany, in the Prussian 
province of East Prussia, on the river Niemen, 
about sixty miles northeast of Konigsberg. It 
is celebrated for the Peace concluded in the 
town, in 1807, between the Emperor Napoleon, 
the Emperor of Russia, and the King of Prussia. 
The three monarchs met on a raft moored in the 
river. The population of the town at last census 
was 34,539. 

Toleration, Act of, an Act of Parlia¬ 
ment passed in the reign of William and Mary 
(1689), and confirmed by Anne, relieving all 
persons who dissented from the Church of Eng¬ 
land (except Roman Catholics and persons who 
denied the doctrines of the Trinity) from many 
of the disabilities under which they had been 
placed by the acts of former reigns. By the 
Act of Toleration, such persons were to be no 
longer prevented from assembling for religious 
worship according to their own forms, but they 
were to be required to take the oaths of allegiance 
and supremacy, and to subscribe a declaration 
against transubstantiation; and Dissenting min¬ 
isters were to be also required to subscribe to cer¬ 
tain of the Thirty-nine Articles. The benefits of 
the Act were subsequently (in 1813) extended to 
persons who denied the doctrine of the Trinity. 
Most of the remaining disabilities of Nonconform¬ 
ists have been removed by later legislation; and 
the disabilities of the Roman Catholics (which 
were continued by the Act of Toleration) were 
repealed in 1829 by the passing of the Catholic 
Emancipation Act. 

Toltecs, a Mexican race who are supposed 
to have been supreme in Central America from 



HISTORY 


163 


the Seventh to the Eleventh Centuries. They 
were completely obliterated by the Aztecs and 
Tezcucans, who held the country when the 
Spaniards first landed. The latter races were of 
a martial spirit, but they were indebted for their 
arts, their civilization, and their religion to their 
milder predecessors. The Toltecs present striking 
analogies to the Etruscans, and in a less degree to 
the Egyptians and Assyrians. They were great 
builders, and their religion was a mystic system 
of great complexity, intimately connected with 
the study of astronomy, and interpreted by a 
priesthood, who formed an exclusive caste. 

Tory, a political party name of Irish origin, 
first used in England about 1679, applied origin¬ 
ally to Irish Revolutionary Catholic outlaws, and 
then generally to those who refused to concur in 
the scheme to exclude James II. from the throne. 
The nickname, like its contemporaneous oppo¬ 
site, Whig, in coming into popular use became 
much less strict in its application, till at last it 
came simply to signify an adherent of that politi¬ 
cal party in the state who disapproved of change 
in the ancient constitution, and who supported 
the claims and authority of the king, church, 
and aristocracy, while their opponents, the Whigs 
were in favor of more or less radical changes, and 
supported the claims of the democracy. In 
modern times the term has to some extent been 
supplanted by Conservative. 

Tournament, or Tourney, a common 
sport of the middle ages, in which parties of 
mounted knights encountered each other with 
lances and swords in order to display their skill 
in arms. Tournaments reached their full per¬ 
fection in Franee in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 
where they first received the form under which 
they are known to us. They were introduced 
into England soon after the Conquest by the 
Normans. Jousts were single combats between 
two knights, and at a tournament there would 
often be a number of jousts as well as combats 
between parties of knights. The place of combat 
was the lists, a large open place surrounded by 
ropes or a railing. Galleries were erected for 
the spectators, among whom were seated the 
ladies, the supreme judges of the tournaments. 
A knight taking part in a tournament generally 
carried some device emblematic of a lady’s 
favor. Tournaments gradually went out with 
the decline of chivalry, and are rare, except in 
America, where they are a form of sport. 

Tower of London. The most ancient, 
and historically the most interesting pile in the 
English metropolis ; a mass of buildings on the 
north side of the Thames, immediately to the 
east of the ancient city walls, its ramparts and 
gates surrounded by a dry ditch in pentagonal 
shape; in outer circuit measuring 1,050 yards. 
Within this the whole of the buildings are en¬ 
circled by a double line of walls and bulwarks, 
in some places forty feet high and twelve feet 
thick; the space between the walls being known 
as the outer ward, and the interior as the inner 
ward. The inner ward was formerly the royal 
quarter. The outer ward was the folk’s quarter. 
The inner ward is defended by twelve massive 
and conspicuous towers, stationed at unequal 
distances, and possessing distinctive names 
and formations. In the center, rearing its head 


proudly above them all, stands the main quad¬ 
rangular building and great Norman keep, 
known as the White Tower. To the north are 
the barracks, and to the northwest the Church 
of St. Peter and Vincula. The entrance to the 
buildings is on the west side by the Lion’s Gate 

For centuries the tower was a palace, a prison, 
a fortress, and a court of law. Here the Plan- 
tagenet kings held their gay tournaments, mag¬ 
nificent revels, and pompous religious cere¬ 
monials. Here also tragedy succeeded tragedy, 
and the innocent blood of many of England’s 
bravest and most beautiful poured forth in a 
cruel stream. Wise statesmen, fair queens, 
child princes, noble warriors, and priests were 
slain, their only crimes, in many cases, being 
their rank, their patriotism, and their faith. 
“No sadder spot on earth,” says Macaulay, 
of England. . . . “Death is there associ¬ 
ated . . . with whatever is darkest in hu¬ 

man nature and in human destiny, with the 
savage triumph of implacable enemies, with 
the inconstancy, the ingratitude, the cowardice 
of friends, with all the miseries of fallen great' 
ness and of blighted fame.” 

The tower is now chiefly used as an arsenal, 
and has a small military garrison of the yeomen 
of the guard. The governorship is still a post 
of distinction. 

Treaty, A, in public law, is an agreement 
of friendship, alliance, commerce, or navigation, 
entered into between two or more independent 
states. Treaties have been divided by pub¬ 
licists into 'personal and real, the difference being 
that the former relate exclusively to the per¬ 
sons of the contracting parties — e. g., treaties 
guaranteeing the throne to a particular sovereign 
and his family, and the latter are treaties for 
national objects, independent of the rulers of 
the state. While personal treaties expire with 
the death of the sovereign, or the extinction of 
his family, real treaties bind the contracting 
parties independently of any change in the sov¬ 
ereignty of the states. The constitution of each 
particular state must be looked to to determine 
in whom the power of negotiating and contract¬ 
ing treaties with foreign powers resides. In 
monarchies, whether absolute or constitutional, 
it is usually vested in the sovereign. In repub¬ 
lics the chief magistrate, senate, or executive 
council is intrusted. The Constitution of the 
United States of America (Article II, Section 2) 
vests it in the President, with the advice and 
consent of the Senate. No special form of words 
is necessary for the validity of a treaty; but 
modern usage requires that an agreement 
which has originally been verbal should, as soon 
as possible, be committed to writing. Treaties 
of alliance may be offensive or defensive; in 
the former the ally engages to cooperate in hos¬ 
tilities against a specified power, or against any 
power with which the other may be at war; in 
the latter, the engagements of the ally extend 
only to a war of aggression commenced against 
the other contracting party. 

Treaties, Coalitions, Conventions, 
and Leagues. The principal treaties of 
history are the following: 

Adrianople, 1829, Adrianople restored by the Rus¬ 
sians to Turkey. 



164 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Aix-La-Chapelle, 1748, celebrated treaty between 
Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and 
Genoa. A number of previous treaties renewed and con¬ 
firmed. , .... , 

Aix-La-Chapelle, 1818, between the Allies and 
France. The latter paid 265,000,000 francs to the 

Amiens, 1803, Treaty of Peace between Great Britain 
and Holland, France, and Spain. 

Augsburg, League of 1686, between Holland and 
other European powers to enforce respect for the treaties 
of Munster and Nimeguen. 

Baden, 1714, terminating the War of the Spanish 
succession, between France and the Emperor. 

Basel, 1795, treaties between France and Prussia and 
between France and Spain. 

Berlin, decree, 1806, issued by Napoleon I., against 
the commerce of England. 

Breda, 1667, treaty between England, Holland, 
France, and Denmark. 

Breslau, 1743, between Maria Theresa of Austria 
and Frederick II. of Prussia. 

Bretigny, 1360, treaty of peace that interrupted the 
Hundred Years’ War between England and France. 

Calmar, Union of, 1397, United Denmark, Sweden, 
and Norway under Queen Margaret of Denmark. 

Cambray, 1508, league against Venice, comprising 
the Pope, the Emperor, and the Kings of France and 
Spain. 

Cambray, Peace of, 1539, between Francis I. and 
Charles V. 

Campo Formio, Peace of, 1797, between France 
and Austria. 

Carlowitz, Peace of, 1699, between Turkey and 
Austria, Poland and Venice. Humiliating concessions 
made by Austria. 

Carlsbad, Congress of, 1819, held by the German 
powers to protest against the progress of free institutions 
and popular rights. 

Catholic League, 1576, formed to prevent the 
accession of Henry IV. of France. 

Coalitions Against France, 1793, 1799, 1805, 
1806, 1809, 1813, led by England and entered into by 
the great powers of the Continent to break down French 
influence in Europe. 

Concordat, 1801, between Napoleon I. and Pius VII., 
whereby the former was made in effect head of the 
Gallican Church. 

Constance, 1183, between Frederick Barbarossa 
and the Lombard cities. 

Copenhagen, 1660, treaty between Denmark and 
Sweden. 

Fontainebleau, 1807, treaty between Napoleon and 
the royal family of Spain. 

Frankfort, 1871, conclusion of the preliminary 
treaty of Versailles. 

Gastein, Convention of, 1865, between Prussia and 
Austria. 

Ghent, 1814, treaty of Peace between United States 
and England, closing War of 1812. 

Hamburg, 1341, league with Lubeck, giving rise to 
the Hanseatic League. 

Holy Alliance, 1815, a league between the Emperors 
of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, by which 
they ostensibly bound themselves to Christian principles 
in political matters. 

Hubertusburg, 1763, peace between Austria, Prus¬ 
sia, and Saxony. 

Jay’s Treaty, 1794, between the United States and 
Great Britain. 

Kiel, 1814, between Denmark, Sweden, and England. 
Norway and Sweden united. 

Kutchuk-Kainardji, 1774, between Turkey and 
Russia. 

London, 1840, quadruple treaty between Great 
Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia on the one hand, 
and Turkey, touching the states of Egypt. 

Luneville, 1801, between France and Austria and 
the German Empire. 

Madrid, 1536, treaty between Charles V. and Francis 

I. 

Munster, 1648, between France and the Emperor of 
Sweden. By this peace, the principle of a balance of 
power, in Europe was first recognized. - 

Nanking, 1843, ended the opium war between Great 
Britain and China. 

Nantes, Edict of, 1598, by which Henry IV. of 
France granted toleration to the Huguenots. 

Nystad, 1731, closed the war between Sweden and 
Russia. 

Paris, Treaties of: 1763, terminating the Seven 
Years’ War, in Austria, the French and Indian War. 
1783, terminating the American Revolutionary War. 


1814-15, between France and the Coalition. 1856, 
terminating the Crimean War. 1898, terminating the 
Spanish-American War. 

Partitions of Poland by following countries: 

1773, secret treaty between Russia, Prussia, and 
Austria. 

1793, between Russia and Prussia. 

1795, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 

Passau, 1553, securing the liberties of German 
Lutherans. 

Perry’s Treaty, 1854, commercial treaty between 
United States and Japan. 

Portsmouth, 1905, treaty between Japan and Rus¬ 
sia, closing the Russo-Japanese War. 

Prague, 1866, peace between Prussia and Austria. 

Pressburg, 1805, peace between France and Austria; 
ancient states of Venice ceded to Italy, and independence 
of Switzerland stipulated. 

Pretoria, 1903, terminated the Boer War between 
Great Britain and the Transvaal. 

Pyrenees, 1659, between France and Spain; mutual 
concessions of territory made. 

Quadruple Alliance, 1718, celebrated treaty be¬ 
tween Great Britain, France, Austria, and Holland, for 
the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reign¬ 
ing families in Great Britain and France, and settling 
the partition of the Spanish Monarchy. 

Rastatt, 1714, between France and Austria. 

Rastatt, Congress of, 1797, between France and 
the Empire, established a general peace with the Ger¬ 
manic powers. 

Ratisbon, 1806, secession of the Germanic princes 
from the Empire, to the cause of Napoleon, forming the— 

Rhine, Confederation of, 1806. 

Ryswick, 1697, peace between France and the allied 
powers, closing the war of the “Patch Note.” 

St. Clair-Sur-Epte, 911, terminated the war be¬ 
tween the Norse under Rolla and Charles the Simple of 
France. 

Saint Germain, 1570, peace between the Catholics 
and Huguenots. 

San Stefano, 1878, this treaty, supplemented by 
the Congress of Berlin, closed the Russian-Turkish War. 

Sohonbrunn, 1809, treaty between France and Austria. 

Shimonoseki, 1895, closed the war between Japan 
and China. 

The Hague, 1659, between England, France, and 
Holland, with a view to preserve the equilibrium of 
Northern Europe. 

Thorn, 1466, settled the terms of the Polish conquest 
of Western Prussia. 

Tientsin, 1858, between China and each of the 
nations of Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United 
States. 

Tilsit, 1807, treaty concluded between France and 
Russia, whereby Napoleon restored to the Prussian 
Monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recog¬ 
nized the Confederates of the Rhine, and the elevation 
of Napoleon’s brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome to the 
thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. 

Tolentino, 1797, between the Pope and the French 
Republic. 

Triple Alliance, 1668, the celebrated alliance be¬ 
tween the States-General and England against France 
for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands. Sweden 
afterward joined the league. 

Triple Alliance, 1883, between Austria, Germany, 
and Italy. 

Troyes, 1430, between England, France, and Bur¬ 
gundy, whereby Henry V. of England succeeded to the 
throne of France. 

Ulin, 1630, by which Frederick V. lost Bohemia. 

Utrecht, 1713, terminated the wars of Queen Anne 
of England, and secured the Protestant succession in 
England, and enlarged British colonization in America. 

Utrecht, Union of, 1579, foundations of the Dutch 
Republic laid. 

Valencay, 1813, between Napoleon and Ferdinand 
VII. of Spain, whereby the latter restored full possession 
of his kingdom upon agreeing to maintain its integrity. 

Verdun, Contract of, 843, concluded the war be¬ 
tween Lothaire, Ludwig the German, and Charles the 
Bald, and settled their respective imperial dominions after 
the death of their father, Louis the Pious. 

Verona, Congress of, 1833, held by the great 
powers to adjust Spanish and Grecian disturbances. 

Versailles, 1783, between Great Britain and the 
United States at close of American Revolution; the 
treaty was signed in Paris. 1783, between Great Britain, 
France, and Spain. 1871, between France and Ger¬ 
many; William I. proclaimed Emperor of Germany. 

Vienna, 1735, treaty between the Emperor of Ger¬ 
many and the King of Spain, settling the sovereignty 



HISTORY 


165 


over certain parts of the Spanish dominions. 1731, 
treaty of alliance between Germany, Great Britain, and 
Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was granted, 
and the Spanish succession settled. 1738, treaty of 
peace between Germany and France; Loraine ceded to 
France, and France guaranteed the Pragmatic sanction. 
1809, treaty of peace between Napoleon and Francis I, 
of Austria. Austria ceded to France the Illyrian Prov¬ 
inces. 1815, treaty between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, confirming the treaty of Chaumont. 
1815, treaty between the Low Countries, and Great 
Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, agreeing to the 
enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the 
sovereignty in the house of Orange. 1815, Federative 
constitution of Germany signed. 

Warsaw, 1683, alliance between Austria and Poland 
against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski 
assisted in raising the siege of Vienna. 1768, treaty 
between Russia and Poland. 

Washington, 1842, Ashburton treaty defined the 
northeastern boundary between the United States and 
Canada. 

Washington, 1871, between Great Britain and the 
United States to adjust the Alabama claims. 

Westphalia, 1648, treaty of peace between France, 
Germany, and Sweden, terminating the Thirty Years’ 
War. 

Worms, Concordat of, 1122, between the Emperor 
and the Pope, closed the long strife called the War of 
Investitures. 

Worms, Diet of, 1521, imperial conclave before 
whom Luther was summoned and presented. 

Zurich, 1859, closed the dispute between Austria 
and France and Sardinia. 

Tribune ( tribunus ), in Roman antiquity 
originally an officer connected with a tribe, or 
who represented a tribe for certain purposes; 
especially, an officer or magistrate chosen by 
the people to protect them from the oppression 
of the patricians or nobles, and to defend their 
liberties against any attempts that might be 
made upon them by the senate and consuls. 
These magistrates were at first two, but their 
number was increased to five, and ultimately 
to ten. This last number appears to have re¬ 
mained unaltered, down to the end of the em¬ 
pire. There were also military tribunes, officers 
of the army, each of whom commanded a division 
or legion, and also other officers called tribunes; 
as, tribunes of the treasury, of the horse, etc. 

Triumvirate, a coalition of three men 
in office or authority; specifically applied to 
two great coalitions of the three most powerful 
individuals in the Roman Empire for the time 
being. The first of these was effected in the 
year 60 B. C., between Julius Caesar, Pornpey, 
and Crassus, who pledged themselves to support 
each other with all their influence. This coali¬ 
tion was broken by the fall of Crassus at Carrhae 
in Mesopotamia, soon after which the civil war 
broke out, which ended in the death of Pompey, 
and establishment of Julius Caesar as perpetual 
dictator. After his murder, 44 B. C., the civil 
war again broke out; and after the battle of 
Mutina, 43 B. C., Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus 
coalesced, thus forming the second triumvirate. 
They divided the provinces of the empire, 
Octavius taking the West, Lepidus, Italy, and 
Antony, the East. 

Troy, or Ilium (Greek, Troia or Ilion), 
an ancient city in the Troad, a territory in the 
northwest of Asia Minor, south of the western 
extremity of the Hellespont, rendered famous 
by Homer's epic of the Iliad. The region is for 
the most part mountainous, being intersected 
by Mount Ida and its branches. There have 
been various opinions regarding the site of the 
Homeric city, the most probable of which places 


ancient Troy at the head of the plain bounded 
by the modern river Mendereh, supposed to be 
the Scamander of Homer, and the Dombrek, 
probably the Homeric Simois. The Ilium of 
history was founded about 700 B. C. by iEolic 
Greeks, and was regarded as occupying the site 
of the ancient city, but this is doubtful; it 
never became a place of much importance. 
The ancient and legendary city, according to 
the Homeric story, reached its highest splen¬ 
dor when Priam was king; but the abduction 
of Helen, wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta, by 
Paris, one of Priam's sons, brought about its 
destruction. To revenge this outrage, all the 
Greek chiefs, afterwards famous in history, 
banded themselves against the Trojans and 
their allies, and went against Troy with a great 
fleet. The first nine years of the war were spent 
by the Greeks in driving the Trojans and their 
allies within the walls of the capital. The tenth 
year brought about a quarrel between Achilles, 
the bravest of the Greeks, and Agamemnon, 
the Greek commander-in-chief, which proved 
for a time disastrous to their party. This 
forms the subject of the Iliad. In the end, the 
city was taken by means of a large hollow wooden 
horse, in which a number of the bravest of the 
Greek heroes concealed themselves, while the 
rest retired to their ships. Thinking that the 
Greeks had given up the siege, the Trojans in¬ 
cautiously drew the horse within the city, and 
gave themselves up to revelry. The Greeks 
within the horse issued from their concealment, 
and, being joined by their companions without 
the walls, Troy was taken and utterly destroyed. 
This is said to have occurred about 1184 B. C. 
Not only has the site of the ancient city been 
disputed, but, the legends connected with it are 
held by some scholars to have no historical 
foundation; nor has this view been altered by 
the excavations of Schliemann, and his dis¬ 
covery of the remains of a prehistoric city or 
cities at Hissarlik, the site of the historic Ilium. 

Tudor, the name of one of the royal families 
of England allied to the race of Plantagenets. 
The line embraced five sovereigns, and com¬ 
menced in 1485 with Henry Tudor, Earl of 
Richmond, the grandson by his wife of Sir 
Owen Tudor, a Welsh knight of distinction, the 
widow of Henry V., and who, after the battle 
of Bosworth Field, was proclaimed king with 
the title of Henry VII. From him the crown 
descended to his son Henry VIII., whose son 
Edward VI. succeeded, and after him his two 
sisters, Mary and Elizabeth; the Tudor dynasty 
expired with the death of Elizabeth in 1603, 
when the house of Stuart succeeded. 

Tuileries (twe'-ler-iz), the residence of the 
French monarchs, on the right bank of the 
Seine, in Paris. Catharine de’ Medici, wife of 
Henry II., began the building (1564); Henry 
IV. extended it, and founded the old gallery 
(1600); and Louis XIV. enlarged it (1654), 
and completed that gallery. The side toward 
the Louvre consisted of five pavilions, and four 
ranges of buildings; the other side had only 
three pavilions. During the revolution of 1830 
the palace was sacked. It was restored by 
Louis Philippe to its former splendor, but in 
1848 it was again pillaged. The Tuileries then 



166 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


became a hospital for wounded soldiers, a picture 
gallery, and the home of Louis Napoleon in 
1851. On May 23, 1871, it was almost totally 
destroyed by fire (the work of the communists), 
and the remaining portions were removed in 
the year 1883. 

Turkish, or Ottoman, Empire com¬ 
prises the territories in Europe, Asia, and Africa 
more or less under the sway of the Turkish 
sultan. In Europe, besides the immediate 
provinces in the Balkan Peninsula, are Bulgaria 
(with Eastern Roumelia), and Bosnia, Herze¬ 
govina, etc., held by Austria; in Asia, Asia 
Minor, Syria, including Palestine, Mesopotamia, 
part of Arabia, Candia, and others of the islands 
of the archipelago; in Africa, Egypt, over 
which there is a nominal suzerainty, and the 
vilayet of Tripoli. Formerly the empire was 
much more extensive, even in recent times com¬ 
prising Greece, Rumania, Servia, Bessarabia, 
Tunis, etc. We shall here give a brief sketch 
of the history of the Ottoman Empire, referring to 
the article Turkey for information regarding the 
geography, constitution, etc., of Turkey proper. 

The Ottoman Turks came originally from 
the region of the Altai Mountains, in Central 
Asia, and in the Sixth Century A. D., pushed 
onward to the west in connection with other 
Turkish tribes. Early in the Eighth Century 
they came in contact with the Saracens, from 
whom they took their religion, and of whom 
they were first the slaves and mercenaries, and 
finally the successors in the caliphate. In the 
Thirteenth Century they appeared as allies of 
the Seljukian Turks against the Mongols, and 
for their aid received a grant of lands from the 
Seljuk sultan of Iconium in Asia Minor. Their 
leader, Othman or Osman, of the race of Og- 
huzian Turkomans, became the most powerful 
emir of Western Asia, and after the death of 
the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, in the year 1300, 
he proclaimed himself sultan. He died in 1326. 
Thus was founded upon the ruins of the Saracen, 
Seljuk, and Mongol power the Empire of the 
Osman or Ottoman Turks in Asia; and after 
Osman, the courage, policy, and enterprise of 
eight great princes, whom the dignity of caliph 
placed in possession of the standard of the 
Prophet, and who were animated by religious 
fanaticism and a passion for military glory, 
raised it to the rank of the first military power 
in both Europe and Asia (1300-1566). 

The first of them was Orkhan, son of Osman. 
He subdued all Asia Minor to the Hellespont, 
took the title of Padishah, and became son-in- 
law to the Greek Emperor Cantacuzenus. Ork- 
han’s son, Soliman, first invaded Europe in 
1355. He fortified Gallipoli and Sestos, and 
thereby held possession of the straits which 
separate the two continents. In 1360 Orkhan’s 
second son and successor, Amurath I., took 
Adrianople, which became the seat of the Em¬ 
pire in Europe, conquered Macedonia, Albania, 
and Servia, and defeated a great Slav confedera¬ 
tion under the Bosnian King Stephen at Kos- 
sova in 1389. After him Bajazet, surnamed 
Ilderim ( Lightning ), invaded Thessaly, and also 
advanced towards Constantinople. In 1396 
he defeated the Western Christians under Sigis- 
mund, King of Hungary, at Nicopolis, in Bul¬ 


garia; but at Angora, in 1402, he was himself 
conquered and taken prisoner by Timour, who 
divided the provinces between the sons of Ba¬ 
jazet. Finally, in 1413, the fourth son of Ba¬ 
jazet, Mohammed I., seated himself upon the 
undivided throne of Osman. In 1415 his vic¬ 
torious troops reached Salzburg and invaded 
Bavaria. He conquered the Venetians at 
Thessalonica in 1420; and his celebrated grand- 
vizier Ibrahim created a Turkish navy. Mo¬ 
hammed was succeeded by his son, Amurath II., 
who defeated Ladislaus, King of Hungary and 
Poland, at Varna, in 1444. Mohammed II., 
the son of Amurath, completed the work of 
conquest (1451-81). He attacked Constanti¬ 
nople, which was taken May 29, 1453, and the 
Byzantine Empire came finally to an end. 
Since that time the city has been the seat of the 
Sublime Porte or Turkish Government. Mo¬ 
hammed added Servia, Bosnia, Albania, and 
Greece to the Ottoman Empire, and threatened 
Italy, which, however, was freed from danger 
by his death at Otranto in 1480. His grandson, 
Selim I., who had dethroned and murdered his 
father in 1517, conquered Egypt and Syria. 
Under Soliman II., the Magnificent, who reigned 
between 1519 and 1566, the Ottoman Empire 
reached the highest pitch of power and splen¬ 
dor. In 1522 he took Rhodes from the Knights 
of St. John, and by the victory of Mohacz, in. 
1526, subdued half of Hungary. He exacted a 
tribute from Moldavia, made Bagdad, Mesopo¬ 
tamia, and Georgia subject to him, and threat¬ 
ened to overrun Germany, but was checked 
before the walls of Vienna (1529). Soliman 
had as an opponent Charles V. of Germany, 
as an ally Francis II. of France. From his 
time the race of Osman degenerated and the 
power of the Porte declined. 

In the latter part of the Sixteenth Century, 
and most of the Seventeenth Century, the chief 
wars were with Venice and with Austria. The 
battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the Ottoman 
fleet was overthrown by the combined fleets 
of Venice and Spain, was the first great Ottoman 
reverse at sea; and the battle of St. Gothard 
(1664), near Vienna, in which Montecuculi de¬ 
feated the Vizier Kiuprili, the first great Otto¬ 
man reverse on land. In 1683 Vienna was be¬ 
sieged by the Turks, but was relieved by John 
Sobieski and Charles of Lorraine; in 1687 the 
Turks were again defeated at Mohacz, and in 
1697 (by Prince Eugene), at Szenta. Then fol¬ 
lowed the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, by which 
Mustapha II. agreed to renounce his claims 
upon Transylvania and a large part of Hungary, 
to give up the Morea to the Venetians, to restore 
Podolia and the Ukraine to Poland, and to 
leave Azov to the Russians. Eugene’s subse¬ 
quent victories at Peterwardein and Belgrade 
obliged the Porte to give up, by the Treaty of 
Passarowitz in 1718, Temeswar, Belgrade, with 
a part of Servia and Walachia; but the Turks 
on the other hand took the Morea from Venice, 
and by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 regained 
Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wallachia, while 
for a time they also regained Azov. 

Russia, which had been making steady ad¬ 
vances under Peter the Great and subsequently, 
now became the great opponent of Turkey. In 




HISTORY 


167 


the middle of the Eighteenth Century the Otto¬ 
man Empire still embraced a large part of 
Southern Russia. The victories of Catharine II.’s 
general Romanzoff in the war between 1768 
and 1774 determined the political superiority 
of Russia, and at the Peace of Kutchuk-Kain- 
arji, in 1774, Abdul-Hamid was obliged to re¬ 
nounce his sovereignty over the Crimea, to yield 
to Russia the country between the Bog and the 
Dnieper, with Kinburn and Azov, and to open 
his seas to the Russian merchant ships. By the 
Peace of Jassy, 1792, which closed the war of 
1787-91, Russia retained Taurida and the coun¬ 
try between the Bog and the Dniester, together 
with Otchakov, and gained some accessions in 
the Caucasus. In the long series of wars which 
followed the French revolution the Ottoman 
Empire first found herself opposed to France, 
in consequence of Bonaparte’s campaign in 
Egypt, and finally to Russia, who demanded 
a more distinct recognition of her protectorate 
over the Christians, and to whom, by the Peace 
of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, she ceded that part 
of Moldavia and Bessarabia which lies beyond 
the Pruth. In 1817, Mahmud II. was obliged 
to give up the principal mouth of the Danube 
to Russia. Further disputes ended in the Porte 
making further concessions, which tended 
towards loosening the connection of Servia, 
Moldavia, and Wallachia with Turkey. In 1821, 
broke out the war of Greek independence. The 
remonstrances of Britain, France, and Russia, 
against the cruelties with which the war against 
the Greeks was carried on, proving of no avail, 
those powers attacked and destroyed the fleet 
of Mahmud at Navarino (1827). In 1826, the 
massacre of the Janizaries took place at Con¬ 
stantinople, after a revolt. In 1828-29, the 
Russians crossed the Balkans and took Adrian- 
ople, the war being terminated by the Peace of 
Adrianople (1829). In that year Turkey had 
to recognize the independence of Greece. In 
1831-33, Mehemet Ali, nominally Pasha of Egypt, 
but real ruler both of that and Syria, levied 
war against the sultan of Turkey, and threatened 
Constantinople; when the Russians, who had 
been called on for their aid by the sultan, forced 
the invaders to desist. In 1840 Mehemet Ali 
again rose against his sovereign; but through 
the active intervention of Great Britain, Austria, 
and Russia, was compelled to evacuate Syria, 
though he was, in recompense, recognized as 
hereditary viceroy of Egypt. 

The next important event in the history of 
the Ottoman Empire was the war with Russia, 
in which Turkey became involved in 1853, and 
in which she was joined by England and France 
in the following year. This war, known as the 
Crimean War, speedily terminated with the 
defeat of Russia, and the conclusion of a treaty 
at Paris on the 30th of March, 1856, by which 
the influence of Russia in Turkey was greatly 
reduced. The principal articles were the aboli¬ 
tion of the Russian protectorate over the Dan- 
ubian principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia, 
united in 1861 as the principality of Rumania), 
the rectification of the frontier between Russia 
and Turkey, and the cession of part of Bessarabia 
to the latter power. 

In 1875 the people of Herzegovina, unable 


to endure any longer the misgovernment of the 
Turks, broke into rebellion. A year later the 
Servians and Montenegrins likewise took up 
arms, and though the former were unsuccessful 
and obliged to abandon the war, the Montene¬ 
grins still held out. Meantime the great powers 
of Europe were pressing reforms on Turkey, 
and at the end of 1876 a conference met at Con¬ 
stantinople, with the view of making a fresh 
settlement of the relations between her and her 
Christian provinces. All the recommendations 
of the conference were, however, rejected by 
Turkey; and in April following, Russia, who 
had been coming more and more prominently 
forward as the champion of the oppressed prov¬ 
inces, and had for months been massing troops 
on both the Asiatic and the European frontier 
of Turkey, issued a warlike manifesto and com¬ 
menced hostile operations in both parts of the 
Turkish Empire. She was immediately joined 
by Rumania, who on the 22d of May (1877) 
declared her independence. The progress of the 
Russians was at first rapid; but the Turks of¬ 
fered an obstinate resistance. After the fall of 
Kars, however, November 18th, and the fall of 
Plevna, December 10th, the Turkish resistance 
completely collapsed, and on the 3d of March, 
1878, Turkey was compelled to agree to the 
Treaty of San Stefano, in which she accepted the 
terms of Russia. The provisions of this treaty 
were, however, considerably modified by the 
Treaty of Berlin, concluded on the 13th of July 
following, by which Rumania, Servia, and Monte¬ 
negro were declared independent; Rumanian 
Bessarabia was ceded to Russia; Austria was 
empowered to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina; 
and Bulgaria was erected into a principality. 

The main events in the history of the Otto¬ 
man Empire since the conclusion of the Treaty 
of Berlin are the French invasion of Tunis in 
1881, which soon after was formally placed 
under the protectorate of the French; the 
treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of 
the great powers in 1881, by which Turkey 
ceded to Greece almost the whole of Thessaly 
and a strip of Epirus; the occupation of Egypt 
by Great Britain in 1882; and the revolution 
at Philippopolis in 1885, when the government 
of Eastern Roumelia was overthrown, and the 
union of that province with Bulgaria proclaimed. 
It has since for all practical purposes formed 
part of Bulgaria. 

In 1903, serious revolts broke out in Bulgaria 
and Albania, attended with massacres and 
atrocities. In 1909, Abdul-Hamid II. was 
dethroned by the Young Turks, and Mehmed V. 
made sultan. Serious internal disturbances 
occurred in 1911. In 1912 Turkey engaged in 
war with the Balkan states. 

Tuscany (Italian, Toscana ), formerly a 
grand-duchy, now a department of Italy; area, 
9,289 square miles; population, 2,340,100. 
The chain of the Northern Apennines forms a 
considerable portion of its northern boundary, 
the sea being its boundary on the west. The 
principal river is the Arno. Cereals cover a 
large area, and vineyards, olive-yards, and 
orchards are numerous. The manufacture of 
silk is considerable. The marble of Tuscany, 
especially that of Siena, is well known. Tuscany 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


corresponds to the ancient Etruria, which was, 
however, of wider extent. After the fall of the 
Western Empire (476) it passed successively 
into the hands of the Ostrogoths, Byzantine 
Greeks, and Lombards. Charlemagne made 
it a Frankish province, and it was governed by 
marquises or dukes until the Twelfth and Thir¬ 
teenth Centuries, when it became broken up 
into a number of small republics, four of which 
were Florence, Pisa, Siena, and Lucca. From 
the first, Florence occupied the leading place, 
and it gradually extended its territory. In 1569 
Pope Pius I. granted to Cosmo I. the title of 
Grand-duke of Tuscany, and this position was 
retained, with interruptions, by the celebrated 
Medici family, until 1737, when it passed to 
Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine. In 1859, 
when under his descendant, the Grand-duke 
Leopold, it was annexed to Sardinia by a popular 
vote, and in 1861 became, with Sardinia, part 
of the kingdom of Italy. 

United States of America. When 
first visited by Europeans, the country now 
comprised within the United States was exclu¬ 
sively inhabited by the race commonly called 
American Indians. According to the Scandi¬ 
navian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 
1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven 
southward by storms till he reached a country 
called Vinland, which is supposed to have been 
Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of 
New England. In 1497, about five years after 
the discovery of America by Columbus, John 
Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, 
and on June 24th discovered land (Labrador), 
along which he coasted to the southward nearly 
1,000 miles. In 1498, his son, Sebastian Cabot, 
sailed from the same port in search of a north¬ 
west passage to China; but finding the ice im¬ 
penetrable, he turned to the south and coasted 
as far as Chesapeake Bay. In 1512, the Spaniard 
Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539, 
took place the expedition of the Spaniard De 
Soto, who, in the course of two years, penetrated 
overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of 
Florida to a point 200 miles beyond the Missis¬ 
sippi. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augus¬ 
tine, the first permanent settlement in the 
United States. In 1585, an expedition sent by 
Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roa¬ 
noke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607, the 
English founded Jamestown on James River, 
Virginia, their first permanent settlement. The 
master spirit of this enterprise was Captain 
John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 
1620 by the “Pilgrim fathers of New England,” 
a body of Puritans led by John Carver and 
others, who sailed from England in the “May¬ 
flower.” Salem was settled by John Endicott 
in 1628. In 1630, John Winthrop settled Bos¬ 
ton. In 1692, Plymouth Colony was united to 
Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover in New 
Hampshire were settled in 1623. The first per¬ 
manent English settlements in Maine were made 
about the same time. These settlements ulti¬ 
mately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachu¬ 
setts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-36 by 
emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at 
Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode 
Island was first settled at Providence in 1636 by 


Roger Williams. In 1623, permanent settle¬ 
ments were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange 
(now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the 
present site of New York. The Swedes settled 
on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 
1655 by a Dutch army. The English seized 
New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole 
of New Netherland, which they named New 
York from the Duke of York, to whom it had 
been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at 
this time acquired its distinctive name. In 
1681 the territory west of the Delaware was 
granted to William Penn, who colonized it 
chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded 
Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 
1632 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord 
Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in 
North Carolina appears to have been made 
about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants 
from Virginia. The first permanent settlement 
in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists 
from England on the Ashley River, near the 
site of Charleston, which began to be settled 
about the same time. Georgia was settled by 
General James Oglethorpe, who, in 1733, founded 
Savannah. The principal Indian wars were 
those of 1622 and 1644-46 in Virginia; the Pequot 
War (1636-37) and King Philip’s War (1675-76) 
in New England; that with the Corees and 
Tuscaroras in 1711, and that with the Yemas- 
sees in 1715, in the Carolinas. Toward the 
close of the Seventeenth Century the Indians 
on the northern and western frontiers began to 
receive aid from the French in Canada, who, 
whenever their mother country was at war with 
England, carried on hostilities with the English 
colonies, and frequently, accompanied by their 
savage allies, made destructive and bloody in¬ 
roads into New England and New York. The 
first conflict with the French, known as King 
William’s War lasted seven years, terminating 
in 1697. Queen Anne’s War (1702-13) was 
marked by the conquest from the French in 
1710 of Acadia (Nova Scotia). The principal 
event of King George’s War was the capture 
(1745) of Louisburg, the chief stronghold of the 
French in America, which was restored to the 
French at the close of the war (1748), Disputes 
having arisen with the French on the Ohio, an 
expedition under Washington, was sent toward 
that river, which, on May 28, 1754, cut to pieces 
a French detachment under Jumonville, who 
was slain. This affair began the long contest 
known as the French and Indian War. Among 
its prominent events were Braddock’s defeat 
(1755) near Fort Duquesne, when Washington 
distinguished himself by covering the retreat; 
the capture by the French of Oswego (1756) 
and Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake 
George (1757); and the taking of Louisburg 
after a siege of seven weeks by Generals Amherst 
and Wolfe, and the repulse of an attack on Ti- 
conderoga made by a powerful army under 
General Abercrombie and Lord Howe (1758). 
The crowning exploit of the war was the taking 
of Quebec (1759) by an army led by General 
Wolfe. In 1763, by the Treaty of Paris, Canada 
and its dependencies were formally ceded to 
Great Britain. The transfer from the French 
to the English of the posts between the Great 




HISTORY 


169 


Lakes and the Ohio led (1763) to a war with 
the Indian tribes, of which the master spirit 
was Pontiac. The sentiment of political free¬ 
dom was strongly developed among the colo¬ 
nists, and republican ideas and feelings trans¬ 
mitted from the period of the commonwealth in 
England were widely diffused, though at the 
same time a warm attachment existed for the 
mother country and a devoted loyalty to the 
Crown. The first opposition was aroused by 
an act of parliament in 1761, authorizing sher¬ 
iffs and officers of the customs to use “ writs of 
assistance” or general search warrants. These 
writs were resisted in Massachusetts, where the 
rights of the people were defended by James 
Otis. In 1765 the Stamp Act was passed, which 
declared that every document used in trade or 
legal proceedings, to be valid, must have affixed 
to it a tax stamp of the minimum value of one 
shilling, and increasing indefinitely according to 
the value of the writing. To enforce the act 
parliament authorized the ministry to send 
troops, for whom the colonies were required to 
provide quarters and various necessaries. These 
acts created great excitement and indignation 
in America. Everywhere the people determined 
not to use the stamps, and associations calling 
themselves “sons of liberty,” were organized 
in opposition to the act and for the general 
defense of the rights of the colonies. In Octo¬ 
ber a congress of delegates from nine colonies 
assembled in New York on the invitation of 
Massachusetts, and drew up a declaration of 
rights, a memorial to parliament, and a petition 
to the king, in which they claimed the right of 
being taxed only by their own representatives. 
The merchants of the principal cities agreed to 
purchase no more goods in England till the act 
was repealed, and the people pledged themselves 
to use no articles of English manufacture. The 
Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but the next 
year parliament passed an act imposing duties 
on paper, glass, tea, and some other articles 
imported into the colonies. The colonies in 
return revived with renewed vigor their non¬ 
importation associations. Massachusetts, and 
especially Boston, was foremost in the opposi¬ 
tion. A military force under General Gage was 
sent to occupy the town in 1768. A collision 
took place March 5, 1770, between the soldiers 
and a crowd of citizens, in which three of the 
latter were killed and eight wounded. The 
“Boston Massacre,” as this was called, caused 
great excitement throughout the country. In 
April, 1770, the government removed all the 
duties except that of threepence a pound on 
tea. Combinations were now formed against 
the importation and use of tea, and measures 
taken to prevent its being either landed or sold. 
At Boston, December 16, 1773, a band of men 
disguised as Indians went on board three tea 
ships which had recently arrived from England, 
and emptied the tea into the water. Parliament 
thereupon, in 1774, passed the “Boston Port 
Bill,” which closed that port to all commerce, 
and transferred the board of customs to Marble¬ 
head and the seat of colonial government to 
Salem. Other repressive bills were also passed. 
On September 5th the “Old Continental Con¬ 
gress” met in Philadelphia, in which all the 


colonies were represented except Georgia. A 
declaration of rights was agreed upon, in which 
was set forth the claim of the colonists as British 
subjects to participate in making their own laws 
and imposing their own taxes, and to the rights 
of trial by a jury of the vicinage, of holding 
public meetings, and of petitioning for redress 
of grievances. The maintenance of a standing 
army in the colonies without their consent was 
protested against, as were eleven acts passed 
since the accession of George III. in violation 
of colonial rights and privileges. The first con¬ 
flict occurred, and the first blood of the Revolu¬ 
tion was shed, on April 19, 1775. (See under 
Lexington.) On the night of the day fol¬ 
lowing the action the king’s governor and army 
found themselves closely beleaguered in Boston. 
The people everywhere rose in arms, and before 
the close of summer the power of all the royal 
governors from Massachusetts to Georgia was 
at an end. Volunteer expeditions from Vermont 
and Connecticut, led by Ethan Allen and Bene¬ 
dict Arnold, seized the important fortresses of 
Ticonderoga (May 10th) and Crown Point (May 
12th). The second Continental Congress assem¬ 
bled on May 10th at Philadelphia, in the State 
house, now known as Independence Hall. It 
sent another petition to the king, denying any 
intention of separation from England, and ask¬ 
ing only for redress of grievances; but measures 
were taken to raise an army, to equip a navy, 
and to procure arms and ammunition. The 
forces before Boston were adopted as the Conti¬ 
nental army, and Washington was nominated 
and unanimously chosen (June 15th) as com¬ 
mander-in-chief. Before he could reach the seat 
of war the battle of Bunker Hill had been fought, 
June 17th. He regularly beleaguered Boston 
till March 17, 1776, when the British evacuated 
it and sailed for Halifax. Meantime, an inva¬ 
sion of Canada under General Montgomery re¬ 
sulted in the capture of Montreal and a repulse 
from Quebec, which was attacked December 31, 
1775, by parties led by Montgomery and Arnold. 
On June 28, 1776, a British fleet attacked 
Charleston, S. C., and was repulsed with great 
loss by a small force in Fort Sullivan (afterward 
Fort Moultrie), commanded by Colonel Moultrie. 
On July 4th the Declaration of'Independence 
written by Jefferson, was adopted, and in this 
document the colonies were first designated the 
“United States of America.” Soon after the 
evacuation of Boston by the British, Washing¬ 
ton transferred his army to New York. On 
June 29th the late garrison of Boston arrived 
from Halifax, and soon after other British troops 
from Europe and from the South. The cam¬ 
paign began on Long Island, where, on August 
27th, the Americans were defeated with heavy 
loss, and forced to abandon that island, and 
soon after the city of New York. Having fought 
another unsuccessful battle at White Plains 
(October 28th), Washington early in December 
was compelled to retreat beyond the Delaware 
at the head of but 3,000 men. About the same 
time the British seized and held the island of 
Rhode Island. On the night of December 25th 
Washington crossed the Delaware in open boats 
with 2,400 men, and falling upon the British 
forces at Trenton, captured about 1,000 Hessians. 



170 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


On January 3, 1777, he defeated the enemy 
again at Princeton, taking 230 prisoners. A 
movement threatening Philadelphia called Wash¬ 
ington south. In the battle on the Brandywine, 
September 11th, he was outnumbered and com¬ 
pelled to retreat with a loss of nearly 1,000 
men. On the 26th, the British took possession 
of Philadelphia without opposition. On Octo¬ 
ber 4th, Washington attacked the British at 
Germantown, seven miles from Philadelphia, 
but was repulsed with heavy loss; and soon 
afterward both armies went into winter quarters, 
the Americans at Valley Forge, on the Schuyl¬ 
kill, twenty miles from Philadelphia. Mean¬ 
time, a British army, 7,500 strong, besides In¬ 
dians, commanded by General Burgoyne, ad¬ 
vanced from Canada by Lake Champlain, and 
took Ticonderoga, Fort Independence, and 
Whitehall. Strong detachments, which were 
sent to Bennington, Vt., to destroy a collection 
of stores, were met there (August 16th) and 
defeated with the loss of about 200 killed and 
600 prisoners by the Vermont and New Hamp¬ 
shire militia led by General Stark. Burgoyne 
was encountered by General Gates, to whom, 
after the battles of Stillwater (September 19th) 
and Saratoga (October 7th), he capitulated at 
Saratoga (October 17th) with his whole army. 
The consequences of this victory were apparent 
in the signing, in February, 1778, of treaties of 
alliance and of amity and commerce with France. 
The British evacuated Philadelphia in the night 
of June 17th with more than 17,000 men. 
Washington pursued, and on the 28th the two 
armies engaged in battle on the plains of Mon¬ 
mouth, near Freehold, N. J. The Americans 
remained masters of the field, while the British 
retreated to New York. An attempt made in 
August, with the assistance of the French fleet 
under Count d’Estaing, to drive the British from 
Rhode Island, proved a failure. On December 
29th the British, having defeated the American 
forces at Savannah, took possession of the city. 
In September, 1^79, Savannah was besieged by 
a French and American force, and on October 
9th an assault was made upon it, which was 
repulsed with a loss to the allies of nearly 800 
men, among them Casimir Pulaski. About this 
time the British evacuated Rhode Island, to 
concentrate their forces at New York. One of 
the most brilliant achievements of the war was 
the storming (July 16, 1779) of Stony Point on 
the Hudson by General Wayne. On the ocean, 
which swarmed with American privateers, Paul 
Jones chiefly distinguished himself. Charleston, 
S. C., after a feeble defense of several weeks, 
was surrendered to the British on May 12, 1780, 
by General Lincoln. The rest of South Carolina 
nominally submitted to the royal authority; 
but a guerilla warfare was kept up by Sumter, 
Marion, and other partisan leaders. Congress 
sent General Gates to recover South Carolina. 
On his first encounter with Cornwallis at Cam¬ 
den, August 16th, he was routed with great 
loss, and with the remnant of his force fled to 
North Carolina. Early in September Cornwallis 
marched into North Carolina, where, on October 
7th, at King’s Mountain, a detachment from 
his army was totally defeated by 900 militia, 
who killed and captured upward of 1,100 of the 


enemy. Cornwallis withdrew to South Carolina. 
On July 10th, a French fleet arrived at Newport, 
bringing the Count de Rochambeau and 6,000 
soldiers. In September a treasonable plot 
schemed by Arnold was discovered. The prin¬ 
cipal military operations of 1781 were in the 
south, where Greene had superseded Gates. 
At the Cowpens, S. C., on January 17th, General 
Morgan won a brilliant victory over the British 
under Colonel Tarleton. On March 15th, the 
British gained a victory at Guilford Court House, 
N. C., but drew from it no advantage; and on 
September 8th occurred the drawn battle of 
Eutaw Springs, which nearly terminated the 
war in South Carolina. Cornwallis, having ad¬ 
vanced into Virginia in April, was opposed by 
Lafayette, Wayne, and Steuben, and fortified 
himself at Yorktown. Meanwhile, the American 
army under Washington and the French army 
of Rochambeau had formed a junction on the 
Hudson. The allied army arrived before York¬ 
town September 28, 1781, and began a regular 
siege, which lasted till October 19th, when Corn¬ 
wallis surrendered with, his whole force of 7,247 
men, besides 840 sailors; 106 guns were taken. 
This victory substantially terminated the con¬ 
test. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed 
at Paris, November 30,1782, by Franklin, Adams, 
Jay, and Laurens. On September 3, 1783, a 
definitive treaty was signed at Versailles, by 
which the United States were formally acknowl¬ 
edged by Great Britain to be free, sovereign, and 
independent. New York, the last position held 
by the British on our coast, was evacuated No¬ 
vember 25, 1783. On June 12, 1776, while the 
resolution of independence was under considera¬ 
tion in Congress, a committee of one from each 
colony was created to draft a form of confedera¬ 
tion, and the articles reported by it were adopted 
November 15, 1777. Having been ratified by 
all the States, they went into effect on March 1, 
1781. Dissatisfaction with the confederation, 
owing to the weakness of the central government 
under it, soon became widespread, and in 1786 
a convention of delegates from several States at 
Annapolis, Md., recommended the calling of a 
convention of delegates from all the States to 
propose changes in the articles of confederation. 
This plan was approved by Congress on February 
21, 1787, and the convention organized at Phila¬ 
delphia on May 25th, by the choice of Washing¬ 
ton as president. It remained in session until 
September 17th, when it adjourned after adopt¬ 
ing the Constitution. All the States were repre¬ 
sented except Rhode Island. Having been rati¬ 
fied by the requisite number of States, the Con¬ 
stitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. At 
the first election Washington was chosen presi¬ 
dent and John Adams vice-president, and Wash¬ 
ington was inaugurated in New York on April 
30th. In the summer of 1790 an Indian war 
broke out with the tribes of the northwest, who, 
after inflicting defeats on Generals Harmar and 
St. Clair, were finally quelled by General Wayne, 
and peace was restored in August, 1795. At the 
second presidential election in 1792, Washington 
again received the unanimous votes of the elec¬ 
toral colleges, and Adams was reelected vice- 
president. The whiskey insurrection against an 
unpopular excise law in 1794 threw Western 




HISTORY 


171 


Pennsylvania into confusion, but was energet¬ 
ically suppressed by the president. Two parties 
had sprung up, the Federalists, supporters of the 
Constitution as it was, and the Republicans or 
Democrats, who desired to limit the federal 
power. The Republicans were active in their 
sympathy for the French Republic. At the 
third presidential election (1796) the Federalists, 
among whom Alexander Hamilton was promi¬ 
nent, supported John Adams and the Republi¬ 
cans Thomas Jefferson. Adams, who received 
seventy-one electoral votes, was chosen president 
while Jefferson, who received sixty-eight, the 
next highest number, became, by the Constitu¬ 
tion as it then was, the vice-president. At the 
beginning of the administration the relations 
with France were threatening, and envoys were 
sent to adjust the difficulties; but the French 
Government refused to receive them. This ex¬ 
cited great indignation in the United States, and 
Congress made preparations for war. The meas- 
sures adopted were not without effect. A fresh 
embassy was sent, and a treaty was concluded 
in 1800. During the troubles with France two 
acts were passed by Congress, known as the 
alien and sedition laws: the first, which was lim¬ 
ited to two years, empowering the president to 
order aliens who were conspiring against the 
peace of the United States to quit the country; 
the other, which was to remain in force till 
March 4, 1801, providing among other things 
for the punishment by fine and imprisonment of 
seditious libels, upon the government. These 
laws became exceedingly unpopular, and were 
bitterly denounced as harsh and unconstitutional. 
They contributed largely to the dissatisfaction 
with Mr. Adam’s administration, which led in 
the next presidential election to the success of 
the Republican candidates, Jefferson and Burr, 
each of whom received seventy-three votes. 
The tie threw the election into the House of 
Representatives, where, on the thirty-sixth bal¬ 
lot, Jefferson was chosen president and Burr 
vice-president. This contest led to the adop¬ 
tion of the twelfth amendment of the Constitu¬ 
tion, requiring the electors to designate which 
person is voted for as president and which as 
vice-president. Jefferson’s administration for 
the most part was marked by vigor and enlight¬ 
ened views, and in 1804 he was reelected, with 
George Clinton as vice-president. The vast ter¬ 
ritory then called Louisiana was purchased from 
France in 1803. A war with Tripoli, ended in 
1805, humbled the Barbary pirates. In 1806 
Aaron Burr secretly organized a military expe¬ 
dition, chiefly in the western States, which led 
to his arrest and trial at Richmond in 1807, on a 
charge of attempting to dismember the Union 
and to establish a^t independent dominion west 
of the Alleghanies; but no overt act being proved 
against him, he was acquitted. The relations 
with Great Britain began in 1805 to be disturbed 
by the unfriendly acts of that power directed 
against American commerce, and by the exercise 
of the asserted right to search American vessels 
for suspected deserters from her navy. In 1806, 
an act was passed prohibiting the importation 
of certain articles of British production. In 1807, 
Congress laid an embargo, which prohibited the 
departure from American ports of vessels bound 


for foreign countries. This measure was vehem¬ 
ently denounced by the Federal party, and was 
repealed in 1809. In the presidential election of 
1808 the Republican candidates, James Madison 
for president and George Clinton for vice-presi¬ 
dent, were elected. Congress continued the non¬ 
importation system. A long negotiation was 
carried on with the English Government without 
result, and on June 18, 1812, war was declared 
against Great Britain. In the summer of 1811, 
hostilities, excited as was alleged by British emis¬ 
saries, were begun by the Indian tribes north of 
the Ohio under the lead of Tecumseh. William 
Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, 
defeated them on the banks of the Tippecanoe 
River, November 7, 1811. The campaign of 
1812 closed with little or no credit to the Ameri¬ 
can arms on land, the principal event being the 
surrender of Detroit (August 16th) by the Ameri¬ 
can General Hull to General Brock. But the 
navy achieved a series of brilliant victories, 
which were followed by others during the suc¬ 
ceeding years of the war. The campaign of 1813 
was marked by alternate successes and reverses. 
The principal events were the defeat of General 
Winchester at the River Raisin by the British 
and Indians, the capture of York (now Toronto) 
and of Fort George in Canada by the Americans, 
the repulse of a British attack on Sackett’s Har¬ 
bor, and the defeat of the British and Indians 
near Thames River, Canada, by General Harri¬ 
son, Tecumseh being slain. On Lake Erie, Sep¬ 
tember 10th, a British fleet of «six vessels was 
captured after a severe contest by Lieutenant 
O. H. Perry. On July 5, 1814, the British were 
defeated at Chippawa by General Brown, and on 
the 25th at Bridgewater or Lundy’s Lane by 
Generals Brown and Winfield Scott. On Sep¬ 
tember 11th the United States fleet, under Com¬ 
modore Macdonough, totally defeated the Eng¬ 
lish fleet on Lake Champlain; and on the same 
day the British army, which had invaded New 
York and laid siege to Plattsburgh, retreated to 
Canada. In August, a British fleet arrived in 
the Chesapeake with an army of 5,000 men com¬ 
manded by General Ross, who marched on 
Washington, and, after putting to flight the 
militia at Bladensburg, took possession of the 
federal city on the 24th, and burned the capitol, 
the president’s house, and other public build¬ 
ings. On the next day the British retired to 
their ships, and on September 12th-13th attacked 
Baltimore, where they were repulsed by the 
citizens, and General Ross was killed. After 
protracted negotiations a treaty of peace was 
signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814, which pro¬ 
vided for the mutual restoration of all territory 
taken during the war. Nothing was said of the 
impressment of American seamen, one of the 
main causes of the war, but the practice was dis¬ 
continued. Before the news of peace could cross 
the Atlantic, a British army, 12,000 strong, was 
defeated at New Orleans (January 8, 1815) by 
fewer than 5,000 men under General Jackson. 
In the same year Commodore Decatur compelled 
the rulers of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli to make 
indemnity for former outrages, and to agree to 
abstain from depredations on American com¬ 
merce. The presidential election of 1812 had 
resulted in the reelection of Mr. Madison. El- 



172 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


bridge Gerry was chosen vice-president. At the 
presidential election of 1816 James Monroe of 
Virginia, and Daniel D. Tompkins of New York, 
Democrats, were elected president and vice- 
president, respectively. Monroe’s administra¬ 
tion began under very favorable circumstances. 
Party distinctions had so nearly disappeared, 
that Democrats and Federalists combined to 
support the government. He was reelected in 
1820 by all the electoral votes except one. 
Daniel D. Tompkins was reelected vice-president. 
The main event of Monroe’s administration was 
the Missouri controversy, by which, for the first 
time, the country was disastrously divided upon 
the slavery question. In the session of 
1818-19 a bill was introduced in Congress au¬ 
thorizing the Territory of Missouri to form a 
constitution, whereupon James Tallmadge of New 
York moved in the House of Representatives to 
insert a clause prohibiting any further introduc¬ 
tion of slaves, and granting freedom to the chil¬ 
dren of those already in the Territory on thei-r 
attaining the age of 25. This motion was car¬ 
ried, but the Senate refused to concur. In the 
session of 1819-20 the debate was long and acri¬ 
monious. The Senate sent to the House the 
Missouri bill with the prohibition of slavery in 
that State struck out, but with the proviso that 
it should not thereafter be tolerated north of 
latitude 36° 30'. This compromise was at length 
agreed to. The other great event of Mr. Mon¬ 
roe’s administration was the recognition (1822) 
of the Spanish -American republics, which had 
declared and maintained their independence for 
several years. In 1823 the president in his an¬ 
nual message put forth a declaration, famous as 
the “Monroe Doctrine,” in which it was an¬ 
nounced that any attempt on the part of Euro- 
pean governments to extend their system to any 
portion of this hemisphere would be considered 
dangerous to the peace and safety of the United 
States. In 1819, Florida had been ceded by 
Spain. In the presidential election of 1824 none 
of the four candidates (Andrew Jackson, John 
Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry 
Clay) had a majority of the electoral votes, and 
Adams was elected by the House of Representa¬ 
tives. John C. Calhoun had been elected vice- 
president by the electoral colleges. Adam’s ad¬ 
ministration was remarkable for order, method, 
and economy, but party spirit was higher than 
it had been for many years. At the election of 
1828 General Jackson was chosen president, 
while John C. Calhoun was reelected vice-presi¬ 
dent. In his first annual message (December, 
1829) the president took strong ground against 
the renewal of the charter of the United States 
bank, as not being authorized by the Constitu¬ 
tion. Congress, in 1832, passed a bill to re¬ 
charter it, but Jackson vetoed it; and the char¬ 
ter expired by limitation in 1836. The com¬ 
mercial part of the community generally took the 
side of the bank, and the party formed in oppo¬ 
sition to the president assumed the name of 
Whigs, while his supporters adhered to the old 
name of Democrats. In 1832 arose the so-called 
nullification movement in South Carolina, grow¬ 
ing out of the tariff acts of that year and of 1828. 
A State convention held in November declared 
these acts unconstitutional and, therefore, null 


and void, and proclaimed that any attempt by 
the General Government to collect duties in the 
port of Charleston would be resisted by force of 
arms, and would produce the secession of South 
Carolina from the Union. Jackson had just 
been reelected for a second term, while Martin 
Van Buren was chosen vice-president. The 
firmness of the president gave an effectual check 
to the incipient rebellion, and the affair was 
finally settled by a proposition brought forward 
in Congress by Henry Clay, the leading cham¬ 
pion of the protective system, for the modifica¬ 
tion of the tariff by a gradual reduction of the 
obnoxious duties. Other events of Jackson’s 
administration were the removal of the public 
funds from the United States bank, the extinc¬ 
tion of the national bank and the beginning, 
toward the close of 1835, of a war with the 
Seminole Indians in Florida. In the presidential 
contest of 1836, Mr. Van Buren, who was sup¬ 
ported by the Democrats, was elected. No can¬ 
didate having been elected vice-president, Rich¬ 
ard M. Johnson was chosen by the Senate. The 
new administration began under most untoward 
circumstances. Within two months after the 
inauguration the mercantile failures in the city 
of New York alone amounted to more than 
$100,000,000. The war with the Seminoles was 
not ended till 1842. At the election in 1840, 
Harrison and Tyler, the Whig candidates for 
president and vice-president, were chosen. Gen¬ 
eral Harrison was inaugurated March 4, 1841, 
and died on April 4th. The presidential office 
devolved on John Tyler, who soon developed a 
policy in relation to a national bank much more 
in accordance with the views of the Democratic 
party than with those of the Whigs. A treaty 
was concluded in 1842 with Great Britain by 
Daniel Webster for the settlement of the north¬ 
eastern boundary. The Texas question (see 
Texas) became the prominent issue in the presi¬ 
dential contest of 1844, the Democratic party 
supporting and the Whigs opposing annexation. 
The Democratic candidates, James K. Polk for 
president and George M. Dallas for vice-presi¬ 
dent, were elected over Henry Clay and Theo¬ 
dore Frelinghuysen. Joint resolutions for an¬ 
nexing Texas as one of the States of the Union 
were signed by President Tyler March 1, 1845, 
which led to a war with Mexico in 1846. Gen¬ 
eral Zachary Taylor defeated the Mexicans at 
Palo Alto May 8th, at Resaca de la Palma May 
9th, at Monterey in September, and at Buena 
Vista February 23, 1847. General Scott landed 
near Vera Cruz on March 9th with about 12,000 
men, immediately besieged that city, which sur¬ 
rendered before the end of the month, and en¬ 
tered the city of Mexico on September 14th, 
after a series of hard-fought and uniformly suc¬ 
cessful battles. A treaty of 'peace was nego¬ 
tiated at Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848, 
by which Mexico granted to the United States 
the line of the Rio Grande as a boundary, and 
ceded New Mexico and California. The Oregon 
dispute with Great Britain, which claimed the 
whole region, while the United States claimed 
as far north as latitude 54° 40', was settled by 
the treaty of 1846, which adopted the boundary 
of the parallel of 49°, with a modification giving 
to Great Britain the whole of Vancouver Island. 



HISTORY 


173 


In the Democratic National convention of 1848, 
Lewis Cass was nominated for president, and 
William O. Butler for vice-president. By the 
Whig convention Zachary Taylor and Millard 
Fillmore were nominated. The question of 
slavery had a powerful influence on the political 
combinations of this period. In 1846, during 
the Mexican War, a bill being before Congress 
authorizing the president to use $2,000,000 in 
negotiating a peace, David Wilmot, a Demo¬ 
cratic representative from Pennsylvania, moved 
to add thereto a proviso prohibiting slavery in 
any territory acquired from Mexico. This pro¬ 
viso was adopted in the House, nearly all the 
members from the free States voting for it, but 
failed in the Senate from want of time. Several 
delegates seceded from both the Whig and Dem¬ 
ocratic conventions of 1848, on the failure of 
those bodies to pronounce in favor of the prin¬ 
ciple of the proviso. These, with the Liberty 
party, formed in 1840, organized a free-soil or 
free Democratic party, and Martin Van Buren 
was nominated for president and Charles Francis 
Adams for vice-president. Van Buren and 
Adams received at the election, in November, a 
popular vote of 291,263, but secured no electoral 
vote. Taylor and Fillmore were elected. The 
application in 1850 of California for admission 
as a State roused the slavery controversy, and 
the difficulty was complicated by the application 
of New Mexico for admission, and by a claim 
brought forward by Texas to a western line of 
boundary which would include a large portion 
of New Mexico. Finally, a compromise was pro¬ 
posed by Henry Clay in the Senate as a final 
settlement of the whole question of slavery, and 
after a long discussion the result aimed at was 
attained by separate acts, which provided for: 

(1) the admission of California as a free State; 

(2) Territorial Governments for New Mexico and 
Utah without excluding slavery, but leaving its 
exclusion or admission to the local population; 

(3) the settlement of the Texas boundary ques¬ 
tion; (4) the abolition of the slave trade in the 
District of Columbia; (5) the enactment of a 
stringent law for the arrest and return of fugitive 
slaves. President Taylor died July 9, 1850, and 
was succeeded by the vice-president, Millard 
Fillmore. The whole weight of his administra¬ 
tion was given to the support of the compromise 
measures. The Democratic National Conven¬ 
tion of 1852 nominated for president Franklin 
Pierce of New Hampshire, who was known to 
hold opinions satisfactory to the South on the 
subject of slavery, and William R. King of Ala¬ 
bama for vice-president. The Whig National 
Convention nominated for president General 
Winfield Scott, and for vice-president William 
A. Graham of North Carolina. The National 
Convention of the Free-soil party nominated 
John P. Hale for president, and George W. Julian 
for vice-president. Pierce and King were elected. 
The passage in 1854 of a bill for the organiza¬ 
tion of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, 
by which the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820 
was repealed, roused great excitement and in¬ 
dignation in the free States. The struggle in 
Kansas between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery 
parties (see Kansas) and the assault by Brooks 
on Sumner (see Sumner, Charles) added to the 


feeling. Preparatory to the presidential canvass 
of 1856 the Republican party was formed, which 
absorbed the entire Free-soil party, the greater 
part of the Whig party, and considerable acces¬ 
sions from the Democratic. That portion of the 
Whig party opposed to anti-slavery measures 
was merged, especially at the South, in an organ¬ 
ization called the American party, from its oppo¬ 
sition to foreign influence, and particularly to 
Roman Catholic influence, in our political affairs, 
but popularly known as the “ Know-Nothing 
Party” from the secrecy of its organization and 
the reticence of its members. This party nomi¬ 
nated Millard Fillmore for president, and An¬ 
drew J. Donelson of Tennessee for vice-president. 
The Democratic National Convention nominated 
James Buchanan of Pennsylvania for president, 
and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for vice- 
president. The Republican National Conven¬ 
tion nominated John C. Fremont of California 
for president, and William L. Dayton of New 
Jersey for vice-president. Buchanan and Breck¬ 
enridge were elected. The chief interest of Mr. 
Buchanan’s administration centered around the 
slavery controversy. A constitution for Kansas 
framed at Lecompton in 1857 was laid before 
Congress in the session of 1857-58, and its dis¬ 
cussion resulted in a schism in the Democratic 
party, and eventually in its division into two 
bodies, one of which looked upon Stephen A. 
Douglas as its leader, while the other supported 
Breckenridge for the presidency. The Demo¬ 
cratic National Convention met at Charleston, 
April 23, 1860, and a controversy on the subject 
of slavery immediately arose. A non-committal 
platform having been adopted, most of the 
Southern delegates withdrew and adopted a plat¬ 
form of their own, denying the right of Congress 
to interfere with, and asserting its duty to pro¬ 
tect, slavery in the Territories. The convention 
adjourned May 3d, reassembled in Baltimore 
June 18th, and nominated Stephen A. Douglas 
of Illinois for president, and Benjamin Fitzpat¬ 
rick of Alabama for vice-president. The latter 
afterward declined, and Herschel V. Johnson of 
Georgia was substituted. A convention called 
by the seceding delegates convened at Baltimore 
on June 23d, and nominated John C. Brecken¬ 
ridge for president, and Joseph Lane of Oregon 
for vice-president. The u Constitutional Union ” 
party, composed mainly of the American party, 
nominated for president John Bell of Tennessee, 
and for vice-president Edward Everett of Massa¬ 
chusetts. The Republican National Convention 
assembled at Chicago on May 16th, arid nomi¬ 
nated for president Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, 
and for vice-president Hannibal Hamlin of 
Maine. In the election, November 6th, Mr. 
Lincoln received the electoral votes of all the 
free States (except three in New Jersey), 180, 
and was elected. Mr. Bell received the votes of 
Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, 39; Mr. 
Douglas the 9 votes of Missouri and 3 from New 
Jersey; and the remaining Southern States cast 
their 72 electoral votes for Breckenridge. A 
convention was at once called in South Carolina, 
and on December 20th unanimously adopted an 
ordinance of secession from the Union. Before 
the end of May, 1861, eleven States had passed 
ordinances of secession (South Carolina, Missis- 



174 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, 
Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North 
Carolina). On February 4th a Congress met at 
Montgomery Ala., and framed a constitution for 
the “ Confederate States of America.” Jefferson 
Davis of Mississippi was chosen president, and 
Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia vice-presi¬ 
dent. After governmental organization, the first 
warlike act was the bombardment by the Con¬ 
federates of Fort Sumter, which surrendered 
April 13, 1861. On July 21st was fought the 
battle of Bull Run, near Manassas Junction, Va., 
the first of any magnitude during the war, in 
which the Union forces under General McDowell 
were defeated by the Confederates under Gen¬ 
eral Beauregard, and fell back in disorder to 
Washington. Soon after General McClellan, 
who had cleared West Virginia of Confederate 
troops, was placed in command of the army of 
the Potomac. On August 10th, a battle was 
fought at Wilson’s Creek, near Springfield, Mo., 
between the Confederates under General Mc¬ 
Culloch and the Federals under General Lyon, 
who fell. This was followed by a varying and 
indecisive warfare in that State. On. August 
29th, Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C., were 
taken by General Butler and Commodore String- 
ham; and on November 7th, Port Royal, S. C., 
by Commodore Du Pont and General T. W. 
Sherman. On October 21st, a portion of General 
Stone’s command, having crossed the Potomac 
at Ball’s Bluff, about midway between Harper’s 
Ferry and Washington, was defeated by the 
Confederate General Evans, with a loss of 1,000 
out of 1,900 men. On .February 6, 1862, the 
Federal Commodore Foote, with a fleet of gun¬ 
boats from Cairo, reduced Fort Henry on the 
east bank of the Tennessee River in Tennessee; 
and on the 16th Fort Donelson, on the west 
bank of the Cumberland, surrendered with about 
13,000 men to General Grant. The Confeder¬ 
ates under McCulloch and others, just driven out 
of Missouri, were defeated at Pea Ridge, Ark., 
March 7th-8th. In the night of April 7th, Island 
No. Ten in the Mississippi, a few miles above 
New Madrid, Mo., surrendered, after a series of 
operations by General Pope and Commodore 
Foote, lasting over a month. The Federal fleet 
was now enabled to proceed down the river as 
far as Vicksburg, Miss., receiving the surrender 
of Memphis, Tenn., June 6th. The battle of 
Shiloh, Miss., raged two days (April 6th and 7th), 
when the Confederates under Beauregard fell 
back to Corinth, leaving the field in the posses¬ 
sion of the Union army under Generals Buell 
and Grant. Corinth was evacuated after some 
operations against it under General Halleck. 
An important event of the year was the capture 
of New Orleans toward the close of April by 
naval and land forces under Captain Farragut 
and General Butler. Early in the year Roanoke 
Island, New Berne, Beaufort, Washington, Ply¬ 
mouth, and other places on the coast of North 
Carolina were occupied by the Federals. On 
April 11th, Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the 
Savannah River, was reduced. Toward the end 
of August the Confederate General Bragg started 
on an invasion of Kentucky from East Tennes¬ 
see. He captured Richmond, Lexington, and 
Munfordsville, and on October 1st entered 


Frankfort. The Union forces under General 
Buell moving against him, he slowly retreated 
to Perryville, where, on the 8th, a severe battle 
was fought. During the succeeding night Bragg 
continued his retreat, and passed into East Ten¬ 
nessee. About the end of September the Con¬ 
federates under Generals Price and Van Dorn 
advanced against Corinth, Miss., now defended 
by General Rosecrans. Their assaults (October 
3d, 4th) were repulsed with great loss. General 
Rosecrans, having superseded Buell, moved into 
Tennessee, and marched upon Murfreesboro, 
where Bragg’s forces were concentrated, reach¬ 
ing Stone River near that place on December 29 
and 30th. Here bloody engagements occurred 
December 31, 1862, and January 2, 1863, which 
resulted in Bragg’s retreat. Still greater ope¬ 
rations took place on the eastern theater of the 
war. Brisk fighting occurred in the Shenandoah 
Valley (March-June), with decided advantage 
on the whole to the Confederate General Jackson 
over Banks, Fremont, and others. About April 
1, 1862, General McClellan transferred his forces 
to Fortress Monroe, near which a remarkable 
naval duel had taken place (at Hampton Roads) 
and began a movement upon Richmond up the 
peninsula between the York and James Rivers, 
fighting at Yorktown, Williamsburg, Seven Pines 
Fair Oaks, and Mechanicsville, and, during 
a retrograde movement to Harrison’s Landing 
on the James, at Cold Harbor, Savage’s Station, 
Frazier’s Farm, and, finally (July 1st), at Mal¬ 
vern Hill. About the middle of August his army 
was transferred to the Potomac. The Confed¬ 
erate army, commanded by General Robert E. 
Lee, who had succeeded J. E. Johnston, had 
retired to Richmond, to assume the offensive 
against Washington. On August 9th an inde¬ 
cisive battle was fought by General Banks 
against Jackson at Cedar Mountain; and on 
August 29th and 30th occurred the second battle 
of Bull Run, between the Union army under 
Pope and the Confederate forces under Jackson 
and Longstreet, in which the latter had the 
advantage. Lee moved to the Potomac above 
Washington and crossed into Maryland. Jack- 
son captured Harper’s Ferry with 11,500 men. 
McClellan, advancing to meet Lee, found him 
on September 15th strongly posted across Antie- 
tam Creek near Sharpsburg, where, on the two 
following days, a bloody battle was fought. In 
the night of the 18th, Lee retreated into Virginia. 
McClellan crossed the Potomac about November 
1st. On the 7th he was superseded by General 
Burnside, who moved down the Rappahannock 
to Fredericksburg. Lee had made a parallel 
movement down the south bank and strongly 
intrenched himself on the bluffs behind the town. 
On December 13th, Burnside crossed the river 
and made repeated attacks on the enemy’s posi¬ 
tion, but was repulsed with great slaughter, and 
on the 15th returned to the north bank. On 
January 26, 1863, Burnside was superseded by 
General Joseph Hooker. About the close of 
April Hooker began to cross the Rappahannock, 
and concentrated his forces at Chancellorsville, 
where a bloody engagement ensued, May 2d-4th, 
in which the Union army was worsted by the 
forces under Lee, Hooker recrossing to the north 
side of the river. General Jackson was mortally 




HISTORY 


175 


wounded. About the beginning of June, Lee 
again assumed the offensive. The main body of 
the Confederate army crossed the Potomac above 
Harper’s Ferry, June 24th-25th, and march¬ 
ing across Maryland entered Pennsylvania. 
Hooker moved north, so as to cover Washington, 
and on the 26th crossed the Potomac about half 
way between Washington and Harper’s Ferry. 
On the 28th he was succeeded by General Meade. 
The latter advanced into Pennsylvania, and on 
July 1st, 2d, and 3d the two armies met in the 
reat battle of Gettysburg, which ended in the 
iscomfiture of the Confederate army. On the 
4th, Lee began his retreat, and on the 13th re¬ 
crossed the Potomac. Meade crossed on the 
18th, and reached Warrenton on the 25th, 
where he was soon confronted by Lee on the 
other side of the Rappahannock. In the west 
important operations had taken place under 
Generals Grant and Sherman against Vicksburg. 
Close pressed, on July 3d, General Pember¬ 
ton surrendered that Confederate stronghold, 
with 27,000 men, to General Grant, who, on the 
4th, occupied the city. The result of this cam¬ 
paign rent the Confederacy in twain, and de¬ 
cided its fate. Port Hudson, La., on the Mis¬ 
sissippi, surrendered after a siege to General 
Banks, July 8th. Rosecrans remained quietly 
at Murfreesboro till June 23, 1863, when he ad¬ 
vanced, forcing Bragg to retreat to Chattanooga, 
which was occupied by a detachment on Sep¬ 
tember 9th, Bragg retiring into Georgia and 
posting his troops in the vicinity of Chicka- 
mauga Creek, east of Trenton. Here, Septem¬ 
ber 19th and 20th, occurred a severe engage¬ 
ment, in which the Federals were worsted and 
fell back to Chattanooga, where they were be¬ 
sieged by Bragg. On October 23d, General Grant 
arrived and took command. A series of move¬ 
ments was at once initiated, which resulted in 
driving Bragg from Chattanooga (November 
25th) and forcing him to retreat into Georgia. 
An army under General Burnside, which had 
occupied Knoxville, and was besieged there by 
Longstreet, was relieved at the beginning of 
December. All Tennessee was now recovered. 
In Arkansas, General Steele had captured Little 
Rock, September 10th. Fort Wagner,- on Mor¬ 
ris Island at the entrance of Charleston Harbor, 
after vigorously repelling a heavy assault, had 
about the same time been reduced by a regular 
siege under General Gillmore. On April 20, 
1864, Plymouth, N. C., was compelled to sur¬ 
render to a Confederate force under General 
Hoke, and as a consequence Washington, N. C., 
was evacuated *by the Federals eight days later. 
On October 31st, Plymouth was retaken by the 
Federal fleet. On April 12th Fort Pillow, on 
the Mississippi about forty miles above Mem¬ 
phis, was taken by assault by the Confederates 
under General Forrest, and many of its colored 
defenders were killed after the capture. In 
August, Forts Gaines and Morgan, commanding 
the entrance to Mobile Bay, were reduced by a 
fleet under Admiral Farragut, aided by a land 
force under General Granger, and the Confed¬ 
erate fleet there was destroyed. West of the 
Mississippi, the most important movement in 
1864 was Bank’s disastrous Red River campaign 
in the early spring. In September and October, 


General Price with a considerable force made a 
raid through Missouri. In Virginia, General 
Grant, who had received the chief command of 
the Union armies, began on May 4th to cross the 
Rapidan and advance into the “Wilderness.” 
Here (May 5th and 6th) and at Spottsylvania 
Court House near by (May 8th-21st) followed a 
series of sanguinary engagements, which baffled 
the direct advance. Grant then advanced by a 
succession of flank movements to the Chicka- 
hominy, where, on June 3d, he suffered a dis¬ 
astrous check in the second battle of Cold Har¬ 
bor. On the 12th, having determined to attack 
Richmond from the south, he began to move, 
crossing the Chickahominy below Lee’s position, 
and effecting the passage of the James, June 
14th-15th. Lee thereupon retired within the in- 
trenchments covering Richmond. On the 15th 
and ‘16th a part of the Union forces unsuccess¬ 
fully assailed Petersburg, and on the 19th Grant 
began a regular siege. An invasion of Mary¬ 
land under General Early in July, which threat¬ 
ened Washington, failed, and led to operations 
in the Shenandoah Valley, in which General 
Sheridan nearly destroyed Early’s forces at 
Winchester. On May 5, 1864, General W. T. 
Sherman started from Chattanooga on his cam¬ 
paign against Atlanta, in which he was ably 
opposed by Johnston, and vainly assailed by 
his successor in command, General Hood. At¬ 
lanta was evacuated by the Confederates on 
September 1st. Near the middle of November 
he started for the coast. Marching through the 
heart of Georgia without opposition, he reached 
the vicinity of Savannah, capturing Fort Mc¬ 
Allister December 13th, and occupying the city 
December 21st. On December 15th and 16th, 
Hood, who had marched north with his army, 
suffered a bloody repulse before Nashville by 
Thomas. An attempt in December, by a fleet 
under Admiral Porter and a land force under 
General Butler, to reduce Fort Fisher at the 
mouth of Cape Fear River, commanding the 
approach to Wilmington, N. C., failed; but on 
January 15, 1865, it was carried by an assault 
under General Terry, aided by the fleet. The 
Federal forces occupied Wilmington on February 
22d. The siege of Petersburg and Richmond 
continued till April 3, 1865, when, after Lee’s 
defeat at Five Forks (March 31st, April 1st), 
those places were occupied by the Federals, hav¬ 
ing been evacuated by Lee during the preceding 
night. Grant vigorously pursued the retreating 
army, and at Appomattox Court House, on the 
9th, compelled Lee to surrender the remnant of 
his forces, about 27,000 in all, an event which 
virtually terminated the war. On February 1st, 
General Sherman started from Savannah on a 
northward movement through the Carolinas, 
and reached Columbia on the 17th. General 
Hardee, being thus taken in the rear, evacuated 
Charleston, which was occupied by a detach¬ 
ment of General Gillmore’s forces on the 18th, 
and the same day the national flag was raised 
over Fort Sumter. Sherman reached Fayette¬ 
ville, N. C., on March 12th. On the 19th the 
left wing under Slocum encountered the Con¬ 
federate army under General Johnston at Ben- 
tonville, repelled several assaults,, and on the 
21st, being reinforced, compelled it to retreat 




176 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


to Smithfield, covering Raleigh. Sherman then 
occupied Goldsboro, whence he advanced on 
April 10th. Johnston retreated through Ra¬ 
leigh, and on April 26th surrendered his entire 
army, then reduced to about 31,000 men. In 
the meantime, a cavalry force under General 
Wilson had swept through Alabama from the 
north, and passed into Georgia, occupying Selma 
on April 2d, Montgomery on the 12th, and 
Columbus, Ga., on the 16th. Mobile was taken 
on April 12th by General Canby, aided by a 
fleet under Admiral Thatcher. On May 4th, 
General Taylor surrendered the Confederate 
forces in Alabama to General Canby. The last 
fight of the war occurred May 13th, on the Rio 
Grande in Texas, between Colonel Barrett (Fed¬ 
eral) and General Slaughter (Confederate), the 
latter being victorious. The trans-Mississippi 
army of the Confederates, the last in the field, 
was surrendered by Kirby Smith on May 26th. 
During the war Confederate cruisers, mostly 
built and fitted out in British ports, and manned 
by British sailors, scoured the ocean. Evading 
vessels of war, they destroyed hundreds of mer¬ 
chantmen, doing irreparable injury to the com¬ 
merce of the Union. The chief of these were 
the “Alabama,” “Chickamauga, ,, “Florida,” 
“Georgia,” “Olustee,” “Shenandoah,” “Sum¬ 
ter,” and “Tallahassee.” The “Alabama,” the 
most famous, commanded by Raphael Semmes, 
was sunk off Cherbourg, France, June 19, 1864, 
by the United States steamer “Kearsarge,” 
commanded by Captain Winslow. After the 
fall of Richmond, President Davis of the Con¬ 
federacy fled south, and was captured at Irwin- 
ville, Ga., by General Wilson’s forces, May 10, 
1865. He and some other prominent leaders 
were imprisoned for a time, but no man was 
punished for participation in the rebellion. The 
National Republican Convention assembled at 
Baltimore on June 7, 1864, and nominated 
President Lincoln for reelection, and for vice- 
president Andrew Johnson of Tennessee. The 
platform pledged a vigorous prosecution of the 
war for the suppression of the rebellion, and 
favored an amendment to the Constitution 
abolishing slavery. The National Democratic 
Convention assembled at Chicago on August 
29th, and nominated General George B. McClel¬ 
lan for president, and for vice-president George 

H. Pendleton of Ohio. The election took place 
on November 8th, the eleven seceded States not 
participating. McClellan and Pendleton re¬ 
ceived the electoral votes of New Jersey, Dela¬ 
ware, and Kentucky, 21; Lincoln and Johnson 
received those of all the other States, 212, and 
were elected. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln’s sec¬ 
ond inauguration took place. On April 14th he 
was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, and 
the Secretary of State, Mr. Seward, dangerously 
wounded by another conspirator; and on the 
following day Vice-President Johnson entered 
upon the duties of the presidency. The ques¬ 
tion of emancipation early attracted the atten¬ 
tion of the administration and Congress. On 
April 16, 1862, an act was passed abolishing 
slavery in the District of Columbia, and on June 
9th another act declared that slavery should not 
thereafter exist in the Territories. On January 

I, 1863, Mr. Lincoln issued a proclamation de¬ 


claring free all persons held as slaves within the 
States or portions of States then in rebellion. 
The 13th amendment to the Federal Consti¬ 
tution, declaring that slavery shall not exist 
within the United States or any place subject 
to their control, was declared adopted by the 
proclamation of the Secretary of State on Decem¬ 
ber 18, 1865. The first step toward the recon¬ 
struction of loyal governments in the, seceded 
States was the proclamation of President Lin¬ 
coln of December 8, 1863. Under this scheme 
governments were organized in Louisiana and 
Arkansas in the early part of 1864, and in Ten¬ 
nessee early in 1865, but senators and repre¬ 
sentatives from those States were not admitted 
to Congress. After the close of the war Presi¬ 
dent Johnson appointed provisional governors 
for several of the seceded States. But Congress 
did not approve this scheme of reconstruction, 
and senators and representatives from those 
States were not admitted. In June, 1866, a 
joint resolution adopted by Congress proposed 
the 14th amendment to the Constitution, 
extending the rights of citizenship to all classes 
of native and naturalized persons, guaranteeing 
the validity of the national debt, forbidding the 
payment of any part of the Confederate debt 
or of claims for the loss of slaves, etc. In July 
senators and representatives were admitted from 
Tennessee, that State having ratified the 14th 
amendment. On January 8, 1867, an act was 
passed over President Johnson’s veto, confer¬ 
ring the right of suffrage on colored citizens of 
the District of Columbia, and on the 24th a 
similar act became a law for the Territories. 
The congressional plan of reconstruction was 
developed in the act of March 2d and the sup¬ 
plementary acts of March 23d and July 19th, 
each of which was passed over the President’s 
veto. These acts declared that “no legal State 
Governments or adequate protection for life or 
property now exist in the rebel States of Vir¬ 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, 
and Arkansas,” and divided them into five mili¬ 
tary districts. The district commanders were 
required to make a registration of voters, com¬ 
prising male citizens of the United States 21 
years old and upward, without regard to race, 
color, or previous condition, who had resided 
in the respective States one year, and were not 
excluded from holding office by the 14th amend¬ 
ment. Delegates were to be elected in the 
several States by the registered voters to con¬ 
ventions for framing new constitutions. Only 
when constitutions had been adopted conferring 
the right of suffrage on colored persons, and such 
constitutions had been approved by Congress, 
and when the 14th amendment had been 
ratified by the legislatures of the respective 
States, were senators and representatives to be 
admitted. The conditions of these acts were 
complied with in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, 
Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South 
Carolina in 1868, and in Mississippi, Texas, and 
Virginia in 1870. But the subsequent action 
of the legislature of Georgia in excluding colored 
members led to further measures on the part 
of Congress, and delayed the final restoration 
of that State until 1870. The adoption of the 



HISTORY 


177 


14th amendment was proclaimed on July 28, 
1868. In February, 1869, a joint resolution 
proposing the 15th amendment to the Consti¬ 
tution, prohibiting the denial or abridgement 
by any State of the Union of the right to vote 
on account of color or previous condition of 
servitude, was passed. The difference between 
President Johnson and Congress on the question 
of reconstruction led to his separation from the 
Republican party, and to the passage on March 
2, 1867, over his veto, of the “tenure of office” 
act, which took from the President the power 
to remove, without the consent of the Senate, 
such civil officers as are appointed by the Presi¬ 
dent with the consent of the Senate. His at¬ 
tempt to remove Mr. Stanton, secretary of war, 
notwithstanding the act, led to his impeach¬ 
ment, a resolution to that effect passing the 
House of Representatives February 24, 1868. 
He was tried before the Senate and acquitted in 
May, there being a majority against him, but 
not the necessary two-thirds vote. In 1867, 
Alaska was purchased of Russia. The National 
Republican Convention assembled at Chicago 
on May 21, 1868, and nominated General Ulysses 
S. Grant for president, and for vice-president 
Schuyler Colfax of Indiana. The National Dem¬ 
ocratic Convention assembled at New York on 
July 4th, and nominated Horatio Seymour of 
New York for president, and Francis P. Blair, 
Jr., of Missouri, for vice-president. The elec¬ 
tion took place on November 3d, Virginia, 
Mississippi, and Texas not voting. Seymour 
and Blair received 80 electoral votes; Grant 
and Colfax received 214, and were elected. On 
May 1, 1872, a convention assembled at Cincin¬ 
nati, composed of persons previously in sym¬ 
pathy with the Republican party, but now 
dissatisfied with the administration of President 
Grant and opposed to his reelection. They 
styled themselves “ Liberal Republicans.” By 
this convention Horace Greeley of New York 
was nominated for president, and Benjamin 
Gratz Brown of Missouri for vice-president. 
The National Republican Convention assembled 
at Philadelphia on June 5th, and nominated 
President Grant for reelection, and for vice- 
president Henry Wilson of Massachusetts. The 
National Democratic Convention assembled at 
Baltimore on July 9th, and nominated the same 
candidates and adopted the same platform as 
the Cincinnati Convention. The election, which 
took place on November 5th, resulted in the 
choice of Grant and Wilson, who each received 
286 electoral votes, out of a total of 366. One 
of the most prominent events of Grant's admin¬ 
istration was the settlement by the Treaty of 
Washington (May 8, 1871), and a subsequent 
arbitration at Geneva, Switzerland (1871-2), of 
outstanding disputes with Great Britain, of 
which the principal (the “Alabama claims” 
question) related to the charge that the British 
Government had failed in its duties as a neutral 
in allowing the construction and fitting out of 
Confederate cruisers (the “Alabama,” etc.) in 
British ports. The verdict of the arbitrators 
awarded to the United States an indemnity of 
$15,500,000 in gold. The National Republican 
Convention of 1876 assembled at Cincinnati on 
June 14th, and nominated Rutherford B. Hayes 


of Ohio for president, and William A. Wheeler 
of New York for vice-president. The National 
Democratic Convention, which assembled at 
St. Louis on June 27th, nominated Samuel J. 
Tilden of New York for president, and Thomas 
A. Hendricks of Indiana for vice-president. 
Hayes and Wheeler, although they received a 
minority of the popular vote, were declared by 
a special commission, whose report was adopted 
by Congress in joint convention, to have been 
-elected by a majority of one in the electoral 
colleges. 

In 1876, the Centennial Exposition was held 
in Philadelphia, in celebration of the one hun¬ 
dredth year of American independence. The 
exhibitors, from all parts of the world, numbered 
30,865. The buildings were of the grandest 
description, exceeding any that had hitherto 
been conceived for the purpose of an interna¬ 
tional exposition. After a presidency of two 
terms General Grant was succeeded by Ruther¬ 
ford B. Hayes, whose election was granted by an 
electoral commission formed by patriotic com¬ 
promise. At the following election (1880) the 
Republicans elected General Garfield, who was 
shot by Charles J. Guiteau, July 2, 1881, at the 
Baltimore and Potomac depot, Washington, 
D. C., and died September 19, 1881. Mr. Arthur, 
the vice-president, became president. In 1885, 
Grover Cleveland, the first Democrat holding 
the office since 1861, succeeded as president. 
The Anti-polygamy Bill, virtually disfranchising 
Mormons, became a law in 1886; also the Inter- 
State Commerce Bill, establishing a commission 
to secure uniformity of railroad rates, nationalize 
through-route traffic, and break up harmful 
combinations. In 1889, North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Montana, and Washington Territories 
were admitted as States. A bill passed in 1879 
prohibiting the immigration of Chinese as 
laborers, amended in 1882 making the restriction 
to last for twenty years, was further amended 
in 1888 by taking away from the Chinese now or 
heretofore in the country the privilege of return 
unless they had previously procured certificates. 
President Cleveland retired to private life after 
giving a cautious and prudent administration, 
signalized by patient attention to details and 
strong assertion of official prerogative. In 1889, 
Benjamin Harrison, elected by the Republicans, 
became president, the issue of the campaign 
being Free-trade vs. Protection. In 1890 a 
protective tariff bill, known as the McKinley 
Act, became a law. It increased duties on 115 
articles, embracing farm products and manu¬ 
factures, and decreased those on 190, i.e., manu¬ 
factures established. It placed sugar on the 
free list. The Coinage Act of 1890 made it com¬ 
pulsory for the government to buy 54,000,000 
ounces of silver yearly; instead of coining the 
same, to issue silver certificates therefor. Acts 
to admit Wyoming and Idaho as States were 
passed in 1890. On June 19, 1890, the report 
of the International American Conference was 
presented, forming the basis of the policy of 
reciprocity by which treaties were entered into 
with Germany, France, Spain, Brazil, and the 
countries of Central and South America. By 
the end of 1892 these treaties began to bring 
about an anticipated increase of trade. An 



178 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


application of the “Monroe Doctrine” in regard 
to the Samoan group of islands strategically situ¬ 
ated in the Pacific Ocean, which had been seized 
by Germany, resulted in the conclusion of a 
treaty which saved the absorption of the islands. 
The Bering Sea question, long a diplomatic 
stumbling-block "between the United States and 
Great Britain, was, after skillful diplomacy, 
referred to a board of arbitration. A dangerous 
complication with Italy, caused by the lynching 
of Italians in New Orleans in 1891, was amicably 
settled and friendly relations restored. In 
October, 1891, the crew of the United States 
war vessel “Baltimore” having met with out¬ 
rageous treatment by the police of Valparaiso, 
the government demanded an apology from 
Chile, which after delay was extended, with 
promise of full reparation. The presidential 
election in 1892 resulted in the selection of 
Grover Cleveland. President Harrison retired 
from office, March 4, 1893. President William 
McKinley was inaugurated March 4, 1897, and 
a year later, after a number of attempts to allay 
the Cuban situation, came the war with Spain. 
(See Spanish-American War.) _ 

A peace commission (consisting of—American: 
Hon. William R. Day, president; Senators, C. 
K. Davis, William P. Frye, Geo. Gray; White- 
law Reid, with Prof. J. B. Moore, secretary— 
Spanish: Senor Montero Rios, president; Gen¬ 
eral Cerero, Senor de Villaurratia, Senor de 
Garnica, Senor Abarzua) met in Paris to discuss 
the terms of peace between Spain and the United 
States. December 28, 1898, Spain ceded to the 
United States the Philippines, Porto Rico, and 
Guam, and agreed to retire from Cuba, accept¬ 
ing the offer of $20,000,000, the United States’ 
proposition. 

President McKinley was inaugurated for the 
second term March 4, 1901. He was shot by 
an assassin on September 6, 1901, and died 
September 14th, when he was succeeded by 
Vice-President Roosevelt, who, after the elec¬ 
tion of 1904, was inaugurated March 5, 1905, 
for a full term. 

President Roosevelt at once set about initiat¬ 
ing needed reforms in railroads, corporations, 
and trust methods, and in pushing forward the 
construction of the Panama Canal. In 1906, 
a race war occurred at Brownsville, Texas, 
resulting in the colored troops stationed there 
being ordered out of the State, and in their 
subsequent expulsion from the United States | 
army by order of the President. In the same 
ear San Francisco was almost totally destroyed j 
y earthquake and fire. In March, 1907, the 
President issued orders for the exclusion of 
Japanese _ laborers, and for the dismissal of 
suits against the San Francisco school board. 
This action opened the way for negotiations i 
between the governments of Japan and the 
United States, which culminated, early in 1908, 
in the complete restraint of Japanese immigra¬ 
tion to the United States. 

In June, 1908, the Republican National Con¬ 
vention at Chicago nominated William H. Taft 
of Ohio for President, and James S. Sherman j 
of New York as Vice-president. In July, at 
Denver, the Democrats nominated William J. 
Bryan for the third time for President, and | 


John W. Kern of Indiana for Vice-President, 
Taft and Sherman received 321 electoral votes 
and were elected. 

Soon after their inauguration, ex-President 
Roosevelt headed a great hunting expedition 
to Africa under the auspices of the Smithsonian 
Institution. He attracted wo rid-wide attention, 
and completed his trip by a tour of European 
capitals, which was a magnificent triumph. 
On his return in 1910 he plunged immediately 
into active political life. The Payne-Aldrich 
tariff law of 1909 had proved disastrously disap¬ 
pointing, and resulted in the rise of the “Insur¬ 
gent Republicans ” and the attack on the Speaker 
of the House, who was shorn of his power over 
committees. Despite the strenuous efforts of 
Taft and Roosevelt, the Democrats gained 
sweeping victories in the November elections. 

The chief features of the Taft administration 
were the adoption of economical and business¬ 
like methods in the various departments, the 
creation of a Commerce Court and a tariff board, 
the establishment of postal savings banks and 
parcel post, and the appointment by the Presi¬ 
dent of. five new members of the Supreme 
Court. The Fisheries dispute with England was 
arbitrated successfully at The Hague. Arbitra¬ 
tion treaties with France and with Great Britain 
were signed in 1912. The presidential election 
of 1912 resulted in the selection of Woodrow 
Wilson of New Jersey for President and Thomas 
R. Marshall of Indiana for Vice-president. The 
census of 1910 showed the population of the 
United States with its possessions to be 
101,100,000. 

Vermont. The first white settlement 
was made at Brattleboro, in 1724, as a military 
station, by the Massachusetts colonists. It 
served as a base of operations during the French 
wars. Immigration set in, and, in 1768, 124 
townships had been granted by Governor Went¬ 
worth, of New Hampshire, by which colony 
the fee and jurisdiction of the soil were claimed. 
A counter-claim was made by New York in 1763, 
and until the outbreak of the Revolution there 
was a bitter controversy between the two colo¬ 
nies over their respective rights to Vermont. In 
1777, the people of Vermont declared their 
independence, and, though admission to the 
confederacy of States was sought, it was refused, 
and Vermont remained outside of the Union till 
1791. During the previous year New York 
had surrendered its claims for a financial consid¬ 
eration. Vermont was the first State to join 
the original thirteen. Though not confederated 
with the other colonies against Great Britain, 
the “Green Mountain Boys” had signalized 
their valor and patriotism in a number of hard- 
fought battles and expeditions. Among these 
were the capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen, 
the invasion of Canada, the battles on Lake 
Champlain, and the two battles near Bennington, 
which were the primary cause of Burgoyne’s 
defeat at Saratoga. In 1837, Vermont was the 
starting point of the Canadian raids, and also of 
the Fenian raids. 

Virginia. The name Virginia, originally 
bestowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1584 on the 
region now known as North Carolina, discovered 
by Sir Walter Raleigh’s expedition, was after- 




HISTORY 


179 


ward applied to the whole country to 45° north. 
In 1606, James I. gave to the London Company, 
which made the first permanent settlement of 
the English in America at Jamestown the year 
after, the country from 34° to 38° north, extend¬ 
ing 100 miles from the sea. The colony was 
saved from ruin by Captain John Smith two 
years later. Colonization increased rapidly, 
and in 1621 a legislative body was formed. In 
1641, there were 15,000 English in the colony. 
In 1676 occurred Bacon’s Rebellion, brought on 
by the tyranny of Sir William Berkeley, the 
Governor. The French War of 1754, of which 
Braddock’s defeat was the most notable incident, 
first brought George Washington into notice. 
Virginia, under the leadership of Patrick Henry, 
was the first to protest against British oppression 
in 1764, and sent representatives to the Conti¬ 
nental Congress in 1775. The most important 
military event during the Revolutionary War, 
in Virginia, was the surrender of Cornwallis at 
Yorktown, October 19, 1781. Virginia passed 
an ordinance of secession, April 17, 1861, and in 
the war that followed became the bloodiest 
cock-pit of the whole contest. The most impor¬ 
tant battles were Bull Run, July 21, 1861; Win¬ 
chester, May 25, 1862; the battles of the Penin¬ 
sular campaign in the summer of 1862; second 
battle of Bull Run, August 29, 1862; Fredericks¬ 
burg, December 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, 

May 2-4, 1863; the battles of the Wilderness 
campaign in 1864, ending in the investment of 
Petersburg and Richmond; and the final sur¬ 
render of General Lee at Appomattox Court 
House, April 9, 1865. The State was readmitted 
January 27, 1870. 

Washington. The first record in history 
of the region which is now the State of Washing¬ 
ton was the discovery, in 1592, of the Strait of 
Juan de Fuca by a Greek pilot. In 1775 Cap¬ 
tain Heceta, a Spanish navigator, discovered 
the mouth of the Columbia, but was unable to 
enter the river. In 1789 Captain Kendrick, an 
American, sailed through the Strait of Fuca, 
through the Gulf of Georgia and Queen Charlotte 
Sound, and was the first to make known the 
character of these inland waters. On the 11th 
of May, 1792, Captain Gray, of the American 
ship “Columbia”, entered the river to which 
he gave the name of his ship. This gave to the 
United States the priority of claim to the 
Oregon region, which then comprised the present 
States of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. In 
October of the same year an Englishman sailed 
up and examined the Columbia about 100 miles 
from the mouth. The coast soon became well- 
known, and the United States Government 
fitted out expeditions to more thoroughly ex¬ 
plore the interior. The most important of these 
was that under Lewis and Clark, who, ascending 
the Missouri, made the Clearwater River, thence 
entering the Columbia and reaching the Pacific 
Ocean in December, 1805. 

In 1810, two expeditions were sent out by 
companies formed by J. J. Astor for the purpose 
of engaging in fur trade along the river, and the 
following year a trading post was established 
at Astoria, near the mouth of the Columbia. 
In the meantime another fur trading expedition 
had been sent out by the Northwest Fur Com¬ 


pany in an attempt to forestall the Astor Expe¬ 
dition, but it reached the river too late. For 
some time after the history of the country was 
merely the record of the Northwest Fur Com¬ 
pany and the Hudson Bay Company. During 
all the years of the fur trading a dispute had 
been going on between the United States and 
England, and at times war was threatened. In 
1846 a treaty was signed fixing the boundary 
at the forty-ninth parallel. The Territory of 
Oregon was formed in 1848, and in 1853 the 
Territory of Washington was established from 
a part of the original country. Washington was 
admitted to Statehood November 11, 1889. In 
1910 the state granted suffrage to women. 

Waterloo, Battle of, an important 
battle won by the allied forces over Napoleon, 
near Waterloo, a Belgian village eleven miles 
south of Brussels, June 18, 1815. The prelimi¬ 
nary battles had been at Ligny, June 16th (when 
Napoleon had defeated the Prussians under 
Bliicher), and at Quartre-Bras, on the same day 
(when the allies under Wellington compelled the 
French Marshal Ney to retire). At Waterloo 
the French numbered about 72,000. The allies 
(British, Dutch, and Germans), under Welling¬ 
ton, had about 67,000; the Prussians (about 
50,000 more), under Bliicher, came up in time 
to take part in the close of the battle, and in the 
pursuit. The battle began about 11.30 A. M. 
Briefly it may be said to have consisted of a 
series of brilliant but unsuccessful charges made 
by the French, and dogged resistance on the 
part of the British; hi the evening the French 
Old Guard charged, but unavailingly, after 
which the allies advanced. The French lost 
about 35,000, and many prisoners; the allies 
about 22,000. Marshal Grouchy, though he 
defeated Bliicher at Wavre, June 18th, failed 
to prevent him from joining Wellington, and 
himself failed to come to Napoleon’s aid, though 
but a few miles distant. The rout of the French 
was complete, and the disaster final to Napoleon, 
the result being his deposition and exile to St. 
Helena. 

West Virginia. Immediately after the 
ordinance of secession, passed by Virginia in 
April, 1861, a mass-meeting of citizens con¬ 
vened at Clarksburg, and denounced the action 
of the convention, recommending the citizens of 
Northwest Virginia to meet in convention at 
Wheeling on May 13th. Other meetings sus¬ 
tained the movement, and delegates from 
twenty-five western counties met in convention, 
denounced the action of Virginia, and provided 
for a convention of all the counties of the State 
adhering to the Union. The latter convention 
repudiated the action of Virginia, and elected 
Francis H. Pierpont as governor of the reorgan¬ 
ized State of Virginia. The ultimate result was 
the formation of the new State under the title 
of West Virginia, and in 1863 the State was 
admitted to the Union. Military operations in 
what is now known as West Virginia were 
mostly confined to 1861, and the most im¬ 
portant engagements were at Philippi, Beverly, 
Rich Mountain, Cheat Mountain, and Carnifex 
Ferry. 

Whisky Insurrection, a popular out¬ 
break in Western Pennsylvania, in the summer 



180 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of 1794, on account of the imposition of duties on 
domestic distilled spirits. The people of West¬ 
ern Pennsylvania, where large quantities of 
whisky were manufactured, resisted the collec¬ 
tion of the revenue by excise officers with force 
of arms. The insurrection became general in 
several counties. Many outrages were com¬ 
mitted. Buildings were burned, the mails were 
rifled, and government officers were insulted and 
abused. At one time there were 6,000 or 7,000 
insurgents under arms. The President of the 
United States (Washington) finally called out 
the military force of the country, to put down 
the insurgents, and was successful. Great leni¬ 
ency was shown to the offenders, and the excite¬ 
ment died away. 

Wisconsin. The name is derived from 
the River Wisconsin (originally used with the 
French orthography, Ouisconsin ), from an 
Indian word, meaning “wild, rushing river.” 
The first white people in Wisconsin were French 
explorers, Jean Nicolet and his followers, who 
entered the region in 1634. In 1658-59, two 
fur traders, Radisson and Groseilliers, visited the 
Mississippi and left a record of their travels. In 
1665, a Jesuit mission at La Pointe was founded 
by Father Claude Allouez, and three years later 
he established the mission of St. Francis Xavier 
on the shores of Green Bay. In 1673, Father 
Marquette, accompanying Louis Joliet, reached 
the Mississippi by passing through Wisconsin, 
and later Father Hennepin and La Salle traced 
other waterways within the territory. Trading 
posts were established soon after this, becoming 
dependencies of Mackinaw. About the middle 
of the Eighteenth Century a fixed settlement 
was established at Green Bay, and at the close 
of the Revolutionary War Prairie du Chien, at 
the mouth of the Wisconsin, grew into a like 
settlement, and a few years later La Pointe and 
Portage became permanent trading posts. 

England retained Mackinaw after the treaty 
of 1783, and American dominion was not felt 
by the Wisconsin traders until after the War of 
1812. The formation of Astor’s company to 
establish fur trade in this region was followed by 
a law forbidding English traders in the territory, 
which resulted in an increase of American influ¬ 
ence. By the ordinance of 1787 Wisconsin had 
been a part of the Northwest Territory. In 1800, 
it was included in Indiana Territory. In 1809, it 
passed to Illinois, and in 1818 to Michigan. In 
1825, the lead mines in the southern part of the 
State began to attract attention and considerable 
mining population came into the country. In 
1828, Fort Winnebago was erected at Portage 
and the mining region was ceded to the whites 
by the Indians. In 1832, occurred the Black 
Hawk War, which ended in the almost entire 
extermination of the Sacs. The Territory of 
Wisconsin was formed in 1836 out of lands then 
comprised in the Territory of Michigan. It 
embraced all the land now within the States of 
Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and that part 
of the Territory of Dakota which lies east of the 
Missouri and White Earth rivers. In 1838, all 
the territory west of the Mississippi River, and 
of a line due north from the source of that 
river to the international boundary-line, was 
taken to form the Territory of Iowa. As thus 


bounded, Wisconsin became a State in 1848, 
the seventeenth admitted under the Federal 
Constitution. 

Wyoming 1 was first visited by white men 
in 1742 and 1744, when Sieur de Verendrye, 
with a party from Canada, entered the territory 
and discovered the Rocky Mountains. John 
Colter, of Lewis and Clark’s expedition of 1806- 
10, explored the northern part of the section 
and discovered Yellowstone Park. In 1807, 
Ezekiel Williams made extensive explorations 
in Wyoming, and in 1812 Robert Stuart’s 
courier party discovered the route to the West 
known as the “Overland Trail.” In 1834, 
Sublette and Campbell built Fort Williams, 
afterward called Fort Laramie, and established 
the first permanent post in the State. In 
1834, the first emigrants to the Pacific Coast 
passed along the overland trail, and in 1836 
the first white women crossed the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains. 

Fort Bridger, the second permanent post, was 
built in 1842. In 1847, the advance guard of 
the Mormons crossed Wyoming on their way to 
Utah. Fort Laramie was garrisoned in 1849 
and made a government post. In 1854, began a 
series of Indian wars which continued until 1876. 
The greatest Indian uprising happened from 
1862 to 1868, and in 1866 occurred the massacre 
of Fort Phil Kearny, when Colonel Fetterman 
and eighty men were killed. The gold mines 
of Sweetwater were discovered in 1867, and the 
city of Cheyenne was founded in the same year. 
The first passenger train on the Union Pacific 
Railroad arrived in Wyoming in 1867. In 1868, 
the Territory of Wyoming was organized. 
Cheyenne was designated as the capital, and 
Laramie was founded. The first territorial 
legislature convened at Cheyenne in 1869. An 
act was approved that year giving women the 
right to vote and hold office in Wyoming. Coal 
was discovered in 1869 and the first mine was 
opened. In 1890, Wyoming was admitted to 
statehood and the first legislature convened at 
Cheyenne. In the same year cowboys, in an 
attempt to put a stop to train robbery, brought 
about a period of outlawry that necessitated a 
call for United States troops. 

Serious trouble was caused for some years in 
Wyoming by the State game laws, to which the 
Indians were naturally unable to reconcile them¬ 
selves. In the latter part of October and the 
beginning of November, 1903, severe fighting 
took place between the whites and Indians who 
had been killing game, in which several whites 
were killed. 

Yorktown, Virginia. Lord Cornwallis 
had taken possession of Yorktown in August, 
1781; but, after sustaining a disastrous siege, 
he was obliged to surrender his army, consisting 
of about 7,000 men, to the allied armies of France 
and America, under the command of General 
Washington and Count Rochambeau, October 
19, 1781. This mischance was attributed to Sir 
Henry Clinton, who had not given the garrison 
the necessary succor they expected, and it 
mainly led to the close of the war. It was 
strongly fortified by the Confederates in the 
American Civil War, but surrendered to Mc¬ 
Clellan, May, 1862. 

















■* 
































- - • 














































CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT 


Copyright, 1899, by Notman Photo Cat 








LANGUAGE 


It has been estimated that more than twelve 
hundred languages were spoken in the two 
Americas. These languages give evidence of 
no continuously progressive type of culture. 
The many tribes have changed their vocabu¬ 
laries ; but the identical method of putting 
words together has survived without change. 
One striking characteristic is the frequency of 
long words. This is well illustrated by the 
Aztec word for letter-postage — amatlocuilolit- 
quitcatlaxtlahuilli, the literal meaning of which 
is, “the payment received for carrying a paper 
on which something is written.” By compari¬ 
son and classification of the countless dialects 
and languages, they are reduced to a few great 
groups: the Tumeh group covers the northern 
part of the Rocky Mountains; the Aztec group 
has its seat in Central Mexico and Central Amer¬ 
ica; the Maya group has its seat in Central 
America and Yucatan; the Appalachian tribes 
include all those with which the English and 
the French first came into contact from the 
Atlantic to the basin of the Mississippi, and 
also the tribes of the northern part of South 
America; the Amazonian tribes occupy a large 
part of South America. 

The Hamitic race belongs historically to the 
northern parts of Africa, the southern parts of 
Europe, and the Western parts of Asia. The 
Hamitic people were called, by the historic 
Greeks, Pelasgic. Their civilization has been 
so overlaid by that of the Aryans as to be almost 
wholly obscured. The great Hamitic civiliza¬ 
tion was that of Egypt, long considered the 
earliest of all the civilizations. 

HAMITIC TONGUES 

Sidonian, Egyptian, Berber, Iberian, 

or or or 

Rotic Libyan Biscayan 

Koptic 

Pelasgian, Minsean, Galla 

(probably) (probably) (probably) 

At the beginning of this century we knew 
little more of Semitic literature than what was 
contained in the ancient Hebrew Scriptures 
and in that body of Arabic literature that grew 
up after the era of Mohammed. Our knowledge 
has been greatly added to by the numerous 
inscriptions which have been found and de¬ 
ciphered. The Semitic races first appear his¬ 
torically in the great desert region covering 
Arabia and extending to the border of the Mes¬ 
opotamian River valleys. The Semitic tongues 
are different dialects, rather than different lan¬ 
guages. 

The Koran made the Arabic language sacred, 
as well as classic. About the Eleventh Century 
that treasure-house of tales, “The Thousand 
Nights and a Night,” was produced. From the 
Canaanite family came our Hebrew Bible, a 
library of very varied literature. 


AMERICAN 

Blackfeet, .... .1 

Cree,. 

Montagnoi, .... 

Micmoc. 

Ottawa,. 

Abenaki,. 

Passamaquoddy, . 

Pequoid,. 

Mohegan,.. 

Lenape,. 

Nanticoke. 

Powhatan,. 

Miami,. 

Sac,. . . 

Fox. 

Kickapoo,. 

Shawnee, . . . „ . 


Seneca, . 

Cayuga,. 

Onondaga,. 

Oneida,. 

Mohawk,. 

Tuscarora. 

Huron. 


Assiniboin, . . . 

Sioux,. 

Crow,. 

Winnebago, . . . 

Omaha. 

Mandan. 

Oto,. 

Ponca,. 

Osage,. 

Kansas,. 

Tutelo. 


L 


Cherokee, 

Creek, . . 

Choctaw, 

Chickasaw, 

Yemassee, 

Seminole, 


Caddo,.' 

Pawnee,. 

Arickaree,. 

Wishita,. 


Ute. 

Comanche, . . . . 


Carib, . 
Arawak, 


LANGUAGES 

Chippewa,.' 

Kutchin,. 

Kenai,. 

Tacullie. 

Umpqua,. 

Hoopab,. 

Apache,. 

Navajo. 

—1 Lipan.. 


Toltec,. 

Aztec,. 

Chichimec, . . . . 
Pipile, ....... 

Nicarao,. 

Alaguilac,. 


Itza, ... . 

Tzendal,. 

Quichd. 

Cakchiquel, . . . . 

Huasteca,. 

Maya. 

Quichda,...... 

Arnard,. 


Algonkin.' 

—Iroquois,. 

——Dakota. 

-Chahta-Muskoki, . 

-Caddo. 

Kioway,. 

r—Shoshonee.| 

West Indian, . . . j 


Tupi,.. . . 

Guarani, ...... 

Mundurucu, . . . . 

Or&ra,. 

Ticuna,. 

Parentintin. 

Mura,. 

Purupuru,. 

Piro. 

Mir&nha,. 

Caishdna, . . . . 


Tinnet Nahuael Quiche-Maya Appalachian Amazonian 







































































































184 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


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Low German 


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0 

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Old High German 
Middle High German 
High German 

Gothic 

Old Dutch-J 

Anglo-Saxon— 
Friesian 
Saxon 
Dansk 

Scandinavian j Svensk 
Norsk 

( Lithuanian 
Old Prussian 
[ Lettic 

f Russian 

E. Slavic j Bulgarian 
[ Illyrian 


W. Slavic 


Lech 

Czech 

Palabian 


t£ 

a 

W 


Doric ] 
Aeolic 
Attic 
t Ionic 


Portuguese 

Romansch 

Wallachian 

Ladin 

Italian 


Catalan 

Castilian 


Provencal 
Old French- 


Welsh 

Cornish (died 
out beginning 
of Nineteenth 
Century) 

Breton (intro¬ 
duced from 
Britain) 

Gallic (inscrip¬ 
tions in Gaul) 


Gaelic 

Erse 

Manx 


SEMITIC LANGUAGES 

Chaldsean, or 
Babylonian. 


Jewish,. . 
Aramaic,. 
Syriac, . . 
Nabataean, 
Palmyrite, 


Assyrian. 

-Aramaic. 

Hebrew. 


Hebrew (proper), . . 

Phenician. 

Canaanite,. 

Edomite,. 

Moabite. 

Punic, or 

Carthaginian. 


Arabic. 


Sabaean following 
Minaean, which 
may have been 
Hamitic. 


Ethiopic, or Geez. 


Amharic (possibly 
Hamitic). 

Aryan ( Indo-European, Indo-Ger- 
manic ) Family. To this family belongs 
the first place. From the Aryans sprang 
both Persians and Greeks midway in its 
development; this family rules both Eu¬ 
rope and America, the African coasts and 
Australia, as well as the north and south 
of Asia. Its literature, both in abun¬ 
dance and quality, is unsurpassed by 
those of any of the other world fami¬ 
lies of language. From the Aryans have 
come the great world literatures in politics, 
art, letters, science, and religious truth. 
From them came the Iliad and the 
Odyssey, the Vedas of India, and the 
Shah-nameh of Persia, the Eddas of 
the Norsemen, the Gudrun, the Lay of 
the Nibelungs, the Beowulf, the Romaunt 
of Roland, the Arthurian Tales, and the 
Keltic Mabinogion. 

One group of the Aryan family con¬ 
quered and civilized India and Ceylon. 
Sanskrit was the language in their day 
of greatness. The group that traveled 
farthest west was the Kelts. These were 
soon followed by the Teutonic tribes. 
Then came the Slav, Serb, or Wend. 

“The care of the national language I 
consider as at all times a sacred trust and 
a most important privilege of the higher 
orders of society. Every man of educa¬ 
tion should make it .the object of his un¬ 
ceasing concern, to preserve his. language 
pure and entire, to speak it, so far as is 
in his power, in all its beauty and per¬ 
fection. * * * A nation whose 

language becomes rude and barbarous, 
must be on the brink of barbarism in 
regard to everything else. A nation 
which allows her language to go to ruin, 
is parting with the best half of her intel¬ 
lectual independence, and testifies her wil¬ 
lingness to cease to exist.”— F. Schlegel. 

“It is with words as with sunbeams, 
the more they are condensed the deeper 
they burn.”— Southey. 

“ Though our comparison might be bold, 


* 






































LANGUAGE 


185 


it would be just as if we were to say that the 
English language is a conglomerate of Latin words 
bound together in a Saxon cement; the frag¬ 
ments of the Latin being partly portions intro¬ 
duced directly from the parent quarry, with all 
their sharp edges, and partly pebbles of the same 
material, obscured and shaped by long rolling 
in a Norman or some other channel.”— Whewell. 

The English language is a conglomerate. 
Whenever there is an invention made or a 
psychological truth discovered, or a new article 
of commerce is introduced, or contact or inter¬ 
course with a new nation or people is estab¬ 
lished, a new word or set of words is added to 
our vocabulary. Every new game or fashion 
creates new names. Our complex civilization 
is reflected in a complex vocabulary or lan¬ 
guage. It is important that we should familiarize 
ourselves with the sources of our language, and 
with the sources of its strength, and each do 
his share towards preserving it in its purity 
and beauty. We should have an intelligent 
interest in our mother tongue in order that we 
may use it intelligently. We must spend a 
little time in the study of the past of our lan¬ 
guage, because it is only in the light of that past 
that the present is intelligible. Few of us are 
conscious of the changes taking place now, yet 
these changes must be taking place, for ours is 
the same language used by Chaucer, yet how 
different. New words are coming in, and old 
ones becoming obsolete every year. 

Slang is responsible for the introduction of 
many new words. When we first hear a slang 
phrase, we are surprised; but in this day of great 
surprises, we quickly grow accustomed to it, 
and soon adopt it as an integral part of our 
language. We use it as though it were not a 
thing of yesterday, but had existed as long as 
the language itself. If we were to examine 
some of these slang terms, we should find that 
many of them have been incorporated into the 
language, and are properly used in polite society 
and in serious composition. 

Trench says, “If the English language were 
to be divided into a hundred parts, forty-five 
of these might be Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, 
as now some prefer to call them; forty-five 
Latin (including, of course, the Latin which has 
come to us through the French); five perhaps 
would be Greek. We should, in this way, have 
allotted ninety-five parts, leaving the other five 
to be divided among all the other languages, 
which have made their smaller contributions 
to the vocabulary of our English tongue.” It 
will be interesting to find what classes of words 
come from the different sources. 

The Anglo-Saxon is the basis of the English 
language; it is the warp while the Latin is the 
woof. The monosyllables in great part are 
Anglo-Saxon. The articles, conjunctions, pro¬ 
nouns, prepositions, numerals, and auxiliary 
verbs are Saxon. Verbs of action and words 
that relate to the primary action of the senses 
are Saxon, as, think, feel, sing, see, talk, walk, 
run, and the like. 

Ever since the English language began we 
have been filibusters; we have plundered every 
other tongue for words to make our meaning 
plain; we have raided where we would, and 


have never hesitated to put ourselves under 
obligation to all strangers coming to our shores, 
or whose shores we have visited. The history 
of the English language is, in fact, but the his¬ 
tory of the English people, and of their doings. 

The early British language was under debt 
to the Celts, first of all; and we find in our pres¬ 
ent-day vocabulary such words as apply to Celtic 
things, as, bard, shamrock, whiskey,"clan, dirk, 
cromlech, kilt, etc. The Anglo-Saxons, while 
they eagerly discarded words of Celtic origin, 
as did the French later, enriched their language 
from the Latin. The Roman occupation of 
Britain, from about A. D. 43 to A. D. 410, 
bequeathed to us five or six terms: castra, a 
camp, has been retained in Doncaster, Lancaster, 
Gloucester, Winchester, Bibchester, Exeter, 
formerly Excestre; strata, a paved road, in 
street, Park street, Stratford, Stretford, Streat- 
ham, Stradbroke; colonia, a colony, in Lincoln; 
portus, a harbor, in Portsmouth, Portchester, 
Portsea; pons, a bridge, in Pontefract; fossa, 
a ditch, in Fossway, Fossbridge; vallum, a 
rampart, in Wallbury. 

The conversion of the British to Christianity 
is marked by another influx of Latin words ana 
terms relating to the Church: abstinence, avarice, 
bounty, cardinal virtues, conscience, charity, 
chastity, confession, consistory, contemplation, 
contrition, indulgence, recreant, relic, reverence, 
sanctity, spiritual, unity, etc. Then the Danes 
lent a hand, giving us: to plough, to ask. 

Nor is it without a strange irony that the 
lawless Vikings gave us our word “law.” The 
early supremacy of the Dutch in agriculture, 
in horticulture, and in ship building is made 
evident by the fact that a large proportion of 
the English words, dealing with the farm, the 
garden, and the ship, are of Dutch origin, and 
were borrowed from the brave little republic 
when the English went to school to the Hol¬ 
lander, to learn what he had to teach. A few 
of the words they give us are: ahoy, aloof, 
ballast, bluff, blunderbuss, boom, brack, brack¬ 
ish, brandy, bruin, duck (a fabric), golf, growl,' 
hoarding, knapsack, landscape, leaguer, loiter, 
manikin, measles, mope, mumps, pink, sheer, 
slim, sloop, swab, switch, uproar, wagon, yacht, 
dock, hull, skipper, fly boat. 

During the First Century that followed the 
Conquest in 1066, the language of the native 
population was, as they were themselves, utterly 
crushed and trodden under foot. The Conquest 
revolutionized our language as it did our life. 
A foreign dynasty, speaking a foreign tongue, 
and supported by an army of foreigners, was on 
the throne of England; Norman ecclesiastics 
filled all the high places of the Church, and places 
of honor and emolument. This meant that 
French became the language of the court, of 
society, and even of the many Norman families 
who employed the Saxons as servants. But 
the masses of England still spoke their native 
tongue. 

The better or richer families of the Anglo- 
Saxons began to adopt the French fashions and 
manners, and to speak the French language, 
as a mark of gentility. The many churches 
and castles, which the Normans built in different 
parts of England, meant that the French would 



186 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


there be used, and add to the influence at work 
to make a new English language. The lan- 
uage of chivalry was exclusively French, and 
rought in such words as honor, glory, renown, 
host, champion, valiant, feat, achievement, 
courtesy, gentle, etc. With the lawyer, who 
was a great power during this time of transition, 
came such words as advocate, alliance, chattels, 
demise, devise, demurrer, domain, estate, fief, 
homage, liege, loyalty, manor, personality, pur¬ 
suit, realty, treaty, voucher, etc. 

The words which describe the pursuits of 
gentlefolk are mostly of French origin; and 
it is a curious comment on history that, as 
Wamba points out in “Ivanhoe,” while live 
animals — ox, sheep, calf, swine, deer — re¬ 
tain their native names, they are described by- 
French words — beef, mutton, veal, pork, veni¬ 
son— when they are brought to table. The 
“Saxon” serf had the care of the animals while 
they were alive, but when killed they were eaten 
by his “French” superiors. Abundant words 
relating to law, government, and property 
have their origin in the Conquest. Such are: 
custom, prime, court, assize, tax, county, city, 
judge, jury, justice, prison, goal, parliament, 
manor, money, rent, chattel, mortgage, council, 
bill, act, etc. The French had shown their 
greater genius for war, and so, very naturally, 
their military terms were accepted. Army, 
battle, fortress, cannonade, assault, siege, hau¬ 
berk, ambuscade, brigadier, colonel, arms, armor, 
standard, banner, harness, glaive, tower, and 
lance are some of them. 

From the fact that butcher, grocer, mason, 
carpenter, barber, chandler, cutter, draper, and 
tailor are of French extraction, we should con¬ 
clude that the strangers were superior to the 
natives in the industrial occupations. 

“ It is owing to the coming of William,” says 
Dr. Freeman in his “ History of the Norman 
Conquest,” “that we cannot trace the history 
of our native speech, that we cannot raise our 
wail of its corruption without borrowing largely 
from the store of foreign words which, but for 
his coming, would never have crossed the sea. 
So strong a hold have the intruders taken on 
our soil that we cannot tell the tale of their com¬ 
ing without their help.” 

Nearly all the scholarly writers of to-day 
have been classically educated, and they write 
for readers presumed to have more or less knowl¬ 
edge of Latin, hence they do not hesitate to use 
Latin derivatives, and often anglicize a Latin 
word rather than invent a native English com¬ 
pound. It is this tendency which has kept us 
from forming compound words, as do the Ger¬ 
mans for each new idea. But recently the Ger¬ 
man Emperor put forth a strong plea for the 
use of the native words instead of the foreign 
words, which the people were adopting so readily. 
He even wanted them to use a native compound 
in place of the cosmopolitan word telephone. 

The English tongue is fortunate in that it is 
an ingenious and partial compound of German 
and Latin. The German gives force, the Latin 
sonority to our verse and prose, while an inter¬ 
changing of German and Latin gives a variety 
which every other language may seek in vain. 

Most of our scientific nomenclature is from 


the Greek. Not only do we get our scientific 
terms from the Greek, but also the names 
for the new instruments and processes; as, 
lithography, photography, telephone, cinemo- 
tograph, etc. 

Our musical vocabulary is largely from the 
Italian, as the following words bear witness: 
contralto, duet, opera, piano, quartet, solo, 
sonata, soprano, stanza, trio, trombone, allegro, 
adagio, baritone, cantata, canto, fugue, can¬ 
zonet, etc. 

The French give us terms of dress and cook¬ 
ing: flounce, jewel, pattern, plait, toilet, ton- 
sure, vesture, trousseau, costume, model, peruke, 
drape, embroider, furbelow, jacket, apparel, 
apron, bracelet, brooch, buckle, fricassee, fritter, 
gem, jelly, juice, omelet, parboil, peel, pie, rag¬ 
out, sauce, sausage, victuals, salad, etc. 

The advent of the English in the New World 
is known by the adoption of tobacco, potato, 
tepee, wigwam, toboggan, moccasin, pemmican, 
etc. 

Were it wise to use the space for it, illustra¬ 
tions of words taken from every language could 
be given. But enough has already been done 
to show the composite make-up of our mother 
tongue, and to show the sources of its strength. 

Every American should speak English. If 
a foreign word has been adopted into the Eng¬ 
lish language, why not let it take the English 
forms? Let the plural of syllabus be syllabuses; 
of cactus, cactuses; of focus, focuses; etc. 
Let others take on the English spelling; as, 
technic, not technique; grip, not grippe; con¬ 
servatory, not conservatoire; exposure, not 
expose, etc. Only a pedant will use serviette 
in place of napkin. 

Let the student or would-be author not try 
to adorn his style with foreign words; let him 
use the most usual terms to produce the desired 
effect. Let him remember that, though Eng¬ 
lish has borrowed a great deal of French, though 
it has lost a large stock of English words, though 
it has adopted many a French idiom, and has 
been influenced by French in endless indirect 
ways, it still remains English. 

In former times “ hard work made one sweat ”; 
now-a-days excessive labor causes profuse per¬ 
spiration. If a man, thus overheated, were to 
stand in a draught, he might catch his death 
of cold, get very sick, and even die. This reads 
well enough as an ordinary warning; but in a 
treatise on hygiene for popular use, the matter 
is now presented as follows: “If a person, whose 
system is excited by vigorous exertion, should 
suddenly expose himself to a current of air, he 
would probably check his perspiration and con¬ 
tract a disease which might involve the most 
serious and even fatal consequences.” Which 
form of expression shall we cultivate? Which 
recommends itself to you? 

Dr. Freeman says: “In almost every page 
I have found it easy to put some plain English 
word, about whose meaning there can be no 
doubt, instead of those needless French and 
Latin words which are thought to add dignity 
to style, but which in truth only add vagueness. 
I am in no way ashamed to find that I can write 
purer and clearer English now than I did four¬ 
teen and fifteen years back; and I think it well 



LANGUAGE 


187 


to mention the fact for the encouragement of 
younger writers. The common temptation of 
beginners is to write in what they think a more 
elevated fashion. It needs some years of prac¬ 
tice before a man fully takes in the truth that 
for real strength, and above all, for real clear¬ 
ness, there is nothing like the old English speech 
of our fathers.” 

CAPITALS 

1. The first word of every full sentence should 
begin with a capital, unless a literal reprint of 
the writing of an illiterate person, who does 
not begin a sentence with a capital, is to be 
made. 

Two lines of invasion were adopted. Montgomery 
descended Lake Champlain with 2,000 men, and after a 
campaign of two months captured Montreal. 

2. Every line or verse of poetry should begin 
with a capital. 

Morning, evening, noon, and night, 

“Praise God! ” sang Theocrite. 

Then to his poor trade he turned, 

Whereby the daily meal was earned. 

The initial letter in the first word of a poetical 
quotation, though not beginning a line, should 
be capitalized. 

But that’s not enough : 

Give my conviction a clinch ! 

3. The name of the Deity in every person, 
and in every synonym or attribute, should be¬ 
gin with a capital; as, God, Christ, Jesus, Son, 
Holy Ghost, Jehovah, Heaven, Creator, Provi¬ 
dence, Infinite One, Supreme Being, etc. 

When the attributes of the Deity or of the 
Saviour are expressed, not by adjectives, but in 
the Hebrew style, by nouns, they should begin 
with small letters, as Father of mercies, God 
of wisdom, Prince of peace. 

Also write Son of man, Spirit of God, Lord 
of lords, King of kings, etc. 

4. Pronouns referring to God .and Christ 
should not begin with capitals, unless they are 
used emphatically without a noun. 

Shepherd! with thy tenderest love, 

Guide me to thy fold above; 

**************** 
Jesus said, I and my. Father are One. 

5. The pronoun I and the interjection O al¬ 
ways take a capital letter. Oh does not unless 
it begins a sentence. 

The heavens and earth, O Lord! proclaim thy boundless 
power. 

6. The proper names of the days of the week 
and of the months of the year, and of days of 
feasts and fasts, festivals and holidays, both 
religious and civic, should begin with capitals; 
as, Monday, March, Arbor Day, New Years, 
Whitsunday, Decoration Day, Labor Day, 
Easter, Black Friday, etc. 

The names of the seasons are not capitalized. 

7. All proper nouns and adjectives derived 
from these nouns should begin with capitals; 
as, a Greek, a Roman, a Hebrew, a Christian, a 
Mohammedan, an Elizabethan. 

Names of all geographical zones or sections 
of the world, when used as proper nouns, take 
a capital; as, the Occident, the Orient, the Le¬ 
vant, etc. 


Names of political parties should be capital¬ 
ized; as, Tory, Republican, Federalist, Free 
Soiler, etc. 

Geographical, national, or personal qualities, 
when used as nouns or before nouns in common 
use that specify merchandise, do not need a 
capital; as, china, india ink, prussian blue, turkey 
red, majolica, delft, oriental rugs, castile soap, 
etc. 

There are some verbs derived from proper 
nouns that have lost their reference to the noun, 
and so are printed with small letters; as, to hector, 
to philippize, to romance, to japan, to galvanize. 
But Judaize and Christianize are exceptions 
to this rule. 

8. Capitalize the first word in all titles of 
books, periodicals, plays, and pictures, and also 
every other word in the titles except articles, 
prepositions, and conjunctions. 

Fiske’s The War of Independence. 

This rule is contrary to the custom of the 
American Library Association’s rules, used in 
cataloguing books. They capitalize only the 
first word and proper nouns and proper adjec¬ 
tives; as, Fiske’s The war of independence. 

9. The first word and all important words 
in the titles of corporations and societies, should 
begin with a capital letter; as, The Society for 
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the Synod, 
the Government (when it stands in place of the 
title of the divisions of the government). In 
general, one should use a capital in the last illus¬ 
trations when the definite article is used, and 
a small letter if the indefinite article is used. 

10. Titles of office or honor should be capi¬ 
talized if used before the name of the person; 
as, Mr. Smith, President Roosevelt, Messrs. 
A. K. Bidwell & Co., Brother George, Aunt 
Hannah. 

If used after, they are better written with a 
small letter; as, Hon. James G. Blaine, ex-senator 
from Maine; James Brown, roundsman, Broad¬ 
way squad. 

When titles occur frequently on a page, and 
are used without any particular expression of 
honor, they should be written with small letters. 

In official documents the titles of potentates 
are, often capitalized, even though they follow 
the name of the ruler; as, Victoria, by the grace 
of God, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, 
Empress of India, etc. 

When sir, friend, boy, and the like words are 
used in the salutation of a letter, they should 
be capitalized; as, My dear Sir, My dear Boy. 

A title used in place of the person’s name 
should begin with a capital; as, Good morning, 
Captain; Mr. President, I call for the question. 

Abbreviated titles of honor or respect should 
be capitalized: James Bryce, D. C. L.; Henry 
Northam, M. D., LL. D.; Gen., Hon., Dr., etc. 

11. Words of primary importance, especially 
if they indicate some great event, or remarkable 
change in religion or government, are com¬ 
menced with capital letters; as, The Reforma¬ 
tion, effected by Luther, is one of the most 
wonderful events in modern times. 

12. The names of the points of the compass 
when used to indicate direction should begin 
with small letters. When used to indicate a 




188 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


section of the country, they should begin with 
capitals; as, I am going West; he is a representa¬ 
tive man of the South; the river flows south¬ 
west. 

13. Appellatives used either before or after 
geographical nouns are capitalized; as, 

Erie Canal, Hudson River Railroad, Strait of 
Magellan, Coe Place, Shenandoah Valley, though 
many publishers omit the capital for the generic 
word, when it precedes the specific term; as, 
county of Winchester, state of New York, em¬ 
pire of Russia. 

14. Abstract qualities, when personified, 
should be capitalized; as, 

O Death! where is thy sting? Then Crime ran riot. 

15. All quotations that are intended to be 
emphatic, or that consist of a complete sentence, 
should begin with a capital; as, 

Then Elijah said, “Thou art the man.” 

These two questions, “What are we?” and “Whither 
do we tend?” will at all times press painfully upon 
thoughtful minds. 

When a quotation is introduced by that it 
should begin with a small letter* as, 

“ He said that this great patriot bequeathed 
to his heirs the sword which he had worn in 
the war for liberty, and charged them never to 
take it from the scabbard but in self defense, 
or in defense of their country and her free¬ 
dom.” 

16. In writing resolutions, the word immedi¬ 
ately following Resolved, should begin with a 
capital. See Punctuation, Comma, Rule 13. 

Resolved, That the discovery of smokeless gunpowder 
has increased the horrors of war. 

PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation is the art of breaking up a sen¬ 
tence by means of points and stops, so as to 
convey to the reader’s mind, as quickly and 
easily as possible, the writer’s meaning. There 
are two systems of punctuation, the close and 
the open. The close system is used in legal 
documents, laws, ecclesiastical formularies, and 
in precise composition of every sort. Even 
the omission of a hyphen from a compound 
word may make a serious error. The insertion 
of a comma in place of a hyphen between “ fruit ” 
and “seeds” in an enactment of Congress cost 
the government thousands of dollars. The 
loose punctuation should be used in ordinary 
descriptive writing. Formerly too many marks 
were used; to-day the tendency is toward the 
use of too few marks. Punctuation can surely 
not be classed among the exact sciences. It 
is not even an established system, for many of 
the rules of the teachers differ, and the practice 
of their pupils differs still more. Points may be 
omitted or inserted in a catalogue in a way that 
would not be tolerated in a history. 

However, there are some explicit directions 
that may be given that all writers should follow. 
The points should be used to show the gram¬ 
matical relation of words, and never solely to 
indicate rhetorical pauses in reading. 

The necessity for a knowledge of correct 
punctuation is well illustrated by this anecdote: 
“The following request is said to have been 
made at church: ‘A sailor going to sea, his wife 


desires the prayers of the congregation for his 
safety.’ But, by an unhappy transposition of 
the comma, the note was read thus: ‘A sailor 
going to sea his wife, desires the prayers of the 
congregation for his safety.’ ” 

The marks used for punctuation are the peri¬ 
od [.], colon [:], semicolon [;], comma [,], interro¬ 
gation point [?], exclamation point [!], dash [—], 
parentheses (), brackets [], hyphen [-], double 
quotation marks [“ single quotation marks 
[‘ ’], apostrophe [’]. 

Period. 1. All declarative and imperative 
sentences, and sentences that are interrogative 
in form, but to which an answer is not expected, 
should be followed by a period; as, He has gone. 
Go at once. Ah! whither now are fled those 
dreams of happiness. The Cyprians asked me 
why I wept. 

2. All abbreviations, unless the ellipsis of 
intermediate letters in the words has been in¬ 
dicated by using the apostrophe, should be fol¬ 
lowed by the period; 7th, 9th, 3d, etc., are not 
followed by the period. 

3. When capitals are used for numerals, it 
was customary formerly to follow them by a pe¬ 
riod; e. g., Henry VIII., John IV. 3. The latest 
usage seems to omit the period, especially in the 
possessive construction; as, Henry VIII’s reign. 

Comma. 1. All nouns of direct address 
should be set off by commas; as, John, come 
here. I say, Mary, can you go now ? Sir, I can¬ 
not do it. 

2. When there are three or more parts in the 
subject of a sentence, and the conjunction is 
used between the last two only, a comma should 
be used after each part except the last. 

Mary Lee and Laura came yesterday. As 
the sentence stands, you may think that there 
are but two persons that came yesterday; viz., 
Mary Lee and Laura. If the sentence is written, 
Mary, Lee and Laura came yesterday, then 
Mary may be a noun of direct address, and the 
boy Lee and the girl Laura came; but if it is 
written, Mary, Lee, and Laura came, you know 
that three persons came. The comma before 
the and is frequently omitted by rapid writers; 
but it should not be omitted in this compound 
construction. 

3. Parenthetical or additional expressions, that 
is, those expressions that break the directness of 
the statement, require to be cut off by commas; 
as, Christopher Columbus, an Italian by birth, 
discovered America. It is mind, after all, that 
does the work of the world. In this sentence, 

‘ after all ’ does not modify ‘ does,’ but shows a 
connection between this sentence and something 
gone before. Another illustration would be, It 
was not necessary, however, for you to go. 

Some of the phrases in common use that are 
usually set off by commas are: in short, in fact, 
in reality, in brief, as it happens, no doubt, in a 
word, to be sure, to be brief, etc. Some of the 
words used parenthetically, which, according 
to the close punctuation should be set off by 
commas, and, according to the loose, should not 
be, are: therefore, then, however, perhaps, 
namely, indeed, too, moreover, etc. 

Most of these words named last are capable 
of two constructions,— they may either belong 
to the proposition as a whole, or to a single word 



LANGUAGE 


189 


in it. It is only when used in the former sense 
that they require to be set off by commas; e. g., 
On this assistance, then, you may rely. Then 
I believed you, now I do not. 

4. Independent adverbs at the beginning of 
the sentence should be set off by a comma; as, 
Well, I will go. Why, you may if you want to. 

Note. — Used in this way it would be better to omit 
them from all sentences. 

5. The nominative, the infinitive, and the 
participle used absolutely should be set off by 
commas: The wind having gone down, we may 
go sailing. To tell the truth, I must remain here. 
Generally speaking, he is a good fellow. 

6. Nouns in apposition are set off by commas: 
George, my brother, can do it for you. We, the 
people of the United States, do ordain and es¬ 
tablish this constitution. 

7. If the subordinate clause in a complex 
sentence comes first, it should be followed by 
a comma: If I go, you must remain. While he 
stays, you must stay. 

8. A series of words used in the same con¬ 
struction should be separated by commas; as, 
Ulysses was wise, eloquent, cautious, and in¬ 
trepid, as was requisite in a leader of men. He 
stood, walked, ran, and jumped. 

If the words are used in pairs, only the pairs 
should be separated; as, Ulysses was wise and 
eloquent, cautious and intrepid, as was, etc. 

9. When two statements, each with its own 
subject, verb, and object, are put in one sen¬ 
tence, the comma should be used to show their 
distinctiveness, even when the sentence is very 
short; as, You may go, and I will stay. 

10. Use a comma between two words in the 
same construction when they are differently 
modified; as, He sold a horse, and wagon of 
wood. If the comma is omitted, the horse 
was of wood. 

11. When the subject consists of two or more 
nouns not joined by a conjunction, use a comma 
before the predicate; as, Riches, pleasures, 
health, become evils to those, etc. 

12. A comma is put before a relative clause, 
when it is explanatory of the antecedent, or 
presents an additional thought. 

But the point is omitted before a relative 
clause which restricts the general notion of the 
antecedent to a particular sense. 

To make clear the difference between an 
additional and a restrictive clause, let me use 
this sentence: Her entrance was unnoticed 
by the officer who sat gazing in the fire. We 
restrict when we wish to separate one object 
from other objects of the same sort. If there 
were several officers in the room, and you wish 
me to know that her entrance was unnoticed 
by but one of them, you wish to separate or 
distinguish him from the others. Then the 
clause is used restrictively and should not be 
set off by a comma. But if there was but one 
officer in the room, you use this same clause 
to tell an additional fact about him; then it is 
used additionally and should be set off by com¬ 
mas. 

Much confusion arises in this sort of sentence 
because authors on punctuation say that a 
descriptive or additional clause should be set 
off by commas. A descriptive clause may be 


used to express either an additional or a re¬ 
strictive thought. Bring me the dress that is 
made of red silk. This sentence requires no 
comma because there are several dresses there, 
and I want the red silk one. Bring me the dress, 
which is made of red silk. Here I have used the 
same descriptive clause, but the use of “which” 
and the comma shows that that is the only 
dress there. 

Note: — In all restrictive relative clauses the pronoun 
“that” should be used; and in all additional relative 
clauses use “ who ” when referring to people and “which ” 
when referring to animals or inanimate objects. If 
writers would bear this use of these pronouns in mind, 
the matter of the comma would be immaterial because 
the pronoun would sufficiently indicate the use of the 
clause. 

13. One good authority says do not use a 
comma after Whereas, It appears, etc.; Re¬ 
solved, That, etc.; Ordered, That, etc. He 
also says, Do not use a capital after these words. 
Write, Resolved that women, etc. 

14. When a clause is used as the subject of 
a verb, it should not, even though long, be fol¬ 
lowed by a comma, unless it ends with a verb; 
as. That the governor of this great State of 
Illinois should make this unworthy appeal to 
the passions and prejudices of the foreign-born 
citizens of the nation must always be a cause 
of mortification to every lover of his country. 

The second part of the rule is illustrated by, 
Whatever is, is right. 

15. A comma is used before a short direct 
quotation: He said, “I will go.” 

Note.— A colon is used before a long direct quotation. 

16. The comma shows the omission of words; 
as, Her address is 718 Norwood Ave., Rochester, 
N. Y., which means in Rochester, in the State of 
New York. Reading maketh a full man; writ¬ 
ing, an exact man. 

Note. — The latest authority says omit the comma in 
the last sentence because no misunderstanding can 
arise thereby; but custom still uses it. 

Semicolon. This mark is used to sep¬ 
arate such parts of a sentence as are somewhat 
less closely connected than those separated by 
a comma. 

1. When two clauses are joined by for, hut, 
and, or an equivalent word, the one clause per¬ 
fect in itself, and the other added as a matter 
of inference, contrast, or explanation,— they 
are separated by a semicolon: Economy is no 
disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than 
to outlive a great deal. 

2. When the parts of a compound sentence, 
even though they are short, are not closely con¬ 
nected in thought, they should be separated 
by a semicolon; as, I live to die; you dye to 
live. 

3. Use the semicolon to separate the parts 
of a compound sentence, when one or both 
members contain commas: Men are not judged 
by their looks, habits, and appearances; but 
by the character of their lives and conversations, 
and by their works. 

4. If a series of expressions depend on a com¬ 
mencing or concluding portion of the sentence, 
they should be separated by a semicolon: Phi¬ 
losophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her 
operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures 
in reserve; that, etc. Also in such a sentence 



190 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY ' OF FACTS 


as, If we think of glory in the field ; of wisdom in 
the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the 
highest integrity, public and private; of morals 
* * * the august figure of Washington presents 
itself as the personation of all these ideas. 

5. All of the older authorities say use a semi¬ 
colon before and comma after as, viz., to wit, 
namely, i. e., or that is, when they precede an 
example or an illustration. The latest authority 
says use the comma in both places. This is 
but another illustration of the changes in punc¬ 
tuation that are coming in. 

Colon. 1. When a sentence is long, and 
one or both of the parts contain semicolons, 
the greater division should be marked by a 
colon: Art has been to me its own exceeding 
great reward: it has soothed my afflictions; 
it has refined my enjoyments; it has endeared 
my solitude; and it has given me the habit of 
wishing to discover the good and the beautiful 
in all that surrounds me. 

2. A colon should follow a clause that is com¬ 
plete in itself, but is followed, without a con¬ 
junction, by some remark, inference, or illus¬ 
tration: Nor was the religion of the Greek 
drama a mere form: it was full of truth, spirit, 
and power. 

3. A colon should be used before a long direct 
uotation, or a list of articles formally intro- 
uced: She finished her helpful talk with the 

song from “Pippa Passes”: 

“The year’s at the spring 
The day’s at the morn; 

Morning’s at seven; ” 

Etc. 

Will you kindly send me the following articles: 

2 lbs. of granulated sugar, 

1 lb. of coffee, 

Etc. 

4. The words yes and no should be followed 
by a colon, provided the words that follow are 
a continuation or repetition of the question: 
Can these words add vigor to your hearts? 
Yes: they can do it; they have often done it. 

5. The colon is more often used than any 
other mark after the salutation in a letter: My 
dear Sirs: 

Interrogation Point. 1. An interro¬ 
gation mark is placed at the end of every direct 
question: Will you go? He asked me, “Will 
you go?” 

2. The mark of interrogation should not be 
used when it is only affirmed that a question 
has been asked, and the expression denoting 
inquiry is put in any other form than that of a 
direct question: I was asked if I would go to 
Europe next summer. 

Note.— It should be placed inside of the quotation 
marks if it belongs properly to the quotation, and out¬ 
side in other cases;—He asked, “Will you return by 
nine o’clock?’’ What can be more interesting than 
“the passing crowd”? 

Exclamation Point. This point is 
used after. any expression of strong emotion, 
and after interjections: Friends, countrymen, 
and lovers! hear me for my cause, and be silent 
that you may hear. The heavens and earth, 
O Lord! proclaim Thy boundless power. Oh! 
nothing is further from my thoughts than to 
deceive you. Oh, that all classes of society were 
both enlightened and virtuous! 


The Marks of Parentheses. If an 

expression is inserted in the body of a sentence, 
with which it has no connection in sense or con¬ 
struction, it should be enclosed by the marks 
of parentheses. The test is, can the words to 
be enclosed be omitted without injury to the 
sense? I have clearly seen charity (if charity 
it may be called) insult with an air of pity. She 
had managed this matter so well (oh, how artful 
a woman she was), that my father's heart was 
gone before I suspected it was in danger. 

Notice the use of the mark of interrogation 
in this sentence: “ While the Christian desires 
the approbation of his fellow-men (and why 
should he not desire it?), he disdains to receive 
their good-will by dishonorable means.” 

The Dash. 1 . The dash is used to show 
an abrupt break in a sentence; to show a sus¬ 
pension in the thought; or an epigrammatic 
turn in sentiment. Closely following came — 
what do you suppose ? The eye of the child — 
who can look unmoved into that “well unde¬ 
filed ,” in which heaven itself seems to be re¬ 
flected ? 

2. The dash is used where there is an ellipsis 
of such words as, namely, that is, etc. To 
separate adjectives in apposition but closely 
connected. These poets — Homer and Virgil — 
wrote epics. 

Brackets. These marks, used for nearly 
the same purposes as the parentheses, are usually 
confined to expressions inserted in or appended 
to a quotation, and not belonging to it. They 
are intended to give an explanation, to rectify 
a mistake, or to supply an omission; as, He 
had the finest head [of hair] I ever saw; 
* * * because the people love the principles 

of the Constitution [long continued applause] 
and to-day, etc. 

Hyphen. 1 . The hyphen is used in form¬ 
ing compound words. When each of the words 
of which a compound is formed retains its origi¬ 
nal accent, they should be united by a hyphen: 
The alF-pow'erful God; In'cense-breath'ing 
morn. Everlasting, notwithstanding, and a few 
other words are exceptions to this rule. 

2. If a prefix ends in a vowel, and the word 
to which it is joined begins with a vowel, the 
hyphen, or the diaeresis over the second vowel 
is used: co-operate or cooperate. 

3. The hyphen is used to show the division 
of words into syllables: hy-phen. 

Double and Single Quotation 
Marks. 1 . Every direct quotation should be 
enclosed in double quotation marks: To me 
he said, “ I cannot believe it is true.” 

2. If the thought, but not the words of an¬ 
other are given, quotation marks are not used: 
He said that he could not believe it true. 

3. You may use italics, or double, or single 
quotation marks if you are quoting a single 
word or short expression. “Petticoat” (liter¬ 
ally ‘little coat'), in itself a sufficiently inof¬ 
fensive term, has shown a tendency to give 
way to “skirt.” In this illustration “petti¬ 
coat” and “skirt” may be italicized and the 
quotation marks omitted. 

4. If a quotation occurs within a quotation, 
enclose the second one in single quotation 
marks: In his letter he wrote, “If the physi- 



LANGUAGE 


191 


cian sees you eat anything that is not good for 
you, he says, 1 It is poison!’ ” 

5. When several paragraphs are quoted, use 
double marks at the beginning of each para¬ 
graph, and at the end of the last paragraph only. 

Apostrophe. 1 . The apostrophe is used 
to mark the possessive case: John’s. 

2. To show the contraction of words and 
omission of letters: I’ll, you’d, etc. 

3. To show the clipping of words in dialect: 
He wa’ singin’ to ’em. 

4. To form plurals of letters, signs, and figures: 
There are twenty a’s on this page. Count the 
2’s in this sum. Your x’s or 0’s were not well 
made. 

The foregoing are the generally accepted rules. 
It should be kept in mind, however, that we are 
in a stage of transition in regard to capitaliza¬ 
tion and punctuation, there being a marked 
tendency toward simplification. 

RIGHT USE OF SOME 
COMMON WORDS 

A. Use the article before both nouns or both 
adjectives when they denote different objects. 
“A coat and a hat” not “a coat and hat.” “A 
black and white dress” (one dress); “a black 
and a white dress” (two dresses). 

Abortive. A ridiculous perversion of this 
word is creeping into use through the newspapers. 
“ A lad was yesterday caught in the act of abor¬ 
tively appropriating a pair of shoes.” That is 
abortive that is untimely in its birth; - and, by 
figure of speech anything is abortive which is 
brought out before it is well matured. Abortive 
should not be used indiscriminately of failure. 

Accept of. Never use the preposition 
after this verb. We accept invitations, presents, 
hospitality, and the like. 

Accept and Except. Accept means to 
take when offered; except means to leave out, 
to exclude. I accepted the gift. All except two 
will go. 

Accord. To accord means to render or be¬ 
stow upon another, as honor: therefore one 
should never say, “The information he desired 
was accorded him.” 

Administer. The man died from blows 
administered by the policeman. Oaths, medi¬ 
cine, affairs of state are administered. Blows 
are dealt. 

Adopt. This word is often used instead of 
to decide upon and to take; thus, “The meas¬ 
ures adopted by Congress as the result of this 
inquiry will be productive of good.” Better, 
“ The measures decided upon, etc.” Instead of 
“What course shall you adopt to get your pay ? ” 
say, “What course shall you take, etc.?” In the 
newspapers one may see “Wanted to adopt — 
A beautiful female infant.” The advertisers 
meant to say that they wanted the child men¬ 
tioned in their advertisement adopted. The 
word is correctly used in “The measures pro¬ 
posed by the senator were adopted at once.” 

Affect. See effect. 

Aggravate. This word is often used when 
the speaker means to provoke, irritate, or anger. 
Thus, “It aggravates (provokes) me to be con¬ 
tinually found fault with”; “He is easily ag¬ 
gravated (irritated).” 


Agree. Do not use agree for admit. “ That 
a flat brick fagade pierced by a few windows 
does not make an inspiring picture, all will agree.” 
Say, “ all will admit.” 

Agriculturist is to be preferred to agri¬ 
culturalist. The same is true of conversationist. 

Ain’t. This is not a contraction, and can¬ 
not take the place of I’m not. 

Alike. This word should not be used with 
both, nor with both just, as in “These hats are 
both .alike” or “both just alike”) say, “These 
hats are alike.” 

All of. The of is a superfluity. “ I have 
them all,” not “I have all of them”; “Take it 
all,” not “Take all of it.” 

All Over. All should modify the noun, 
and not the prepositional phrase in “The disease 
spread over all the country,” not “ all over the 
country.” 

Allege. Do not use this word as a syno¬ 
nym for say or tell, a£ in “He alleges that the 
engine ran sixty miles an hour.” Instead, “He 
says or tells us that, etc.” 

Allow. This word is frequently misused 
in the West and the South for think; to be of 
opinion; to admit; as, “ He allows his horse can 
beat yours.” Instead of this say, “He thinks 
or is of the opinion that, etc.” 

Almost — Nearly. These two adverbs 
should not be used indiscriminately. Almost re¬ 
gards the ending as an act; nearly, its begin¬ 
ning. A man that receives an injury so severe 
that he comes off with barely his life is almost 
killed; a man that escapes what would have 
killed him is nearly killed. These words are 
correctly used in “I am almost done with my 
work”; “I nearly ran over the child.” 

Alone — Only. That is- alone that is un¬ 
accompanied ; that is only, of which there is no 
other. “Virtue only makes us happy” means 
that nothing else can do it. If we say, “ Virtue 
alone makes us happy,” we mean that virtue 
unaided makes us happy. “This means of lo¬ 
comotion is used by man only.” 

Alternative. Do not use this word when 
more than two things are referred to. You 
may have the choice of three courses, not of 
three alternatives. 

Always . Often used redundantly. “When¬ 
ever I see her, I think of mother,” not “I 
always think of mother.” 

Ameliorated. “Her troubles are greatly 
ameliorated” should be “are lessened.” 

Among. “He was there among the rest” 
should be “ with the rest.” 

Among One Another. “They ex¬ 
changed votes among one another” should be 
“ with one another.” 

Amount. “A surprising amount of per¬ 
fection has been reached” should be “A sur¬ 
prising degree of perfection, etc.” 

And. Do not use and in place of the particle 
to. “Come to see me,” not “Come and see me.” 

And should never introduce a relative clause 
unless it joins it to a coordinate relative clause. 
“ I have a dress worn by my aunt, and which is 
forty-five years old.” In this sentence leave 
out and and use that instead of which. (See Rule 
12 for the comma, under Punctuation.) 

Antecedents. This word used as a sub- 



192 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


stantive means those persons or things which 
have preceded any person or thing of the same 
kind in a certain position. Thus the anteced¬ 
ents of General Sherman in the army of the 
United States are General Washington, General 
Scott, and General Grant. To call the course 
of a man’s life until the present moment his 
antecedents is nearly as absurd a misuse of lan¬ 
guage as can be compassed. If, instead of “ What 
do you know of his antecedents?” it is asked 
“What do you know of his 'previous life f” or 
better, “What do you know of his past?” there 
is sense instead of nonsense, and the purpose of 
the question is fully conveyed. 

Anticipate. This word is often used in 
place of expect, or foresee. Anticipate means to 
go before, so as to preclude another; to get the 
start of, or to get ahead of; to enjoy, possess, or 
suffer, in expectation. It is therefore misused 
in “By this means it is anticipated that the time 
for Europe will be lessened two days”; and in 
“Her death is hourly anticipated .” It is cor¬ 
rectly used in “If not anticipated, I shall here¬ 
after make an attempt at a magazine paper on 
the Philosophy of Point”; and in “Why should 
we anticipate our sorrows? ’Tis like those who 
die through fear of death.” “Were Greeley’s 
movements those that it was anticipated (ex¬ 
pected ) he would make?” 

Anxious is often used where desirous would 
better express the meaning. Anxious means 
full of anxiety; suffering from suspense or un¬ 
certainty; concerned about the future. “I am 
not anxious to get to Canada” should be “I am 
not desirous, etc.” “ I am still more anxious to 
have you live in New York” should be “still 
more desirous.” 

Anyhow is permissible in conversation, 
though incompatible with dignified diction, in 
which such phrases as “in any event,” “he that 
as it may, ” “at any rate,” and the like are to be 
preferred. 

Appeals is used in this sentence instead 
of drafts: “There are constant appeals upon 
the resources of the government.” 

Approach is sometimes improperly used 
in the sense of address, petition, appeal to ; thus, 
“The teachers have approached the Educational 
Department in some matters that concern their 
interest.” 

Apt is often misused for likely, and sometimes 
for liable. “ What is he apt (likely) to be doing? ” 
“Where shall I be apt (likely) to find him?” 
“ If you go there, you will be apt (liable ) to get 
into trouble.” 

Aren’t in colloquial use is admissible, but are 
ou not is preferable. I’ll, I’m, etc., are good form 
ecause they are contractions of the verb only. 

As — as ; So—as. Use the former in affirma¬ 
tive propositions, and the latter in negative 
propositions. He is as tall as you are. He was 
never so happy as now. 

Aside is sometimes misused for apart. 
“Words have a potency of association aside 
(apart) from their significance as representa¬ 
tive signs.” 

As Though is often used for as if. In the 
sentence, “The child looked as though her hair 
had never been combed, ” supply the elliptical 
clause, and you will see the need of using if in 


place of though. “ The child looked as (she would 
look) though her hair, etc.” “ The woman looks as 
(she would look) though (if) she were tired.” 

At. “They do things differently in (not at) 
the South.” 

At all is superfluous in such sentences as, 
“She had no friends at all”; “I do not want 
any at all ”; “ If she had any desire at all to see, 
she would have waited.” 

At Best. At Worst. These phrases re¬ 
quire the article or a possessive pronoun used 
in them. Always say, “I did the best I could,” 
etc. “ He was at his worst.” 

Audience is often used in place of specta¬ 
tors. The audience hears; the spectators see: 
therefore say, “The spectators at the ball game,” 
not “the audience.” “The audience at the con¬ 
cert, etc.” 

Avenge and Revenge. We avenge the 
wrong done to others, and revenge the wrong 
done to ourselves. 

Avoid is often used in the place of prevent or 
hinder; as, “ There shall be nothing lost if I can 
avoid it.” It should be “if I can prevent it.” 

Awful is too frequently used as an inten¬ 
sive. Avoid this use of it; e. g., I was awfully 
glad to see you. 

A While Since should be a while ago. 

Bad Cold. Say a slight or a severe cold. 
Colds are never good. 

Badly is inelegantly used for very much. 
“ I shall miss you very much,” not “ I shall miss 
you badly.” 

Balance means the excess of one thing over 
another, and should be used in this sense only: 
hence it is improper to talk about the balance 
of the edition. In this case say rest or remainder. 
You may speak of the balance of the account. 

Beastly. One may properly say “ beastly 
drunk” but not “beastly weather.” 

Before is sometimes used in place of rather 
than. “War before peace at that price” should 
bfe “War rather than peace at that price.” 

Between should be used only with refer¬ 
ence to two of a kind. When more than two 
are referred to, use among. “The candy was 
divided between the two boys,” or “among the 
four children.” 

When used to express contrast, the word may 
be correctly used in speaking of more than two: 
“True, the three boys are brothers, but there is 
a great difference between them.” 

Black — Blacken. We black stoves and 
blacken reputations. 

Blame it on is a vulgarism used in place 
of accuses or suspects. “He blames it on his 
brother” should be “He suspects or accuses his 
brother.” 

Both is often used in such sentences as “ They 
are both alike”; “They both ran away from 
school,” etc. Omit both from each sentence. 
It is incorrect in “ He lost all his fruit — both 
plums, peaches, and pears.” 

Bound should not be made to do service 
for doomed, determined, resolved, certain, or will 
be compelled. “He is bound to do it” should be 
“He is certain, resolved, or determined to do it.” 
“He is bound to fail” should be “He is doomed, 
destined, or sure to fail.” 

But is often misused. “I do not doubt but 



LANGUAGE 


193 


he will be here ” should read “ doubt that ” “ I 

should not wonder but he will succeed ” should 
read “ wonder if.” In “ I have no doubt but that 
he will go” suppress but. Change but to than in 
“The mind no sooner entertains any proposition 
but it presently hastens, etc.” 

But is correctly used in “ I have no fear but 
that she will succeed,” which means a very dif¬ 
ferent thing from “I have no fear that she will 
succeed.” 

By should be with in “The room was filled 
by ladies and children ”; also in “ The ball ended 
by a waltz.” There is a difference of meaning 
in these two sentences: “I know a man by the 
name of Brown,” and “I know a man of the 
name of Brown.” Which do you mean? 

Calamity means in an abstract sense source 
of misery or of loss, but it is often misused to mean 
loss. Calamities are causes, losses are results. 
“The fire caused a great calamity” should read 
“caused a great loss.” It is correctly used in 
“The falling of the building, which caused the 
death of two firemen, was a great calamity.” 

Calculate is wrongly used in “He calcu¬ 
lates to get off to-morrow.” “The sentence 
should read “ expects, purposes, or intends to 
get off.” 

Caliber is often misused for order, as in 
“His work is of a higher caliber than hers 
is.” 

Capable is often ‘used in place of suscep¬ 
tible. “We need more articles capable of illus¬ 
tration” should read “ susceptible of illustra¬ 
tion.” 

Condone is sometimes misused for com¬ 
pensate and atone for. It means to pardon, to 
forgive. “The abolition of the income tax more 
than condones for the turmoil of an election” 
should read “ atones for, etc.” 

Congregate Together. In “A large 
number of people congregated together in the hall,” 
omit the word together, because to congregate, 
unaided, means to collect, or gather together. 

Consequence is sometimes used instead 
of importance or moment; as, “They were all 
persons of more or less consequence ” should be 
“of more or less importance.” “It is a matter 
of no consequence” should be “of no moment.” 

Consider means to meditate, to deliberate, 
to reflect, to revolve in the mind; and yet it is 
made to do service for think, suppose, and regard. 
Thus: “I consider his course very unjustifiable ” 
should read “ think his course.” “ I have always 
considered it my duty, etc.” should read “ thought 
it my duty.” 

Conversationist. See Agriculturist. 

Co-operate Together means co-oper¬ 
ate or operate together, and can mean no more, 
which makes it plain that the co or the together 
serves no purpose — is a superfluity. 

Creditable should not be used instead of 
credible. Say, “two credible witnesses,” not 
“ creditable witnesses.” Say, “ I am credibly 
informed,” not “ creditably informed.” 

Crushed out. The rebellion was finally 
crushed out. Out of what? We may crush the 
life out of a man, or crush a man to death, and 
crush — not crush out — a rebellion. 

Bandy. This adjective belongs properly 
to the “gushers.” It is their sole adjective. 


He is a dandy man; The refreshments were 
dandy ; The sunset was dandy. 

Dangerous is misused in the sentence 
“He is dangerous,” when we mean “He is sick.” 
Say,“ He is not in danger,” or “not dangerously ill.” 

Dearest. Do not begin a letter “My 
dearest John,” unless he is the dearest of three 
or more Johns with whom you are acquainted. 

Deceiving should not be used in place of 
trying to deceive. It is when we do not suspect 
deception that we are deceived. “ He is deceiv¬ 
ing me ” should read “ He is trying to deceive me.” 

Deprecate means to endeavor to avert 
by prayer, and so should not be used in the 
sense of disapprove, censure, or condemn. Do 
not say, “He deprecates the whole proceeding.” 

Desperately. Do not say, “He was des¬ 
perately wounded,” but “ badly wounded.” 

Despite should not be, as it often is, pre- 
ceeded by in, and followed by of. Sa y,“ Despite 
all our efforts,” not “In despite of all our efforts.” 

Detect is often misused for distinguish, 
recognize, discover, see. “I did not detect any¬ 
thing wrong in his appearance” should be “I 
did not discover anything wrong in his appear¬ 
ance.” “I could not detect any difference be¬ 
tween them” should be “I could not see any 
difference between them.” 

Die with — from. Man and brute die of, 
and not with or from, fevers, old age, and so. on. 

Differ—-Different. The prepositions from 
and with are both used with the verb differ, but 
the weight of authority is on the side of using 
from. Different to is sometimes used instead of 
different from ; but it is incorrect. “ She is differ¬ 
ent than you would expect her to be” should 
be “ different from what you would expect her 
to be.” The word than implies comparison and 
demands the comparative degree. .Different is 
in no way a comparative. We say greater than 
but different from. We may differ with a per¬ 
son, but things differ from one another. 

Dock — Wharf . A dry dock is a place where 
vessels are drawn out of the water for repairs. 
A wet dock is a place where vessels are kept afloat 
at a certain level, while they are being loaded 
or unloaded. A wharf is a sort of quay built by 
the side of the water. Vessels lie at wharfs and 
piers, not at docks. 

Don’t. This is the contraction for do not, 
and not for does not: therefore do not say,“He 
don’t want it.” 

Each other is properly applied to two 
only; one another must be used when the number 
considered exceeds two. We say,“Great authors 
address themselves to one another,” unless we 
refer to only two authors. 

Effect — Affect. Effect means to bring 
about; as, “to effect a reform.” Affect means 
to influence; as, “His ideas will affect the char¬ 
acter of the reform.” 

Elegant. “This is a fine morning,” not 
“This is an elegant morning.” 

Emigrant — Immigrant. These two 
words are not infrequently confounded. Emi¬ 
grants are persons going out of the country; 
immigrants are persons coming into the country. 

Ending of Sentences. Sentences end¬ 
ing with prepositions are always more terse, 
always quite as idiomatic, and always simpler, 



194 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


than they would be if differently constructed. 
‘‘The man I gave it to,” not “The man to whom 
I gave it.” “The verb it belongs to” not “The 
verb to which it belongs,” etc. 

Enjoy Bad Health. Does anyone en¬ 
joy bad healthf Say, “ He is in feeble or delicate 
health.” 

Equally as Well. As well, or equally 
well, expresses quite as much as equally as well. 

Everlastingly means perpetually, eter¬ 
nally, forever. Do not say, “ The horse was ever¬ 
lastingly running away.” 

Every. “ Every one of us has this in com¬ 
mon” should be “ All of us have this in com¬ 
mon.” 

Except. See Accept. 

Excessively. Say, “The weather is very 
warm,” not “ excessively hot.” “My friend was 
exceedingly popular,” not “ excessively popular.” 

Excise Laws. An excise is a tax levied 
on domestic products; it is an internal revenue 
tax. New York has license laws and license 
commissioners, and properly they should be so 
called. New York’s excise laws, so called, are 
properly license laws. 

Exercise — Exorcise. Do not use these 
words interchangeably. Exercise means a put¬ 
ting into use, action, or practice; exorcise to 
cast or drive out (an evil spirit), by religious 
or magical formulas or ceremonies. 

Expect. We cannot expect backwards. 
“ I expect you thought I would come to see you 
•yesterday” should be “I suppose, etc.” “I 
expect you know all about it” should be “I sus¬ 
pect you know, etc.” 

Experience. “We experienced great 
hardships” should read “We suffered” 

Extend. “They showed me every kind¬ 
ness” is better than “They extended every kind¬ 
ness to me.” 

Farther — Further. Use farther for all 
distances that can be measured either great or 
small. Use further in all other sentences. 

Female applies to animals, as well as to 
women, and so should not be used in such sen¬ 
tences as, “With the dislike not unnatural to 
females, etc.” 

Fewer — Less. Fewer refers to number, 
and less to quantity. Instead of “There were 
not less than twenty scholars absent,” we should 
say,“There were not fewer than twenty scholars 
absent.” Instead of “There were not less than 
ten chapters in the book,” we should say, “ There 
were not fewer than ten chapters in the book.” 

Find. “I think the men find everything” 
should be 11 supply everything.” 

Fixed. T his word is often misused for ar¬ 
ranged; as, “I must fix the books.” “Who 
fixed the dishes on the shelves?” It is vul¬ 
garly used thus: “I will fix him.” “The jury 
was fixed.” “You must fix up, if you go.” 
“Your affairs are in a bad fix.” 

Former—Latter. The less the writer uses 
these words the better. In the interest of force 
and clearness their use should be studiously 
avoided. It is nearly always better to repeat 
the noun. This avoids the reader’s going back 
to see which is former and which is latter. 

Grot — Have. If a man inherits a fortune, 
you say he has money; if he obtains money 


through his own effort, you say “He has gotten 
money.” “He has books” means merely that 
he possesses them; “He has gotten his books” 
means that he has obtained them through effort. 
Have shows simple possession; got shows pos¬ 
session plus the effort to obtain the thing. 

Had Ought. This expression is incorrect 
because had is used with the past participle of 
the principal verb to form the compound tense. 
Ought is a defective verb'and has no participle: 
therefore ought cannot be used with had. 

Hain’t is a very objectionable vulgarism. 

Handy should not be used in the sense, 
near, near by, close at hand; as, “The store is 
handy.” Say, “The store is near.” 

Have to Have or Had to Have. Bet¬ 
ter than “ I have to have my work done by three 
o’clock” is “I should, must, or ought to have my 
work, etc.” Got to get is another unpleasant 
repetition. 

Hence is superfluous in the sentence, “It 
will be many years hence, we apprehend, before 
he returns.” 

How. “I have heard how, in Italy, one is 
beset on all sides by beggars” should read “I 
have heard that, in Italy, etc.” 

However. Use how, not however, in such 
a sentence as, “ However could you tell such a 
story 1” 

If. Use whether in place of if in these sen¬ 
tences: “I doubt if the book will suit you”; 
“I wonder if he has come.” 

Ill — Sick. Almost all British speakers and 
writers limit the meaning of sick to the expres¬ 
sion of qualmishness, sickness at the stomach, 
nausea, and lay the proper burden of the ad¬ 
jective sick upon the word ill. They sneer at us 
for not joining in the robbery and the imposition. 
Richard Grant White says, “ I was present once 
when a British merchant, receiving in his own 
house a Yankee youth at a little party, said, in 
a tone that attracted the attention of the whole 
room, ‘Good evening! We haven’t seen you 
for a long while. Have you been seech’ (the 
sneer prolonged the word), ‘as you say in your 
country?’ ‘No, thank you,’ said the other, 
frankly and promptly, ‘I’ve been hill, as they 
say in yours.’ ” 

In — Into. In is sometimes an adverb and 
sometimes a preposition. As an adverb it is 
correctly used in these sentences: “Come in”; 
“Go in.” As a preposition in should be used 
with verbs of rest and into with verbs of motion. 
These words are correctly used in: “He sat in 
his chair”; “He ran into the house.” 

Incite—Insight. Incite means to rouse 
to a particular action; as, “The mob was in¬ 
cited to set the house on fire.” Insight is a noun 
and means the power or faculty of immediate 
and acute perception or understanding; as, “The 
strongest insight we obtain into nature is that 
which we receive, etc.” 

In Our Midst is not according to the 
genius of our language. It should be written 
in the midst of us. Also in the midst of them, 
and not in their midst. 

Inaugurate should not be used in place 
of begin for the simple things of daily life. It 
is a big word misused. 

Individual should not be used for person. 



LANGUAGE 


195 


The word is used correctly in “Changes both in 
individuals and communities are often pro¬ 
duced by trifles”; incorrectly in “That indi¬ 
vidual left here several hours ago.” 

Innumerable Number should not be 
used. Say instead innumerable times or num¬ 
berless times. 

In so far as. The in is superfluous in 
this phrase. 11 In so far as I know” should be 
“No far as I know.” 

Intend is often misused for 'purpose. “I 
intend to attend college this winter” should 
read “ I purpose to attend college this winter.” 
We purpose seriously; we intend vaguely. 

Just Going to Go is better expressed by 
just about to go. Just going to say by just about 
to say, etc., or by about to go. 

Just Next. Doesn’t “He was next me” 
express as much as “He was just next me” ? 

Kids. It is better usage to speak of one’s 
gloves than of one’s kids. Silk gloves are not 
silks. Children are not kids. 

Kind of. “What kind of man is he?” is 
correct. “What kind of a man is he?” is in¬ 
correct. 

Lady. Address a stranger as madam, and 
not as lady. People of culture and refinement 
will never say, “She is a fine lady,” a “clever 
lady” etc. Ladies say, “The women of Amer¬ 
ica,” “women’s apparel,” etc. In similar in¬ 
stances men should be used in place of gentle¬ 
men. 

Lie — Lay. By a vulgar error these verbs 
have been so confounded as to deserve some 
notice. To lie is neuter, and designates a state: 
to lay is active, and denotes an action on an 
object; it is properly to cause to lie. “A thing 
lies on the table”; “Some one lays it on the 
table”; “He lies with his fathers”; “They 
laid him with his fathers.” In the same manner, 
when used idiomatically, we say, “A thing lies 
by us until we bring it into use”; “We lay it 
by for some future purpose.” 

The confusion arises probably from the fact 
that lay appears in both verbs. The words are 
correctly used in the following sentences: 

I lay myself upon the bed (action). I lie 
upon the bed (rest). 

I laid myself upon the bed (action). I lay 
upon the bed (rest). 

I have laid myself upon the bed (action). I 
have lain upon the bed (rest). 

A hen lays an egg (action). A ship lies at the 
wharf (rest). 

The murdered Lincoln lay in state (rest); 
The people laid the crime upon the rebels (ac¬ 
tion). 

Learn — Teach. The uncultured often 
change these verbs. To teach is to give instruc¬ 
tion; to learn is to take instruction. “I will 
learn if you will teach me ” is correct. 

Leave. The vulgar say, “ Leave me be”; 
“Leave it alone”; “ Leave me see it.” Of 
course let is the verb to be used here. 

Lend. Frequently confused with loan. The 
latter is not a verb, but a noun. A loan is the 
completed act of lending, or is the thing lent. 
It may sound larger to some people to say that 
they loaned than that they lent a thousand 
dollars — more as if the loan were an important I 


transaction; but that can be only because they 
are either careless or indifferent. 

Less. See fewer. 

Like — Love. We like acquaintances, 
horses, flowers, pictures, etc. We love wives, 
sweethearts, kinsmen, truth, justice, and country. 

Like — As. “He looks like you.” This 
sentence may mean either “He looks as you 
look,” or “He resembles you in his appearance.” 
The sentence should read “He looks as you 
look,” or “He is like you.” Like is followed 
by an object only, and does not admit of a verb 
in the same construction. As must be followed 
by a verb expressed or understood. * 

Like is sometimes improperly used in the 
sense of as though, thus: “It looks like it was 
caused by fire.” 

Loan. See Lend. 

Lot — Lots. Very inelegantly used for a 
great many, a great deal: “ He had a lot of money 
left him”; “ Lots of trouble came her way.” 

Luncheon is a more elegant form than 
lunch, especially in the sense of a formal 
repast. 

Make a Visit. We do not make visits, 
we pay them. 

May and can are often confused. May 
expresses permission or probability; can 
expresses power or ability. “ May I go?” asks 
for permission. “ Can he do this?” questions 
his ability to do it. Similar distinction should 
be made between might and could. 

Middling. This word is an adjective, not 
an adverb; hence we cannot say a thing is mid¬ 
dling good, or that a thing was middling well 
done. “ He resided in a town of middling 
size” is correct. 

Mind is often misused for obey. To mind 
is to attend to a thing so it will not be forgotten. 
“Will you obey me?” not “ Will you mind me?” 

Mistaken. “ If I am not mistaken ” should 
be “If I mistake not.” You are mistaken is a 
correct form of expression; it means you have 
been led into error. 

Most. This word should usually be omitted 
from conversation and writing. Very is the 
better word in almost every instance. “ It would 
most (very) seriously affect us.” This word is 
often misused for almost. “He comes here most 
every day” should be “He comes here almost 
every day.” 

Mutual. This word is often confounded 
with common. These words are correctly used 
in these sentences: “ Our former correspondence 
was renewed, with the most hearty expression 
of mutual good will.” “We have two friends 
in common.” “ They met at the house of a com¬ 
mon friend.” “Their mutual dislike (not dis¬ 
like for each other ) was well known.” 

Myself. This pronoun should be used only 
where increased emphasis is aimed at, as in “I 
will do it myself” etc. It is incorrect to say, 
“Mary and myself were satisfied.” 

Nicely. This word is frequently misused in 
the attempt to make it do service for well , in 
this wise: “How do you do?” “Nicely.” 
“ How are you ? ” “ Nicely.” 

Numerous is often used in place of large 
or many. “We have numerous acquaintances” 
should be “We have many acquaintances.” 




196 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Of All Others. “Of all others she is the 
last one you would expect.” Is she one of the 
others? If not, why class her as such? 

Of Any is often used in place of all. “She is 
the smallest of any I have known” should be 
“the smallest of all, etc.” 

Off of. The latter of these words should be 
omitted from the sentence. Say, “ The pears fell 
off the tree,” not “ The pears fell off of the tree.” 

On to. “We get on a horse, on a chair,” etc., 
not “on to” 

One should be followed by one and not by 
he. “Can one visit his friends there?” should 
be “Can one visit one’s friends there?” 

Only. This word is probably more often 
misplaced than any other word in the language. 
“He only sang for us.” “He sang only for us.” 
The first means that he sang, but did not play 
for us; the second one means he sang for us 
and not for any one else. A change in the po¬ 
sition of only in almost any sentence will effect 
the meaning of the sentence the same as in this 
illustration. 

Other. This word should not be omitted 
in sentences like the following: “He said that 
his wife was dressed better than any {other) 
woman there.” 

Ought—Should. Ought is the stronger 
term. “What we ought to do, we are morally 
bound to do.” “We ought to be truthful and 
honest, and should be respectful to our elders.” 

Over. Do not use over in the sense of more 
than. “It is over a yard long” should read 
“more than a yard long.” 

Own is often misused in place of confess. 
“I own I saw her do it” should be “I confess I 
saw her do it.” 

Pair. “A new pair of shoes” should be “a 
pair of new shoes.” The shoes are new, not the 
pair. 

Pants is a vulgar abbreviation for panta¬ 
loons. 

Party is often used by the ignorant where 
good taste would use the word person. Not 
“the party that I saw,” but “the person.” 

Past. This word is incorrectly used for last 
in such expressions as, “The past three days,” 
“The past year.” 

Pell-mell means mixed or mingled to¬ 
gether. It cannot properly be applied to an 
individual. “ He rushed pell-mell into my arms ” 
would be to say “ He rushed into my arms mixed 
together.” 

Per. Per day, per man, per pound, etc., are 
better expressed by the plain English a day, a 
man, a pound, etc. Ten dollars per is the slang 
for ten dollars a week, a month, apiece, etc. 

Perform. The short word play is to be 
preferred in “She performs on the piano beau¬ 
tifully.” This sentence would be improved by 
using well or admirably in place of beautifully. 

Peruse is often used when the word read 
would be in better taste. 

Place is misused for where in “Let’s go 
some place.” “I want to go some place.” 

Polite should not be used for kind before 
the word invitation. 

Posted is incorrectly used for inform in such 
expressions as, “The man posted me”; “If I had 
been better posted.” 


Prejudice should not be used in a favorable 
sense. You cannot say “The man is prejudiced 
in his favor.” We should say, “He is prepos¬ 
sessed in his favor.” 

Prepositions. If you are in doubt what 
preposition to use after any verb, or with any 
noun, always consult the dictionary. 

Preventive and not Preventative. 
This adjective, in common with subsequent, in¬ 
dependent, relative, antecedent, and possibly 
others, is often incorrectly used as an adverb. 
“Previous to our visit” should be “ previously to 
our visit.” “ Independent of this reason” should 
be “ independently of this reason.” 

Procure is often made to do the work of 
the Anglo-Saxon word get. “Where did you 
procure it?” should be “Where did you get 
it?” 

Promise often does duty for assure. “I 
romise you I was agreeably surprised ” should 
e “ I assure you, etc.” 

Providing should be provided in such 
sentences as, “He offered to provide a stable 
and supply the necessities of the company pro¬ 
viding the control of the board should be turned 
over to him.” 

Purchase—Buy. Use purchase in refer¬ 
ence to great matters, as, “ the Louisiana pur¬ 
chase”; use buy with reference to ordinary mat¬ 
ters, as, “He bought a book, his dinner, etc.” 

Railroad Depot. A depot is properly a 
place where goods or stores of any kind are kept; 
and the places at which the trains of a railroad 
— or, better, railway—stop for passengers, or 
the points they start from or arrive at, are prop¬ 
erly the stations. 

Raise—Rear. We rear children and raise 
animals. Raised the rent is incorrectly used for 
increased the rent. 

Real should not be used for very in such 
phrases as real pretty, real nice, real angry. 

Resurrect is still marked colloquial in the 
recent dictionaries. 

Retire. It is only the over nice that retire 
in the sense of go to bed. 

Sunday is the first day of the week, and 
Sabbath is the last day of the week. 

Saw is sometimes carelessly used for have 
seen. “I never saw anything like it before” 
should be “I have never seen anything like it 
until now.” We say properly, “I never saw 
anything like it when I was in Paris.” 

Set—Sit. These verbs, like lie and lay, are 
often confounded in their use. To set is transi¬ 
tive; to sit is intransitive. “I set the hen, but 
she sits on her eggs.” Incorrectly we speak of a 
setting hen, instead of a sitting hen. In Matthew, 
it was prophesied that Christ should come “ sit¬ 
ting upon an ass ” and, therefore, His disciples 
took a colt and “ they set Him thereon.” The 
verb is correctly used in these sentences: “My 
dress sits well”; “We will sit up,” that is, will 
not go to bed; “Congress sits.” “We set down 
figures,” but “We sit down on the ground.” 

An apparent contradiction is found in the 
sentence, “The sun sets”; but the verb sets in 
this sentence has a different origin from the 
verb set that we have been discussing. Long 
ago they used to say, “The sun settles but 
settle has been shortened to set. 



LANGUAGE 


197 


Shall—Will. The radical signification of 
will is purpose, intention, determination; that 
of shall is obligation. I will do means I pur¬ 
pose doing — I am determined to do. I shall 
do means, radically, I ought to do; and as a man 
is supposed to do that which he ought to do, I 
shall do came to mean, I am about doing — to 
be, in fact, a mere announcement of future ac¬ 
tion, more or less remote. Always keep in mind 
that I shall, you will, and he will, are the forms 
of the future, and that I will, you shall, and he 
shall, imply volition on the part of the speaker. 
Will and shall in the first person are properly 
used in the following quotations from “The 
Absentee,” one of Miss Edgeworth’s novels: — 
“Gone! Forever gone from me,” said Lord 
Colambre, as the carriage drove away. “ Never 
shall I see her more — never will I see her more, 
till she is married.” 

“We will do our best to make you happy, and 
hope we shall succeed.” 

They are also used properly in “I shall be 
drowned”; “We shall have to go”; “Is the 
time coming when*we shall desert Thackeray?” 

These two words are coming more and more 
to be used interchangeably, so that one authority 
says there is no distinction to be made in their 
use ; but this is not yet true. There is determi¬ 
nation expressed in shall as well as in will. 
Suppose you had put a book upon the table, 
and had told me not to take it from the table, 
not to read it. I might say, “ I shall go to the 
table; I shall take the book; and I will read 
it.” Shall here indicates a future action with 
intention added to the thought; and will ex¬ 
presses determination. “I will go to the table 
for supper” indicates that you have been told 
not to go to the table, but that you will go in 
spite of this prohibition; while “I shall go to 
the table” indicates only futurity of action. 
Where there is nothing to rouse the will or to 
show a prohibition, shall is often used inter¬ 
changeably with will, as in “ Will you come to 
the table?” “Yes, I will come to the table,” 
in which sentence will expresses futurity, and 
not determination. 

You shall do it shows intention on the part 
of the speaker to make the other person do his 
will, and not his own will. “You will do it” 
usually shows simple futurity. Still, in the case 
of the child and its mother, the child says, “I 
won’t do it! ” and the mother puts her will into 
operation and says, “You will do it,” meaning 
I will that you will to do it. 

“He shall do it” and “He will do it” follow 
the same rules as the second person. 

The words are incorrectly used in “ Will I cut 
myself?” “I will drown, and nobody shall 
help me.” 

Will cannot be used interrogatively in the 
first person singular or plural, as can be seen 
by the sentence, “ Will I put some more coal on 
the fire?” 

To determine whether to use would or should, 
express your thought, whenever possible, in the 
present tense, and then use would for will and 
should for shall. These words are used correctly 
in the following sentences: “ I would come to you 
if I could.” <Y I should have been sorry if I had 
gone.” “I would I were there.” “I should 


go hunting to-day if the weather were good.” 
“I should prefer to hear the music.” 

Sick —Ill. See Ill. 

Since when should not be used for since 
that time, or since what time, according to the 
meaning. 

Smell of. We smell the rose, not smell of it. 

Splendid. Splendid, awful, and dandy 
seem to be about the only adjectives some of our 
superlative young women have in their vocabu¬ 
laries. 

Standpoint. This idea is better expressed 
by view point or point of view. 

Stop for stay is a Briticism. To stop is to 
arrest motion;. to stay is to remain where motion 
is arrested. We may stop at a hotel; but how 
long we stay depends upon circumstances. 

Storm. To a storm a violent commotion 
of the atmosphere is indispensable; so say rains 
or snows, unless it really storms. 

Street. We live in not on a street. Things 
occur in not on a street. 

Stricken is used when misfortune is im¬ 
plied ; as, “ He was stricken with death.” Struck 
is used in all other cases; as, “He was struck by 
a stone.” 

Such. “I have never seen such a small 
man” should be “I have never seen so small a 
man,” as may be seen by transposing the words 
of the first sentence, which then becomes “ I 
have never seen a man such small.” 

Such a Pretty, Such a Lovely, are 
incorrect, and should be so pretty, so lovely. 

Sure. “He will surely be here,” not “He 
will be here sure.” 

Sustain. We do not sustain injuries; we 
receive them. 

Teach. See Learn. 

That. This word is not an adverb, and so 
cannot modify an adjective; so, that good, that 
worthy, etc., should be so good, so worthy, 
etc. 

The, like a, should be used before both nouns 
or both adjectives when they denote different 
objects. “ The fish and monkey” should be 
“the fish and the monkey” ; “the secretary and 
treasurer” (if one man), “ the secretary and the 
treasurer” (if two men). 

The should be used before Reverend, Hon¬ 
orable, etc. The Reverend James Smith, D. D. 

Thence. Do not use thence with the prepo¬ 
sition from. “He came thence” is correct. 

Think for. “He hears more than you 
think for” is wrong. Omit the for. 

Those Kind. “ That kind of shoes is good,” 
not “ those kind.” “ This sort of people (not these 
sort) will suit you.” 

To. Never say, “ She was to my house yes¬ 
terday.” Use at in place of to. 

Try. We make experiments, not try them. 

Twice Over. The over serves no purpose 
in “He said it twice over in different ways.” 

Under the Circumstances. Better 
in the circumstances. 

Universally — All. “He was universally 
praised by all who heard him” is better ex¬ 
pressed by “He was universally praised,” or 
“He was praised by all who heard him.” 

Upon — On. We call on persons, and 
speak on subjects, and stand upon the table. 



198 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Use to. Use to should be used to. “We 
used to live there ” is correct. 

Vocation — Avocation. A man’s vo¬ 
cation is his profession, his calling, his business; 
and his avocations are the things that occupy him 
incidentally. Miss Brown’s vocation is teaching ; 
her avocations are embroidering and painting. 

Ways. Wrongly used for way; as, ‘‘The 
house is a long ways off” should be “way off.” 

Well — Why. These two words are used 
by Americans in almost every sentence. Un¬ 
less they are absolutely necessary in a sentence 
leave them out. 

Wharf. See Dock. 

What. “He would not think but what I 
said it” should be “but that.” 

Whence. “Whence came ye?” not “From 
whence came ye?” Whence means from what 
place, source, or cause. 

TViiole of. “All of the school,” not “the 
whole of the school.” 

Widow Woman. Are not widows al¬ 
ways women? Another error of this sort is 
brother men. 

Without is a preposition and should not 
take the place of the connective unless; as, “I 
shall not go without my father consents” should 
read “unless my father consents,” or “ without 
my father’s consent.” In this last expression 
without is a preposition. 

Worst Kind. A vulgarism we sometimes 
hear used in the sense of very much. “ I want to 
go the worst kind.” 

Worst Way. This belongs in the same 
category with worst kind. 

FORMS OF LANGUAGE 
COMPOSITION 

The following table includes the principal 
forms of language composition:— 

I. PROSE. 

(1) Narration. — Letters, journals, memoirs, biog¬ 

raphies, history, travel, news, fiction. 

(2) Description. — Descriptions of external ob¬ 

jects, of character and its development, of 
intellectual processes. 

(3) Exposition.— Essays, treatises, editorials, re¬ 

views, criticism. 

(4) Argument. — Argumentative essays, debates, 

briefs, etc. 

(5) Persuasion or Oratory.— Orations, addresses, 

lectures, sermons. 

II. POETRY. 

(1) Epic and Narrative Poetry. — The great 

epics, metrical romances, metrical tales, bal¬ 
lads, pastorals, idylls, etc. 

(2) Dramatic (including all narrative poetry which 

presents actors as speaking and acting for 
themselves).— Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, 
melodrama, mask, interlude, etc. 

(3) Lyric. — Odes, sacred^ and secular songs, elegy, 

sonnets, simple lyrics. 

(4) Didactic. — Moral essays inverse, satiric poetry, 

etc. 

It is the object of words to convey thought; 
but in order to present connected thought, 
words must be properly arranged with a definite 
end in view. Such an arrangement of words 
is called a language composition. There are two 
types of composition, prose and poetry. Prose 
is the plain language of every-day speech in 
distinction from the more emotional and artistic 
language of poetry. 

The chief varieties of prose composition are: 


narration, description, exposition, argument, 
persuasion. 

Narration presents events in sequence of 
time, it presents a story; description paints a 
picture; exposition defines a term or explains a 
proposition; argument establishes the truth or 
falsity of a statement; persuasion arouses the 
emotions, and influences the will. Narration pre¬ 
sents events with special reference to time and 
place and persons, with their attendant motives 
and circumstances. It is the aim of narration 
to make the reader an eye-witness of the events 
related. 

Under narration may be classed letters, jour¬ 
nals, memoirs, biographies, history, travel, 
news, fiction, and that great body of literature 
comprehended under the term “stories.” 

The sequence of events in narration may be 
with or without plot. If it be simply a sequence 
of time, then the narration is said to be without 
plot, as in letters, diaries, news of the day, 
journals, memoirs, biographies; but if there 
be a subtle relation of cause and effect, which 
binds together the sequence of events, then we 
have a narrative with a plot, such as stories, 
and novels, and dramas. A plot has been de¬ 
fined as “any arrangement of the parts of a 
narrative so that the reader’s interest is aroused 
concerning the result of the series of events 
detailed.” 

Letters, books of travel, memoirs, and biogra¬ 
phies owe their interest to the charm with which 
they are told, and the real worth of the succes¬ 
sive incidents treated. Letters of Thoreau to 
his friends, of Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, 
Alcott, give us the charm of Concord life in 
the golden days of those philosophers, and also 
give us. a model of letter-writing in their simple 
beauty of style, and the value of their subject 
matter. 

Books of Travel have all the personal 
charm of letters, and added to that the deep 
interest of new scenes, visited by an apprecia¬ 
tive narrator. Travels consist largely of de¬ 
scription, which should be well selected and 
accurate. Stanley’s “In Darkest Africa,” 
Roberts’s “Forty-one Years in India,” Grey’s 
“Travels in Australia,” are interesting books 
of travel. 

Memoirs relate chiefly to matters of mem¬ 
ory, events that have come under the author’s 
personal experience. Memoirs are related to 
history, but are less systematic and more con¬ 
versational in style. “Yesterdays with Au¬ 
thors,” by J. T. Fields, is a volume of memoirs 
of noted literary men he knew. 

Biography is a history of an individual 
life, somewhat more extended than a memoir. 
An autobiography is the life history of the 
writer himself. Biographies form a very im¬ 
portant branch of history. If one would know 
the history of a time he must know the men of 
that time. The Autobiography of Benjamin 
Franklin furnishes a much better picture of life 
in his times than pages of our best histories. 
American Men of Letters series, American 
Statesmen series, give a fine study of the develop¬ 
ment of the American nation. 

History is a formal and connected account 
of the life of a nation. Historical narration ex- 



LANGUAGE 


199 


plains the sequence of events, their cause and 
effect, and their bearing on civilization. The 
historian records truth for the instruction of 
mankind. It is, therefore, required of him that 
he make his records with impartiality and accu¬ 
racy, and with the highest regard for morality. 
Gibbon’s “Decline and Fall of the Roman Em¬ 
pire,’’ Motley’s“Rise of the Dutch Republic,” 
are histories written with the charm of romance, 
because they are narrated with the vividness 
of an eye-witness and are aglow with human 
sympathies. 

News forms a most important branch of 
letters. The editorial and the news columns in¬ 
fluence more people to-day than any other form 
of literature. Thousands, who are utterly un¬ 
acquainted with books, read with eagerness the 
daily news, so the newspaper of to-day has be¬ 
come a popular educator. It is the privilege of 
the newspaper to present a high standard of 
pure grammatical English, and of morality. 

Clearness, brevity, accuracy, are the essential 
qualities in a news reporter. He must choose 
language that will convey his exact meaning, 
and give all essential details in as brief a manner 
as is consistent with accuracy and clearness. 
Daily news is read for the information it conveys, 
and not for beauty of style, yet it is desirable 
that the news writer cultivate ease and the 
charm of naturalness in writing up the simplest 
occurrences of the day, if he can do all this in 
uick and graphic sentences. News writing 
iffers greatly from the writing of editorials or 
leaders. The news reporter simply gathers up 
the facts of the day and presents them without 
bias of opinion, whereas it is the business of the 
editor to discuss facts and give opinions. Edi¬ 
torials properly belong under exposition and 
persuasion, rather than under the division of 
prose narration. 

Fiction, from the earliest dawn of litera¬ 
ture, has been the favorite form of composition. 
The mind revels in the creations of the imagina¬ 
tion, and myths and folk tales are the delight 
of all peoples. Modern fiction has had phe¬ 
nomenal development, and the growth of the 
short story has been without parallel. 

Fiction includes stories, novels, and romances, 
both in proso and verse. The aim of fiction is 
principally to entertain. The general reader of 
fiction does not want instruction, he is seeking 
diversion. Incidentally, however, to the enter¬ 
tainment that is furnished by a modern novel, 
there is much instruction given by our best writers 
of historical novels, concerning customs and man¬ 
ners, and domestic and social life, and the history 
of the time in the midst of which the plot is set; 
but more valuable than these outer facts of life 
is the study of motives and behavior, and de¬ 
velopment of character, and the insight, which is 
given into human nature, and the conditions 
of human society which lie beyond our range of 
observation. If well selected, and not read to 
excess, novels form a valuable means of educa¬ 
tion, as well as of intellectual entertainment. 
The novels of Dickens, Victor Hugo, Tolstoi, have 
opened the eyes of the public to unsuspected 
social conditions. Bunyan, Goldsmith, Eliot, 
Hawthorne, have given us a deeper insight into 
human nature. We see how men and women 


behave under certain circumstances, and the 
relation of good and evil conduct. 

The Short Story is not, as often claimed, 
a creation of recent date. Myths, legends, fab¬ 
les, folk-tales, are all forms of short stories, 
which were invented when language was young. 

Myths are old-world fairy tales, and have 
for their heroes gods and goddesses, and for 
their agencies the forces of nature. Homer’s 
“Odyssey,” Virgil’s “Eneid,” Longfellow’s 
“Hiawatha,” are poems woven out of mythic 
fancies. 

Fables are stories in which animals and 
inanimate things are represented as having the 
attributes of human beings. Esop’s fables 
have been translated into every language. 

Parables are concrete examples of spiritual 
truths. They are frequently used in the Bible. 

Allegories are concrete stories to illustrate 
abstract truths, but more extenaea than parables 
or fables. An allegory gives a detailed descrip¬ 
tion of one thing under the image of another. 
Spenser’s “Faerie Queene,” Swift’s “Tale of a 
Tub,” are good types of allegories. Bunyan’s 
“Pilgrim’s Progress” is the best known allegory 
of modern times. 

Legends and Folk-Tales are the 

stories of daily life and heroic adventure that 
are common among all people. 

The field of the short-story writer has been 
greatly extended in modern times, and now 
includes every domain of fact and fancy. The 
short story of domestic life, or a brief chapter 
in personal history, may be said to characterize 
the modern short story, and is the favorite form 
of fiction. Newspapers and magazines con¬ 
tribute largely to this form of literature. It is to 
be greatly regretted that the popularity of the 
short story has led to its abuse, and that much 
that is unworthy both in plot and workmanship 
is found in active circulation. But literature 
has been enriched by the number of really worthy 
short-story writers, and American literature is 
especially rich in the number who have pre¬ 
served for us tones of local coloring and contem¬ 
porary characters. Bret Harte, Mark Twain, 
Frank Stockton, have contributed the riches 
of their humor, and Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
Richard Harding Davis, Sarah Orne Jewett, 
Robert Louis Stevenson, George W. Cable, have 
added the beauty of their most delicate touch 
to the creation of the modern short story. 
“A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wil¬ 
kins, “Story-tell Lib” by Annie Trumbull 
Slosson, “The Blue Flower” by Henry Van 
Dyke, “Christmas Stories” by Charles Dickens, 
and incidents related in story by Maupassant 
are a few of the long list of excellent short 
stories. 

Description follows narration and has 
already been included in narration. Every 
story must contain word pictures of persons or 
places or objects of interest. Description of 
external objects is simpler than the delineation 
of character. In a few strokes of the pen Sir 
Walter Scott places before us the person of Re¬ 
becca, but her thoughts, her feelings, her inner 
struggles, are revealed to us by a slower process 
of description. We are quickly introduced to 
Silas Marner and his home; but the real man 



200 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and his nobility of soul, we do not comprehend 
until he stands before Godfrey Cass and offers 
to give up to him his daughter. It is because 
George Eliot can describe such moments as this 
that she is ranked among the world's greatest 
novelists. Shakespere stands first of all writers 
in his power to describe soul experiences. 

Exposition differs from narration or de¬ 
scription in this that it does not deal with con¬ 
crete things, but with ideas, either separately 
or in combination. Exposition presents defi¬ 
nitions, doctrines, principles, or views, with 
the aim to instruct. Exposition is often intro¬ 
duced into the midst of narration or description 
for the purpose of explanation, to give a point 
of view, or to present a situation more fully. 

An Essay is a composition which aims to 
set forth the author’s views on a certain subject. 
It is less elaborate than a treatise, and varies 
in length from the brief school exercise to the 
elaborate essays of Macaulay, or Emerson, or 
Carlyle. Editorials, reviews, criticisms, are 
familiar forms of the essay. 

An Editorial may be called a short essay, 
giving the views of the editor on some subject 
of the day. The editorial is very different from 
the news item which was classed under narra¬ 
tion. The reporter simply records facts without 
personal comment, whereas it is the business 
of the editor to record facts and give opinions, 
explaining where necessary, and commending 
or condemning as occasion requires. News¬ 
papers set forth social and political problems 
of a local or national character, and it is the 
aim of the editorial to shape public thought. 
Back of the editorial “we” is the personality 
of the writer; but sometimes the writer himself 
is lost in the political party or organization 
which the paper or magazine represents. 

Reviews are more elaborate forms of edi¬ 
torials, they deal with the subject at greater 
length, and are more exhaustive in the discus¬ 
sions. Reviews often treat of literary subjects, 
as book reviews, music, art, lives of noted men, 
explorations, etc. 

Criticisms are for the purpose of setting 
forth excellences and defects, and are designed 
to be constructive rather than destructive, as 
defects are pointed out that the true principles 
upon which the work is constructed may be 
better understood. 

Argumentative Discourse is for the 

purpose of establishing the truth or falsity of a 
proposition. Its aim is to modify or induce 
belief. . It is assumed that there is reasonable 
doubt in the minds of the hearers, and by rea¬ 
sonable argument they must be convinced. In 
the conduct of such a discourse the subject or 
proposition is first stated briefly and concisely, 
then follow the arguments drawn up in order 
and, finally, the conclusion, which consists of a 
restatement of the proposition reinforced by 
the strength of the arguments. In the presenta¬ 
tion of a debate, both sides must agree on the 
preliminary statement or proposition, and then 
each side must furnish proof to establish the 
truth of the main proposition as presented af¬ 
firmatively or negatively by that side. 

Persuasion is the highest type of argu¬ 
mentative discourse, and includes addresses, 


lectures, sermons, orations. The aim of persua¬ 
sion is so to move upon the feelings of the audi¬ 
ence as to influence the will. In exposition and 
argumentation the appeal is to the will, but 
the end of oratory has a view to action. Mark 
Antony, over the dead body of Caesar, aimed 
to excite the populace to violence. 

Orations are elaborate compositions and 
are delivered on formal occasions, as Daniel 
Webster’s Bunker Hill oration, Edward Everett’s 
Gettysburg oration, the orations delivered by 
Burke, and Peel, and Fox. Clearness and 
force are strong qualities in an oration, but, in 
addition to these, all the beauties of composition 
are in place. As oratory is the highest form of 
prose composition, nothing trivial or low in 
language or thought should be allowed. The 
main idea should be developed by both language 
and gesture. Words must be made alive. 

Addresses and Speeches are less 
formal than orations, yet they all admit of the 
three-fold structure into introduction or ex¬ 
ordium, body or argument, and conclusion or 
peroration. The strength of the discourse de¬ 
ends upon the skill with which each part is 
andled. Ready and fluent speech are desir¬ 
able qualities in all public speaking; but the 
ornate language of an oration would, on ordi¬ 
nary occasions, be out of place. 

A Lecture is less formal than an oration, 
but it demands a scholarly presentation of a 
subject in a clear and logical manner. The 
subject presented should be of importance, not 
too familiar, and presented in such a way as to 
interest and instruct. 

Sermons are the most familiar forms of 
discourse. They are founded usually upon 
some passage of Scripture, and are intended for 
instruction. Besides their expository character, 
sermons usually contain appeals to the listener, 
and admonitions. The theme of the sermon is 
presented in the Bible text; and, in addition to 
this, it is often necessary for the minister to 
make explanatory remarks before he begins 
the body of his argument. The introduction 
must contain a clear putting of the question, 
all necessary explanation must be made, and 
usually an outline is given of the plan to be fol¬ 
lowed in the body of the sermon. It is interest¬ 
ing to note the three kinds of arguments used 
in the body of a sermon. 

First, there is the argument of fact. This 
is an argument which appeals directly to sense 
and reason, and not to prejudice. The audi¬ 
ence is assumed to be impartial, and concrete 
questions are presented to their judgment. 

Second, argument of principle is also ad¬ 
dressed to the reason of the audience, and not 
to feelings or interests. Arguments of facts es¬ 
tablish or disprove some concrete matter of 
human experience, whereas argument of theory 
or principles establishes the fundamental law 
upon which the judgment of those facts is 
based. 

Third, argument of policy aims to persuade 
by appeals to motives of action. It aims to in¬ 
fluence the will to act in harmony with the prin¬ 
ciples outlined in the previous arguments of fact 
and theory. What is right is presented as the 
expedient. The “I ought” becomes an obliga- 



LANGUAGE 


201 


tion. It is through the medium of the feelings 
that most men are moved to action. 

The conclusion of the sermon sums up the main 
points of the argument, clearly and concisely. 
It may at times be done in a single sentence; 
sometimes it is best done by the repetition of 
the opening text which has been established. 

Poetry differs from prose in form and dic¬ 
tion. The form of poetry is verse. It is 
arranged in lines of regularly recurring accented 
and unaccented syllables. The language of 
poetry differs from prose. Certain privileges are 
granted to the poet which are called “poetic 
licenses.” Words are chosen for their beauty 
of sound or association. Figures of speech are 
more frequent in poetry than in prose, and 
inverted structure is frequently employed. The 
essential difference between prose and poetry 
is, however, in the writer’s aim. The chief aim 
of prose is to instruct and to convince; the aim 
of poetry is to appeal to the emotions, to touch the 
heart of the reader, to play upon his sympathies. 

Epic Poetry recites some great ana heroic 
enterprise. Epic poetry is the longest and, ex¬ 
cept the drama, the most complex of all poetic 
composition. Its theme is noble, its underlying 
plot simple; it has one hero but many actors; 
supernatural agencies are often introduced. The 
treatment of the story is grave and dignified. 
There are but few great world epics. Homer’s 
“Iliad” and “Odyssey,” Virgil’s “iEneid,” 
Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” Tasso’s “Jerusalem 
Delivered,” Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” are the 
greatest, and their themes are of universal interest. 

Metrical Romances and Narrative 
Poetry are inferior to the epic. They present 
plot and story, but with less complication of 
action, and with simpler theme. Spenser’s 
“Faerie Queene,” Scott’s “Lay of the Last 
Minstrel,” Longfellow’s “Evangeline,” Lowell’s 
“ Sir Launfal,” Mrs. Browning’s “Aurora Leigh,” 
are examples of this kind of composition. 

The Ballad and the Tale are the sim¬ 
plest forms of metrical romance. “Chevy 
Chase,” “Robin Hood,” Chaucer’s “Canterbury 
Tales,” Macaulay’s “Lays of Ancient Rome,” 
Coleridge’s “Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” 
are good illustrations. 

Narrative poems of a mixed character have 
been variously classed under minor epics or pas¬ 
toral poems: Tennyson’s “Idylls of the King,” 
Scott’s “Lady of the Lake,” Longfellow’s “Tales 
of a Wayside Inn,” Whittier’s “Snowbound,” 
William Morris’s “Earthly Paradise.” These 
classifications are not binding. 

Dramatic poetry presents action, what 
men do and say, and, in our greater dramas, 
motives and the moral train of consequences. 
Passion is strong, incident exciting, thought 
vigorous. Scenery, costume, dialogue, aid in 
the presentation of the story. The drama lives 
its life upon the stage. 

The main divisions of the drama are tragedy 
and comedy. Comedy itself has the subordi¬ 
nate divisions: farce, opera, melodrama, mask. 

The Greek drama presents to us the highest 
form of dramatic art before the age of Shakes- 
pere. In the golden age of Pericles we have 
the tragedies of iEschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, 
and the comedies of Aristophanes, later we have 


the comic plays of Menander. Greek drama, 
like our own English drama, was written in 
poetic form. 

Tragedy deals with grave topics, and stirs 
the deepest feelings. It presents the unusual 
struggle between good and evil. Some crime 
has been committed, and the consequences of 
this act are worked out upon the stage in a chain 
of events which involves many people. The 
lot becomes more or less complicated, yet in 
hakespere’s dramas the skill with which the 
leading characters and the central theme are 
presented, preserves for the audience unity of 
action throughout the play. King Lear, Othello, 
Macbeth, Hamlet, present the great drama of 
Good versus Evil, and will make a good begin¬ 
ning for the student who wishes to become ac¬ 
quainted with tragedy. 

Comedy, unlike tragedy, has a happy 
ending. The passions of men, love, hate, jeal¬ 
ousy, ambition, are still the hidden springs of 
action, but there is a happy turn in the current 
of events, and Good triumphs without violence 
or bloodshed. Browning’s “Pippa Passes” 
presents Good and Evil, and the superior power 
of the good, but it is not for the stage — it is 
too analytic. Shakespere’s plays again pre¬ 
sent to us the best study. “ Merchant of Venice,” 
“Midsummer Night’s Dream,” “As You Like 
It,” “All’s Well that Ends Well.” “The Tem¬ 
pest,” “Taming of the Shrew,” “Merry Wives 
of Windsor,” also Sheridan’s “Rivals,” Gold¬ 
smith’s “She Stoops to Conquer,” will repay 
many times reading. Shakespere’s historic 
dramas may be classed among comedies or 
tragedies, according to the relation of good and 
evil working out of the theme. “King Henry, 
the Eighth,” “King John,” “Richard II,” and 
“Richard III” should be studied. 

The Farce is a minor comedy, which pre¬ 
sents ridiculous and extravagant situations. 
It is familiar to the modern stage. 

The Mask is usually a presentation of 
some pastoral scene, and introduces supernatural 
characters. The “Mask of Comus” by John 
Milton is our best example. 

Opera and Melodrama are forms of 
comedy where music and action are combined. 
In an opera the parts are entirely sung, while 
in melodrama singing and speaking are com¬ 
bined. Wagner’s operas are the noblest con¬ 
ception we have of the power of music combined 
with dramatic art. 

Lyric Poetry, as the words suggest, is 
poetry set to music. Originally the voice of the 
singer was accompanied by some musical in¬ 
strument, as the harp or lyre, hence lyric. Lyric 
poems express the personal feeling of the author, 
and are moved by some fervor of emotion that 
must sing itself out. Not only are all song 
poems, both religious and secular, classed as 
lyrics, but odes and sonnets belong to this group. 

Odes express so wide a range of feeling that 
it is difficult to form an exact definition. The 
Greek odes of Pindar and Anacreon differ from 
our modern conception of the ode, which we 
regard as more stately and dignified. Examples 
of odes found in our own English are Milton’s 
“Hymn on the Nativity,” Wordsworth’s “Inti¬ 
mations of Immortality,” Shelley’s “Ode to a 



202 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Nightingale,” Collin’s “Ode to Passions,” Dry- 
den’s “Ode in Honor of St. Cecelia’s Day,” 
Tennyson’s “ Ode to Memory.” 

Elegy is a reflective poem on some mournful 
subject, or, as in modern elegies, a eulogy over 
the dead. Milton’s “Lycidas” belongs to this 
class, also Gray’s “Elegy written in a Country 
Churchyard,” Shelley’s “Adonais,” a tribute to 
Keats, and Tennyson’s “In Memoriam,” a trib¬ 
ute to his friend, Arthur Hallam. 

A Sonnet is a complete poem of fourteen 
lines. The personal element is strong, and the 
themes are tenderness of emotion, and beauty 
of thought and expression. The sonnet is the 
poet’s poem. Shakespere, Spenser, Milton, 
Wordsworth, Tennyson, Browning, and all our 
great poets have delighted in this form of verse. 


Read “What is a Sonnet?” by Richard Watson 
Gilder to understand its charm. 

Didactic Poetry is the least poetic of all 
poetic forms. It aims to teach, while the higher 
aim of poetry is to reveal life and beauty and 
joy. Pope’s “ Essay on Man,” Cowper’s “ Task,” 
Dryden’s “Absalom and Achitophel, ” are 
examples of poems which are so didactic that 
they are little read. Lyric poems like Shelley’s 
“Cloud,” Wordsworth’s “Daffodils,” Longfel¬ 
low’s “Rain in Summer,” Burns’s “To a Wee 
Mousie’s Nest,” Tennyson’s “Crossing the Bar,” 
Newman’s “Lead Kindly Light,” will always 
remain popular, because they appeal to the 
emotions and the imagination, rather than to 
critical thought. The aim of poetry is to arouse 
the emotions and to give pleasure. 


ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND DEGREES 


Aa. Adjective. 

A. Alto. 

A., ans. Answer. 

a., @ (Lat. ad), To; At. 

a, aa. The like quantity of each. 

A. A. G. Assistant Adjutant-General. 

A. A. A. S. American Association 
for the Advancement of Sci¬ 
ence. 

A. A. S. S. (Lat. Academics Antiqua- 
rince Societatis Socius), Member 
of the American Antiquarian So¬ 
ciety. 

A. B. (Lat. artium baccalaureus), 
Bachelor of Arts. 

Abbr., Abbrev. Abbreviated, Abbre¬ 
viation. 

Abl., ablat . Ablative. 

Abp. Archbishop. 

A. B. S. American Bible Society. 

A. C. (Lat. ante Christum), Before 
Christ; Analytical Chemist. 

Acad. Academy. 

A. C. A. American Congregational 
Association. 

Acc., Accus. Accusative. 

Acc., Acd. Account. 

A. D. (Lat. anno Domini), In the 
year of our Lord. 

A. D. C. Aide-de-camp. 

Ad., advt. Advertisement. 

Adj. Adjective. 

Adjt. Adjutant. 

Adjt. Gen. Adjutant General. 

Ad lib., Ad libit. (Lat. ad libitum). 
At pleasure. 

Adm. Admiral. 

Admr. Administrator. 

Admx. Administratrix. 

Adv. Adverb. 

M., /Et. (Lat. cetatis), Of Age, Aged. 

A. F. A. Associate of the Faculty 
of Actuaries. 

A. G., Agt.-Gen. Adjutant-General. 

Ag. (Lat. argentum), Silver. 

Agl. Dept. Agricultural Depart¬ 
ment. 

Agr., Agric. Agriculture, Agricul¬ 
tural. 

Agt. Agent. 

A. H. (Lat. anno Hegirce), In the 
year of the Hegira, or flight of 
Mohammed. 

A. H. S. (Lat. anno humance salu- 
tis), In the year of human salva¬ 
tion. 

A. I. A. Associate of the Institute 
of Actuaries. 

A. L. of H. American Legion of 
Honor. 

Al., Ala. Alabama. 

Alas. Ter. Alaska Territory. 

Aid. Alderman. 

Alex. Alexander. 

Alf. Alfred. 

Alg. Algebra. 


A. M. (Lat. anno mundi), In the 
year of the world. 

A. M. (Lat. ante meridiem), Before 
noon. 

A. M. (Lat. artium magister), Mas¬ 
ter of Arts. 

Am., Amer. America, American. 

Am. Asn. Sci. American Association 
for the Advancement of Science. 

Amer. Phil. Soc. American Philo¬ 
sophical Society. 

Amt. Amount. 

A. N. Anglo-Norman. 

an. (Lat. anno), In the year. 

Anal. Analysis. 

Anat. Anatomy, Anatomical. 

Anc. Ancient. 

Anon. Anonymous. 

Ans. Answer. 

A. N. S. S. Associate of the Normal 
School of Science. 

Ant., Antiq. Antiquities,Antiquarian. 

Anthrop. Anthropology, Anthro¬ 
pological. 

A. O. U. American Ornithologists’ 
Union. 

A. O. U. W. Ancient Order of United 
Workmen. 

Ap.. App. Apostle, Apostles. 

A. P. A. American Protestant As¬ 
sociation; American Protective 
Association. 

Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha. 

Apog. Apogee. 

App. Appendix. 

approx. Approximate, -ly. 

Apr. April. 

A. P. S. Associate of the Pharma¬ 
ceutical Society. 

Aq. (Lat. aqua). Water. 

A. Q. M. Assistant Quartermaster. 

A. Q. M. G. Assistant Quartermas¬ 
ter-General. 

A. R. (Lat. anno regni). In the year 
of the reign. 

Ar. Arab. Arabic, Arabian. 

Ar., Arr. Arrive, Arrives, Arrived, 
Arrival. 

A. R. A. Associate of the Royal 
Academy. 

Arab. Arabic, Arabian. 

Aram. Aramaic. 

Arch. Architecture. 

Archceol. Archaeology. 

Archd. Archdeacon. 

A. R. H. A. Associate of the Royal 
Hibernian Academy. 

Arith. Arithmetic, Arithmetical. 

Ariz. Arizona. 

Ark. Arkansas. 

Arm. Armorican, Armenian. 

Arr. Arrive, Arrives, Arrived, Ar¬ 
rival. 

A. R. R. (Lat. anno regni regis or 
regince). In the year of the king’s 
(or queen’s) reign. 


A. R. S. A. Associate of the Royal 
Scottish Academy. 

A. R. S. M. Associate of the Royal 
School of Mines. 

Art. Article. 

A. S., A.-S. Anglo-Saxon. 

Asst. Assistant. 

A. S. S. U-. American Sunday School 
Union. 

Assyr. Assyrian. 

Astrol. Astrology. 

Astron. Astronomy, Astronomical. 

A. T. S. American Tract Society. 
Atty. Attorney. 

A tty.-Gen. Attorney-General. 

A. XJ. A. American Unitarian As¬ 
sociation. 

A. U. C. (Lat. anno urbis conditce), 
In the year from the building of 
the city — Rome. 

Aug. Augmentative. 

Aug. Augustus; August. 

Auxil. Auxiliary. 

A. V. Authorized Version. 

A. V. Artillery Volunteers. 

Avoir. Avoirdupois. 

B. Bass; Book. 

B., Brit. British. 
b. Born. 

B. A. Bachelor of Arts. [A. Bi] 

Bad. Balance. 

Balt., Balto. Baltimore. 

Bank. Banking. 

Bap., Bapt. Baptist. 

Bar. Barrel, Barometer. 

Bart., Bt. Baronet. 

Bat., Bait. Battalion. 
bbl., bbls. Barrel, Barrels. 

B. C. Before Christ. 

B. Ch. (Lat. baccalaureus chirur- 
gice), Bachelor of Surgery. 

B. C. L. (Lat. baccalaureus civilis 
legis), Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B. D. (Lat. baccalaureus divinitatis), 
Bachelor of Divinity. 

Bd. Bound. 

Bdls. Bundles. 

Bds. Bound in boards. 

B. E. Bachelor of the Elements; 

Bachelor of Elocution. 

Belg. Belgic, Belgian. 

Ben., Benj. Benjamin. 

Berks. Berkshire. 

Bib. Bible, Biblical. 

Biog. Biography, Biographical. 

Biol. Biology, Biological. 

B. L., B. L. L. (Lat. baccalaureus le- 
gum), Bachelor of Laws. 

B. es L. ( F. Bahcelier es Lettres), 
Bachelor of Letters. 
bis. Bales. 

B. M. (Lat. baccalaureus medicines), 
Bachelor of Medicine. 

B. M., B. Mus. (Lat. baccalaureus 
musicae). Bachelor of Music. 

B. O. Branch Office. 






LANGUAGE 


203 


B. O. Bachelor of Oratory. 

Boh. Bohemian, or Czech. 

Bost. Boston. 

Bot. Botany, Botanical. 

B. O. U. British Ornithologists’ 
Union. 

Ep. Bishop. 

Br., Bro. Brother. 

Bret. Bas-Breton, or Celtic of Brit¬ 
tany. 

Brig. Brigade. 

Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General. 

Brit. Britain, Britannia, British. 

B. S. Bachelor of Surgery; Bachelor 
of Science. 

B. Sc. (Lat. haccalaureus scientice), 
Bachelor of Science. 

B. S. L. Botanical Society, London. 
Bt. Baronet. 
bush. Bushel. 

B. V. Blessed Virgin. 

B. V. M. Blessed Virgin Mary. 
bx., bxs. Box, Boxes. 

C. Cent, Cents; Centigrade; Consul; 
Centime. Centimes; a hundred. 

C., Cap. (Lat. caput), Chapter. 

C. A. Chartered Accountant. 

Cal. California; Calendar. 

Cam., Carnb. Cambridge. 

Cant. Canticle. 

Cant. [ Cantaur .] 

Cantab. (Lat. Cantabrigiensis), Of 
Cambridge. 

Cantuar., Cant. (Mid. Lat. Cantua- 
ria ), Canterbury. 

Cap. (Lat. caput), Capital; Chapter. 
Caps. Capitals. 

Capt. Captain. 

Card. Cardinal. 

Cath. Catharine; Catholic. 

C. B. Companion of the Bath. 

C. C. Catholic Clergyman, Catholic 
Curate. 

C. D. V. Carte-de-Visite. 

C. E. Civil Engineer. 

Cel. Celsius. 

Celt. Celtic. 

Cent, {centum), A hundred; Centi¬ 
grade. 

Centig. Centigrade. 

Cert., Certif. Certify; Certificate. 

Cf. (Lat. confer), Compare. 

C. ft. Cubic feet. 

C. G. Coastguard; Commissary-Gen¬ 
eral. 

C. G. S. Centimetre-Gramme-Second. 
C. H. Court House. 

Ch. Church; Chapter. 

Chal. Chaldron. 

Chal., Chald. Chaldee. 

Chan. Chancellor. 

Chap. Chapter. 

Chas. Charles. 

Chem. Chemistry, Chemical. 

Ch. Hist. Church History. 

Chic. Chicago. 

Chin. Chinese. 

Chr. Christ; Christian; Christopher. 
Chron. Chronology, Chronological. 

C. I. Order of the Crown of In¬ 
dia. 

C. I. E. Companion of the Order of 
the Indian Empire. 

Cin. Cincinnati. 

Cit. Citation; Citizen. 

Civ. Civil. 

C. J. Chief Justice. 

Cl. Clergyman. 

Class. Classical. 

Clk. Clerk. 
cm. Centimetre. 

C. M. Certificated Master; Com¬ 
mon metre. 

C. M. (Lat. chirurgice magister), 
Master in Surgery. 

C. M. G. Companion of the Order of 
St. Michael and George. 

C. M. Z. S. Corresponding Member 
of the Zoological Society. 

Co. Company; County. 

C. O. D. Cash on delivery; Collect 
(payment) on delivery. 

Cogn. Cognate. 


Col. Colonel; Colossians; Column. 

Coll. College. 

Colloq. Colloquial; Colloquialism; 
Colloquially. 

Colo. Colorado. 

Com. Commander; Commerce; Com¬ 
missioner; Committee; Commo¬ 
dore; Common. 

Comm. Commentary; Commerce. 

Comp. Compare; Comparative; 
Compound, Compounded. 

Compar. Comparative. 

Compos. Composition. 

Com. ver. Common Version. 

Con., contra. (Lat.), Against. 

Con. Cr. Contra Credit. 

Cong. Congregation, Congregational, 
Congregationalist; Congress. 

Conj. Conjunction. 

Conn. Connecticut. 

Con. Sec. Conic Sections. 

Contr. Contracted, Contraction. 

Cop., Copt. Coptic. 

Cor. Corinthians. 

Cor. Mem. Corresponding Member. 

Corn. Cornwall; Cornish. 

Corrup. Corruption, Corrupted. 

Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary. 

Cos. Cosine. 

C. P. Clerk of the Peace; Common 

C. P. A. Certified Public Account¬ 
ant. 

C. P. C. Clerk of the Privy Council. 

C. P. S. (Lat. custos privati sigilli), 
Keeper of the Privy Seal. 

C. Q. D. Come quick—danger. 

Cr. Credit, Creditor. 

C. R. (Lat. Civus Romanus), Roman 
Citizen. 

C. R. (Lat. custos rotulorum), Keeper 
of the Rolls. 

Cres. Crescendo. 

Crim. con. Criminal conversation, or 
adultery. 

Cry stall., Crystallog. Crystallogra¬ 

phy. 

C. S. A. Confederate States of 
America. 

C. S. Court of Sessions, Clerk to the 
Signet. 

C. S. I. Companion of the Star of 
India. 

Csks. Casks. 

Ct. (Lat. centum), A hundred. 

Ct. Court. 

Ct., Conn. Connecticut. 

C. T. Certified Teacher. 

C. T. A. U. Catholic Total Absti¬ 
nence Union. 

Cu. (Lat. cuprum), Copper. 

Cub., Cu. ft. Cubic, Cubic foot. 

Cur., Curt. Current — this month. 

Cwt. A hundredweight; Hundred¬ 
weights. 

Cyc. Cyclopaedia. 

D. Deputy. 

d. (Lat. denarius, denarii), A penny, 
Pence. 

d. Died. 

Dan. Daniel; Danish. 

Dot. Dative. 

Dav. David. 

D. C. (Ital. da capo), From the be¬ 
ginning. 

D. C., Dist. Col. District of Colum¬ 
bia. 

D. C. L. Doctor of Civil (or Canon) 
Law. 

D. D. (Lat. divinitatis doctor), Doc¬ 
tor of Divinity. 

D. D. D. (Lat. dat. dicat, dedicat), 
He gives, devotes, and consecrates. 
(The formula by which anything 
was consecrated to the gods or to 
religious uses by the Romans; 
still used in funeral inscriptions.) 

D. D. S. Doctor of Dental Surgery. 

D. E. Dynamic Engineer. 

D. Eng. Doctor of Engineering. 

Dec. December. 

decim. Decimetre. 

Def. Definition. 


Deft. Defendant. 

Deg. Degree, Degrees. 

Del. Delaware. 

Del. (Lat. delineavit), He (or she) 
drew. 

Dep., Dept. Department. 

Dep. Deputy. 

Der. Derived, Derivation. 

Deut. Deuteronomy. 

D. F. Dean of the Faculty; Defender 
of the Faith.. 

D. G. (Lat. Dei gratia), By the grace 
of God. 

Diet. Dictionary. 

Dim., Dimin. Diminutive. 

Dis., Disct. Discount. 

Dist. District. 

Dist. Ally. District Attorney. 

Div. Divide; Dividend; Division; 
Divisor. 

D. Lit., D. Lilt.. Doctor of Literature. 
D. L. O. Dead Letter Office. 

D. M., D. Mus. Doctor of Music. 

D. M. D. Doctor of Dental Medicine. 
D. O. Doctor of Osteopathy; Doc¬ 
tor of Optics. 

Do. (Ital. ditto), The same. 

Dols. Dollars. 

Dom. Econ. Domestic Economy. 
Doz. Dozen. 

Dpt. Deponent. 

Dr. Debtor; Doctor; Dram, Drams. 
Dram. Dramatic, Dramatically. 

D. S. (Ital. dal segno), From the 
sign. 

D. Sc. Doctor of Science. 

D. T. (Lat. doctor theologies), Doctor 
of Theology. 

Du., Dut. Dutch. 

Dub. Dublin. 

Duo. 12 mo. Duodecimo (twelve 
folds). 

D. V. (Lat. Deovolente), God willing. 
D. V. M. Doctor of Veterinary Med¬ 
icine. 

D. V. S. Doctor of Veterinary Sur¬ 
gery. 

Dwt. (Lat. denarius, an English 
weight), Pennyweight, Penny¬ 
weights. 

Dynam. Dynamics. 

E. East, Eastern; English; Edin¬ 
burgh. 

Ea. Each. 

E. Aram. East Aramaean, generally 
called Chaldee. 

Eben. Ebenezer. 

E. C. Eastern Central; Established 
Church. 

Eccl., Eccles. Ecclesiastical. ■ 

Eccles., Ecclesiol. Ecclesiology. 

Econ. Economy. 

Ed. Editor; Edition; Edinburgh. 
Ed., Edm. Edmund. 

Edin. Edinburgh. 

E. D. S. English Dialect Society. 
Edw. Edward. 

E. E. Errors excepted. 

E. E. Electrical Engineer. 
e.g. (Lat. exempli gratia), For ex¬ 
ample. 

E. I. East Indies, East Indian. 

E. I. C., E. I. Co. East Indian Com¬ 
pany. 

E. I. C. S. East India Company’s 
Service. 

Elec., Elect. Electric, Electricity. 
Eliz. Elizabeth, Elizabethan. 

Emp. Emperor, Empress. 

Ency., Encyclo. Encyclopaedia. 

E. N. E. East-northeast. 

Eng. England, English. 

Eng., Engin. Engineer, Engineering. 
Eng. Dept. Department of Engi¬ 
neers. 

Ent., Entom. Entomology, Entomo¬ 
logical. 

Env. Ext. Envoy extraordinary. 
Eph. Ephesians; Ephraim. 

Epiph. Epiphany. 

Epis. Episcopal. 

Epist. Epistle, epistolary. 

Eg. Equal, equivalent. 




204 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Equiv. Equivalent. 

Esd. Esdras. 

E. S. E. East-southeast. 

Esp., Espec. Especial, especially. 
Esq., Esqr. Esquire. 
et al. (Lat. et alibi), And elsewhere. 
et al. (Lat. et alii, alia, or alia), And 
others. 

etc., cfee. (Lat. et cetceri, cater a, or 
catera), And others, and so forth. 
Eth. Ethiopia, Ethiopian. 

Ethnol. Ethnology, ethnological. 
et seq. (Lat. et sequentes, or sequen- 
tia), And the following. 

Etym. Etymology. 

Ex. Example: Examined: Excep¬ 
tion: Exodus. 

Exc. Excallency: Except, excepted. 
Exch. Exchange: Exchequer. 

Exd. Examined._ 

Ex. Doc. Executive Document. 

Exec. Executor. 

Execx. Executrix. 

Ex. Gr. (Lat. exempli gratia), For 
example. 

Exod. Exodus. 

Exon. (Lat. Exonia), Exeter, 

Exor. Executor. 

Ez. Ezra. 

Ezek. Ezekiel. 

E. & O. E. Errors and omissions ex¬ 
cepted. 

F. Fellow: Folio: Fahrenheit. 

/. Farthing, farthings. 
f.,fem. Feminine. 

/. Franc, francs. 
ft. Foot, feet. 

Fahr. Fahrenheit. 

F. A. S. Fellow of the Society of 
Arts. 

F. & A. M. Free and Accepted Ma¬ 
sons. 

F.A.S.E. Fellow of the Antiqua¬ 
rian Society, Edinburgh. 

F. B. S. E. Fellow of the Botanical 
Society of Edinburgh. 

F. C. Free Church of Scotland. 

Fcp. Foolscap. 

F. C. P. S. Fellow of the Philosoph¬ 
ical Society, Cambridge. 

F. C. S. Fellow of the Chemical So¬ 
ciety. 

F. D., Fid. Def. (Lat. Fidei Defen¬ 
sor), Defender of the Faith. 

Feb. February. 

Fee. (Lat. fecit), He or she did it. 

F. E. I. S. Fellow of the Educational 
Institute of Scotland. 

Fem. Feminine. 

F. E. S. Fellow of the Entomologi¬ 
cal Society. 

Feud. Feudal. 

F.F. V. First Families of Virginia. 
F. G. S. Fellow of the Geological 
Society. 

F.I.A. Fellow of the Institute of 

Aptllfl Fl PQ 

F. I. C. Feliow of the Chemical In¬ 
stitute. 

fi.fa. Fieri facias. 

Fig. Figure, figures, figurative, fig¬ 
uratively. 

Finn. Finnish. 

F. K. Q. C. P. I. Fellow of the Kings 
and Queen’s College of Physicians, 
Ireland. 

Fl. Flemish; Florin-, florins; Flour¬ 
ished. 

Fla. Florida. 

Flem. Flemish. 

F. L. S. Fellow of the Linnsean So¬ 
ciety. 

F. M. Field-marshal. 

Fo., Fol. Folio. 

F, O. Foreign Office; Field-officer. 
F. O. B. Free on board. 

For. Foreign. 

Fort. Fortification. 

F. P. Fire-plug. 

F.P. S. Fellow of the Philological 
Society. 

Fr. France; French; Francis; Francs. 
fr. From. 


F. R. A. S. Fellow of the Royal As¬ 
tronomical Society. 

F. R. C. P. Fellow of the Royal Col¬ 
lege of Physicians. 

F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal 
College of Physicians, Edinburgh. 

F. R. C. S. Fellow of the Royal Col¬ 
lege of Surgeons. 

F. R. C. S. E. Fellow of the Royal 
College of Surgeons, Edinburgh. 

F. R. C. S. I. Fellow of the Royal 
College of Surgeons, Ireland. 

Fred. Frederick. 

Freq. Frequentative. 

F. R. G. S. Fellow of the Royal Geo¬ 
graphical Society. 

F. R. H. S. Fellow of the Royal Hor¬ 
ticultural Society. 

F. R. Hist. S. Fellow of the Royal 
Historical Society. 

Fri. Friday. 

Fries. Friesland. 

Fris. Frisian. 

F. R. Met. S. Fellow of the Royal 
Meteorological Society. 

F. R. M. S. Fellow of the Royal Mi¬ 
croscopical Society. 

F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society. 

F. R. S. E. Fellow of the Royal So¬ 
ciety, Edinburgh. 

F. R. S. L. Fellow of the Royal So¬ 
ciety of Literature. 

F. R. S. S. Fellow of the Royal Sta¬ 
tistical Society. 

F. S. A. Fellow of the Society of 
Arts, or of Antiquaries. 

F. S. A. Scot. Fellow of the Society 
of Antiquaries of Scotland. 

Ft. Foot, feet; Fort. 

Fth. Fathom. 

Fur. Furlong. 

Fut. Future. 

F. Z. S. Fellow of the Zoological 
Society. 

G. Genitive; Guinea, guineas; Gulf. 

Ga. Georgia. 

G. A. General Assembly. 

Gael. Gaelic; Gadhelic. 

Gal. Galatians. 

Gal., Gall. Gallon, gallons. 

Galv. Galvanism, galvanic. 

G. A. R. Grand Army of the Repub¬ 
lic. 

G. B. Great Britain. 

G. B. & I. Great Britain and Ireland. 

G. C. B. Grand Cross of the Bath. 

G. C. G. H. Grand Cross of the 
Guelphs of Hanover. 

G. C. L. H. Grand Cross of the Le¬ 
gion of Honor. 

G. C. M. G. Grand Cross SS. Michael 
and George. 

G. C. S. I. Grand Commander of the 
Star of India. 

G. D. Grand Duke, Grand Duchess. 

Gen., Genl. General. 

Gen. Genesis; Genitive. 

Gend. Gender. 

Genit. Genitive. 

Gent., Gentn. Gentleman, gentlemen. 

Geo. George; Georgia. 

Geog. Geography, geographical. 

Geol. Geology, geological. 

Geom. Geometry, geometrical. 

Ger., Germ. German. 

Gi. Gill, gills. 

G. L. Grand Lodge. 

Gm. Grammes. 

G. M. Grand Master. 

Go., Goth. Gothic. 

G. O. P. Grand old party (applied to 
republican party). 

Gov. Governor. 

Gov.-gen. Governor-general. - 

Govt. Government. 

G. P. O. General Post-Office. 

Gr. Grain, grains; Great; Greek; 
Gross. 

Gram. Grammar, grammatical. 

Gro. Gross. 

G. T. Good Templars; Grand Tyler. 

Gtt. (Lat. guttce), Drops. 

Gun. Gunnery. 


H. Hour, hours. 

Hab. Habakkuk. 

Hag. Haggai. 

Hants. Hampshire. 

H. B. C. Hudson Bay Company. 

II. B. M. His (or Her) Britannic 
esty 

II. C. Heralds’ College; House of 
Commons. 

H. C. M. His (or Her) Catholic 
Majesty. 

h. e. (Lat. hoc est, hie est), This or 
That is, here is. 

Heb., Hebr. Hebrew, Hebrews. 

Her. Heraldry, heraldic. 

Hf.-bd. Half-bound. 

H. G. Horse Guards. 

H. H. His (or Her) Highness; His 
Holiness (the Pope). 

Hhd. Hogshead, hogsheads. 

H. I. H. His (or Her) Imperial High¬ 
ness. 

Hind. Hindu, Hindustan/ Hindu¬ 
stani. 

Hist. History, Historical. 

H. J., H. J. S. (Lat. hie jacet, hie 
jacet sepultus), Here lies, here lies 
buried. 

H. M. His (or Her) Majesty. 

H. M. P. (Lat. hoc monumentum 
posuit), Erected this monument. 

H. M. S. His (or Her) Majesty’s 
Service, Ship, or Steamer. 

Hon., Honble. Honorable. 

Hond. Honored. 

Hor., Horol. Horology, horological. 

Hort., Hortic. Horticulture, horticul¬ 
tural. 

Hos. Hosea. 

H. P. Half-pay; High-priest; Horse 
power. 

H. R. House of Representatives. 

H. R. E. Holy Roman Empire, or 
Emperor. 

H. R. H. His (or Her) Royal High¬ 
ness. 

H. R. I. P. (Lat. hie requiescit in 
pace), Here rests in peace. 

H. S. (Lat. hie situs), Here lies. 

H. S. H. His (or Her) Serene High¬ 
ness. 

Hum., Humb. Humble. 

Hun., Hung. Hungary, Hungarian. 

Hund• Hundred. 

Hyd., Hydros. Hydrostatics. 

Hydraul. Hydraulics. 

Hydros. [Hyd.] 

Hypoth. Hypothesis, hypothetical. 

/. Island. 

l a. Iowa. 

lb. , Ibid. (Lat. ibidem), In the same 
place. 

Teel. Icelandic. 

Ich., Ichthy. Ichthyology. 

Id. (Lat. idem), The same. 

Ida. Idaho. 

i. e. (Lat. id est), That is. 

I. H. S. (Lat. Jesus Salvator Homi- 
num), Jesus, the Saviour of 
Men. 

III. Illinois. 

Imp. (Lat. imperator) , Emperor; Im¬ 
perial; impersonal. 

Imp., Impf. Imperfect. 

Imper. Imperative. 

In. Inch, inches, 

Incog. (Ital. incognito, incognita), 
Unknown. 

Ind. India, Indian; Indiana. 

Indie. Indicative. 

Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. 

Inf., Inf n. Infinitive. 

In lim. (Lat. in limine), At the out¬ 
set. 

In loc. (Lat. in loco), In its place. 

I. N. R. I. (Lat. Jesus Nazarenus 
Rex Iudceorum), Jesus of Nazareth, 
King of the Jews. 

Ins. Insurance. 

l ns. Gen. Inspector General. 

Inst. Instant, the present month; 
Institute, institution. 

l nt. Interest. 





LANGUAGE 


205 


Int.Dept. Department of the Interior. 
Intens. Intensive; Intensative. 

Inter,j. Interjection. 

Intrans. Intransitive. 
lntrans. (Lat. in transitu), On the 
passage. 

Int. Rev. Internal Revenue. 

Introd. Introduction. 

Io. Iowa. 

I. O. F. Independent Order of For- 
cstors 

I. O. G. T. Independent Order of 
Good Templars. 

I. O. O. F. Independent Order of 
Oddfellows. 

I. O. R. M. Improved Order of Red 
Men. 

I. O. S. M. Independent Order of 
Sons of Malta. 

7. O. U. I owe you. 

i. q. (Lat. idem quod), The same as. 

l r. Ireland, Irish. 

Irreg. Irregular. 

l s. , Isa. Isaiah. 

7. S. Irish Society. 

Isl. Island. 

7. S. M. Jesus Salvator Mundi. 

l t. , Ital. Italy; Italic; Italian. 

I tin. Itinerary. 

J. Judge; Justice. 

J. A. Judge-advocate. 

Jac. Jacob, Jacobus (= James). 

Jan. January. 

J. A. G. Judge Advocate General. 
Jav. Javanese. 

J.C. Jesus Christ. 

J. C. D. (Lat. juris civilis doctor), 
Doctor of Civil Law. 

J. D. (Lat. jurum doctor), Doctor of 
Laws. 

Jer. Jeremiah. 

J. G. W. Junior Grand Warden. 

J. 77. S. [7. 77. S.]. 

Jno. John. 

Jour. Journey. 

Jon., Jona. Jonathan. 

Jos. Joseph. 

Josh. Joshua. 

Jour. Journal. 

J. P. Justice of the Peace. 

Jr. Juror; Junior. 

J. U. D. (Lat. Juris" utriusque doc¬ 
tor), Doctor of both laws (i. e., of 
civil and canon law). 

Jud. Judith. 

Judg. Judges. 

Jul. July; Julius; Julian. 

Jul. Per. Julian Period. 

Jun. June. 

Jun., Junr. Junior. 

Juris. Jurisprudence. 

K. King; Knight. 

Kan., Ks. Kansas. 

K. B. Knight of the Bath. 

K. B. King’s Bench. 

K. C. King’s Counsel; Knights of 
Columbus. 

K. C. B. Knight Commander of the 
Bath. 

K. C. 77. Knight Commander of the 
Guelphs of Hanover. 

K. C. M. G. Knight Commander of 
St. Michael and St. George. 

K. C. S. I. Knight Commander of 
the Star of India. 

K. E. Knight of the Eagle. 

Ken., Ky. Kentucky. 

K. G. Knight of the Garter. 

K. G. E. Knight of the Golden 
Eagle. 

K. G. C. Knight of the Grand Cross. 

K. G. C. B. Knight of the Grand 
Cross of the Bath. 

K. G. F. Knight of the Golden 
Fleece. 

K. G. 77. Knight of the Guelphs of 
Hanover. 

Ki. Kings. 

Kilog. Kilogramme. 

Kilom., Kilo. Kilometre. 

Kingd. Kingdom. 

K. I. B. Knight of Leopold of Bel¬ 
gium. 


K. L. H. Knight of the Legion of 
Honor. 

K. M. Knight of Malta. 

Kn. N. S. Knight of the Loyal Nor¬ 
thern Star (Sweden). 

Knick. Knickerbocker. 

Knt. Knight. 

K. P. Knight of St. Patrick. 

K. of P. Knights of Pythias. 

Ks. Kansas. 

K. S. Knight of the Sword (Sweden). 
Kt. Knight. 

K.T. Knight of the Thistle; Knight 
Templar. 

K. T. S. Knight of Tower and Sword 
(Portugal). 

Ky. Kentucky. 

L. Latin; Lake; Lord; Lady. 

L., 1., £, (Lat. libra), Pound, pounds 
(sterling). 

L., lb., Ib. (Lat. libra), Pound,pounds 
(weight). 

La. Louisiana. 

L. A. Law Agent; Literate in Arts. 
Lam. Lamentations. 

Lat. Latin; Latitude. 

lb. Pound, pounds (weight). 

L. c. Lower case (in printing). 

L. c., loc. cit. (Lat. toco citato), In 
the place cited. 

L. C. Lord Chamberlain; Lord Chan¬ 
cellor. 

L. C. J. Lord Chief-justice. 

L. C. P. Licentiate of the College of 
Preceptors. 

Ld. Lord. 

Ldp. Lordship. 

L. D. S. Licentiate of Dental Sur¬ 
gery. 

Leg., Legis. Legislature, legislative. 
Leip. Leipsic. 

Lev. Leviticus. 

Lex. Lexicon. 

Lexicog. Lexicography, lexicogra¬ 
pher, lexicographical. 

L. G. Life Guards. 

L. Ger. Low German or Platt 
Deutsch. 

L. 77. D. Doctor of Humanities. 

L. I. Light Infantry; Long Island. 
Lib. (Lat. liber). Book. 

Lib. Library, librarian. 

Lieut., Lt. Lieutenant. 

Lieut.-col. Lieutenant-colonel. 
Lieut.-gen. Lieutenant-general. 
Lieut.-gov. Lieutenant-governor. 
lin. Lineal, or right-line Ineasures; 

e. g., lin. yd.; lin. ft., etc. 

Linn. Linnaeus, Linnd, Linnaean. 
Liq. Liquor, liquid. 

Lit. Literally, literature, literary. 

Lit. D., Litt. D. (Lat. literarum doc¬ 
tor), Doctor of Literature. 

Lith. Lithography. 

Liv. Livre. 

LL. B. (Lat. legum baccalaureus ), 
Bachelor of Laws. 

LL. D. (Lat. legum doctor), Doctor 
of Laws. 

LL. I. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
LL. M. Master of Laws. 

L. M. Long metre. 

Lon., Lond. London. 

Lon., Long. Longitude. 

Loq. (Lat. loquitur), He (or she) 
speaks. 

Lou. Louisiana. 

Lp. Lordship. 

L. P. Lord Provost. 

L. S. (Lat. locus sigilli), Place of the 
seal. 

L. s. d. (Lat. librce, solidi, denarii ), 
Pounds, shillings, pence. 

Lt. Lieutenant. 

Lt. Inf. Light Infantry 
Luth. Lutheran. 

m. Married; Masculine; Mfetre, me¬ 
tres; Mile, miles; Minute, min¬ 
utes. 

M. Marquis; Middle; Monday; 
Morning; Monsieur. 

M. (Lat. mille), Thousand. 

M. (Lat. meridies), Meridian, Noon. 


M. A. (Master of Arts.) [A. M ] 
Mac., Macc. Maccabees 
Mach., Machin. Machine, machinery. 
Mad., Madm. Madam. 

Mag. Magyar; Magazine. 

Maj. Major. 

Maj.-gen. Major-general. 

Mai. Malachi; Malay, Malayan. 
Manuf. Manufactures, manufactur¬ 
ing. 

Mar. March; Maritime. 

Marq. Marquis. 

Mas., Masc. Masculine. 

Mass. Massachusetts. 

M. Ast. S. Member of the Astro¬ 
nomical Society. 

Math. Mathematics, mathematician, 
mathematical. 

Matt. Matthew. 

M. B. (Lat. medicince baccalaureus). 
Bachelor of Medicine. 

M. B. (Lat. musicce baccalaureus), 
Bachelor of Music. 

M. C. Member of Congress; Master 
of Ceremonies. 

Mch. March. 

M. C. P. Member of the College of 
Preceptors. 

M. D. (Lat. medicines doctor), Doc¬ 
tor of Medicine. 

Md. Maryland. 

Mdlle. (Fr. mademoiselle), Miss. 
Mdse. Merchandise. 

M. E. Most Excellent; Military En¬ 
gineer; Mining Engineer; Me¬ 
chanical Engineer. 

M. E. Methodist Episcopal. 

Ale. Maine. 

Meas. Measure. 

Mech. Mechanics, mechanical. 

Med. Medicine, medical; Mediseval. 
Med. Lai., Medicev. Lat. Mediaeval 
Latin. 

Mem. Memorandum, memoranda. 
Mess. & Docs. Messages and Docu¬ 
ments. 

Messrs. (Fr. messieurs), Gentlemen. 
Met. Metaphysics, metaphysical. 
Metall. Metallurgy. 

Metaph. Metaphysics; Metaphori¬ 
cally. 

Meteor. Meteorology, meteorological. 
Meth. Methodist. 

Meton. Metonymy. 

Mex. Mexico. 

Mfd., Mfs. Manufactured, manufac¬ 
tures. 

Mfg. Manufacturing. 

M. F. 77. Master of Foxhounds. 

M. 77. Most Honorable. 

M. 77. Ger. Middle High German. 

M. I. C. E. Member of the Institute 
of Civil Engineers. 

Mich. Michaelmas; Michigan. 

Mid. Middle; Midshipman. 

Mid. Lat. Latin of the Middle Ages. 
Mil., Milit. Military. 

M. I. M. E. Member of the Institute 
of Mining Engineers. 

Min. Mineralogy, mineralogical; 

Minute, minutes. 

Minn. Minnesota. 

Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary. 
Miss. Mississippi. 

Mile. (Fr. mademoiselle), Miss. 

M. L. S. B. Member of the London 
School Board. 

MM. Their Majesties. 

MM. (Fr. messieurs ), Gentlemen. 
mm. Millemetres; Micrometres. 
Mme. (Fr. madame). Madam. 

M. P. P. Member of Provincial Par¬ 
liament. 

M. N. A. S. Member of the National 
Academy of Sciences. 

M.N.S. Member of the Numismati- 
cal Society. 

Mo. Missouri; Month. 

Mod. Modern. 

Mod. (Ital. moderato), Moderately. 
Mon. Monday. 

Mons. (Fr. monsieur), Sir, Mr. 

Mont. Montana. 




206 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


M. P. Member of Parliament. 

M. P. S. Member of the Pharma¬ 
ceutical Society; Member of the 
Philological Society. 

Mr. Master, Mister. 

M. R. A. S. Member of the Royal 
Asiatic Society. 

M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal 
College of Physicians. 

M. R. C. S. Member of the Royal 
College of Surgeons. 

M. R. C. V. S. Member of the Royal 
College of Veterinary Surgeons. 

M. R. G. S. Member of the Royal 
Geographical Society. 

M. R. /. Member of the Royal In¬ 
stitution. 

M. R. I. A. Member of the Royal 
Irish Academy. 

Mrs. Mistress (usually abbreviated 
to mis'sis). 

M. S. Master of Surgery. 

M. S. Master of Science. 

M. S. (Lat. memories sacrum), Sa¬ 
cred to the memory of. 

MS. Manuscript. 

MSS. Manuscripts. 

mo., mth. Month. 

Mt., Mts. Mount, mountains. 

Mus. Museum; Music, musical. 

Mus. B. (Lat. musicce baccalaureus), 
Bachelor of Music. 

Mus. D., Mus. Doc., Mus. Doct. (Lat. 
musicce doctor), Doctor of Music. 

M. W. G. M. Most Worthy Grand 
Master. 

Myth. Mythology, mythological. 

N. Noon; North; Noun; Number; 
New; Neuter. 

N. A. North America, North Ameri¬ 
can. 

Nah. Nahum. 

Nap. Napoleon. 

Nat. Natural; National. 

Nat. Hist. Natural History. 

Nat. ord. Natural order. 

Nat. Phil. Natural Philosophy. 

Naut. Nautical. 

N. B. New Brunswick; North Brit¬ 
ain (— Scotland). 

N. B. (Lat. nota bene), Note wpll, 
take notice. 

N. C. North Carolina. 

N. D., N. Dak. North Dakota. 

N. E. New England; Northeast. 

Neb. Nebraska. 

Neg. Negative, negatively. 

Neh. Nehemiah. 

Nem. con. (Lat. nemine contradi- 
cente), No one contradicting; 
unanimously. 

Nem. diss. (Lat. nemine dissenti- 
ente), No one dissenting; unani¬ 
mously. 

Neth. Netherlands. 

Neut. Neuter. 

Nev. Nevada. 

New Test., N. T. New Testament. 

N. F. Newfoundland. 

N. H. New Hampshire. 

N. H. Ger. New High German. 

N. J. New Jersey. 

N. L., N. Lai. North Latitude. 

N. M. New Mexico. 

N. N. E. North-northeast. 

N. N. W. North-northwest. 

N. O. New Orleans. 

No. (Lat. numero). Number. 

nol. pros. (noleus prosequi), I am un¬ 
willing to prosecute. 

Nom., Nomin. Nominative. 

Non con. Non-content, dissentient. 
(The formula in which Members 
of the House of Lords vote.) 

Nonobst. (Lat. non obstante), Not¬ 
withstanding. 

Nonpros. (Lat. non prosequitur), 
He does not prosecute. 

Non seq. (Lat. non sequitur), It does 
not follow (as a consequence). 

n. o. p. Not otherwise provided for. 

Nor., Norm. Norman. 


Nor. Fr., Norm. Fr. Norman French. 
Norm. [Nor.] 

Norw. Norway, Norwegian, Norse. 
Nos. Numbers. 

Nov. November. 

N. P. Notary public. 

N. S. New style; Nova Scotia, 
n. s. Not specified. 

N. S. J. C. (Ft.'N otre Seigneur Jesus 
Christ), Our Lord Jesus Christ. 

N. T. [New Test.] 

Num., Numb. Numbers. 

Numis. Numismatic, numismatol¬ 
ogy. 

N. V. M. Nativity of the Virgin 
Mary. 

N. W. Northwest. 

N. W K T. Northwest Territory. 

N. Y. New York. 

N. Z. New Zealand. 

O. Ohio; Old. 

ob. (Lat. obiit), He (or she) died. 
Obad. Obadiah. 

Obdt., Obt. Obedient. 

Obj. Objective. 

Obs. Obsolete. 

Oct. October. 

Oct., 8vo. Octavo. 

O. F. Odd Fellows. 

O. H. Ger. Old High German. 

O. H. M. S. On Her Majesty’s Serv- 
ice. 

O. K. “All correct.” 

Okl. Oklahoma. 

Old Test., O. T. Old Testament. 
Olym. Olympiad. 

O. M. Old Measurement. 

O. M. I. Oblate of Mary Immacu¬ 
late. 

Op. Opposite, opposition. 

Opt. Optative; Optics, optical. 

Or. Oregon. 

Ordn. Ordnance. 

Orig. Original, originally. 

Ornith. Ornithology, ornithologi¬ 
es S. Old Style; Old Saxon. 

O. S. A. Order of St. Augustine. 

O. S. B. Order of St. Benedict. 

O. S. F. Order of St. Francis. 

O. T. [Old Test.] 

O. U. A. M. Order of United Ameri¬ 
can Mechanics. 

Oxf. Oxford. 

Oxon. (Lat. Oxonia, Oxoniensis), 
Oxford; of Oxford. 

Oxonien. (Lat. Oxoniensis), Of Ox¬ 
ford. 

Oz. Ounce. [The z in this contraction 
and in viz., represents an old sym¬ 
bol (3), used to mark a terminal 
contraction.] 

P. Page; Participle; Past; Pole; 
Port. 

Pa. Pennsylvania. 

Pa. a., par. a. Participial adjective. 
Paint. Painting. 

Pal., Paloeont. Palaeontology, palae¬ 
ontological. 

Palceobo. Palaeobotany. 

Pa. part. Past participle. 

Par. Paragraph; Participle. 

Pari. Parliament, parliamentary. 
Part. Participle. 

Particip. Participial. 

Pass. Passive. 

Pat. Patrick. 

Pathol. Pathological. 

Payt. Payment. 

P. C. (Lat. patres conscripti), Con¬ 
script Fathers. 

P. C. Police-constable; Privy Coun¬ 
cil; Privy Councillor. 

P. C. S. Principal Clerk of Session. 
Pd. Paid. 

Pd. D. Doctor of Pedagogy. 

P. E. Protestant Episcopal. 

P. E. I. Prince Edward's Island. 
Penn. Pennsylvania. 

Pent. Pentecost. 

Per., Pers. Persian; Person, per¬ 
sonal. 

Per. an. (Lat. per annum), Yearly. 


Per cent., per ct. (Lat. per centum), 
By the hundred. 

Perf. Perfect. 

Peri. Perigee. 

Pers., Persp. Perspective. 

Peruv. Peruvian. 

Pet. Peter. 

P. G. M. Past Grand Master. 

Phar., Pharm. Pharmacy. 

Ph. B. (Lat. philosophise baccalaur¬ 
eus), Bachelor of Philosophy. 

Ph. D. (Lat. philosophies doctor), 
Doctor of Philosophy. 

Phil. Philip; Philippians; Philos¬ 
ophy, philosophical. 

Phil. Trans. Transactions of the 
Philosophical Society. 

Phil., Phda. Philadelphia. 

Philem. Philemon. 

Philol. Philology. 

Philos. Philosophy, philosophical. 
Ph. M. Master of Philosophy. 
Phenic. Phenician. 

Photog. Photography, photographic, 
photographer. 

Phren., phrenol. Phrenology, phreno¬ 
logical. 

Phys. Physics, physical; Physiol¬ 
ogy, physiological. 

Physiol. Physiology, physiological. 
Pinx., Pxt. (Lat. pinxit). He (or 
she) painted it. 

Pk. Peck. 

PI. Place; Plate; Plural. 

P. L. Poet Laureate. 

Plff., Pltff. Plaintiff. 

Plu. Plural. 

Plup. Pluperfect. 

Plur. Plural. 

P. M. (Lat. post meridiem), After¬ 
noon. 

P. M. Past Master; Peculiar metre; 
Postmaster. 

P. M. G. Postmaster-General. 

P. O. Post-office. 

P. & O. Co. Peninsular and Oriental 
Steam Navigation Company. 

Poet. Poetry, poetical. 

Pol. Polish. 

Polit. Econ. Political Economy. 

P. O. O. Post-office order. 

Pop. Population. 

Port. Portugal, Portuguese. 

Poss. Possessive. 

Pp. Pages. 

P. p. Past participle. 

P. P. (Lat. pater patriae). Father of 
his country. 

P. P. Parish priest. 

P. P. C. (Fr. pour prendre conge), 
To take leave. [T. T. L.] 

Pph. Pamphlet. 

Pr. Present; Priest; Prince. 

Pr. par. Present participle. 

P. R. (Lat. Populus Romanus), The 
Roman people. 

P. R. Prize Ring. 

P.R.A. President of the Royal 
Academy. 

P. R. C. (Lat. post Roman conditam). 
After the building of Rome. 
[A. U. C.] 

Preb. Prebend. 

Pref. Prefix; Preface. 

P^ep. Preposition. 

Pres. President; Present. 

Pret. Preterite. 

Prim. Primary. 

Prin. Principal. 

Print. Printing. 

Priv. Privative. 

Prob. Problem; Probable, probably. 
Prof. Professor. 

Pron., Pro. Pronoun; Pronounced; 
Pronunciation. 

Pron. a. Pronominal adjective. 

Prop. Proposition. 

Pros. Prosody. 

Pro tern. (Lat. pro tempore), For the 
time being. 

Prov. Proverbs, proverbial, prover¬ 
bially; Provincial, provincially; 
Provost. 




LANGUAGE 


207 


Provinc. Provincial. 

Prox. (Lat. proximo), Next of or of 
the next month. 

Pvs» Pairs. 

P. R. S. President of the Royal So¬ 
ciety. 

P. R. S. A. President of the Royal 
Scottish Academy. 

P T us. Prussia, Prussian. 

P.S. (Lat. post scriptum). Post¬ 
script. 

P. S. Privy Seal. 

Ps., Psa. Psalm, psalms. 

Psychol. Psychology. 

Pt. Part; Payment; Point; Port. 

P. T. Post-town; Pupil teacher. 
Pub. Public; Published, publisher. 
Pub. Doc. Public Documents. 

P. V. Post-village. 

Pwt. Pennyweight. 

Pxt. [Pinx.] 

Pyro., Pyrotech. Pyrotechnics. 

Q. , Qu. Query; Question. 

Q. C. Queen’s College. 

Q. d. (Lat. quasi dicat), As if he 
should say. 

Q. e. (Lat. quod est), Which is. 

Q. E. D. (Lat. quod erat demonstran¬ 
dum), Which was to be proved. 

Q. E. F. (Lat. quod erat faciendum), 
Which was to be done. 

Q. E. I. (Lat. quod erat invenien¬ 
dum), Which was to be found out. 

Q. 1. (Lat. quantum libel). As much 
as you please. 

Q. M. Quartermaster. 

Q. M. Gen. Quartermaster-General. 
Qr. Quarterly; Quire. 

0. S. Quarter Sessions. 

Q. s. (Lat. quantum sufficit), A suffi¬ 
cient quantity. 

Qt. Quart. 

Qu. Queen; Query; Question. 

Quar., quart. Quarterly. 

Quar., 4 to. Quarto. 

Ques. Question. 

Q. v. (Lat. quod vide), Which see. 

Qy. Query. 

R. Railway; Reaumur; River. 

R. (Lat. rex), King; (Lat. regina), 
Queen. 

R. (Lat. recipe), Take. 

R. A. Royal Academy, Royal Aca¬ 
demician; Rear-Admiral; Royal 
Arch; Royal Artillery. 

Rabb. Rabbinical. 

Rad. (Lat. radix), Root. 

R. A. M. Royal Academy of Music. 

R. A. S. Royal Agricultural Society. 

R. C. Roman Catholic. 

R. D. Rural Dean. 

R. E. Royal Engineers; Royal Ex¬ 
change. 

R. E. Reformed Episcopal. 

Reaum. Reaumur. 

Rec. Recipe. 

Reed. Received. 

Recpt. Receipt. 

Ref. Reference. 

Ref. Ch. Reformed Church. 

Ref. Pres. Reformed Presbyterian. 
Reg. Regular. 

Reg., Regr. Registrar. 

Reg., Regt. Regiment, regimental. 
Rel. Religion, religious. 

Rel. Pron. Relative Pronoun. 

Rem. Remark, remarks. 

Rep. Report; Representative. 

Rep. Repub. Republic; Republican. 
Res. Resolution. 

Retd. Returned. 

Rev. Revelation; Revenues; Rever¬ 
end; Review- Revise. 

Revd. Reverend. 

Revs. Reverends. 

Rev. Stat. Revised Statutes. 

R. F. D. Rural Free Delivery. 

Rhet. Rhetoric, rhetorical. 

R. H. S. Royal Humane Society. 

R. I. Rhode Island. 

R.I.P. (Lat. requiescat in pace), 
May he (or she) rest in peace. 

Riv. River. 


R. M. Royal Mail; Royal Marines. 

R. M. A. Royal Marine Artillery; 
Royal Military Asylum. 

R. M. L. I. Royal Marine Light In¬ 
fantry. 

R. M. S. Royal Mail Steamer; Royal 
Mail Service. 

R. N. Royal Navy. 

R. N. R. Royal Naval Reserve. 

R. O. Receiving Office. 

Robt. Robert. 

Rom. Roman, Romans. 

Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. 

R. P. Regius Professor. 

R. R. Right Reverend. 

R. R. Railroad. 

R. S. A. Royal Scottish Academy. 

R. S. P. C. A. Royal Society for the 
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 

R. S. E. Royal Society of Edinburgh. 

R. S. L. Royal Society of London. 

R. S. V. P. (Fr. Repondez s’il vous 
plait), Please reply. 

Rt. Right. 

Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. 

Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 

R. T. S. Religious Tract Society. 

Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful. 

Russ. Russia, Russian. 

R. V. Revised Version; Rifle Vol- 
untGGrs 

R. W. Right Worshipful; Right 
Worthy. 

R. W. D. G. M. Right Worshipful 
Deputy Grand Master. 

R. W. G. M. Right Worshipful Grand 
Master 

R. W. G. R. Right Worthy Grand 
R epresentative. 

R. W. G. S. Right Worthy Grand 
Secretary. 

R. W. G. T. Right Worthy Grand 
Treasurer; Right Worthy Grand 
Templar. 

R. W. G. W. Right Worshipful Grand 
Warden. 

R. W. J. G. W. Right Worshipful Ju¬ 
nior Grand Warden. 

R. W. S. G. W. Right Worshipful Se¬ 
nior Grand Warden. 

Ry. Railway. 

S. Saint; Saturday; Section; Shil¬ 
ling; Sign; Signor; Solo; Soprano; 
South; Sun; Sunday; Sabbath. 

s. Second, seconds; See; Singular; 
Son; Succeeded. 

S. A. South Africa; South America. 

S. A. (Lat. secundem artem), Accord¬ 
ing to the rules of aft. 

Sab. Sabbath. 

Sam., Sami. Samuel. 

Sam., Samar. Samaritan. 

Sans., Sansc., Sansk. Sanscrit, Sans¬ 
krit. 

S. A. S. (Lat. Societatis Antiquari- 
orum Socius), Fellow of the So¬ 
ciety of Antiquaries. 

Sat. Saturday. 

Sax. Saxon, Saxony. 

S. B. South Britain (England and 
Wales). [N. B.] 

S. C. South Carolina. 

S. C. (Lat. senatus consultum), A 
decree of the senate. 

Sc. [Soil. Scull.] 

Scan. mag. (Lat. scandalum magna- 
tum), Defamatory expressions to 
the injury of persons of high rank 
or dignity. 

S. caps., Sm. caps. Small capitals. (In 
printing.) 

Sc. B. (Lat. scientice baccalaureus), 
Bachelor of Science. 

Sc. D. (Lat. scientice doctor), Doctor 
of Science. 

Sch. (Lat. scholium), A note. 

Sch. Schooner. 

Sci. Science. 

Sci. fa. Scire facias. 

Scil. Sc. (Lat. scilicet), Namely; to 
wit. 

S. C. L. Student in Civil Law. 

Sclav. Sclavonic. 


Scot. Scotland, Scotch, Scottish. 

Scr. Scruple, scruples. 

Scrip., Script. Scripture, scriptural. 

Sculp. Sculpture. 

Sculp., Sculpt., Sc. (Lat. sculpsit). 
He (or she) engraved it. 

S. D. Doctor of Science. 

S. D., S. Dak. South Dakota. 

S. D. U. K. Society for the Diffusion 
of Useful Knowledge. 

S. E. South-east. 

Sec. Second. 

Sec., Sect. Section. 

Sec., Secy. Secretary. 

Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation. 

Sen. Senate, senator. 

Sen. Doc. Senate Document. 

Sep., Sept. September. 

Seq. (Lat. sequentes, sequentia), The 
following or the next. 

Serg., Sergt. Sergeant. 

Serg. Maj. Sergeant-Major. 

Serf., Serft. Serjeant. 

Serv. Servian. 

Sess. Session. 

S. G. Solicitor-general. 

s. g. [Sp. Gr.] 

Sh. Shilling, shillings. 

Sing. Singular. 

S. J. Society of Jesus. 

S. J. C. Supreme Judicial Court. 

Skr. Sanskrit. 

Slav. Slavonic. 

Sid. Sailed. 

S. M. Sergeant-major. 

S. M. Lond. Soc. (Lat. Societatis 
Medicce Londinensis Socius). Mem¬ 
ber of the London Medical Society. 

S. N. (Lat. secundum naturam). Ac¬ 
cording to nature, naturally. 

Soc., Socy. Society. 

S. of Sol. Song of Solomon. 

Sol.-gen. Solicitor-general. 

Sp. Spain, Spanish; Spirit. 

s. p. (Lat. sine prole). Without issue. 

S. P. C. A. Society for the Preven¬ 
tion of Cruelty to Animals. 

S. P. C. C. Society for the Preven¬ 
tion of Cruelty to Children. 

S. P. C. K. Society for the Promo¬ 
tion of Christian Knowledge. 

Spec. Special, specially. 

S. P. G. Society for the Propagation 
of the Gospel. 

sp. gr., s. g. Specific gravity. 

S. P. Q. R. (Lat. Senatus Populusque 
Romanus), The Senate and the 
People of Rome. 

sq. Square; sq.ft. Square foot, feet; 
sq. in. Square inch, inches; sq. m. 
Square mile, miles; sq. yd. Square 
yard; sq. rd. Square rod. 

Sr. Senior; sir. 

S. R. I. (Lat. Sacrum Romanum Im- 
perium), The Holy Roman Em¬ 
pire. 

S. R. S. (Lat. Societatis Regice So¬ 
cius), Fellow of the Royal Society. 

SS. Saints. 

S. S. Sunday School. 

S. S. C. Solicitor before the Supreme 
Court. 

S. S. E. South-south-east. 

S. S. W. South-south-west. 

St. Saint; Stone; Strait; Street. 

st. (Lat. -stet), Let it stand (in print¬ 
ing). 

Stat. Statute, statutes; Statuary. 

S. T. Sons of Temperance. 

S. T. B. Bachelor of Sacred Theology. 

S. T. D. (Lat. sacroe theologies doctor). 
Doctor of Divinity. 

ster., stg. Sterling. 

St. L. St. Louis. 

S. T. P (Lat, sacrce theologies pro¬ 
fessor), Professor of Theology. 

Str. Steamer, steam vessel. 

Subj. Subjunctive. 

Subst. Substantive; Substitute. 

Suff. Suffix. 

Sun., Sund. Sunday. 

Sup. Superior; Superlative; Supple¬ 
ment; Supine. 






208 


THE 


Sup. Ot. Supreme Court. 

Supt. Superintendent. 

Sur., Surg. Surgeon, surgery. 
Sur.-gen. Surgeon-general. 

Surv. Surveying, surveyor. 

Surv.-gen. Surveyor-general. 

S. v. (Lat. sub voce). Under the word 
or title. 

S. W. Senior Warden; South-west. 
Sw. Sweden, Swedish. 

Switz. Switzerland. 

Syn. Synonym, synonymous. 

Synop. Synopsis. 

Syr. Syria, Syriac; Syrup. 

T. Tenor; Ton; Tun; Tuesday. 

T. A B. Total Abstinence Brother¬ 
hood. 

Tab. Table; Tabular statement. 

Tan. Tangent. 

Tart. Tartaric. 

Tech. Technical, technically. 

Ten., Tenn. Tennessee. 

Ter. Territory. 

Term. Termination. 

Teut. Teutonic. 

Tscc Texas. 

Text. rec. (Lat. textus receptus). The 
received text. 

Th. Thomas; Thursday. 

Theo. Theodore. 

Theol. Theology. 

Theor. Theorum. 

These. Thessalonians. 

Tho., Thos. Thomas. 

Thu., Thur., Thurs. Thursday. 

Tier. Tierce. 

Tim. Timothy. 

Tit. Title; Titus. 

T. O. Turn over. 

Tob. Tobit. 

Tom. Tome, volume. 

Tonn. Tonnage. 

Topog. Topography, topographical. 
Tp. Township. 

Tr. Translation, translator, trans¬ 
lated; Transpose; Treasurer; Trus¬ 
tee. 

Trans. Transaction; Translation, 
translator, translated. 

Trav. Travels. 

Treas. Treasurer. 

Trig., Trigon. Trigonometry, trigo¬ 
nometrical. 

Trin. Trinity. 

To r Tpv n q 

T. T. L. To take leave. [P. P. C.] 
Tu., Tues. Tuesday. 

Turk. Turkey, Turkish. 

Typ. Typographer. 

Typog. Typography, typographical. 

U. C. (Lat. urbis conditoe). From the 
building of the city — Rome. 
[A. U. C.] 

Uh. Utah. 


DICTIONARY OF 


U. J. D. [J. U. D.] 

U. K. United Kingdom. 

U. K. A. Ulster King at Arms; 

United Kingdom Alliance. 

Ult. (Lat. ultimo). Last, of the last 
month. 

um. Unmarried. 

Unit. Unitarian. 

Univ. University. 

Up. Upper. 

U. P. United Presbyterian. 

U. S. United States. 

U. S. (Lat. ut supra). As above. 
U.S.A. United States of America; 

United States Army. 

U. S. L. United States Legation. 
U.S.M. United States mail; United 
States marine. 

U. S. M. A. United States Military 
Academy. 

U. S. N. United States Navy. 

U. S. N. A. United States Naval 
Academy. 

U. S. S. United States Senate; Unit¬ 
ed States ship or steamer. 

U. S. S. Ct. United States Supreme 
Court. 

Usu. Usual, usually. 

V. Verb; Verse; Victoria; Violin. 

V. vs., (Lat. versus). Against. 

V. (Lat. vide). See. 

V. A. Vicar Apostolic; Vice-admiral. 
Va. Virginia. 

Val. Valve; Value. 

Var. Variety. 

Vat. Vatican. 

V. aux. Verb auxiliary. 

V. C. Vice-chancellor; Victoria Cross. 
V. def. Verb defective. 

V. D. M. (Lat. Verbum Dei Minis¬ 
ter). Minister of the Word of God. 
Ven. Venerable. 

V. G. Vicar-General. 

V. g. (Lat. verbi gratia). For the sake 
of example. 

V. i. Verb intransitive. 

Vice-pres. Vice-president. 

Vid. (Lat. vide). See. 

V. imp. Verb impersonal. 

V. irr. Verb irregular. 

Vis., Vise. Viscount. 

Viz. (Lat. videlicet). Namely; to wit. 
[O z.} 

V. n. Verb neuter. 

Voc. Vocative. 

Vol. Volume. 

Vols. Volumes. 

V. P. Vice-president. 

V. r. Verb reflexive. 

V. Rev. Very Reverend. 

Vs. (Lat. versus). Against. 

V. S. Veterinary surgeon. 

V. t. Verb transitive. 

Vt. Vermont. 


FACTS 


Vul., Vulg. Vulgate. 

Vulg. Vulgar, vulgarly. . 

vv. II. (Lat. varies lectiones). Various 
readings. 

W. Wednesday; Week; Welsh; 

West, western. 

Wall., W attach. Wallachian. 

Walt. Walter. 

Wash. Washington. 
w. c. Water closet. 

W. C. A. Women’s Christian Asso¬ 
ciation. 

W.C.T. U. Women’s Christian Tem¬ 
perance Union. 

Wed. Wednesday. 

Wei. Welsh. 

w. f. Wrong font (in printing). 

Whf. Wharf. 

W. I. West Indies; West Indian. 
Wis., Wise. Wisconsin. 

Wk. Week. 

W. Long. West Longitude. 

Wm. William. 

W. M. Worshipful Master. 

W. N. W. West-north-west. 

Wp. Worship. 

Wpful. Worshipful. 

W. S. Writer to the Signet. 

W. S. W. West-south-west. 

Wt. Weight. 

W. Va. West Virginia. 

Wyo. Wyoming. 

V. Christ. 

Xm., Xmas. Christmas. 

Xn. Christian. 

Xnty. Christianity. 

Xper., Jr. Christopher. 

Xt. Christ. 

Xtian. Christian. 

Y. Year. 

Yd. Yard. 

Yds. Yards. 

Ye. The; Thee. 

Y. M. C. A. Young Men’s Christian 
Association. 

Y. M. Cath. A. Young Men’s Catho¬ 
lic Association. 

Y. M. H. A. Young Men’s Hebrew 
Association. 

Y. P. S. C. E. Young People’s So¬ 
ciety of Christian Endeavor. 

Yr. Year; Younger; Your. 

Ys. Years; Yours. 

Y. W. C. A. Young Women’s Chris¬ 
tian Association. 

Zach. Zachary. 

Zech. Zechariah. 

Zeph. Zephaniah. 

Z. G., Zoo. Zoological Gardens. 
Zoochem. Zoochemistry, zoochemi¬ 
cal. 

Zoogeog. Zoogeography, zoogeo- 
graphical. 

Zool. Zoology, zoological. 


FIGURES OF SPEECH 

The first and most obvious use of language is 
to convey thought, but it is not enough that 
words should be correct and precise and appro¬ 
priately chosen. The plainest language is not 
always the most impressive. There is often a 
warmth and glow accompanying thought which 
demands imagery and vivacity of speech. It 
has been said that the life, color, flavor, and 
fragrance of literature have been secured by the 
skillful use of figurative language. The pic¬ 
turesque in poetry and prose is due in a large 
measure to figures of speech. Vividness, strength, 
beauty, clearness, force, elegance, often lie in the 
effective use of imagery. 

Origin of Figures. Figures of speech 
are common in every-day conversation. We 
are all familiar with such phrases as these:— 
fleecy cloud; roaring wind; flight of time; 
mad idea; driving a bargain; slow as a snail; 


eloquent eye; soft voice; piercing tongue; 
uneven temper; morning of life; ship of state; 
bright idea; as hungry as a bear; as true as 
steel; as quick as thought. We find from such 
expressions that figures of speech originate in 
the very necessities of language. Words in 
their bare literal meaning are not capable of 
rendering every phase of thought. In the be¬ 
ginning of language men gave names to different 
objects. As ideas multiplied words were in¬ 
creased; but no language could be adequate to 
supply a separate word for every separate idea, 
hence arose the figurative or secondary use of 
words. The word “bright” in its primary 
meaning signifies that which sends out light, 
a luminous body or a reflecting surface. When 
we speak of a “bright” mind we imagine the 
influence of such a mind upon others as of a 
light in the midst of darkness. In this way 
the old word was called into use in a new sense. 







LANGUAGE 


209 


Our language has been greatly enriched by the 
vast number of figurative words which we use 
unconsciously every day. 

Another source of figures is the pleasure 
which they give. Words in their literalness are 
incapable of rendering delicate shades of thought 
or feeling. Figures of speech not only add to 
the picturesqueness of language but seem to 
be the natural mode for expressing the emotions. 
Primitive people, as well as little children, 
the most illiterate as well as the most learned, 
talk in figures. When the imagination is 
awakened or the passion inflamed, then it is 
natural to turn to the figurative. When figures 
are appropriately used they strengthen and 
adorn expression. 

Briefly, then, the origin of figures lies, first, 
in the barrenness of language, the need for 
more copious expression, than in the literal 
meaning of words; and, second, in the desire 
to give pleasure, force, and animation. Figures 
are the ornaments of speech, but they should 
not be used unless they adorn in an appropriate 
way. 

Definition of Figure of Speech. A 

figure of speech is any deviation from the literal 
or ordinary mode of expression for the purpose 
of making the thought clearer or more attractive 
or more forceful. 

Thinking in concrete images is more vivid 
and for the most part more interesting than 
thinking in abstract or in general terms; but 
for exact thinking we need to cultivate the 
ability to use expressions that are general, 
abstract, and literal. So it is well to practice 
one’s self occasionally in converting the figura¬ 
tive into the literal or the reverse. 

Comparison between Literal and Figurative 
Language. 

1. Literal, I am growing old. 

Figurative, “My May of life 

Is fallen into the sere, the yellow leaf.” 

2. Literal, I am in great need of a horse. 

Figurative, “A horse! a horse! my king¬ 
dom for a horse! ” 

3. Literal, Longing for peace. 

Figurative, “O thou sword of the Lord, 

how long will it be ere thou be quiet? 
Put up thyself into thy scabbard, rest, 
and be still.” 

4. Literal, He was a man to be despised. 

Figurative, “The Chief-Justice was rich, 

quiet, and infamous.” 

5. Literal, There is a conceit peculiar to the 

Boston people. 

Figurative, “Boston State House is the 
hub of the solar system. You couldn’t 
pry that out of a Boston man if you 
had the tire of all creation straightened 
out for a crowbar.” 

6. Literal, A picture of autumn leaves blow¬ 

ing about. 

Figurative, “Innumerable tawny and yel¬ 
low leaves skimmed along the pave¬ 
ment, and stole through people’s door¬ 
ways into their passages, with a hesi¬ 
tating scratch on the floor, like the 
skirts of timid visitors.” 


7. Literal, Promise of divine protection. 

Figurative, “As the mountains are round 

about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round 
about His people, from henceforth even 
forever.” 

8. Literal, Promise of abundance. 

Figurative, “And it shall come to pass in 

that day that the mountains shall drop 
down new wine, and the hills shall flow 
with milk.” 

9. Literal, A great ado about nothing. 

Figurative, “Ocean into tempest wrought, 

To waft a feather or to drown a fly.” 

10. Literal, A feeling of tenderness when look¬ 

ing at a violet wet with dew. 

Figurative, “Violet, sweet violet! 

Thine eyes are full of tears.” 

11. Literal, I wish I had the power of seeing 

myself as other people see me. 

Figurative, “ O wad some power the giftie 
gie us, 

To see oursels as ithers see 
us! ” 

12. Literal, The cannon ball shot through the 

air. 

Figurative, “ Whistling so airily, 

Past the air warily, 

Watching me narrowly, 
Crashing I come!” (Song of 
the Cannon Ball.) 

Classification of Figures. Figures 
of Grammar. A figure of grammar is an 
intentional deviation from the ordinary spelling, 
formation, construction, or application of 
words. There are, accordingly, figures of or¬ 
thography, figures of etymology, figures of syn¬ 
tax. 

Figures of Orthography. A figure of or¬ 
thography is an intentional deviation from the 
ordinary or true spelling of a word. The prin¬ 
cipal figures of orthography are mi-me'sis and 
ar'cha-ism. 

Mimesis. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of 
some mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in 
which the error is mimicked by a false spelling, 
or the taking of one word for another; as, “I 
will description the matter to you, if you will 
be capacity of it.”—Shakespere. “We will not 
anticipate the past; so mind, young people,— 
our retrospection will all be to the future.”— 
Mrs. Malaprop. 

Figures of this kind were formerly called 
tropes, i. e., turns; because certain words are 
turned from their original signification. 

Archaism. An archaism is a word or phrase 
expressed according to ancient usage, and not 
according to our modern orthography; as, 
“Exceeding was the love he bare to him”; 
“Albeit of a stern, unbending mind”; “We 
have, thou knowest, another kinsman.” 

Figures of Etymology. A figure of ety¬ 
mology is an intentional deviation from the 
ordinary formation of a word. The principal 
figures of etymology are: a-phaer'e-sis, pros'the- 
sis, syn'co-pe, a-poc'o-pe, par-a-go'ge, di-aer'e- 
sis, syn-aer'e-sis, and tme'sis. 

Aphaeresis is the elision of some initial letter 
or letters of a word; as, ’ gainst for against. 



210 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive 
syllable to a word; as, yclad for clad. 

Syncope is the elision of a middle letter or 
letters of a word; as, o’er for over. 

Apocope is the omission of the final letter or 
letters of a word; as, th’ for the. 

Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive 
syllable to a word; as, dearie for dear. 

Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that 
might be supposed to form a dipthong; as, 
co-operate or cooperate, not cooperate. 

Synaeresis is the sinking of two syllables into 
one; as, I’ll for I will. 

Tmesis is the inserting of a word between 
the parts of a compound, or between two words 
which should be united if they stood together; 
as, to us ward. 

Figures of Syntax. A figure of syntax is 
an intentional deviation from the ordinary con¬ 
struction of words. The principal figures of 
syntax are: el-lip'sis, ple'o-nasm, syl-lep'sis, 
en-al'la-ge, and hy-per'ba-ton. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or 
words which are necessary to complete the 
construction, but not necessary to convey the 
meaning: “Prythee, peace.” , 

Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous 
words; as, “All ye inhabitants of the world, 
and dwellers on the earth.” 

Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the 
figurative sense of a word, and not according 
to literal use. “Then Philip went down to the 
city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them.” 

Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or 
of one modification, for another. “They fall 
successive (ly), and successive (ly) rise.” 

Figures of grammar are in common use and 
have the sanction of good authority, but it is 
not at all important that we remember their 
various names. 

Figures of Rhetoric. A figure of rhetoric 
is an intentional deviation from the literal or 
ordinary forms of expression. Figures of rheto¬ 
ric are usually implied whenever we speak of 
figurative language. Departures from perfect 
simplicity occur in almost every kind of com¬ 
position. They are mostly founded on some 
similitude or relation of things which, by the 
power of the imagination, makes the thought 
more attractive or more striking. 

Classification of Figures of Rhetoric. 

1. Figures based on resemblance; simile, 
metaphor, personification, allegory. 

2. Figures based on contiguity or association; 
metonomy, synecdoche. 

3. Figures _ based on contrast or surprise; 
antithesis, epigram, irony. 

4. Figures based on emphasis or strength of 
emotion; hyperbole, interrogation, exclamation, 
apostrophe, vision. 

5. Other deviations from the plain or literal 
mode of speech which contribute to force or 
beauty and are sometimes ranked among figures 
of speech; climax, anticlimax, allusion, litotes, 
euphemism, onomatopoeia, alliteration. 

Figures Based on Resemblance. 

Simile. A simile expresses a figurative resem¬ 
blance between two things essentially different 


in kind. The comparison is usually introduced 
by such words as like and as: 

“Sweet are the uses of adversity, 

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, 

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.” 

The best similes are those that compare 
things which are in most respects unlike, but 
which have at least one strong point of resem¬ 
blance. Adversity and a toad are as unlike as 
the mind can well conceive, but Shakespere’s 
creative fancy discovers in them an unexpected 
relation of precious use. The discovery of such 
an unexpected likeness gives the reader the 
pleasure of an agreeable surprise. Similes are 
appropriate when, without violating truth, they 
make the subject clearer or bring its relation 
more strikingly before us. When the similes 
are too remote or too obvious or too fantastic 
or even too worn-out from over repetition, then 
they are not appropriate. The joy of the 
imagery lies in the mind’s surprise because of 
its unexpectedness and fitness. Any one look¬ 
ing at a cloud may see its resemblance to a 
fleece or to a bank of snow, but how much 
better pleased we are with Lowell’s less com¬ 
mon imagery: 

“A sky above, 

Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move.” 

Wordsworth discovers a close relation be¬ 
tween evening and a nun at her devotion,— 

“The holy time is quiet as a nun 
Breathless with adoration.” 

Ossian discovers a likeness between music and 
memory: “Like the memory of joys that are 
past, sweet and mournful to the soul.” More 
beautiful still is the discovery by Shakespere of 
a resemblance between music and the odor from 
a bed of violets: 

“It came o’er my ear like the sweet sound 
That breathes upon a bank of violets, 

Stealing and giving odor.” 

A study of the great similes found in classic 
literature will teach one how to avoid the trite 
and commonplace. The Bible forms the rich¬ 
est source from which we draw our figurative 
language. Greek literature, especially Homer, 
is our next source, and probably Shakespere 
the next. 

Several of the Homeric similes have been 
traced through their use by later poets,— the 
simile of the leaves, the bees, the growth of 
rumor. They illustrate “the power of a great 
thought, adequately expressed in one language, 
to influence thought and expression for cen¬ 
turies in other languages.” 

Metaphor. A metaphor is founded upon the 
resemblance of one thing to another. It differs 
from the simile in that the comparison is implied 
rather than formally stated: 

1. Simile. She sang like a nightingale. 
Metaphor. She had^the voice of a night¬ 
ingale. 

2. Simile. “As cold water to a thirsty soul, 

so is good news from a far country.” 
Metaphor. Good news from a far country 
refreshes the soul. 

3. Simile. The temper of the nation, loaded 

already with grievances, was like a vessel 
that is now full; and this additional 



LANGUAGE 


211 


provocation, like the last drop infused, 
made their rage and resentment as 
waters of bitterness overflow. 

Metaphor. The vessel of the nation’s 
wrath was now full, and this last drop 
made the waters of bitterness overflow. 

4. Simile. Contentment is like a precious 
pearl. 

Metaphor. Contentment is a pearl of great 
price. 

Metaphors are sometimes called condensed 
similes. We find them in all speech. They are 
fitted for the expression of the most intense 
passion or the simple unconscious use of every 
day. There are two grades of metaphors. In 
the first, attributes properly belonging to one 
thing are applied to another; as, unbridled 
passion, hard heart, soft answer, black omen, 
striking thought, clear head. A large class of 
such phrases, originally metaphorical, have been 
so widely adopted that they have ceased to be 
regarded as figurative. In the second degree, 
one thing is completely identified for the time 
being with another. “We cannot all be cabin 
passengers in the voyage of life. Some must 
be before the mast.” 

Metaphors are more common than any other 
figure of speech. Indeed, it has been said that 
they enter into all figurative language and that 
nearly all figures are founded upon them. “An 
unmetaphorical style,” says Carlyle, “you shall 
in vain seek for.” 

Personification. Personification may be 
considered as a higher form of metaphor. It 
consists in attributing life or animation to in¬ 
animate things or in transferring the attributes 
of human beings to lower animals. Examples 
of personification: 

1. “All day the sea-waves sobbed with sor¬ 
row.” 

2. “The wind grumbled and made itself 
miserable all last night, and this morning it is 
still howling as ill-naturedly as ever, and roaring 
and rumbling in the chimneys.” 

3. “Joy and Temperance and Repose 

Slam the door on the doctor’s nose.” 

4. “The Worm, aware of his intent, 

Harrangued him thus, right eloquent.” 

The highest form of personification combines 
direct address and is known as apostrophe. 
“Put on thy strength, O Zion; put on thy 
beautiful garments, O Jerusalem, the holy city.” 

Allegory. Allegory is an extended meta¬ 
phor generally accompanied by personification. 
Under this head fall fables and parables. 

Resemblance between allegory, metaphor, and 
simile. 

These three figures of speech are all founded 
upon resemblance, a primary and a secondary 
object being likened to each other. In simile 
this resemblance is formally expressed, “Israel 
is like a vine.” In metaphor the formal word 
of comparison is dropped, “Israel is a vine.” 
In allegory, both the formal comparison and 
the principal subjects are dropped, and the 
secondary subject is described by itself, as in the 
allegory of Israel found in the eightieth Psalm: 
“Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou 


hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. 
Thou preparedst room for it, and didst cause 
it to take root, and it filled the land.” 

It will be noted that there are two marked 
differences between the metaphor and the alle¬ 
gory. First, the allegory is carried out into 
great variety of particulars, making usually a 
complete and connected story, as in “Prodigal 
Son,” “Paradise Lost,” Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s 
Progress.” Second, it suppresses all mention 
of the principal subject, leaving that to the 
imagination of the reader, as vices and virtues 
are represented in Tennyson’s “Idyls of the 
King” as prominent persons at the court of 
King Arthur. 

Figures Based on Contiguity or 
Association. 

Metonomy. Metonomy is a figure by which 
the name of one object is given to another, not 
by way of comparison as in metaphors, but on 
some such relation as that of cause and effect, of 
progenitor and posterity, of subject and adjunct, 
of place and inhabitant, of container and thing 
contained, of sign and thing signified: 

1. Cause for effect. He was basking in the 
sun. 

2. Effect for cause. Children should be 
taught to respect gray hairs. 

3. Sign for thing signified. Sceptre and 
crown shall tumble down. 

4. Container for thing contained. With dig¬ 
nity he addressed the chair. 

5. Name of an author for his works. The 
class is reading Milton. 

6. Progenitor and posterity. We are the 
seed of Abraham. 

Synecdoche. Synecdoche, like metonomy, 
is founded on contiguity rather than resemblance. 
It is naming a part for the whole or the whole 
for a part or a definite number for an indefi¬ 
nite; as, “Give us this day our daily bread”; 
i. e., food. “The same day there were added 
unto them about three thousand souls”; i. e., 
persons. The figures of synecdoche and meto¬ 
nomy are so closely related that there is often 
no clear distinction between them, or rather 
some figures of metonomy may also be called 
figures of synecdoche. The following quotations 
owe their beauty to the skillful use of these 
figures: 

1. “Our flag of stripe and star 

Shall bear to coasts that lie afar 
The fruitage of this apple-tree.” 

2. “Kind hearts are more than coronets, 

And simple faith than Norman blood.” 

3. “Out of this silence yet I picked a welcome; 

And in the modesty of fearful duty, 

I read as much as from the rattling tongue 
Of saucy and audacious eloquence.” 

Figures Based on Contrast or Sur¬ 
prise. 

Antithesis. Antithesis is founded on con¬ 
trast. It places unlike things in opposition 
to heighten the effect. Our natural love of 
variety or surprise is illustrated by the frequent 
recurrence in literature of this figure. Thus 
we contrast “life and death,” “heat and cold,” 
“youth and age,” “peace and war.” The only 
practical rule in regard to antithesis is to give 



212 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


the contrasted ideas a similar verbal construc¬ 
tion. Let nouns be contrasted with nouns, ad¬ 
jectives with adjectives, verbs with verbs, and so 
on, and let the arrangement of the words in the 
contrasted clauses be also as nearly alike as 
possible. 

Famous illustrations of antithesis: 

From Bunyan: “I will talk of things heav¬ 
enly, or things earthly; things moral, or things 
evangelical; things sacred, or things profane; 
things past, or things to come; things foreign, 
or things at home; things more essential, or 
things circumstantial; provided that all be 
done to our profit.” 

From Macaulay: “The Puritans hated bear- 
baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, 
but because it gave pleasure to the spectators.” 

From Pope: “Homer was the greater genius; 

Virgil, the better artist; in the one, we most 
admire the man; in the other, the work.” 

Parallel. An extended antithesis is called 
a parallel. Dr. Samuel Johnson was inclined 
to use this form of comparison to the point of 
weariness. 

Epigram. Closely allied to antithesis is the 
epigram. Epigram originally meant an inscrip¬ 
tion on a monument. As such inscriptions are 
usually short, epigram came next to mean any 
brief saying remarkable for brevity and point. 
Epigram, in this sense, is akin to antithesis, 
because in both of these figures there is the 
element of contrariety. But in antithesis it is 
the contrariety between two different things 
brought together; in epigram it is the con¬ 
trariety between the apparent meaning of the 
words and the real meaning. The power of 
the epigram lies very largely in the comparative 
rarity of its employment. It is too artificial, 
too elaborate, to be made common; it should 
be reserved for those thoughts which need to 
be compressed into especially striking and 
rememberable statements. To be epigrammatic 
an expression must have fundamentally two 
qualities. It must be brief, and it must give 
some unexpected turn to the idea. 

Epigram leads naturally to the pun which 
turns entirely upon using words in a double 
meaning : 

“Beneath this stone my wife doth lie; 

She’s now at rest, and so am I.”— Old Epitaph. 

Examples of epigram that have passed into 
current speech: 

“The more haste the less speed.” 

“He was so good, he was good for nothing.” 

“The easiest way of doing nothing is to do it.” 

“Language is the art of concealing thought.” 

“A new way to contract debts — pay them 
off.” 

“The fastest colors are those that won’t run.” 

“ The child is father to the man.” 

“Beauty unadorned is adorned the most.” 

“Nothing is so.difficult as doing nothing.” 

Irony. Irony is a figure in which the speaker 
sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he 
intends shall be understood; as, “We have, to 
be sure, great reason to believe the modest man 
would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues 
his life.” 

The true meaning in irony is indicated mainly 
by the tone of the voice, the words being spoken 


with a sneer, and hence it is sometimes called 
a figure of elocution. We have a perfectly 
finished example of irony in Antony’s speech 
over the dead body of Caesar: 

“Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up 
To such a sudden flood of mutiny. 

They that have done this deed, are honourable; 
What private griefs they have, alas! I know not. 
That made them do’t; they are wise and honourable, 
And will, no doubt, with reasons answer you.” 

Figures Based on Emphasis or 
Strength of Emotion. 

Hyperbole. Hyperbole is extravagant exag¬ 
geration for rhetorical effect: 

1. “They were swifter than eagles; they were 
stronger than lions.” 

2. “Rivers of waters run down mine eyes, 
because they keep not thy law.” 

3. “And it shall come to pass in that day 
that the mountains shall drop down new wine, 
and the hills shall flow with milk.” 

Such passages are strong and effective and 
do not deceive any more than any other figure 
of rhetoric as metaphor or personification. 

Frequent use of hyperboles, so often indulged 
in both in conversation and in writing, is a bad 
habit. Language is cheapened whenever there 
is an extravagance of modifiers. Such phrases 
as “awfully cold,” “tired to death,” “mag¬ 
nificent eyes,” “cold as ice,” “splendid mince 
pie,” “hideous spider,” “stunning hat,” “killing 
effect,” are gross and absurd. 

Interrogation. Interrogation is a question 
asked, not for the purpose of obtaining an 
answer, but for rhetorical effect. “Am I not 
an apostle? am I not free? have I not seen 
Jesus Christ our. Lord? are not ye my work 
in the Lord?” asks the apostle Paul. The 
answer is already known, but this interrogative 
form of putting a well-known truth emphasizes 
it. An affirmative interrogation is an emphatic 
denial, whereas a negative interrogation is an 
affirmation: 

“Hath he not always treasures, always 
friends — the good great man?” Ans., Yes. 

“Can the Ethiopian change his skin or the 
leopard his spots?” Ans., No. 

Exclamation. Exclamation is a more pas¬ 
sionate form of emphasis than interrogation. 
It must be noted that as with interrogation 
every exclamative sentence is not a rhetorical 
figure. When the thought springs from real 
emotion, then we call it a figure of exclamation. 
“Oh, yes! What a pity!” is exclamative in 
form but lacks the intensity of emotion. Many 
exclamative sentences may be found in orations 
and speeches, but the choicest examples are 
found in poetry: 

1. “How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon 
this bank!” 

2. “How dear to my heart are the scenes of 
my childhood! ” 

3. “How firm a foundation, ye saints of the 

Lord, 

Is laid for your faith in His excellent 
word! ” 

Apostrophe. Apostrophe is a turning from 
the regular course of the subject into an ani¬ 
mated address. The same excited state of feel- 




LANGUAGE 


213 


ing which causes exclamation and interrogation 
leads also to apostrophe. In this form of 
address the absent is spoken to as though pres¬ 
ent, the inanimate as though animate, the dead 
as though alive. Apostrophe is often combined 
with metaphor and personification and is often 
put into the form of interrogation or exclama¬ 
tion. It usually indicates a high degree of 
excitement or an exalted state of the imagina¬ 
tion: 

1. “My country, ’tis of thee, 

Sweet land of liberty, 

Of thee I sing.” 

2. “O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, 
where is thy victory?” 

3. “Thus, O Genius, are thy footprints hal¬ 
lowed.” 

Vision. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by 
which the speaker represents the objects of his 
imagination, as actually before his eyes, and 
present to his senses. It is akin to apostrophe, 
yet lacks the direct address: 

1. “I seem to myself to behold this city, the 
ornament of the earth, and the capital of all 
nations suddenly involved in one conflagra¬ 
tion.” 

2. “I see before me the gladiator lie; 

He leans upon his hand — his manly brow 
Consents to death, but conquers agony, 
And his drooped head sinks gradually 
low.” 

Other Deviations from the Plain 
or Literal Mode of Speech. 

Climax. Climax is a series of words or 
statements which advance by successive steps to 
what is more and more important and interesting 
or descend to what is more and more minute and 
particular. “And besides this, giving all dili¬ 
gence, add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, 
knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; 
and to temperance, patience; and to patience, 
godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; 
and to brotherly kindness, charity.” . 

Anticlimax. Anticlimax reverses the order 
of the expression, ending with the weakest or 
least important thought or circumstance. This 
is often used in humorous writings: 

“Alas, alas, what shall I do? 

I’ve lost my wife and seed corn too.” 

Allusion. Allusion is a reference to some 
historical or literary fact so well known that it 
may be denoted by word or phrase without 
explanation. The following passage is a fine 
combination of vision and allusion: 

“I see the pyramids building; I hear the 
shoutings of the army of Alexander; I feel the 
round shake beneath the march of Cambyses. 

sit as in a theatre,— the stage is time, the 
play is the world.” 

All great literature is enriched by allusions. 

Litotes. Litotes may, in itself, be a plain 
statement but it strengthens a proposition by 
denying the negative: 

“The immortal names 

That were not born to die.” i. e., that will 
live. 


The force of this construction lies in its 
suggesting more than it says. Carlyle says, 
“The editor is clearly no witch at a riddle,” 
meaning that he is obtuse. 

Euphemism. Euphemism is the mention of 
a disagreeable thing in a more agreeable way 
than by the plain statement of fact. It is not 
in itself a figure of speech but is usually based 
on some other figure, as synecdoche, metonomy, 
or metaphor. Thus, death is called a sleep; 
theft, a misappropriation; lie, a prevarication. 
An untruthful person is sometimes said to have 
“an unreliable imagination,” or to be “liable to 
blunders,” as, “I hope he thought he was 
speaking the truth; but he is rather a dull man 
and liable to make blunders.” 

Onomatopoeia. Onomatopoeia is the use of 
a word, phrase, or sentence, the sound of which 
resembles, or intentionally imitates, the sound 
of the thing signified or spoken of: as, words 
denoting sounds, whiz, roar, splash, thud, buzz, 
hubbub, murmur, hiss, rattle, boom; names 
taken from sounds: cuckoo, whip-poor-will, 
bumble-bee, humming-bird, crag; words so 
arranged that the sound expresses the meaning, 
as, 

“Singing through the forests, 

Rattling over ridges, 

Shooting under arches, 

Rumbling over bridges; 

Whizzing through the mountain, 

Buzzing o’er the vale, 

Bless me! this is pleasant, 

Riding on the rail! ” 

— Saxe’s “Song of the Rail.” 

Southey’s “Cataract of Lodore” and Poe’s 
poem, “The Bells,” are fine examples of this 
figure: 

“Hear the sledges with the bells — 

Silver beds — 

What a world of merriment their melody foretells! 
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, 

In the icy air of night! 

While the stars that oversprinkle 
All the heavens, seem to twinkle 
With a crystalline delight. 

Keeping time, time, time, 

In a sort of Runic rhyme, 

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells 
From the bells, bells, bells, bells, 

Bells, bells, bells — 

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.” 

Alliteration. Alliteration is the name 
given to a near recurrence of the same initial 
sound. It is a very natural device in English 
and has proved so attractive that many authors 
have chosen alliterative titles for their books, 
“Pride and Prejudice,” “Nicholas Nickleby.” A 
recent pamphlet is entitled, “Dirt, Darkness, 
Disease, Death.” All early English poetry 
was alliterative. Modern poets use it sparingly 
but with effect, as in the following lines from 
Swinburne: 

“ The mother of months in meadow or plain 
Fills the shadows and windy places 
With lisp of leaves and ripple of rain.” 

The Value of Figurative Language. 

Like a sunset or a June day the beauty of 
figurative language cannot be described. It 
must be enjoyed. A comparative reading of a 
plain literal passage by the side of a similar 
thought rendered in highly imaginative and 
poetic verse is the best summary that can be 
given of the value of figurative language. 

What is a Sonnet? Answered in literal prose 





214 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


definition: The sonnet stanza consists of four¬ 
teen lines, iambic pentameter. It is divided 
into two distinct portions, called the major and 
the minor. The major division consists of eight 
lines, called an octave, and has usually but two 
rhymes. The minor division consists of six 
lines, called the sextette, and has sometimes 
three rhymes, sometimes two. The rhymes are 
arranged in prescribed order. To prevent the 
two parts from swaying apart, care is usually 
taken that there shall be no grammatical break 
in passing from the one to the other, and thus 
the whole structure is made one. 

What is a Sonnet ? Answered by Mr. Richard 
Watson Gilder in his “Sonnet Upon a Sonnet/ 7 
written in the most exquisite imagery and in 
perfect verse: 

“What is a sonnet? ’Tis a pearly shell 
That murmurs of the far-off murmuring sea, 

A precious jewel carved most curiously; 

It is a little picture painted well. 

What is a sonnet? ’Tis the tear that fell 
From the great poet’s hidden ecstacy; 

A two-edged sword, a star, a song — ah me! 

Sometimes a heavy-tolling funeral bell. 

“.This was the flame that shook with Dante’s breath, 
The solemn organ whereon Milton played, 

And the clear glass where Shakespere’s shadow falls; 
A sea this is — beware who ventureth! 

For like a fiord the narrow floor is laid 
Deep as mid-ocean to sheer mountain walls.” 

LETTER WRITING 

It would be foolish to waste time on the im¬ 
portance of letter •writing. It is the one form of 
composition that appeals to every one. You 
may never be called upon to write an essay or 
a novel or a page of history, but you will often 
have occasion to write a letter. To be able to 
write a letter correctly and attractively is an 
art worth cultivating. It increases one’s per¬ 
sonality and popularity. Put yourself into a 
letter and you command those who are at a dis¬ 
tance from you. In no art does individuality 
count for more, yet, as in all arts, the letter 
writer must conform to a few general principles 
which have been laid down for those who would 
write well. 

Materials. A careful letter writer gives 
attention to the minutest details, the sum total 
of which makes up a good letter. The first con¬ 
sideration is the size and quality of the stationery 
to be used. White or cream-colored paper, or 
paper of a light blue tint, may be used for both 
business and social correspondence. Let it be 
of good quality, and always have the envelopes 
to match. Business paper should have a simple, 
neat heading; if possible, one that will contain 
an advertisement that may bring in an inquiry, 
if not an order. Unruled paper is always pre¬ 
ferred for all forms of correspondence. The 
ordinary size of paper for business purposes is 
about inches by 11 inches, or about 6 inches 
by 9 inches. Both sizes may be used with a 
number 6^ envelope. For notes and short let¬ 
ters, 6 by 10 is a suitable size, and for invita¬ 
tions, acceptances, and regrets, 5^ by 8. This 
is not an arbitrary matter, but, in general, 
adapt the size of the paper to the length of the 
communication. Two-page paper is preferred 
for business, and four-page paper for social 
letters. 


Pale ink and illegible writing are inexcusable, 
so care should be taken to provide good black 
ink or blue copying ink that turns black with 
age, and a pen that suits the writer. 

The Form of a Letter. Convenience 
and custom have prescribed a certain definite¬ 
ness of form in the arrangement of a letter. It 
must consist of the following parts: (1) heading, 
(2) address, (3) salutation, (4) body, (5) compli¬ 
mentary close, (6) signature. 

The Heading. This contains the address 
of the person writing and the date of the letter. 
For convenience of reference the address is 
usually placed in full in the upper right hand 
corner of the first page and the date written 
after it either on the same line or the next line 
below. 

Examples showing the proper method of spac¬ 
ing, and the proper punctuation of the heading: 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y., July 1, 1908. 

123 Pall Mall, London, Eng., 

Sept. 4, 1908. 

The Address. In business correspond¬ 
ence the address of the person to whom the 
letter is sent should be written on the line below 
the date and well to the left of the page. In 
informal letters it may be omitted altogether. 
Some prefer to place the address of the writer 
or of the person written to after the signature, 
but it is usually considered more convenient to 
have them both precede the body of the letter. 
As in the heading, the address should be written 
with every necessary detail, including place of 
residence, street, and number. In the simplifi¬ 
cation of capitals the word street or place or 
avenue may or may not be begun with a capital. 
This is left to the choice of the writer, as custom 
is not uniform. 

The Salutation. The form of the salu¬ 
tation depends upon the relation of the writer 
to the recipient of the letter. Custom permits 
a variety of forms even in letters addressed to 
strangers. Appropriate salutations for formal 
letters: 

My dear Sir, or Dear Sir: 

My dear Madam, or Dear Madam: 

Gentlemen, or Dear Sirs: 

Most formal of all are Sir or Honorable Sir or 
His Excellency, addressed to persons in high 
position. The President of the United States 
is addressed without any complimentary saluta¬ 
tion. His high office does not require it, though 
foreign rulers are usually addressed with very 
elaborate phrases. 

My dear Mr. Jones, or My dear Miss Jones, are 
proper terms of address between entire strangers, 
as they are understood to signify respect rather 
than affection. My dear Mr. Snow is regarded 
as a rather more formal address than Dear Mr. 
Snow, though curiously enough if one were 
writing in England just the opposite would be 
true. There the pronoun “my” signifies a 
greater degree, of intimacy. These are arbitrary 
matters, but it is well to note the customs of 
the place where one is writing. 

It was formerly the custom to begin each 
word of the salutation with a capital, but now 



LANGUAGE 


215 


good usage prescribes greater simplicity in the 
use of capitals and punctuation. No absolute 
rules can be given as there is great variation 
among good writers. The first word of every 
salutation should begin with a capital. If “sir,” 
“sirs,” or “madam ” is used, you may follow the 
dictates of your own taste about capitalizing 
it. If the phrase, “My dear sir,” were to occur 
in the body of the letter, sir would not be capi¬ 
talized, therefore it need not be in the salutation. 
General usage prefers the capital, but the modern 
tendency in writing is to lessen the number of 
capitals, as well as the number of punctuation 
marks used. Great freedom is allowed in the 
punctuation mark which follows the salutation. 
Some prefer the colon, while others use only 
the comma. The dash adds nothing, so should 
be omitted. 

The following are good forms for the intro¬ 
duction of a letter: 

Mr. F. G. Able, 

Rochester, N. Y. 

My dear Sir: 

Mr. S. P. Craig, 

27 Windsor Ave., Toledo, Ohio. 

My dear Mr. Craig, 

The Body of the Letter. The first 
requisite in good letter writing is a clear, definite 
knowledge of what you want to say; the second 
is to say it in such a way that no one can possibly 
misunderstand what you have said. Most 
errors of grammar are made because the writer’s 
thought is illogical and confused. One cannot 
be too careful about the English he uses in his 
letters. Every letter should be written legibly, 
properly punctuated, accurately spelled, and 
divided into suitable paragraphs, each para¬ 
graph treating of its subject clearly and defi¬ 
nitely. 

Do not burden a letter with apologies for not 
writing. Make your style easy and conversa¬ 
tional. It has been said that the best letter 
writing is like the best conversation. Touches 
of humor and bright glimpses of thought are 
very attractive in social letters. A touch of 
humor, quick and to the point, is attractive in 
any letter, but care must be taken that in busi¬ 
ness letters there is no wandering from the point. 

The body of the letter may be begun on the 
same line with the salutation or on the line below. 
The size and shape of the sheet of paper will 
determine which is the better arrangement. A 
uniform margin of one-half inch or more should 
be reserved at the left-hand side of each page 
of the letter. 

The Complimentary Close. This 
consists of the concluding words of affection or 
respect, and indicates the relation in which the 
writer stands to his correspondent. “Yours 
truly,” or “Very truly yours,” are the forms 
most frequently used in business correspondence 
to-day. The complimentary close, “Yours re¬ 
spectfully,” or “Very respectfully yours,” 
should be used when respect is intended. It is 
proper in writing to persons older or higher in 
rank. “Yours sincerely,” is common in letters 
of business between persons who really have 
some acquaintance with each other. “Your 
humble servant,” “Your obedient servant,” 


are entirely out of date as meaningless conven¬ 
tionalities. 

The words of the complimentary close should 
be written on the line below the last line of the 
letter. The first word should be begun with a 
capital and the last word should be followed by 
a comma. 

The Signature. The signature should 
be written on the line below the complimentary 
close and a little to the right. Except in the 
most informal letters it should give the full name 
of the writer in the form which he would use 
in signing a document. Business men would be 
saved a great many embarrassments if people 
were more considerate about signatures. 

In writing to a stranger, a lady should sign 
her name so that there can be no doubt about 
the proper way to address her. Alma D. Bowen 
may be written (Miss) Alma D. Bowen if un¬ 
married, or (Mrs.) Alma D. Bowen if married 
and writing in her own name, or Alma D. Bowen 
(Mrs. Frank Bowen) if she wishes to be known 
by her husband’s name. 

The Superscription. The address on 
the envelope should contain every item neces¬ 
sary to insure the prompt delivery of the letter. 
It usually consists of four lines arranged in the 
following order: name of individual or firm, 
street and number, city, state. The firm’s or 
person’s name should be written in the middle 
of the envelope, both with reference to the top 
and bottom, and the right and left edges. Each 
added line should follow a slant to the right. 

Every year millions of letters and packages 
find their way to the Dead Letter Office because 
of incorrect or incomplete address. Illegible 
writing or any deviation from the correct form 
of addressing a letter may add one more to these 
millions already counted. Envelopes used for 
business purposes should have the name and 
address of the sender either written or printed 
in the upper left-hand corner. 

In punctuating the lines of the superscription 
it is now considered good form to omit all com¬ 
mas as unnecessary, though they are usually 
retained in the punctuation of the address in 
the introduction. It is left to personal judg¬ 
ment whether to retain them or not, though it 
is along the advance line to prefer the simpler 
form when there is a choice. 

Note the omission of commas in the following 
superscription: 

Mr. Clarence D. Roxbury 
University Block 
Los Angeles 
California 

Titles. It is sometimes embarrassing in 
addressing a letter to know what title to give 
or how to arrange the title. Where there are a 
number of titles the higher presupposes the 
lower, as, D. D. or LL. D. extinguishes the A. B. 
or A. M. It is customary, however, to retain 
both the higher titles, D. D., LL. D., if one hap¬ 
pens to reach them both, and the LL. D. in such a 
case is written last. Clergymen always have 
the prefix Rev., and Bishops that of Rt. Rev. 
When a Bishop has the added title D. D. the two 
are combined as, D. D., LL. D. Judges, mem¬ 
bers of Congress, and some other high officers 



216 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of government, have the prefix Honorable. 
With this title the designation Esq. is never 
affixed, though one may with entire propriety 
say Hon. Henry Somers, LL. D. 

When such prefixes are used as Hon. or Rev., 
the full name should be given, Hon. James Boyd, 
not Hon. Judge Boyd. When the full name is 
not known then it is better to insert the cus¬ 
tomary title Mr., as Rev. Mr. Jones, not Rev. 
Jones. It is contrary to American etiquette to 
address a woman with her husband’s title, 
although it is permissible in some parts of 
Europe to do so. Do not say Mrs. Dr. Brown 
or Mrs. Major Kent but simply Mrs. Brown or 
Mrs. Kent. 

Dame Etiquette in some things is very ex¬ 
acting. In a letter addressed by one military 
man to another, an exact form is prescribed by 
law. The person written to is addressed at the 
beginning of the letter simply by his title. Then, 
at the end of the letter, on the line below the 
signature of the writer, the name of the person 
addressed is given, with his full official title, and 
his location, just as it is to be on the envelope. 

Headquarters, Military Division of the Mississippi, 
In the Field, Manchester, Va., May 9, 1865. 
General: 

I have joined my army at Manchester, opposite Rich¬ 
mond, and await your orders. 

W. T. Sherman, 
Major-General Commanding. 
Lieut.-General U. S. Grant, 

Commander-in-Chief, 

Washington City. 

The following exact form has been prescribed 
for addressing the President of the United 
States. 

On the outside of the letter: 

To the President 
Executive Mansion 

Washington, D. C. 

On the inside of the letter: 

Mr. President, 

I have the honor, etc. 

The governor of any State is addressed as 
“His Excellency.” 

His Excellency 

Charles E. Hughes 

Governor of New York 

This same title is also applied to ministers to 
foreign countries. “Honorable” is applied to 
the Vice-President, members of the cabinet, 
members of Congress, mayors of cities, judges, 
consuls, and other high dignitaries. 

BUSINESS LETTERS 

A business letter should at all times be a model 
of clearness, conciseness, completeness, good 
form and courtesy. The reply should be prompt, 
courteous and definite. As a rule never let a 
business letter remain more than twenty-four 
hours without an answer. If you cannot give 
the man the information he has asked for, drop 
him a line saying that his letter has been received 
and will have the proper attention as soon as 
the information desired can be obtained. Be 
prompt, evermore, be prompt, and to this add 
the injunction be brief, evermore, be brief. 


In all business letters that answer an order 
or an inquiry, the date of the letter you are 
answering should be mentioned. This can be 
done anywhere in the first paragraph; e. g., “ We 
regret that we cannot supply you the pattern 
of wall paper for which you wrote on July 17th; ” 
or, “We are shipping you by fast express to-day 
the groceries you ordered on the 4th inst.” 

An Order for Goods. 

486 Main St., Rochester, N. Y., 

November 13, 1908. 

Miller, Greiner & Co., 

Wholesale Grocers, 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Dear Sirs: 

The last invoice of groceries was so satisfactory that 
we are glad to send you another order. Kindly send at 
once, by express, the following: 

4 bbls. granulated sugar, 

3 large boxes of boneless codfish, 

300 lbs. of the best Java coffee, 

200 lbs. best Mocha coffee, 

12 cases of Baker’s cocoa.. 

Trusting you will fill this order as promptly as you 
did the last one, we remain, 

Yours very truly, 

The Eastside Market Co. 

Acknowledging Receipt of Order. 

Buffalo, N. Y.. 
November 14, 1908. 

The Eastside Market Co., 

486 Main St., Rochester, N. Y. 

Gentlemen: 

Your order of the 13th inst. at hand. Inclosed find 
invoice for same amounting to two hundred forty-eight 
dollars ($248). 

Trusting that the goods will arrive promptly and in 
good condition, we are, 

Very truly yours, 

Miller, Greiner & Co., 

Wholesale Grocers. 

Inclosing Remittance. 

468 Main St.. Rochester, N. Y., 

November 27, 1908. 

Miller, Greiner & Co., 

Wholesale Grocers, 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Gentlemen: 

In payment of your invoice of the 14th inst., find 
Buffalo exchange for two hundred forty-eight dollars 

($248). 

Kindly return receipted bill. 

Yours truly, 

The Eastside Market Co. 

Acknowledging Remittance. 

Buffalo, N. Y., November 28, 1908. 
The Eastside Market Co., 

486 Main St., Rochester, N. Y. 

Gentlemen: 

We inclose receipted bill for your payment of two 
hundred forty-eight dollars ($248). Accept our thanks 
for your prompt remittance. 

Hoping that we shall have the privilege of serving 
you again soon, we are, 

Sincerely yours, 

Miller, Greiner & Co., 

Wholesale Grocers. 

Requesting Payment. 

Oakland, California, 

January 6, 1908. 

Mr. Joseph W. Duffy, 

Tacoma, Washington. 

My dear Sir, 

\ ou may have overlooked the fact that your account, 
amounting to thirty-six dollars and forty-eight cents 
($36.48), is past due. We trust that you will be able 
to pay in full at once. 

Assuring you of our appreciation of past favors, we 
are, with the wish to serve you, 

Sincerely yours, 

Henry Hull & Co. 




LANGUAGE 


217 


Apologizing for not Paying an Ac¬ 
count When Due. 

Tacoma, Washington, Feb. 1, 1908. 
Henry Hull & Co., 

Oakland, Cal. 

My dear Sirs, 

I owe you an apology for tardiness in paying my 
account so long overdue. My only excuse is that my 
customers have been “slow” with me. 

Thank you for the courtesy you have shown. It will 
be my effort to be more prompt in the future. 

Yours truly, 

Joseph W. Duffy. 

Renewing a Subscription. 

92 Elm Ave., Worcester, Mass., 
December 20, 1907. 

The Outlook Company, 

287 Fourth Ave., New York City. 

Gentlemen: 

Inclosed you will find money order for two dollars, 
for which please renew my subscription to “The Outlook.” 
Yours truly, 

William Waring. 

A Follow-up Letter. 

The Lundstrum Sectional Bookcase Co., 
Little Falls, N. Y., January 6, 1908. 
Mrs. G. W. Brown, 

486 Norwood Ave., 

Albany, N. Y. 

My dear Madam: 

Ten days ago, in reply to your inquiry for our cata¬ 
logue, we mailed one to you. Not having heard from 
you, we write to learn whether you received it. If not, 
let us know and we will mail another. If it has been 
received, kindly advise us whether you find quoted in 
it anything fitting your needs. If not, write us what 
you want, and we will quote you prices. 

Hoping to hear from you within a few days, we are, 
Yours truly, 

The Lundstrum Sectional Bookcase Co. 

a 

A Reply to a Letter of Complaint. 

The Kellogg Lithograph Co., Cleveland, O., 

November 22, 1900. 

Mr. E. Dakin Hoag, 

Security Mutual Life Ins. Co., 

Providence, R. I. 

My dear Sir : 

We are sorry that you cannot let us have the specifi¬ 
cations for your letter headings until the first of the 
year. We trust, however, that you will let us have the 
specifications at as early a date as possible so we can 
order the paper, and get our transferring and printing 
done in plenty of time to have the headings in your 
hands by the time you need them. 

In your letter you say that the paper is not so good 
as you formerly had from us. We cannot understand 
this, as we thought the last lot of stock we received 
from the mill was of a very good quality, right up to 
the mark. If you will send us some of the sheets that 
you think are light weight, we will have them tested; 
and if we find there is anything wrong with the paper, 
we will take it up with the mill. So far as we know, 
the only trouble there has been with any of this “se¬ 
curity ” paper was with the first lot, where a small 
portion of the headings had little specks on them. This, 
you know, we took up with the mill, and they promised 
to see that the balance of the paper on the contract 
should be O. K. in every respect. We certainly want 
to hold them, if this is not the case. 

We know that at the present time we should not be 
able to secure nearly so good a paper as this is at the 
price you are paying for this lot; and we want to say 
that you are very fortunate, indeed, in having placed 
your order when you did. because, if you were to place 
a contract now, we could not give you nearly so low 
a price on it on account of the marked advance in price. 
Awaiting your reply, we remain, 

Yours very truly, 

The Kellogg Lith. Co. 

Letters of Application. 

LaPorte, Mo., January 2, 1909. 
Messrs. Howe & Howe, 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Gentlemen: In reply to your advertisement in Tues¬ 


day’s “Tribune,” I respectfully apply for the position 
you offer. 

I have had two years' experience in the crockery 
business as salesman and bookkeeper, and I am ac¬ 
quainted with your city, for I lived there three years 
and worked for the firm of Betz & Co. I refer you to 
them now should you wish to know more of my fitness 
for the work. If you decide to hire me, I will work 
hard to succeed. 

Hoping for a favorable answer, 

Yours respectfully, 

William R. Stone. 

417 College St., Troy, N. Y., 

January 31, 1907. 

Messrs. Wyburn & Co., 

Spokane, Washington. 

Dear Sirs: 

My friend, Mr. Bidwell, who is in your office, writes 
me that you are in need of an expert accountant. I 
shall be very glad to come West to take the position if 
you will give me a trial. I am a Yale man, 37 years 
old, married, and have had five years’ experience as an 
expert accountant with the New York Life Insurance 
Co., for which I am now working. 

If you will write Mr. F. C. Green, who is at the head 
of the New York Life in Troy, he will tell you of my 
ability and willingness to work for the interests of the 
firm that employs me. 

Trusting you will send me a favorable answer, I am, 
Yours very truly, 

Samuel H. Gordy. 

Notes of Introduction. 

Mr. Chas. R. Andrews, 

Trustee of School District No. 9, Trenton, N. Y. 

My dear Sir, 

Miss Emily Smith desires to secure a position as 
assistant in your school. She holds a first-grade certifi¬ 
cate and has had three years’ successful experience in 
our school. We regret to lose her, but she prefers your 
district because it is nearer to her home. I can recom¬ 
mend Miss Smith as an excellent teacher who will be a 
refining influence in any school. 

Very truly yours, 

Charles J. Major, 
Trustee of School District No. 4. 

North Cornwall, Vermont, July 6, 1908. 
Mr. Walter C. Strong, 

84 Arlington Ave., Pittsburg, Pa. 

My dear Friend, 

It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my 
friend, Mr. Weston Beach, who is to become a resident 
in your city. You will find him a delightful gentleman. 
I shall greatly appreciate whatever courtesy you may 
show in helping him to become acquainted. 

Cordially yours, 

Henry B. Johnson. 

Letters of Recommendation. Recom¬ 
mendations are sometimes included in notes of 
introduction, but often they are written as sepa¬ 
rate letters. They may be written as general 
letters addressed “To whom it may concern,” 
or written as special letters to some definite person. 

General Recommendations. 

To Whom It May Concern: 

This is to certify that the bearer of this note, Miss 
Lillian Glades, was graduated from The Teachers’ Col¬ 
lege, Cumberland University, and has since taught in 
the schools of this city. For the past three years she 
has taught in the Straymore school,and I have had the 
opportunity to closely observe her work. I can recom¬ 
mend her as capable of filling any position in a city 
graded school. 

John W. Grove, 
Principal of Straymore School. 

To Whom It May Concern: 

Mr. Henry Henrys has been in our employ as book¬ 
keeper the past six years. He is a faithful accountant, 
and in every way has served us well. We regret to 
part with him. He goes at his own request because he 
feels that he ought to receive a higher salary than we 
can afford to pay. 

We wish him every success. 

Jones, Jones & Co. 

Troy, New York. 



218 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Special Recommendation. 

Mr. Harvey W. Jonson, 

Superintendent of Public Works, 

Topeka, Kansas. 

My dear Sir, 

We have in our school a young man, Mr. Thomas 
Redding, who has done excellent work in the engineer¬ 
ing department. He is a fine, clean young man and 
has commanded the respect of instructors and students, 
alike. His home is in Nebraska; and he is anxious, on 
account of his parents, to get work near home. 

I shall greatly appreciate it. if you will interest your¬ 
self in him, and help him to get work. 

Very truly yours, 

Thomas Benedict. 

Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, 

January 1, 1909. 


Excuse for Absence from School. 

Will Miss Stringer kindly excuse Frances for absence 
from school on account of illness in the family and 
greatly oblige, 

Sarah C. Prescott. 

(Mrs. J. W.) 


Invitations and Replies. Formal in¬ 
vitations are written in the third person, and 
for large gatherings are usually engraved or 
printed and mailed a week or ten days in ad¬ 
vance. An invitation sent out by a school, or 
class in the school, a club, or any group of per¬ 
sons, is usually in the third person; and if the 
invitation be to an entertainment, as at a church 
or a commencement program, no formal reply 
is needed. Formal replies, however, should 
always be sent where entertainment has been 

E rovided for each individual, for the host or 
ostess will need to know how to provide. 

The letters R. S. Y. P. are sometimes put in 
the lower left-hand corner of an invitation. 
They stand for the French phrase, “Respondez 
s’ il vous plait ”: Reply, if you please. The 
English words, “An answer will oblige,” are 
perhaps in better taste. 

Invitations to class commencements furnish 
happy occasions for friends to send notes of 
congratulation. The feeling of obligation to 
present gifts is very much to be regretted. No 
gifts should be expected unless it may be from 
near family friends. The formal wording of 
engraved cards can best be left to the engraver, 
as the form changes slightly from year to year. 

The reply to an invitation should follow the 
form of the note received, and should repeat the 
date and hour mentioned in the invitation. In 
declining an invitation it is not essential to 
repeat the hour. 


Invitation to Commencement Exer¬ 
cises. 

The Senior Class of 
Columbia Seminary 

requests the pleasure of your presence at the 
Commencement Exercises 
June fifteenth to eighteenth 
nineteen hundred seven 
Washington, District of Columbia 


The Faculty and Graduating Class 
of the 

Boston Teachers’ Training School 
invite you to attend the 
Seventeenth Annual Commencement Exercises 
Friday evening, April fifteenth, 1909 
at half past eight o’clock 
Teachers’ Training School 
1124 Tremont Avenue 


Formal Invitation to a Reception 
and Danceo 

The Epsilon Mu Sorority 
invites you to be present 
at a reception and dance 
to be held at the 
Colonial Club 
Tuesday evening, April twelfth 
at half after eight o’clock 

Wedding 1 Invitations and An¬ 
nouncements. 

Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Suffolk 
request the honor of your presence at the 
marriage of their daughter 
Mabel Grace 
to 

Mr. Andrew Jackman 
Wednesday afternoon, June seventeenth 
at three o’clock 

Saint-Mary’s-on-the-Hill Church 
Baltimore 

Announcements. 

Mr. Andrew Jackman 
Miss Mabel Grace Suffolk 
Married 

on Wednesday, June the seventeenth 
Nineteen hundred and nine 
Baltimore 

Mrs. George Sampson 
announces the marriage of her daughter 
Margaret Louise 
to 

Mr. William Randolph Holmes 
of Roxbury, Massachusetts 
Wednesday, December the twenty-sixth 
nineteen hundred and six 
At home, Roxbury, Massachusetts. 

For a Formal At-home. 

Mrs. Jacques Randolph Stearns 
At Home 

on Wednesday the fifth of December 
from three until six o’clock 
1106 Ballston Heights 
to meet 

Mrs. James Winchell Toynbee 

Formal Note of Invitation. 

Miss Belle Coe requests the pleasure of Miss Hinman’s 
company on Thursday evening at eight o’clock. 

128 Fremont St., January nine. 

The Invitation Accepted. 

Miss Hinman accepts with pleasure the invitation for 
Thursday evening at eight o’clock. 

Wellington Place, January ten. 

The Invitation Declined. 

Miss Hinman sincerely regrets that she cannot accept 
Miss Coe’s invitation for Thursday evening at eight 
o’clock. 

Wellington Place, January ten. 

Calling cards are often used for small in¬ 
formal gatherings of friends. 


To meet Miss Wells. 


MISS ALICE SMYTHE 


Friday, May twenty-ninth, at four o’clock. 

40 College Street. 




LANGUAGE 


219 


Acceptance. 


MISS ELLEN YATES. 


The Arlington. 


Informal Invitation. 

My dear Mr. Collier, 

Dr. Hartman, who has just returned from Europe, 
will dine with us on Saturday next at 6 o’clock, and we 
shall feel highly honored and pleased if we can have 
your company. 

With the greatest respect, I am, 

Yours sincerely, 

William J. Lattimer. 
190 West Ave., September 6, 1908. 

Acceptance. 

My dear Dr. Lattimer, 

It will give me great pleasure to dine with you on 
Saturday and to meet our friend, Dr. Hartman. 
Thanking you for the pleasure in store, I am, 

Very cordially yours, 

Ralph A. Collier. 

86 Union St., September 7, 1908. 

Formal Note with Birthday Gift. 

Miss Henry presents her compliments to Miss Brink- 
man, and begs her to accept these flowers with her love 
and with the wish that she may enjoy many returns of 
this happy day. 

Such a note accompanying a gift that gives 
so much pleasure will naturally call forth a 
cordial letter of warm appreciation. 

Reply to Note Accompanying Birth¬ 
day Gift. 

My dear Miss Henry, 

Your note and beautiful gift of flowers completed a 
day of perfect happiness. It is good to grow old when 
friends emphasize the years with increasing kindness. 
Thank you, dear friend, for the love which has never 
failed me. 

Yours, Celia Brinkman. 

Letters of Condolence. Letters of 
condolence are always difficult to write. Write 
only what is in your heart to say. Don’t use 
any stereotyped form to be found in a book on 
etiquette. There is a tendency to-day to over¬ 
do this kind of letter writing, and the answer¬ 
ing of so many letters is becoming a great burden. 
In many instances the kindest thing is silence. 
The following letter of sympathy, now preserved 
in Oxford university, is 'a model of this kind 
of expression and appeals to us all. 

Executive Mansion, 
Washington, November 21, 1864. 
Dear Madame : I have been shown on the file of the 
war department a statement of the Adjutant-General 
of Massachusetts, that you are the mother of five sons 
who have died gloriously on the field of battle. I feel 
how weak and fruitless must be any word of mine which 
should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss 
so overwhelming, but I cannot refrain from tendering 
to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks 
of the republic they died to save. I pray that our 
Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your 
bereavement and leave only the cherished memory of 


the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be 
yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar 
of freedom. 

Yours very sincerely and respectfully, 

A. Lincoln. 

To Mrs. Bixby, 

Boston, Mass. 

My dear, dear Friend, 

A little girl came home from a neighbor’s house where 
her little friend had died. “Why did you go?’’ ques¬ 
tioned the father. “To comfort her mother,” said the 
child. “What could you do to comfort her?” “I 
climbed up into her lap and I cried with her.” Dear 
friend, I, too, can weep with you, and I do. 

Yours in loving sympathy, 

Sarah A. Hume. 

To Miss Cornelia Y. Maxon. 

Letter of Congratulation. A letter 

of congratulation is easier to w T rite. Here again 
let the letter come from your heart. 

My dear Old Jack : 

Could anything be finer than the result of yesterday’s 
election? I don’t know which to congratulate more, 
you or the city. The voters were satisfied with your 
past record, and have endorsed your worth by giving 
you this greater honor. 

Continue to live up to your high ideals, and you will 
soon go to Washington to protect the people in their 
rights. 

Remember me to the little woman at the head of the 
house, and accept my warmest congratulations and 
heartiest wishes for success. 

Very sincerely yours, 

Andrew Langtry. 

November 7, 1908. 

Letters of congratulation are often very brief, 
sometimes only a telegram — just the single 
message of sympathetic joy and nothing else. 
Such congratulations are often sent to high 
officials after an election or following some 
notable success. 

Telegram to William Howard Taft from 
Governor Charles E. Hughes, sent June 18, 1908: 

“I heartily congratulate you upon your nomination. 
Under your administration the welfare of the country 
will be assured.” 

Letters of Friendship. The joy of 
letter writing is in letters of friendship, for 
which, most fortunately, there can be no exact 
rules. Write to your friend as if you were 
talking — good, bright, happy talk about the 
things you are both interested in. No friend¬ 
ship can be so close as to excuse one for indiffer¬ 
ence or carelessness. Models of good letter 
writing are found in the memoirs of noted men 
and women. They form a valuable body of 
literature and will repay the reading. 

Letter writing has been rightly called the 
“gentlest art.” It is the art of giving joy to 
those who are dear to us, yet far away. An 
interchange of letters between members of the 
same family or between friends does more than 
anything else to keep alive the deep affections. 
Even brothers and sisters drift apart and hope¬ 
lessly lose sight of each other when they forget 
to be faithful in their letters. Whatever the 
pressure of pleasure or of duties, the absent 
ones should make time for at least one letter 
every week to those who are left at home. 
Write cheerfully, never sharply or pettishly. 
The word once committed to paper may remain 
when the irritation has passed away. Never 
| write unnecessarily of bad news. Letter writ- 




220 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ing, you remember, in its highest mission, is the 
“blessed art of giving joy.” Answer home 
letters in detail. Many questions are asked 
which seem trifling, but they tell the very 
things about your life that the home people 
want to know. 

The chief charm in letters of friendship is 
their naturalness. They should make the per¬ 
son who receives them feel that he has had a 
delightful visit with his friend who wrote. The 
following passage taken from a letter written 
by Henry W. Longfellow is full of the charm 
of simplicity: “I have just had the pleasure of 
receiving your photograph. It is so good, it 
could hardly be better. I wish the one I send 
you in return were as good. But that is wish¬ 
ing I were a handsome man, six feet high, and 
we all know the vanity of human wishes.” 
Again he writes in a letter, “If ‘Long Pond’ 
were called Loch Long, it would be a beautiful 
lake. This and Sebago are country cousins to 
the Westmoreland lakes in England, quite as 
lovely, but wanting a little more culture and 
good society.” This is simple language, but 
the thought is by no means common-place. 
Our best thoughts belong to our friends whether 
in conversation or in letters. Of Hawthorne’s 
letters it is said, “They w r ere full of passages of 
beauty and of details of his own plans and 
purposes, hopes and disappointments.” 

Bayard Taylor thus commends a friend for 
his naturalness in writing: “You somehow 
manage to bring your own bodily self before 
me when you write; I see your eyes and the 
changing expression of your face, as I read, and 
the sound of your voice accompanies the written 
word.” Who would not, if he could, write 
letters that by their naturalness recall both 
face and voice? Charles Dickens thanks a 
friend for his letter “which is like a pleasant 
voice coming across the Atlantic, with that 
domestic welcome in it that has no substitute 
on earth.” 

One likes letters written for the very joy of 
correspondence and not because the time has 
come and one must write. How welcome this 
passage must have been in one of Lowell’s 
letters: “Somehow, this cool, beautiful summer 
day I feel my heart go out towards you all, 
and am not writing because I ought.” Of the 
closeness and the intimacy of written thoughts 
that may be exchanged in letters, Lowell again 
writes: “I think it fortunate to have dear 
friends far away. For not only does absence 
have something of the sanctifying privilege of 
death, but we dare speak in the little closet of 
a letter what we should not have the face to 
at the corner of the street.” 

Playfulness and humor and lack of formality 
are charming qualities in home letters when 
they can be naturally introduced. These open¬ 
ing lines taken from a letter written by Benjamin 
Franklin to his wife, delight us by their very 
unexpectedness of humor: “I wrote you a few 
days since by a special messenger and enclosed 
letters for all our wives and sweethearts, ex¬ 
pecting to hear from you by his return,-but 

he has just now returned without a scrap for 
poor me.” Further on he adds in the same 
light vein of hidden laughter a postscript: “I 


have scratched out the loving words, having 
written in haste by mistake when I forgot I 
was angry.” How it brightens life to stop in 
the busy day for such innocent sparkle of fun! 
It makes one appreciate the great Benjamin 
Franklin even more because we know of such 
genial letters sent to those who were dear to him. 

Occasions multiply for writing letters to our 
friends: birthdays, festivals, anniversaries, be¬ 
trothals, weddings, funerals; any occasion for 
peculiar joy or sorrow when sympathy and love 
are called into expression. One of the most 
pleasing of the growing customs is the writing 
of letters to friends to accompany them on 
their journeys. Now-a-days, those who go 
abroad in ships are showered with “steamer” 
letters, which keep them mindful of home and 
friends throughout their long voyage. The 
brightness and sweetness of such letters enrich 
a whole lifetime with pleasant memories. 

The mission of the letter has been summed 
up by Whittier in a letter to a friend: “I am 
thankful every day of my life that God has put 
it into the hearts of so many whom I love and 
honor to send me so many messages of good-will 
and comfort.” 

In this day of complex living when so much 
is said but so little realized of the “ simpler life,” 
we sometimes forget the joy which these simple 
“ messages of good will and comfort ” bring and 
unnecessarily burden ourselves to overload our 
friends with purchased gifts: whereas, Christ¬ 
mas letters, birthday letters, any letters into 
which we put our best selves, are the most ac¬ 
ceptable gifts that we can choose. Beyond 
compare is the joy of such written words as 
these sent as a Christmas offering by a young 
girl to an older friend: “What can I wish for 
you that you have not already? Your heart is 
so full of good things that it needs no wish. 
Some day I may tell you just what you have 
done for me, my dear friend. Many a door 
have you openea for me, and these things 
cheapen in the telling. 

“ A blessed Christmas time to you and a New 
Year rich with God’s best gifts.” 

The gift of “things” is forgotten but of such 
words never. 

Postal Cards. Postal cards (post cards 
the English call them) are often very conven¬ 
ient for a word of greeting or for general busi¬ 
ness matters which anyone may read, but noth¬ 
ing private should ever be committed to them. 
To write on a postal a term of warm affection 
or family news or any message which one would 
not wish to tell at large is very indelicate. 

Picture postal cards furnish pleasant ex¬ 
changes between friends, and postal cards which 
bear printed sentiments of refinement or the 
line of bright humor, are pleasant reminders; 
but the cheap word or picture of coarse fun 
should be strictly forbidden, not only by the 
authority of law, but delicacy of thought for 
one’s friend, as well as for one’s own self, should 
never select what is in any way rude or coarse. 
In this busy world where there is so much need 
of frequent intercourse, postal cards have their 
place and their use will multiply, but they 
should never be used as substitutes for the well- 
written letter or the note of social obligation. 





LANGUAGE 


221 


SYNONYMS 

For complete Alphabetical list of Synonyms, 
see Index under that title—Synonyms. 

To Abandon, Desert, Forsake, Relinquish. The 

idea of leaving or separating oneself from an object is 
common to these terms, which vary in the circumstances 
of the action; the two former are more positive acts than 
the two latter. To abandon may be an act of necessity 
or discretion, as a captain abandons a vessel when it is no 
longer safe to remain in it. Abandoning is a violation of 
the most sacred ties, and exposes the object to every 
misery: desertion is a breach of honor and fidelity; it 
deprives a person of the assistance or the countenance 
which he has a right to expect. By forsaking, the kindly 
feelings are hurt, and the social ties are broken. A bad 
mother abandons her offspring; a soldier deserts his 
comrades; a man forsakes his companions. Things as 
well as persons may be abandoned, deserted, or forsaken; 
things only are relinquished. To relinquish is an act of 
prudence or imprudence; men often inadvertently relin¬ 
quish the fairest prospects in order to follow some favorite 
scheme which terminates in their ruin. 

To Abase, Humble, Degrade. Disgrace, Debase. 
To abase expresses the strongest degree of self-humilia¬ 
tion. To humble marks a prostration to the ground, and 
figuratively a lowering of the thoughts and feelings. 
Abase and humble have regard to persons considered 
absolutely, degrade and disgrace to their relative situa¬ 
tion. To degrade signifies to lower in the estimation of 
others. To disgrace is always attended with circum¬ 
stances of more or less ignominy. To debase is to re¬ 
duce from a higher to a lower state or grade of worth, 
dignity, value, etc. The penitent man humbles himself; 
the contrite man abases himself; the man of rank de¬ 
grades himself by a too familiar deportment with his 
inferiors; he disgraces himself by his vices; he debases 
his character by crime. 

To Abhor, Detest, Abominate. Loathe, These 
terms equally denote a sentiment of aversion. What 
we abhor is repugnant to our moral feelings; what we 
detest is opposed to our moral principles; what we abom¬ 
inate does violence to our religious and moral sentiments; 
what we loathe offends our physical taste. We abhor 
what is base and ungenerous, we detest hypocrisy; we 
abominate profanation and open impiety; we loathe 
food when we are sick. 

To Abide, Sojourn, Dwell, Live, Reside. Inhabit. 

Abide is to make an indefinite stay. Soj ourn signifies to pass 
the day, that is, a certain portion of one’s time, in a place. 
Dwell conveys the idea of a movable habitation, such as 
was the practice of living formerly in tents. At present 
it implies a stay in a place by way of residence, which is 
expressed in common discourse by the word live, for 
passing one’s life. Reside conveys the full idea of a set¬ 
tlement. Inhabit signifies to have or occupy for a 
permanency. The length of stay implied in these terms 
is marked by a certain gradation. Abide is to make a 
continuous stay whether long or short; to sojourn is to 
remain temporarily; dwell comprehends the idea of per¬ 
petuity in a given place, but reside and inhabit are 
partial and local — we dwell only in one spot, but we 
may reside at or inhabit many places. 

Ability, Capacity, Faculty, Talent. Ability is to 
capacity as the genus to the species. Ability compre¬ 
hends the power of doing in general, without specifying 
the quality or degree; capacity is a particular kind of 
ability. Ability may be either physical or mental; 
capacity, when said of persons, is mental only. Ability 
respects action, capacity respects thought. Ability 
always supposes something able to be done; capacity is 
a mental endowment, and always supposes something 
ready to receive or hold. Ability relates to human 
power generally, by which a man is enabled to act; it 
may vary in degree and quality with times, persons, and 
circumstances. Health, strength, and fortune are abili¬ 
ties; faculty is a gift of nature directed to a certain end, 
and following a certain rule. An ability may be acquired, 
and consequently is properly applied to individuals, as an 
ability to speak extempore or an ability to write; but a 
faculty belongs to the species, as a faculty of speech, or 
of hearing, etc. Talent imitates but does not originate. 

Able, Capable, Capacious. Able is said of that 
which one can do, as to be able to write or read; capable 
is said of that which either a person or a thing can 
take, receive, or hold. A person is capable of an office, or 
capable of great things; a thing is capable of improve¬ 
ment. Capacious is used only of the property having the 
amplitude of space, or a power to take in or comprehend. 
A hall may be said to be capacious, or, figuratively, a 
man has a capacious mind. 

To Abolish, Abrogate, Repeal, Revoke, Annul, 


Cancel. The word abolish conveys the idea of putting 
a total end to a thing, and is applied properly to those 
things which have been long in existence, and firmly 
established. An abolition may be effected either by an 
act of power, as to abolish an institution, or an order of 
men, and the like; or it may be a gradual act, or effected 
by indirect means, as to abolish a custom, practice, etc. 
Laws are either repealed or abrogated, but repealing is 
a term of modern use, applied to the acts of public coun¬ 
cils or assemblies, where laws are made or unmade by the 
consent or open declaration of numbers. Abrogate is a 
term of less definite import; to abrogate a law is to ren¬ 
der it null by any act of the legislature; thus, the making 
of a new law may abrogate the old one. Revoking is an 
act of individual authority — edicts are revoked; annul¬ 
ling is an act of discretion, as official proceedings or pri¬ 
vate contracts are annulled; cancelling is a species of 
annulling, as in the case of cancelling deeds, bonds, obli¬ 
gations, etc. 

Abridgment, Compendium, Epitome, Digest, 
Summary, Abstract. The first four terms are applied 
to a distinct work, the two latter to parts of a work. An 
abridgment is the reduction of a work into a smaller 
compass. A compendium is a general and concise view 
of any science, as geography or astronomy. An epitome 
is a compressed view of all the substantial parts of a thing, 
or, in other words, the whole of any matter brought into 
a small compass. A digest is any materials systema¬ 
tized in order. A summary comprehends the heads and 
subdivisions of a work. An abstract includes a brief but 
comprehensive view of any particular proceeding. It is 
necessary to make abstracts of deeds or judicial proceed¬ 
ings. 

Absolute, Despotic, Arbitrary, Tyrannical. Ab¬ 
solute power is independent of and superior to all other 
power; an absolute monarch is uncontrolled, not only by 
men, but by things. When this absolute power is assigned 
to any one according to the constitution of a government, 
it is despotic. Despotic power is something less than 
absolute power; a prince is absolute of himself; he is 
despotic by the consent of others. With arbitrariness 
is associated the idea of caprice and selfishness. _ With 
tyranny is associated the idea of oppression and injustice. 

To Abstract, Separate, Distinguish. We abstract 
what we wish to regard particularly and individually; 
we separate what we wish not to be united; we distin¬ 
guish what we wish not to confound. The mind per¬ 
forms the office of abstraction for itself; separating and 
distinguishing are exerted on external objects. Arrange¬ 
ment, place, time, and circumstances serve to separate; 
the ideas formed of things, the outward marks attached 
to them, the qualities attributed to them, serve to 
distinguish. 

To Abuse, Disuse, Misuse. Everything is abused 
which receives any sort of injury; it is disused if not 
used at all, misused if turned to a wrong use. 

Acceptable, Grateful, Welcome. Acceptable sig¬ 
nifies worthy to be accepted. Grateful, pleasing, signifies 
altogether pleasing; it is that which recommends itself. 
The acceptable is a relative good; the grateful is positive: 
the former depends upon our external condition, the 
latter on our feelings and taste. Welcome signifies come 
well or in season for us; it refers to whatever happens 
according to our wishes. It is a grateful task to be the 
bearer of welcome intelligence to our friends. 

To Accomplish, Effect, Execute, Achieve. To 
accomplish an object signifies more than simply to effect 
a purpose, both as to the thing aimed at and the means 
employed in bringing it about. Extraordinary means 
are requisite for accomplishing, and ordinary means for 
effecting. To accomplish is properly said of that which 
a person sets before himself; but to effect, execute, 
and achieve do not relate to the views of a person acting, 
but to the thing brought about. What is executed is 
complicated in its nature, as to execute a design or pro¬ 
ject; what is achieved is of greater and worthier con¬ 
ception, as to achieve an enterprise. 

To Accuse, Charge, Impeach, Arraign. The 
idea of asserting something to the prejudice of another 
is common to these terms; but accuse is said of acts, 
charge of moral qualities constituting the character. We 
accuse a person of murder; we charge him with dis¬ 
honesty. High officials are impeached ; criminals are 
arraigned. 

To Act, Do, Make. We always act when we do, but 
we do not always do when we act. To act is applied 
either to persons or things, as a spring or a lock acts; to 
do applies in this sense to persons only. To act is also 
mostly intransitive or reflective, as to act well or ill in 
this or that manner; to do is always transitive, as to do 
right or wrong, to do one’s duty. To make is to bring a 
thing to pass, as to make a pen. 

To Act, Work, Operate. A machine works, but 




222 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


each of its parts is said to act; so beer works, and bread 
works. Sometimes act as well as work is taken in the 
sense of exerting a power upon other bodies and pro¬ 
ducing changes, as the sun acts on the plants. Operate 
is applied to matters of a general nature in science or 
morals, as a measure operates; or words may operate on 
the mind, or reasons may operate on the understanding. 

Action, Gesture, Gesticulation, Posture, Atti¬ 
tude. All these terms are applied to the state of the 
body; the three former indicate a state of motion, 
the two latter a state of rest. Action respects the move¬ 
ments of the body in general; gesture is an action indi¬ 
cative of some particular state of mind; gesticulation 
is a sort of artificial gesture. Raising the arm is an 
action; bowing is a gesture. Actions may be ungraceful, 
gestures indecent. Posture and attitude both imply a 
mode of placing the body, but the posture is either 
natural or assumed; the attitude is always assumed or 
represented. We assume a sitting posture or an attitude 
of prayer. 

Active, Diligent, Industrious, Assiduous, Labo¬ 
rious, Busy, Officious. We are active if we are only 
ready to exert our powers, whether to any end or not; 
we are diligent when we are active for some specific end; 
we are industrious when no time is left unemployed in 
some serious pursuit; we are assiduous if we do not leave 
a thing until it is finished; we are laborious when the 
bodily or mental powers are regularly employed in some 
hard labor. Busy is opposed to leisure. Officious 
implies being busy without discretion. 

Actual, Real, Positive. What is actual has proof 
of its existence within itself, and may be exposed to the 
eye; what is real may be satisfactorily proved to exist; 
and what is positive precludes the necessity of a proof. 
Actual is opposed to the supposititious, conceived, or 
reported; real to the feigned, imaginary; positive to the 
uncertain, doubtful. 

To Actuate, Impel, Induce. One is actuated by 
motives, impelled by passions, and induced by reason or 
inclination. Whatever actuates is the result of reflection; 
it is a steady and fixed principle. Whatever impels is 
momentary and vehement, and often precludes reflection. 
Whatever induces is not vehement, though often momen¬ 
tary. 

Acute, Keen, Shrewd. In the natural sense, a 
fitness to pierce is predominant in the word acute; and 
that of cutting, or a fitness for cutting, in the word keen. 
The shrewd man exposes follies. Arguments may be 
acute, reproaches keen, and replies or retorts shrewd. 
A shrewd understanding is quicker at discovering new 
truths, than at distinguishing truth from falsehood. 

Address, Application. An address may be made 
for an indifferent purpose or without any express object; 
but an application is always occasioned by some serious 
circumstance. An address may be rude or civil; an appli¬ 
cation may be frequent or urgent. It is impertinent to 
address any one with whom we are not acquainted, un¬ 
less we have a reason for making an application to him. 

To Adhere, Attach. A thing is adherent by the 
union which nature produces; it is attached by arbitrary 
ties which keep it close to another thing. What adheres 
to a thing is closely joined to its outward surface; but 
what is attached may be fastened to it by the intervention 
of a third body. 

Adjacent, Adjoining, Contiguous. What is adja¬ 
cent may be separated altogether by the intervention of 
some third object; what is adjoining must touch in some 
part; and what is contiguous must be fitted to touch 
entirely on one side. 

To Admit, Receive. Persons are admitted to the 
tables, and into the familiarity or confidence of others; 
they are hospitably received by those who wish to be 
their entertainers. We admit willingly or reluctantly; 
we receive politely or rudely. 

To Admit, Allow, Permit, Suffer, Tolerate. We 
admit simply by not refusing or preventing; we allow by 
positively granting or complying with. We admit that 
which concerns ourselves, or is done towards ourselves; 
we allow that which is for the convenience of others, or 
what they wish to do. What is suffered may be burden¬ 
some to the sufferer, if not morally wrong; what is 
tolerated is bad in itself, and suffered only because it 
cannot be prevented. No earthly power can permit that 
which is prohibited by the divine law. 

Admittance, Admission. Admittance is properly 
confined to receiving a person or a thing into a given 
place; admission includes in itself the idea not only of 
receiving, but also the purpose of receiving. Whoever 
is admitted, or has the liberty of entering any place, 
whether with or without an object, has admittance; but 
a person has admission to places of trust, or into offices 
and the like. 

Adoration, Worship, Reverence, Veneration. 


Adoration is the service of the heart toward a Superior 
Being, in which we acknowledge our dependence and 
obedience by petition and thanksgiving; worship con¬ 
sists in the outward form of showing reverence to some 
supposed superior being. Reverence differs from adora¬ 
tion inasmuch as it has a mixture of awe, arising from 
consciousness of weakness and dependence, or of obliga¬ 
tions for favors received. The contemplation of any 
place rendered sacred by its antiquity awakens venera¬ 
tion. 

To Advance, Proceed. To advance is to go toward 
some point; to proceed is to go onward in a certain 
course. 

Advantage, Benefit, Utility. Advantage respects 
external or extrinsic circumstances of profit, honor, and 
convenience; benefit respects the consequences of actions 
and events; utility respects the good which can be drawn 
from the use of any object. A large house or a particular 
situation may have its advantages; suitable exercise is 
attended with benefit; sun-dials have their utility in 
ascertaining the hour precisely by the sun. 

Adverse, Contrary, Opposite. Adverse respects 
the feelingsand interests of persons; contrary regards 
their plans and purposes; opposite respects the situation 
and relative nature of things. Fortune is adverse; an 
event turns out contrary to what was expected; senti¬ 
ments are opposite to each other. 

Adverse, Inimical, Hostile, Repugnant. We are 
adverse to a proposition, or circumstances are adverse 
to our advancement; partisans are inimical to the 
proceedings of government, and hostile to the possessors 
of power. In respect to persons, adverse denotes merely 
the relation of being opposed; inimical, the spirit of the 
individual in private matters; and hostile, the situation, 
conduct, and temper of individuals or bodies in public 
matters. Repugnant means offensive to taste or feelings. 

Advice, Counsel, Instruction. Advice fio\vs from 
superior professional knowledge, or from an acquaintance 
with things in general; counsel regards superior wisdom, 
or a superior acquaintance with moral principles and 
practice; instruction respects superior local knowledge in 
particular transactions. A medical man gives advice to 
his patients; a father gives counsel to his children; in 
points of law a counselor gives advice to his client who 
receives instructions from him in matters of fact. 

Affair, Business, Concern. An affair is what 
happens; a business is what busies; a concern is what is 
felt. An affair is general; it respects one, many, or all: 
every business or concern is an affair, though not vice 
versa. Business and concern are personal; business is 
that which engages the attention; concern is that which 
interests the feelings, prospects, and condition, advan¬ 
tageously or otherwise. To make one’s peace with one’s 
Maker is the concern of every individual. 

To Affect, Concern. Things affect us wdiich produce 
any change in our outward circumstances; they concern 
us if connected with our circumstances in any shape. 
The price of corn affects the interest of the seller; and 
therefore it concerns him to keep it up, without regard 
to the public good or injury. 

To Affect, Assume, Pretend. To affect is to use 
forced efforts to appear to have that which one has not; 
to assume is to appropriate to oneself that which one 
has no right to have. One affects to have fine feelings, 
and assumes great importance. We pretend by making 
a false declaration. One affects the manners of a gentle¬ 
man, and pretends to gentility of birth. 

Affectionate, Kind, Fond. Affectionate character¬ 
izes the feelings; kind has mostly a reference to the 
action. Affectionate is directed to a particular object; 
kind to objects generally. Fond is a strong liking. 

To Affirm, Assert. To affirm is said of facts; to 
assert, of opinions. We affirm what we know; we assert 
what we believe. 

To Afflict, Distress, Trouble. People are afflicted 
with grievous maladies. The mariner is distressed for 
want of water in the midst of the wide ocean; an em¬ 
barrassed tradesman is distressed for money to maintain 
his credit. The mechanic is troubled for want of proper 
tools; the head of the family is troubled for want of 
good domestics. 

Affliction, Grief, Sorrow. Affliction lies deeper in 
the soul than grief. It is too deep to be vehement. 
Continued sickness of our friends will cause affliction; 
the failure of our favorite schemes will occasion grief; 
the loss of a fortune, or our own mistake will cause sorrow. 

Affront, Insult, Outrage. An affront is a mark of 
reproach shown in the presence of others; it piques and 
mortifies: an insult is an attack made with insolence; it 
irritates and provokes: an outrage combines all that is 
offensive; it wounds and injures. 

Afraid, Fearful, Timorous, Timid. Afraid may 
be used either in a physical or moral application, either 




LANGUAGE 


223 


as it relates to ourselves only or to others; fearful and 
timorous are applied only physically and personally; 
timid is mostly used in a moral sense. It is the charac¬ 
ter of the fearful or timorous person to be afraid of what 
he imagines would hurt himself. Between fearful and 
timorous there is little distinction, either in sense or 
application, except that we say fearful of a thing, not 
timorous of a thing. 

To Aggravate, Irritate, Provoke, Exasperate, 

Tantalize. The crime of robbery is aggravated by any 
circumstances of cruelty. Whatever comes across the 
feelings irritates; whatever awakens anger provokes; 
whatever heightens this anger extraordinarily exasper¬ 
ates; whatever raises hopes in order to frustrate them 
tantalizes. 

To Agree, Accede, Consent, Comply, Acquiesce. 

To agree is the general term, meaning to fall in with. We 
accede by becoming a party to a thing; those who accede 
are on equal terms; one objects to that to which one 
does not accede. We consent to a thing by authorizing 
it, we comply with a thing by allowing it; those who 
consent or comply are not on equal terms with those in 
whose favor the consent is given or compliance made. 
Consenting is an act of authority, complying an act of 
good-nature or weakness. To acquiesce is quietly to 
admit; it is a passive act, dictated by prudence or duty. 

Agreeable, Pleasant, Pleasing. Agreeable ex¬ 
presses a feeling less vivid than pleasant; pleasing marks 
a sentiment less vivid and distinct than either. A pleasing 
countenance denotes tranquillity and contentment; a 
pleasant countenance bespeaks happiness. 

Aim, Object, End, View. The aim is that which 
the person has in his own mind; it depends upon the 
character of the individual whether it be good or bad, 
attainable or otherwise. The object lies in the thing; it 
is a matter of choice; it depends upon accident as well as 
design, whether it be worthy or unworthy. The end is 
that which follows or terminates any course or pro¬ 
ceeding; it depends upon the means taken, whether the 
end is arrived at or not. It is the aim of the Christian to 
liye peaceably; it is a mark of dullness or folly to act 
without an object; it is sophistry to suppose that the end 
will justify the means. The view is, generally speaking, 
whatever the mind sets before itself, whether by way of 
opinion or motive; a person’s views may be interested 
or disinterested, correct or false; the view is a matter 
rather of contemplation than of practice. 

To Aim, Point, Level. Aim expresses more than 
the other two w r ords, inasmuch as it denotes a direction 
toward some minute point in an object, and the others 
imply direction tow r ard the whole objects themselves. 
We aim at a bird; we point a cannon toward a fortress; 
we level a cannon at a wall. 

To Aim, Aspire. We aim at a certain proposed 
point by endeavoring to gain it; we aspire after that 
which we think ourselves entitled to, and flatter our¬ 
selves with gaining. Many men aim at riches and honor; 
it is the lot of but few to aspire to a throne. 

Air, Manner. Air lies in the whole person; manner 
is confined to the action or the movement of a single 
limb. A man has the air of a common person; it dis¬ 
covers itself in all his manners. An air is noble or sim¬ 
ple; it marks an elevation or simplicity of character: a 
manner is rude, rustic, or awkward, for want of culture, 
good society, and good example. We assume an air, and 
affect a manner. 

Air, Mien, Look. Air depends not only on the 
countenance, but on the stature, carriage, and action; mien 
respects the whole outward appearance, not excepting 
the dress; look depends altogether on the face and its 
changes. 

Alarm, Terror, Fright, Consternation. Alarm 
springs from any sudden signal that announces the ap¬ 
proach of danger. Terror springs from any event or 
phenomenon that may serve as a prognostic of some 
catastrophe; alarm makes us run to our defense, and 
terror disarms us. Fright is a less vivid emotion than 
either, as it arises from the simple appearance of danger ; 
we may be alarmed or terrified for others, but we are 
mostly frightened for ourselves. Consternation springs 
from the view of some very serious evil, and commonly 
affects many. Alarm affects the feelings, terror the under¬ 
standing, and fright the senses; consternation seizes the 
whole mind, and benumbs the faculties. 

Alertness, Alacrity. We proceed with alertness 
when the body is in its full vigor; we proceed with alac¬ 
rity when the mind is in full pursuit of an object. 

All, Whole. All respects a number of individuals; 
whole respects a single body with its components. 

All, Every, Each. It is not within the limits of 
human capacity to take more than a partial survey of 
all the interesting objects which the whole globe contains. 
All men are not born with the same talent, either in 


degree or kind; but every man has a talent peculiar to 
himself. A parent divides his property among his chil¬ 
dren, and gives to each his due share. 

To Allay, Soothe, Appease, 3Iitigate, Assuage. 
All these terms indicate a lessening of something painful. 
In a physical sense an irritating pain is allayed; a wounded 
part is soothed by affording ease and comfort. Extreme 
heat or thirst is allayed; extreme hunger is appeased; a 
punishment or a sentence is mitigated. In a moral sense 
one allays what is fervid and vehement; one soothes 
what is distressed or irritated; one appeases what is 
tumultuous and boisterous; one mitigates the pains of 
others, or what is rigorous and severe; one assuages 
grief or afflictions. 

To Alleviate, Relieve. A pain is alleviated by 
making it less burdensome; a necessity is relieved by 
supplying what is wanted. Alleviate respects our 
internal feelings only; relieve respects our external 
circumstances. That alleviates which affords ease and 
comfort; that relieves which removes the pain. 

Alliance, League, Confederacy. Alliances are 
formed for the mutual conveniences of parties, as be¬ 
tween states to promote commerce. Leagues and confed¬ 
eracies are entered into mostly for purposes of self- 
defense or for common safety against the attacks of a com¬ 
mon enemy; but a league is mostly a solemn act between 
two or more states and for general purposes of safety, 
and may, therefore, be both defensive and offensive. A 
confederacy is mostly the temporary act of several 
uniting in a season of actual danger to resist a common 
adversary. 

To Allot, Appoint, Destine. Allot is used only for 
things, appoint and destine for persons or things. A 
space of ground is allotted for cultivation; a person is 
appointed as steward or governor; a youth is destined 
for a particular profession. Allotments and appoint¬ 
ments are made for immediate purposes, destinations 
for a future purpose. 

To Allow, Grant, Bestow. That is allowed which 
may be expected, if not directly required; that is granted 
which is desired, if not directly asked for; that is be¬ 
stowed which is wanted as a matter of necessity. A 
grant comprehends in it something more important than 
an allowance, and passes between persons in a higher 
station; what is bestowed is of less value than either. 
A boy is allowed money for expenses; a king grants pen¬ 
sions to his officers; relief is bestowed on the indigent. 

Allowance, Stipend, Salary, Wages, Hire, Pay. 
All these terms denote a stated sum paid according to 
certain stipulations. An allowance is gratuitous; it 
ceases at the pleasure of the donor. All the rest are the 
requital for some supposed service; they cease with the 
engagement made between the persons. Stipend is more 
fixed and permanent than salary, and salary than wages, 
hire, or pay; a stipend depends upon the fulfilling of an 
engagement, rather than on the will of an individual. A 
salary is a matter of contract between the giver and 
the receiver; an allowance may be given in any form, or 
at any stated times. Stipend and salary are paid yearly, 
or at even portions of a year; wages, hire, and pay are 
estimated by days, weeks, or months, as well as by years. 

To Allude, Refer, Hint, Suggest. To allude is not 
so direct as to refer, but it is more clear and positive than 
either hint or suggest. We allude to a circumstance by 
introducing something collaterally allied to it; we refer 
to an event by expressly introducing it into one’s dis¬ 
course; we hint at a person’s intentions by darkly insin¬ 
uating what may possibly happen; we suggest an idea 
by some expressions relative to it. 

Alone, Solitary, Lonely. Alone, compounded of 
all and one, signifies altogether one, or single, that is, 
by oneself. Alone marks the state of a person; solitary 
the quality of a person or a thing; lonely the quality of a 
thing only. A person w r alks alone, or takes a solitary 
walk in a lonely place. 

Ambassador, Envoy, Plenipotentiary, Deputy. 

Ambassadors, envoys, and plenipotentiaries speak and 
act in the name of their sovereigns, with this differ¬ 
ence: the first is invested with the highest authority, 
acting in all cases as the representative; the second 
appears only as a simple authorized minister acting for 
another, but not always representing him; the third is 
a sort of envoy used by courts only on the occasion 
of concluding peace or making treaties. Deputies are not 
deputed by sovereigns, although they may be deputed to 
sovereigns; they have no power to act or speak but in 
the name of some subordinate community or particular 
body. The functions of the first three belong to the 
minister, those of the latter to the agent. 

Ambiguity, Equivocation. An ambiguity arises from 
a too general form of expression, which leaves the sense 
of the author indeterminate; an equivocation lies in the 
power of particular terms used, which admit of a double 




224 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Interpretation, or an application to two different things. 
The ambiguity leaves us in entire uncertainty as to what 
is meant; the equivocation misleads us in the use of a 
term in the sense which we do not suspect. 

To Amend, Correct, Emend, improve, Mend, 
Better. Amend, emend, and correct are all applied to 
works of the understanding, with this distinction, that 
amend signifies to remove faults or defects generally, 
either by adding, taking away, or altering, as to amend 
a law; to emend is to remove particular faults in any 
literary work by the alteration of letters or single words; 
to correct is to remove gross faults, as to correct the press. 
To mend is employed in respect to any works in the sense 
of putting that right which either is or has become faulty; 
to improve is said either of persons or things which are 
made better, as to improve the mind, morals, etc.; to 
better is mostly applied to the outw T ard condition on 
familiar occasions. 

Amicable, Friendly. Amicable implies a negative 
sentiment, a freedom from discordance; friendly implies 
a positive feeling of regard, the absence of indifference. 
We make an amicable accommodation, and a friendly 
visit. 

Ample, Spacious, Capacious. Ample is opposed 
to scanty, spacious to narrow, capacious to small. What 
is ample suffices and satisfies; it imposes no constraint. 
What is spacious is free and open; it does not confine. 
What is capacious readily receives and contains; it is 
liberal and generous. 

To Amuse, Divert, Entertain. Whatever amuses 
serves to kill time, to lull the faculties and banish reflec¬ 
tion; whatever diverts causes mirth and provokes laugh¬ 
ter; whatever entertains acts on the senses, and awakens 
the understanding. 

Anger, Resentment, Wrath, Ire, Indignation, 
Rage, Fury. Anger. is a sudden sentiment of dis- 
leasure; resentment is a continued anger; wrath is a 
eightened sentiment of anger, which is poetically ex¬ 
pressed by the word ire. Indignation is a sentiment 
awakened by the unworthy and atrocious conduct of 
others; as it is exempt from personality, it is not irrec¬ 
oncilable with the temper of a Christian. Rage is a 
vehement ebullition of anger; and fury is an excess of 
rage. 

Animadversion, Criticism, Stricture. Animad¬ 
version includes censure and reproof; criticism implies 
scrutiny and judgment, whether for or against; and 
stricture comprehends a partial investigation mingled 
with censure. 

To Animate, Inspire, Enliven, Cheer, Exhila¬ 
rate. To be animated in its physical sense is simply to 
receive the first spark of animal life in however small a 
degree; to be animated in the moral sense is to receive 
the smallest portion of the sentiment or thinking faculty: 
to inspire expresses the communication of a strong moral 
sentiment or passion; to enliven respects the mind; cheer 
relates to the heart; exhilarate regards the spirits, both 
animal and mental. 

To Announce, Proclaim, Publish. We announce 
an event that is expected and just at hand; we proclaim 
an event that requires to be known by all the parties 
interested; we publish what is supposed likely to interest 
all who know it. 

Answer, Reply, Rejoinder, Response. An answer 
is given to a question; a reply is made to an assertion; a 
rejoinder is made to a reply; a response is made in ac¬ 
cordance with the words of another. We answer either 
for the purpose of affirmation, information, or contradic¬ 
tion; we always reply, or rejoin, in order to explain or 
confute; responses are made by way of assent or con¬ 
firmation. 

Answerable, Responsible, Accountable, Amen¬ 
able. Answerable and responsible convey the idea of a 
pledge given for the performance of some act, or the 
fulfillment of some engagement, a breach of which sub¬ 
jects the defaulter to loss, punishment, or disgrace. A 
person is accountable to his employer for the manner in 
which he has conducted any business intrusted to him. 
To be amenable is to be accountable as far as laws and 
regulations bind a person; one is amenable to the laws 
of society, or he is amenable to the rules of the house in 
which he is only an inmate. 

To Apologize, Defend, Justify, Exculpate, Ex¬ 
cuse, Plead. We apologize for an error by acknowl¬ 
edging ourselves guilty of it; we defend ourselves against 
a charge by proving its fallacy; we justify our conduct 
against any imputation by proving that it was blame¬ 
less; we exculpate ourselves from all blame by proving 
that we took no part in the transaction. Excuse and 
plead are not grounded on any idea of innocence; a plea 
is frequently an idle or unfounded excuse, a frivolous 
attempt to lessen displeasure; we excuse ourselves for 
a neglect by alleging indisposition. 


Apparel, Attire, Array. Apparel is the dress of 

every one; attire is the dress of the great; array is the 
dress of particular persons on particular occasions. 

Apparent, Visible, Clear, Plain, Obvious, Evi¬ 
dent, Manifest. That which is simply an object of 
sight is visible; that which presents itself to our view 
in any form, real or otherwise, is apparent. The stars 
themselves are visible to us; but their size is apparent. 
What is clear is to be seen in all its parts and in its proper 
colors; what is plain is seen by a plain understanding; 
what is obvious presents itself readily to the mind of 
every one; what is evident is seen forcibly, and leaves 
no hesitation on the mind. Manifest is a greater degree 
of the evident; it strikes on the understanding and 
forces conviction. 

Applause, Acclamation. These terms express a 
public demonstration, the former by means of a noise 
with the hands or feet, the latter by means of shouts 
and cries. The former is employed as a testimony of 
approbation; the latter as a sanction, or an indication 
of respect. 

To Appoint, Order, Prescribe, Ordain. To ap¬ 
point is either the act of an equal or a superior; we 
appoint a meeting with any one at a given time and 
place; a king appoints his ministers. . To order is the act 
of one invested with a partial authority;_ a master gives 
his orders to his servant. To prescribe is the act of one 
who is superior by virtue of his knowledge; a physician 
prescribes for his patient. To ordain is an act emanating 
from the highest authority; kings and councils ordain; 
but their ordinances must be conformable to what is 
ordained by the Divine Being. 

To Apprehend, Conceive, Suppose, Imagine. 
To apprehend is simply to take an idea into the mind; 
'thus we may apprehend any object that we hear or see; 
to conceive is to form an idea in the mind, as to con¬ 
ceive the idea of doing anything, to conceive a design. 
What one supposes may admit of a doubt; it is fre¬ 
quently only conjectural: what one imagines may be 
altogether improbable or impossible; that which cannot 
be imagined may be too improbable to admit of being 
believed. 

Approach, Access, Admittance. Approach sig¬ 
nifies the coming near or toward an object, and conse¬ 
quently is an unfinished act, but access and admittance 
are finished acts; access is the coming to, that is, as 
close to an object as is needful; and admittance is the 
coming into any place, or into the presence or society 
of any person. An approach may be quick or slow, 
an access easy or difficult, an admittance free or ex¬ 
clusive. 

To Approach, Approximate. To approach de¬ 
notes simply the moving of an object toward another; 
but to approximate denotes the gradual moving of two 
objects towmrd each other. 

To Argue, Evince, Prove. To argue is to serve as 
an indication amounting to probability; to evince 
denotes an indication so clear as to remove doubt; to 
prove marks an evidence so positive as to produce 
conviction. 

Argument, Reason, Proof. An argument serves 
for defense; a reason for justification; a proof for con¬ 
viction. Arguments are adduced in support of an 
hypothesis or a proposition; reasons are assigned in 
matters of belief and practices proofs are collected to 
ascertain a fact. 

To Arise, or Rise, Mount, Ascend, Climb, Scale. 

Arise is used only in the sense of simply getting up, but 
rise is employed to express a continued motion upward. 
A person arises from his seat or his bed; a bird rises in 
the air; a person mounts a hill, and ascends a moun¬ 
tain. To climb is to rise step by step, by clinging to a 
certain body; to scale is to rise by an escalade, or species 
of ladder, employed in mounting the -walls of fortified 
towns. Trees and mountains are climbed; walls are 
scaled. 

Arrogance, Presumption. Arrogance is the act of 
the great; presumption that of the little. The arrogant 
man takes upon himself to be above others; the presump¬ 
tuous man strives to be on a level with those who are 
above him. 

Art, Cunning, Deceit. Art implies a disposition of 
the mind to use circumvention or artificial means to 
attain an end; cunning marks the disposition to practice 
disguise in the prosecution of a plan; deceit leads to 
the practice of dissimulation and gross falsehood, for 
the sake of gratifying a desire. 

Artist, Artisan, Artificer, Mechanic. The 
artist ranks higher than the artisan; the former 
requires intellectual refinement, the latter nothing 
but to know the common practice of art. The 
sculptor is an artist; the sign-painter is an artisan. 
Manufacturers are artificers. The mechanic is one 



language 


225 


whose work involves manual skill, or skill in the use 
of tools. 

To Ask, Inquire, Question, Interrogate. We 

perform all these actions in order to get information; 
but we ask for general purposes of convenience; we 
inquire from motives of curiosity; we question and 
interrogate from motives of discretion.. Indifferent 

f >eople ask of each other whatever they wish to know; 
earners inquire the reasons of things which are new to 
them; masters question their servants, or parents their 
children, when they wish to ascertain the real state of 
any case; magistrates interrogate criminals when they 
are brought before them. 

To Assemble, Muster, Collect. Assemble is said 
of persons only; muster and collect of persons or things. 
To assemble is to bring together by a call or invitation; 
to muster is to bring together by an act of authority, 
or by a particular effort, into one point of view at one 
time, and from one quarter; to collect is to bring 
together at different times, ana from different quarters. 

Assent, Consent, Approbation, Concurrence. 
Assent respects matters of judgment; consent respects 
matters of conduct. We assent to what we admit to 
be true; we consent to what we allow to be done. 
Approbation is a species of assent, concurrence of con¬ 
sent. To approve is not merely to assent to a thing as 
right, but to determine upon it positively to be so; 
concurrence is properly the consent of many. Assent 
is given by equals or inferiors; consent by superiors; 
approbation by equals or superiors; concurrence by 
equals. 

To Assert, Maintain, Vindicate. We assert any¬ 
thing to be true; we maintain it by adducing proofs, 
facts, or arguments; _we vindicate our own conduct or 
that of another when it is called in question. 

Association, Society, Company, Partnership. 
Whenever we habitually or frequently meet together for 
some common object, it is an association. Whenever 
association is used in. distinction from the others, 
it denotes that which is partial in its object and 
temporary in its duration. It is founded on unity of 
sentiment as well as on unity of object; but it is mostly 
unorganized, and kept together only by the spirit which 
gives rise to it. A society requires nothing but unity 
of object, which is permanent in its nature; it is 
organized, and set on foot to promote the cause 
of humanity, literature, or religion. Companies are 
brought together for the purposes of interest, and 
are dissolved when that object ceases to exist; their 
duration depends on the contingencies of profit and 
loss. Partnerships are altogether of an individual and 
private nature. As they are without organization and 
system, they are more precarious than any other asso¬ 
ciation. Their duration depends not only on the chances 
of trade, but on the compatibility of individuals to 
co-operate in a close point of union. 

Astronomer, Astrologer. The astronomer studies 
the course and movement of the stars; the astrologer 
reasons on their influence. 

Asylum, Refuge, Shelter, Retreat. Asylum is 
chosen lay him who has no home; refuge by him who 
is apprehensive of danger. Shelter is a cover or a pro¬ 
tection. Fatigues and toils of life make us seek retreat. 

To Atone for, Expiate. Both these terms express 
a satisfaction for an offense; but atone is general; 
expiate is particular. We may atone for a fault by 
any form of suffering; we expiate a crime only by 
suffering a legal punishment. 

To Attack, Assail, Assault, Encounter, Onset, 
Charge. To attack is to make an approach in order 
to do some violence to the person; to assail or assault 
is to make a sudden and vehement attack; to encounter 
is to meet the attack of another. One assails by means 
of missile weapons; one assaults by direct personal 
violence. Onset is employed for the commencement of 
the battle; charge for an attack from a particular 
quarter. 

Attempt, Trial, Endeavor, Effort, Essay. An 

attempt is the act of setting about a thing with a view of 
effecting it; a trial is the act of setting about, a thing 
with a view of seeing the result; an endeavor is a con¬ 
tinued attempt. An effort is to an attempt as a means 
to an end; it is the act of calling forth those powers 
which are required in an attempt. An essay is an im¬ 
perfect attempt, or attempt to do something which 
cannot be done without difficulty. It is applied either to 
corporeal or intellectual matters. 

To Attend, Hearken, Listen. To attend is to have 
the mind engaged on what we hear; to hearken and 
listen are to strive to hear. People attend when they 
are addressed; they hearken to what is said by others; 
they listen to what passes between others. 

Attentive, Careful. We are attentive in order to 


understand and improve; we are careful to avoid mis¬ 
takes. Attention respects matters of judgment; care 
relates to mechanical action: we listen attentively; we 
read or write carefully. 

To Attract, Allure, Invite, Engage. That is at¬ 
tractive which draws the thoughts toward itself; that is 
alluring which awakens desire; that is inviting which 
offers persuasion; that is engaging which takes posses¬ 
sion of the mind. 

To Augur, Presage, Forebode, Betoken, Portend. 

Augur signifies either to serve or make use of as an 
augury; to forebode, or to presage, is to form a conclusion 
in one’s own mind; to betoken or portend is to serve as 
a sign. Persons or things augur; persons only forebode 
or presage; things only betoken or portend. Auguring 
is a calculation of some future event, in which the imagi¬ 
nation seems to be as much concerned as the understand¬ 
ing. Presaging is rather a conclusion or a deduction of 
what may be from what is; it lies in the understanding 
more than in the imagination. Foreboding lies altogether 
in the imagination. Things are said to betoken, which 
present natural signs; those are said to portend which 
present extraordinary or supernatural signs. 

Auspicious, Propitious. Those things are auspi¬ 
cious which are casual, or only indicative of good; persons 
are propitious to the wishes of others who listen to their 
requests and contribute to their satisfaction. 

Austere, Rigid, Severe, Rigorous, Stern. The 
austere man mortifies himself; the rigid man binds him¬ 
self to a rule. The manners of a man are austere when he 
refuses to take part in any social enjoyments; his pro¬ 
bity is rigid, that is; inaccessible to the allurements of 
gain, or the urgency of necessity. Severe is used with 
reference to conduct: he is severe in the restraints he 
imposes, and the punishments he inflicts; rigorous im¬ 
plies harshness, severity, as vigorous treatment, a vigorous 
officer of justice, namely, in the infliction of punishment. 
Sternness is a species of severity more in manner than 
in direct action; a commander may issue his commands 
sternly, or a despot may issue his stern decrees. 

Avaricious, Miserly, Parsimonious, Niggardly. 
An avaricious man shows his love of money in his ordi¬ 
nary dealings; but the miser lives for his money, and 
suffers every privation rather than part with it. The 
avaricious man indulges his passion for money by par¬ 
simony, that is, by saving out of himself, or by niggardly 
ways in his dealings with others. 

To Awaken, Excite, Provoke, Rouse, Stir Up. 
We awaken by a simple effort; we excite by repeated 
efforts or forcible means; we provoke by words, looks, 
or actions. The tender feelings are awakened; affec¬ 
tions, or the passions in general, are excited; the angry 
passions are commonly provoked. We are roused from 
an extraordinary state by extraordinary means; we are 
stirred up from an ordinary to an extraordinary state. 

Awe, Reverence, Dread. Awe and reverence both 
denote a strong sentiment of respect, mingled with some 
emotions of fear; but the former marks the much 
stronger sentiment of the two. Dread is an unmingled 
sentiment of fear for one’s personal security. 

Awkward, Clumsy, Crooked, Perverted, Un¬ 
toward, Cross. Awkward respects outward deport¬ 
ment; clumsy the shape and make of the object. A per¬ 
son has an awkward gait, is clumsy in his whole person. 
What is crooked springs from a perverted judgment; 
what is untoward is independent of human control. 
We are cross when partially irritated, resulting from the 
state of the humors, physical and mental. 

Axiom, Maxim, Aphorism, Apophthegm, Say¬ 
ing, Adage, Proverb, By-word, Saw. The axiom is 
a truth of the first value, a self-evident proposition 
which is the basis of other truths. A maxim is a truth 
of the first moral importance for all practical purposes: 
an aphorism is a truth set apart for its pointedness and 
excellence. Apophthegm is, in respect to the ancients, 
what saying is in regard to the moderns; it is a pointed 
sentiment pronounced by an individual, and adopted by 
others. Adage and proverb are vulgar sayings, the 
former among the ancients, the latter among the mod¬ 
erns. The by-word is a casual saying, originating in some 
local circumstance; the saw, which is a barbarous cor¬ 
ruption of saying, is the saying formerly current among 
the ignorant. 

To Babble, Chatter, Chat, Prattle, Prate. Bab¬ 
bling denotes rapidity of speech, which renders it unin¬ 
telligible; chatter is an imitation of the noise of speech 
properly applied to magpies or parrots, and figuratively 
to a corresponding vicious mode of speech in human 
beings. The winter’s fireside invites neighbors to assemble 
and chat away many an hour which might otherwise 
hang heavy on hand, or be spent less inoffensively. The 
prattling of babes has an interest for every feeling mind, 
but for parents it is one of their highest enjoyments; 



226 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


prating, on the contrary, is the consequence of ignorance 
and childish assumption. A prattler has all the unaffected 
gayety of an uncontaminated mind; a prater is forward, 
obtrusive, and ridiculous. 

Badly, Ill. These terms are both employed to mod¬ 
ify the actions or qualities of things, but badly is always 
annexed to the action, and ill to the quality; as, to do 
anything badly, the thing is badly done, an ill-judged 
scheme, an ill-contrived measure, an ill-disposed person. 

Band, Company, Crew, Gang. All these terms de¬ 
note a small association for a particular object. A band 
is an association in which men are bound together by some 
strong obligation, whether taken in a good or a bad sense, 
as a band of soldiers, a band of robbers; a company 
marks an association for convenience, without any par¬ 
ticular obligation, as a company of travelers, a company 
of strolling players. A crew marks an association col¬ 
lected by some external power, or by coincidence of 
plan and motive; in the former case it is used for a 
ship’s crew, in the latter and bad sense of the word it ic 
employed for any number of evil-minded persons met 
together from different quarters, and co-operating for 
some bad purpose. Gang is used in a bad sense for an 
association of thieves, murderers, and depredators in 
general, or in a technical sense for those who work 
together. 

Banishment, Exile, Expulsion. Banishment fol¬ 
lows from a decree of justice; exile either by the necessity 
of circumstances or by an order of authority; banish¬ 
ment is a disgraceful punishment inflicted by tribunals 
upon delinquents; exile is a disgrace incurred without 
dishonor; exile removes us from our country; banishment 
or expulsion drives us from it ignominiously. 

Bare, Scanty, Destitute. Bare respects what serves 
for ourselves; scanty that which is provided by others. 
A subsistence is bare; a supply is scanty; destitute is 
generally said of one who wants. One is destitute of 
friends, of resources, or of comforts. 

To Be, Exist, Subsist. We say of qualities, of 
forms, of actions, of arrangement, of movement, and of 
every different relation, whether real, ideal, or qualifi- 
cative, that they are; we say of matter, of spirit, of 
body, and of all substances, that they exist. Man is 
man, and will be man under all circumstances and 
changes of life; he exists under every known climate 
and variety of heat or cold in the atmosphere. Every¬ 
thing which subsists depends for its existence upon the 
chances and changes of life. 

To Be, Become, Grow. Be is positive; become is 
relative: a person is what he is without regard to what 
he was; he becomes that which he was not before. To 
grow is to become by a gradual process. A man may 
become a good man from a vicious one, in consequence 
of a sudden action on his mind; but he grows in wisdom 
and virtue by means of an increase in knowledge and 
experience. 

To Bear, Yield. Bear conveys the idea of creating 
within itself; yield, that of giving from itself. Animals 
bear their young; inanimate objects yield their produce. 

To Beat, Defeat, Overpower, Rout, Overthrow. 
A. general is beaten in important engagements; he is de¬ 
feated and may be routed in partial attacks; he is over¬ 
powered by numbers, and overthrown in set engagements. 

Beautiful, Fine, Handsome, Pretty. When taken 
in relation to persons, a woman is beautiful who, in fea¬ 
ture and complexion, possesses a grand assemblage of 
graces; a woman is fine who, with a striking figure, 
unites shape and symmetry; a woman is handsome who 
has good features; and pretty if with symmetry of fea¬ 
ture be united delicacy. Beautiful, fine, and pretty are 
applied indifferently to works of nature and art; hand¬ 
some mostly to those of art only: a beautiful picture, 
a fine drawing, a pretty cap, and handsome furni¬ 
ture. 

Becoming, Comely, Graceful. Becoming respects 
the decorations of the person, and the exterior deport¬ 
ment; comely respects natural embellishments; grace¬ 
ful, natural or artificial accomplishments. Manner is 
becoming; figure is comely; air, figure, or attitude is 
graceful. 

To Beg, Desire. To beg marks the wish; to desire, 
the will and determination. Beg is the act of an infe¬ 
rior, or one in a subordinate condition; desire is the act 
of a superior. We beg a thing as a favor; we desire it 
as a right. 

To Beg, Beseech, Solicit, Entreat, Supplicate, 
Implore, Crave. lo beg denotes a state of want; to 
beseech, entreat, and solicit, a state of urgent necessity; 
supplicate, and implore, a state of abject distress; crave’, 
the lowest state of physical want. One begs with im¬ 
portunity, beseeches with earnestness, entreats by the 
force of reasoning and strong representation; one solicits 
by virtue of one’s interest, supplicates by an humble 


address, implores by every mark of dejection and 
humiliation. 

To Begin, Commence, Enter Upon. To begin 

respects the order of time; to commence, the exertion 
of setting about a thing. Begin is opposed to end; 
commence, to complete. A person begins a thing with a 
view of ending it; he commences a thing with a view 
of completing it. To enter upon denotes that of first 
doing what has not been tried before. 

Belief, Credit, Trust, Faith. Belief and credit are 
particular actions or sentiments; trust and faith are 
permanent dispositions of the mind. Things are en¬ 
titled to our belief; persons are entitled to our credit; 
but people repose a trust in others, or have a faith in 
others. Belief is purely speculative; and trust and 
faith are operative: the former operates pn the mind; 
the latter on the outward conduct. Trust in God serves 
to dispel all anxious concern about the future. 

Beneficent, Bountiful or Bounteous, Munificent, 
Generous, Liberal. The sincere well-wisher to fel¬ 
low-creatures is beneficent according to his means; 
he is bountiful in providing for the comfort and happi¬ 
ness of others; he is munificent in dispensing favors; 
he is generous in imparting his property; he is liberal in 
all he does. Beneficence and bounty are characteristics 
of the Deity as well as of His creatures. 

Benevolence, Benignity. Humanity, Kindness, 
Tenderness. Benevolence lies in the will. Benignity 
in the disposition or frame of mind; humanity lies in the 
heart; kindness and tenderness in the affections. Benev¬ 
olence indicates a general good-will to all mankind; 
benignity, particular goodness or kindness of disposition. 
Humanity is a general tone of feeling; kindness and ten¬ 
derness are particular modes of feeling. 

To Bereave, Deprive, Strip. To bereave expresses 
more than deprive, but less than strip, which denotes a 
total and violent bereavement. One is bereaved of chil¬ 
dren, deprived of pleasures, and stripped of property. 
We are bereaved of that on which we set most value; 
the act of bereaving does violence to our inclination. 
We are deprived of the ordinary comforts and conve¬ 
niences of life; they cease to be ours. We are stripped of 
the things which we most want; we are thereby ren¬ 
dered, as it were, naked. 

Besides, Except. Besides, which is here taken as a 
preposition, expresses the idea of addition; except 
expresses that of exclusion. There were many there 
besides ourselves; no one except ourselves will be 
admitted. 

Bishopric, Diocese. Both these words describe 
the extent of an episcopal jurisdiction, the first with 
relation to the person who officiates, the second with 
relation to the charge. There may, therefore, be a 
bishopric either where there are many dioceses or no 
diocese; but, according to the import of the term, there 
is properly no diocese where there is no bishopric. 

To Blame, Censure, Condemn, Reprove, Re¬ 
proach, Upbraid. To blame is simply to ascribe a fault 
to; to censure is to express disapprobation: the former 
is less personal than the latter. The thing more than 
the person is blamed; the person more than the thing is 
censured. A person may be blamed for his good nature, 
and censured for his negligence. That which is con¬ 
demned is of a more serious nature, and produces a 
stronger and more unfavorable expression of displeasure 
or disapprobation, than that which is blamed; reprove 
is even more personal than censure. A reproof passes 
from one individual to another, or to a certain number 
of individuals. Reproaching and upbraiding are as much 
the acts of individuals as reproving, but the former de¬ 
note the expression of personal feelings, and may be just 
or unjust; the latter is presumed to be divested of all 
personal feelings. 

Blemish, Stain, Spot, Speck, Flaw, Defect, Fault. 

Whatever detracts from the seemliness of appearance is 
a blemish. In works of art the slightest dimness of color, 
or want of proportion, is a blemish. A stain or spot 
sufficiently characterizes itself, as that which is super¬ 
fluous and out of its place; a speck is a small spot; and 
a flaw, which is confined to hard substances, consists 
mostly of a faulty indenture on the outer surface. A blem¬ 
ish tarnishes; a stain spoils; a spot, speck,, or flaw 
disfigures.. Defect, consists in the want of some specific 
essential in an object; fault conveys the idea not only 
of something wrong, but also of its relation to the author. 
There is a blemish in fine china, a defect in the springs 
of a clock, and a fault in the contrivance. 

To Blot Out, Expunge, Rase or Erase, Efface, 
Cancel, Obliterate. Letters are blotted out, so that 
they cannot be seen again; they are expunged, so as to 
signify that they cannot stand for anything; they are 
erased, so that the space may be reoccupied with writing. 
Efface does not designate either the manner or the object: 





LANGUAGE 


227 


inscriptions on stone may be effaced, which are rubbed 
off so as not to be visible. Cancel is principally confined 
to written or printed characters; they are cancelled by 
striking through them with the pen. Letters are oblit¬ 
erated which are in any way made illegible. 

Bold, Fearless, Intrepid, Undaunted. Boldness 
is a positive characteristic of the spirit; fearlessness is 
a negative state of the mind, that is, simply an absence 
of fear. A person may be bold through fearlessness, 
but he may be fearless without being bold: he may be 
fearless where there is no apprehension of danger or 
no cause for apprehension, but he is bold only when he 
is conscious or apprehensive of danger, and prepared 
to encounter it. A man is intrepid who has no fear 
where the most fearless might tremble; he is undaunted 
whose spirit is unabated by that which would make the 
stoutest heart yield. 

Booty, Spoil, Prey. Booty and spoil are used as 
military terms in attacks on an enemy, prey in cases of 
particular violence. The soldier gets his booty; the 
combatant his spoils; the carnivorous animal his prey. 
Booty respects what is of personal service to the captor; 
spoils whatever serves to designate his triumph; prey 
includes whatever gratifies the appetite and is to be 
consumed. 

To Bound, Limit, Confine, Circumscribe, Re¬ 
strict. Bound applies to the natural or political divi¬ 
sions of the earth: countries are bounded by mountains 
and seas. Limit applies to any artificial boundary: 
landmarks in fields serve to show the limits of one man’s 
ground. To confine is to bring the limits close together, 
to part off one space absolutely from another; in this 
manner we confine a garden by means of walls. To 
circumscribe is literally to surround; in this manner a 
circle may circumscribe a square. To restrict is to exer¬ 
cise a strong degree of control: a person is restricted by 
his physician to a certain portion of food in a day; laws 
often restrict privileges. 

Boundless, Unbounded, Unlimited, Infinite. 

The ocean is a boundless object so long as no bounds to 
it have been discovered; desires are often unbounded 
which ought always to be bounded; power is sometimes 
unlimited which would be better limited. Nothing is 
infinite but that Being from whom all finite beings 
proceed. 

Brave, Gallant. Gallantry is extraordinary bravery 
or bravery on extraordinary occasions: the brave man 
goes willingly where he is commanded; the gallant man 
leads on with vigor to the attack. Bravery is common 
to vast numbers and whole nations; gallantry is peculiar 
to individuals or particular bodies. 

Bravery, Courage, Valor. Bravery lies in the 
blood; courage lies in the mind: the latter depends on 
the reason, the former on the physical temperament: 
the first is a species of instinct; the second is a virtue. 
A man is brave in proportion as he is without thought; 
he has courage in proportion as he reasons or reflects. 
Valor is a higher quality than either bravery or courage, 
and seems to partake of the grand characteristics of both; 
it combines the fire of bravery with the determination 
and firmness of courage. 

Breach, Break, Gap, Chasm. A breach and a gap 
are the consequence of a violent removal, which destroys 
the connection; a break and a chasm may arise from 
the absence of that which would form a connection. A 
breach in a wall is made by means of cannon; gaps in 
fences are commonly the effect of some violent effort 
to pass through; a break is made in a page of printing 
by leaving off in the middle of a line; a chasm is left when 
an earthquake causes a gaping fissure. 

To Break, Bruise, Squeeze, Pound, Crush. 
Break always implies the separation of the component 
parts of a body; bruise denotes simply destroying the 
continuity of the parts. Hard brittle substances, as 
glass, are broken; soft pulpy substances, as flesh or fruits, 
are bruised. Squeeze is used for soft substances or 
for gentle compression. To pound is properly to bruise 
in a mortar, so as to produce a separation of parts. To 
crush is the most violent and destructive of all opera¬ 
tions, which amounts to the total dispersion of all the 
parts of a body. 

To Break, Burst, Crack, Split. To break does 
not specify any particular manner or form of action; 
what is broken may be broken in two or more pieces, 
broken short or lengthwise, and the like: to burst is to 
break suddenly and with violence, frequently also with 
noise. To crack and split are modes of breaking length¬ 
wise: the former in application to hard or brittle objects, 
as clay, or the things made of clay; the latter in appli¬ 
cation to wood, or that which is made of wood. 

Breeze, Gale, Blast, Gust, Storm, Tempest, 
Hurricane. A breeze is gentle; a gale is brisk, but 
steady: we have breezes on a calm summer’s day; the 


mariner has favorable gales, which keep the sails on the 
stretch. A blast is impetuous: the blare of a trumpet, 
the breath of bellows, are blasts. A gust is sudden 
and vehement; storm, tempest, and hurricane include 
other particulars besides wind. A storm throws the 
whole atmosphere into commotion; it is a war of 
the elements, in which wind, rain, hail, and the like 
conspire to disturb the heavens. Tempest is a species 
of storm which has also thunder and lightning to add to 
the confusion. Hurricane is a species of storm which 
exceeds all the rest in violence and duration. 

Brightness, Luster, Splendor, Brilliancy. Bright¬ 
ness and luster are applied properly to natural lights; 
splendor and brilliancy have been more commonly 
applied to that which is artificial or unusual: there 
is always more or less brightness in the sun or moon; 
there is an occasional luster in all the heavenly bodies 
when they shine in their unclouded brightness; there 
is splendor in the eruptions of flame from a volcano or 
from an immense conflagration; there is brilliancy in a 
collection of diamonds. 

To Bring, Fetch, Carry* To bring is simply to 
take with oneself from the place where one is; to 
fetch is to go first to a place and then bring a thing; to 
fetch, therefore, is a sort of bringing: whatever is near 
at hand is brought; whatever is at a distance must 
be fetched. To carry respects always a motion directly 
from the place or at a distance from the place: he carries 
a parcel from home. 

Bulky, Massive. Whatever is bulky has a promi¬ 
nence of figure; what is massive has compactness of 
matter. 

Burial, Interment, Sepulture. We bury in order 
to conceal. Interment and sepulture are accompanied 
with religious ceremonies. Burial is confined to no object 
or place; interment may be used when a body is depos¬ 
ited in a vault; sepulture is an abstract term confined to 
particular cases, as in speaking of the rites and privileges 
of sepulture. 

Business, Occupation, Employment, Engage¬ 
ment, Avocation, Vocation. Business occupies all 
a person’s thoughts as well as his time and powers: 
occupation and employment occupy only his time and 
strength: the first is mostly regular, it is the object of 
our choice; the second is casual, it depends on the will 
of another. Engagement is a partial employment, 
avocation a particular engagement. Vocation is applied 
to one’s regular work; and avocation to the occupation 
or pleasures that call one away from the regular routine 
of work. 

Business, Trade, Profession, Art. Buying or 
selling of merchandise is inseparable from trade; but 
the exercise of one’s knowledge and experience for pur¬ 
poses of gain constitutes a business. When learning or 
particular skill is required, it is a profession; and when 
there is a peculiar exercise of art, it is an art. 

Bustle, Tumult, Uproar. Bustle has most of hurry 
in it; tumult most of disorder and confusion; uproar 
most of noise: the hurried movements of one, or many, 
cause a bustle; the disorderly struggles of many consti¬ 
tute a tumult. The loud elevation of many opposing 
voices produces an uproar; uproar is the consequence 
either of general anger or mirth. 

To Buy, Purchase. Bargain, Cheapen. Buy may 
always be substituted for purchase without impropriety; 
but purchase would be sometimes ridiculous in the 
familiar application of buy: necessaries of life are bought; 
luxuries are purchased. To bargain is to make a contract 
for exchange. To cheapen is not only to lower the price 
asked, but to deal in such things as are cheap. 

Calamity, Disaster, Misfortune, Mischance, 
Mishap. A calamity is a great disaster or misfortune; 
a misfortune is a great mischance or mishap. Whatever 
is attended with destruction is a calamity; whatever 
occasions mischief to the person, defeats or interrupts 
plans, is a disaster; whatever is accompanied with a loss 
of property, or the deprivation of health, is a misfortune; 
whatever diminishes the beauty or utility of objects is 
a mischance or a mishap. 

To Calculate, Reckon, Compute, Count. To 
calculate denotes any numerical operation in general, 
but is particularly applicable to the abstract science of 
figures. The astronomer calculates the motions of the 
heavenly bodies; the mathematician makes algebraic 
calculations. To reckon is to enumerate and set down 
things in detail; reckoning is applicable to the ordinary 
business of life: tradesmen keep their accounts by 
reckoning; children learn to reckon by various simple 
processes. Calculation is therefore the science, reckoning 
the practical art of enumerating. To compute is to 
come at the result by calculation. We count one by one; 
we count the minutes. 

Calendar, Almanac, Ephemerls. The calendar 




228 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


is a book which registers events under every month; 
the almanac is a book which registers times, or the divis¬ 
ions of the year; and an ephemeris is a book which 
registers the planetary movements every day. 

To Call, Cry, Exclaim. Call is used on all ordinary 
occasions in oraer to draw a person to a spot, or for any 
other purpose, when one wishes to be heard. To cry is to 
call loudly on particular occasions: a call draws attention; 
a cry awakens alarm. To exclaim is the expression of 
some particular feeling. 

To Call, Invite, Bid, Summon. In the act of 

calling, any sounds may be used; we may call by simply 
raising the voice. Inviting may be a direct or indirect 
act; we may invite by looks or signs as well as by words, 
by writing as well as by speaking. To bid arid summon 
require the express use of words; the former is always 
directly addressed to the person, the latter may be con¬ 
veyed by an indirect channel. To summon is an act of 
authority, as to summon witnesses. 

Calm, Composed, Collected. These terms agree 
in expressing a state; but calm respects the state of the 
feelings, composed the state of the thoughts and feelings, 
and collected the state of the thoughts more particu¬ 
larly. Calmness is peculiarly requisite in seasons of 
distress, and amidst scenes of horror; composure, in 
moments of trial, disorder, and tumult; collectedness 
in moments of danger. 

Calm, Placid, Serene. Calm and serene are ap¬ 
plied to the elements; placid only to the mind. Calm¬ 
ness respects only the state of the winds, serenity that 
of the air and the'heavens. The weather is calm when it 
is free from agitation; it is serene when free from noise 
and vapor. Calm respects the total absence of all per¬ 
turbation; placid the ease and contentment of the 
mind; serene, clearness and composure of the mind. 
We speak of a calm state of mind, and of a serene temper. 

Can, May. Can denotes possibility, may liberty 
and probability: he who has sound limbs can walk; 
but he may not walk in places which are prohibited. 

Candor, Openness, Sincerity. Candor obliges us to 
acknowledge even that which may make against our¬ 
selves; it is disinterested. Openness impels us to utter 
whatever passes in the mind; it is unguarded. Sincerity 
prevents us from speaking what we do not think; it is 
positive. 

Capacity, Capaciousness. Capacity is an indefi¬ 
nite term designating the property of being fit to hold 
or receive, as applied to bodies generally; but capa¬ 
ciousness denotes a fullness of this property as belonging 
to a particular object in a great degree. Measuring the 
capacity of vessels belongs to the science of mensu¬ 
ration: the capaciousness of a room is to be observed 
by the eye. 

Captious, Cross, Peevish, Petulant, Fretful. 

Captious marks a readiness to be offended; cross indicates 
a readiness to offend or come across the wishes of others; 
peevish expresses a strong degree of crossness; fretful 
a complaining impatience; petulant a quick or sudden 
impatience. Captiousness is the consequence of mis¬ 
placed pride; crossness of ill-humor; peevishness and 
fretfulness of a painful irritability. Petulance is either 
the result of a naturally hasty temper or of a sudden 
irritability. 

Capture, Seizure, Prize. A capture is made by force 
of arms; a seizure is made by direct and personal force. 
Prize relates only to the thing taken, and its value to 
the captor. 

Care, Solicitude, Anxiety. Care is the most 
indefinite of the three; it may be accompanied with 
pain or not, according to the nature of the object or the 
intensity of the application. Solicitude and anxiety are 
accompanied with a positive degree of pain, the latter 
still more than the former. Care may be exercised with 
or without feeling; solicitude has desire, mixed with fear; 
anxiety has distress for the present, mixed with fear for 
the future. 

Care, Charge, Management. Care will include 
both charge ana management; but, in the strict sense, 
it comprehends personal labor. Charge involves respon¬ 
sibility; management includes regulation and order. A 
gardener has the care of a garden; a nurse has the charge 
of children; a steward has the management of a farm. 

Careful, Cautious, Provident. Careful, or full of 
care, that is, having care, is the general term; to be 
cautious is to be careful in guarding against danger: 
to be provident is to be careful in preventing straits and 
difficulties. The term careful is applied for the most 
part to present matters, but provident only to that 
which is future. One is careful of his money, but provi¬ 
dent toward a time of need. 

Carnage, Slaughter, Massacre, Butchery. Car¬ 
nage respects the number of dead bodies made; it is 
the consequenoe of any impetuous attack from a power¬ 


ful enemy. Slaughter respects the act of taking away 
life, and the circumstances of the agent; massacre and 
butchery respect the circumstances of the objects who 
are the sufferers of the action. The latter three are said 
of human beings only: defenseless women and children 
are commonly butchered by the savage furies who are 
most active in this work of blood. 

Carriage, Gait, Walk. Carriage is here the most 
general term; it respects the manner of carrying the 
body, whether in a state of motion or rest. Gait is the 
mode of carrying the limbs and the body whenever we 
move. Walk is the manner of carrying the body when 
we move forward to walk. 

Case, Cause. The case is matter of fact; the cause 
is matter of question. A case involves circumstances and 
consequences; a cause involves reasons and arguments. 
A case is something to be learned; a cause is something 
to be decided. 

Cast, Turn, Description. Cast, as applicable to 
persons, respects that which they are made by circum¬ 
stances; turn, that which they are by themselves: thus 
there are many casts of religion, that is, men cast in a 
certain form of religion; and men of a particular moral 
cast, that is, such as are cast in a particular mold as 
respects their thinking and acting: so in like manner 
men of a particular turn, that is, as respects their 
inclinations and tastes. The description is that by which 
a man is described or made known to others. 

Cause, Reason, Motive. Cause respects the order 
and connection of things; reason the movements and 
operations of the mind; motive the movements of the 
mind and the body. Cause is said of all inanimate obj ects; 
reason and motive of rational agents. Whatever happens 
in the world happens from some cause mediate or imme¬ 
diate; the primary or first cause of all is God: what¬ 
ever opinions men hold, they ought to be able to assign 
a substantial reason for them; and for whatever they 
do, they ought to have a sufficient motive. As the cause 
gives birth to the effect, so does the reason give birth 
to the conclusion, and the motive gives birth to the 
action. 

To Cause, Occasion, Create. What is caused 
seems to follow naturally. What is occasioned follows 
incidentally, or what occasions may be incidental, but 
necessary. What is created receives its existence arbi¬ 
trarily. A wound causes pain; accidents occasion 
delay; busy bodies create mischief. 

Cautious, Wary, Circumspect. We must be 
cautious on all occasions where there is danger, but we 
must be wary where there is great danger. A trades¬ 
man must be cautious in his dealings with all men, but 
he must be wary when he has to deal with designing 
men. Circumspect is used in reference to matters of 
theory or contemplation, when the mind is principally 
employed; a man must be circumspect when he trans¬ 
acts business of particular importance and delicacy. 

To Cease, Leave Off, Discontinue. Cease is used 
either for particular actions or general habits; leave <pff 
more usually and properly for particular actions; dis¬ 
continue for general habits. A restless spoiled child 
never ceases crying until it has obtained what it wants; 
it is a mark of impatience not to cease lamenting when 
one is in pain. A laborer leaves off his work at any given 
hour. A delicate person discontinues his visits when 
they are found not to be agreeable. 

To Celebrate, Commemorate. Everything is cele¬ 
brated which is distinguished by any marks of attention, 
without regard to the time of the event, whether present 
or past; but nothing is commemorated but what has 
already passed in point of time. 

Celestial, Heavenly. Celestial is applied mostly in 
the natural sense of the heavens; heavenly is employed 
more commonly in a spiritual sense. Hence, we speak 
of the celestial globe as distinguished from the terrestrial; 
and of the celestial bodies. But, on the other hand, we 
speak of the heavenly habitation, of heavenly joys or 
bliss, of heavenly spirits, and the like. 

To Censure, Carp, Cavil. To censure respects posi¬ 
tive errors; to carp and cavil have regard to what is 
trivial or imaginary: the former is employed for errors 
in persons; the latter for supposed defects in things. 
Carping and caviling are resorted to only to indulge ill- 
nature or self-conceit: party politicians carp at the 
measures of administration; infidels cavil at the evi¬ 
dences of Christianity, because they are determined to 
disbelieve. 

Certain, Sure, Secure. Certain and sure have re¬ 
gard to a person’s convictions; secure to his interests or 
condition. One is certain from actual knowledge or from 
a belief in others; one is sure from a reliance upon others; 
one is secure when free from danger. We can be certain 
of nothing future but death; we may be sure that God 
will fulfill His promises in His own way; we may be 



LANGUAGE 


229 


secure against any loss or mischief if we use proper pre¬ 
cautions. 

Cessation, Stop, Rest, Intermission. Cessation 
respects the course of things; whatever does not go on 
has ceased; things cease of themselves: stop respects 
some external action or influence; nothing stops but 
what is supposed to be stopped or hindered by another: 
rest is cessation that regards labor or exertion; whatever 
does not move or exert itself is at rest: intermission is 
cessation only for a time or at certain intervals. That 
which ceases or stops is supposed to be at an end; rest 
or intermission supposes a renewal. 

Chance, Fortune, Fate. Chance applies to all 
things, personal or otherwise; fortune and fate are 
mostly said of that which is personal. Chance neither 
forms, orders, nor designs; neither knowledge nor in¬ 
tention is attributed to it; its events are uncertain and 
variable. Fortune forms plans and designs, but without 
choice; we attribute to it an intention without discern¬ 
ment; it is said to be blind. Fate forms plans and chains 
of causes; intention, knowledge, and power are attributed 
to it; its views are fixed, its results decisive. 

Chance, Hazard. Both these terms are employed 
to mark the course of future events, which are not discern¬ 
ible by the human eye. With the Deity there is neither 
chance nor hazard. His plans are the result of omnis¬ 
cience; but the designs and actions of men are all de¬ 
pendent on chance or hazard. Chance may be favorable 
or unfavorable, more commonly the former: hazard is 
always unfavorable; it is properly a kind of chance. 

To Change, Exchange, Barter, Substitute. To 
change in respect to persons is to take one for another, 
without regard to whether they are alike or different, as 
a king changes his ministers; any person may change 
his servants: to exchange is to take one person in return 
for another who is in like condition, as prisoners are ex¬ 
changed in time of war. In respect to things, to change 
is to take anything new or fresh, whether alike or differ¬ 
ent. Clothes may be changed. To exchange is to take 
one thing for another, that is, either of the same kind or 
equivalent in value, as to exchange one commodity for 
another. To change may often be the result of caprice, 
but to exchange is always an act either of discretion or 
necessity. To barter is to give any commodity for 
other commodities. To substitute is to put one person 
in the place of another for the purpose of doing any serv¬ 
ice or filling any office, as to substitute one for another 
who has been drawn for the militia. 

Change, Variation, Vicissitude. Change consists 
simply in ceasing to be the same; variation consists in 
being different at different times; vicissitude consists in 
being alternately or reciprocally different and the same. 

Character, Letter. Character is any written or 
printed mark that serves to designate something; a letter 
is a species of character which is the constituent part of a 
word. 

Character, Reputation. Character lies in the man; 
it is the mark of what he is; it shows itself on all occa¬ 
sions: reputation depends upon others; it is what they 
think of him. 

To Chasten, Chastise. Chasten has most regard 
to the end, chastise to the means; the former is an act 
of the Deity, the latter a human action: God chastens 
His faithful people, to cleanse them from their trans¬ 
gressions; parents chastise their children, to prevent the 
repetition of faults. 

To Cheat, Defraud, Trick. One cheats by direct 
and gross falsehood or artifice; one defrauds by a settled 
plan or contrivance; one tricks by a sudden invention. 

To Check, Chide, Reprimand, Reprove, Rebuke. 
A person is checked that he may not continue to do what 
is offensive; he is chidden for what he has done, that he 
may not repeat it. People are checked by actions and 
looks, as well as by words; they are chidden by words only. 
A person may chide or reprimand in anger, he reproves 
and rebukes with coolness: great offenses call forth 
chidings. Omissions or mistakes occasion or require a 
reprimand; irregularities of conduct give rise to reproof; 
and improprieties of behavior demand rebuke. 

To Check, Stop. Check signifies to impede the 
course of a body in motion, that is, to cause it to move 
slowly; to stop (v. cessation), is to cause it not to move 
at all. 

To Cheer, Encourage, Comfort. To cheer regards 
the spirits; to encourage the resolution: the sad require 
to be cheered; the timid to be encouraged. To cheer 
and to comfort have regard to the spirits, but the 
latter differs in degree and manner: to cheer expresses 
more than to comfort, the former signifying to produce 
a lively sentiment, the latter to lessen or remove a painful 
one. We are cheered in the moments of despondency, 
whether from real or imaginary causes; we are com¬ 
forted in the hour of distress. 


Chief, Principal, Main. Chief respects order and 
rank; principal has regard to importance and respecta¬ 
bility; main to degree or quantity. We speak of a chief 
clerk; a commander-in-chief; the chief perspn in a city: 
but the principal people in a city; the principal circum¬ 
stances in a narrative, and the main object. 

Chief, Leader, Chieftain, Head. Chief denotes 
precedency in tribal or civil matters ; leader regards the 
direction of enterprises: chieftain is a kind of leader; 
and head is the superior in general concerns. 

To Choose, Prefer. To choose is to take one thing 
from among others; to prefer is to take one thing before 
or rather than another. 

To Choose, Pick, Select. We may choose whatever 
comes in our way without regard to the number of the 
objects to be chosen from, but we pick or select out of a 
number only, as to pick or select books from a library. 
We may pick one or many out of a number, but we mostly 
select a number. We select with even greater care than 
we pick. 

Circuit, Tour, Round. A circuit is made for a specif¬ 
ic end of a serious kind; a tour is always made for pleas¬ 
ure; a round, like a circuit, is employed in matters of 
business, but of a more familiar and ordinary kind. 

To Circumscribe, Inclose. The extent of any place 
is drawn out for the eye by a circumscription; its extent 
is limited to a given point by an in closure. A garden is 
circumscribed by any ditch, line, or posts, that serve as 
its boundaries; it is inclosed by wall or fence. 

Circumstance, Situation. Circumstance is to 
situation as a part to a whole; many circumstances con¬ 
stitute a situation: a situation is an aggregate of cir¬ 
cumstances. A person is said to be in circumstances of 
affluence who has an abundance pf everything essential 
to his comfort; he is in an easy situation when nothing 
exists to create uneasiness. 

Circumstance, Incident, Fact, Incident is what 
happens; fact is what is done; circumstance is not only 
what happens and is done, but whatever is or belongs to 
a thing. To everything are annexed circumstances, 
either of time, place, age, color, or other collateral ap¬ 
pendages, which change its nature. Everything that 
moves and operates is exposed to incidents; effects are 
produced, results follow, and changes are brought about; 
these are incidents: whatever moves and operates, does, 
and what it produces is done or is the fact. 

Circumstantial, Particular, Minute. Circumstan¬ 
tial expresses less than particular, and particular less than 
minute. A circumstantial account contains all leading 
events; a particular account includes every event and 
movement, however trivial; a minute account omits 
nothing as to person, time, place, form, and every other 
trivial circumstance connected with the events. 

To Cite, Quote. To cite is employed for persons or 
things; to quote for things only; authors are cited, 
passages from their works are quoted: we cite only by 
authority; we quote for general purposes of conveni¬ 
ence. 

Civil, Polite. These two epithets are employed to 
denote different modes of acting in social intercourse. 
Polite expresses more than civil; it is possible to be civil 
without being polite. Civility is contented with pleasing 
when the occasion offers: politeness seeks the oppor¬ 
tunity to please; it prevents the necessity of asking by 
anticipating the wishes; it is full of delicate attentions, 
and is an active benevolence in the minor concerns of 
life. 

Civil, Obliging, Complaisant. Civil applies to 
words or manner as well as to the action; obliging to the 
action only. As civil is indefinite in its meaning, so it is 
often used indiscriminately in its application; obliging, 
on the other hand, is confined to what passes between 
particular persons or under particular circumstances. 
Civil and obliging both imply a desire to do a kindness; 
complaisant signifies the desire of receiving pleasure, 
which is a refined mode of doing a kindness. 

Clandestine, Secret. To do a thing clandestinely 
is to elude observation; to do a thing secretly is to do it 
without the knowledge of any one: what is clandestine 
is unallowed, which is not necessarily the case with what 
is secret. 

To Clasp, Hug, Embrace. To clasp makes the act 
of enclosing another in one’s arms when it is performed 
with the warmth of true affection. To hug is to clasp 
tightly to the bosom; the more refined term, to em¬ 
brace, is to infold in the arms in token of friendship or 
affection. 

To Class, Arrange, Range. The general qualities 
and attributes of things are to be considered in classing; 
their fitness to stand by each other must be considered in 
arranging; their capacity for forming a line is the only 
thing to be attended to in ranging. Classification serves 
the purposes either of public policy or science; arranging 



230 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


is a matter of convenience to the individual himself; 
ranging is a matter of convenience for others. 

Clean, Cleanly, Pure. Clean expresses a freedom 
from dirt or soil; cleanly the disposition or habit of being 
clean. A person who keeps himself clean is cleanly. 
Pure is used in a moral sense; the heart should be 
pure. 

Clearly, Distinctly. That is seen clearly of which 
one has a clear view independent of anything else; that 
is seen distinctly which is seen so as to distinguish it from 
other objects. We see the moon clearly whenever it 
shines; but we cannot see the spots in the moon dis¬ 
tinctly without the help of glasses. 

Clearness, Lucidity, Brightness, Vividness. A 
mere freedom from stain or dullness constitutes clear¬ 
ness; the return of light, and consequent removal of 
darkness, constitutes lucidity; brightness supposes a 
certain strength of light; vividness a freshness combined 
with strength, and with a degree of brilliancy. 

Clearness, Perspicuity. These epithets denote 
qualities equally requisite to render a discourse intelligi¬ 
ble. Clearness respects our ideas, and springs from the 
distinction of the things themselves that are discussed: 
perspicuity respects the mode of expressing the ideas, 
and springs from the good qualities of style. 

Clever, Skillful, Expert, Dexterous. Cleverness 
is mental power employed in the ordinary concerns 
of life: a person is clever in business. Skill is both 
a mental and corporeal power, exerted in mechani¬ 
cal operations and practical sciences: a physician, a 
lawyer, or an artist, is skillful: one may have a skill in 
divination, or a skill in painting. Expertness and dex 
terity require more corporeal than mental power exerted 
in minor arts and amusements: one is expert at throw¬ 
ing the quoit; dexterous in the management of horses. 

Cloister, Convent, Monastery. The proper idea of 
cloister is that of seclusion; the proper idea of convent 
is that of community; the proper idea of a monastery is 
that of solitude. One is shut up in a cloister, put into a 
convent; one retires to a monastery. Whoever wishes to 
take an absolute leave of the world shuts himself up in a 
cloister; whoever wishes to attach himself to a communi¬ 
ty that has renounced all commerce with the world goes 
into a convent; whoever wishes to shun all human inter¬ 
course retires to a monastery. In the cloister our liberty 
is sacrificed; in the convent our worldly habits are re¬ 
nounced, and those of a regular religious community 
being adopted, we submit to the yoke of established 
orders: in a monastery we impose a sort of voluntary 
exile upon ourselves; we live with the view of living only 
to God. 

Close, Near, Nigh. Close is more definite than near: 
houses which are almost joined stand close to each other; 
men stand close when they touch each other. Objects are 
near which are within sight; persons are near each other 
when they can converse together. Near and nigb, which 
are but variations of each other in etymology, admit of 
little or no difference in their use. 

To Close, Shut. To close signifies simply to put close 
together; to shut to stop or prevent admittance: closing 
- is therefore a partial shutting, and shutting a complete 
closing. 

To Close, Conclude, Finish. We may close at any 
oint by simply ceasing to have any more to do with it; 
ut we conclude in a definite and positive manner. To 
conclude is to bring to'an end by determination; to finish 
is to bring to an end by completion: what is settled by 
arrangement and deliberation is properly concluded; 
what is begun on a certain plan is said to be finished. 

Coarse, Rough, Rude. In the proper sense coarse 
refers to the composition and materials of bodies, as 
coarse bread, coarse meat, coarse cloth; rough respects 
the surface of bodies, as rough wood and rough skin; 
rude respects the make or fashion of things, as a rude 
bark, a rude utensil. Coarse is opposed to fine, rough to 
smooth, rude to polished. 

Cogent, Forcible, Strong. Cogency applies to rea¬ 
sons individually considered; force and strength to modes 
of reasoning or expression. Cogent reasons impel to de¬ 
cisive conduct; strong conviction is produced by forcible 
reasoning conveyed in strong language. 

Colleague, Partner. Colleague is more noble than 
partner: men in the highest offices are colleagues; trades¬ 
men, mechanics, and subordinate persons, are partners: 
every Roman Consul had a colleague; every workman 
has commonly a partner. Colleague is used for com¬ 
munity of office; partner for community of interest. 

Colorable, Specious, Ostensible, Plausible, Fea¬ 
sible. The first three of these words are figures of speech 
drawn from what naturally pleases the eye; plausible is 
drawn from what pleases the ear; feasible takes its sig¬ 
nification from what meets the judgment or conviction. 
What is colorable has an aspect or face upon it that lulls 


suspicion and affords satisfaction; what is specious has 
a fair outside when contrasted with that which it may 
possibly conceal; what is ostensible is that which pre¬ 
sents such an appearance as may serve for an indication 
of something real. 

To Combat, Oppose. A person’s views or attitudes 
are combated; his interests or his measures are opposed. 

To Come, Arrive. Persons or things come; persons 
only, or what is personified, arrive. To come specifies 
neither time nor manner; to arrive is employed with re¬ 
gard to some particular period or circumstances. 

Comfort, Pleasure. The main feature of comfort is 
substantiality; the main feature of pleasure is warmth. 
Pleasure is quickly succeeded by pain; it is the lot of 
humanity that to every pleasure there shpuld be an alloy: 
comfort is that portion of pleasure which seems to lie 
exempt from this disadvantage; it is the most durable 
sort of pleasure. Comfort must be sought for at home; 
pleasure is pursued abroad. 

Command, Order, Injunction, Precept. A com¬ 
mand is an exercise of power or authority; it is impera¬ 
tive and must be obeyed: an order serves to direct; it is 
instructive and must be executed. A sovereign issues his 
commands. Orders may be given by a subordinate or by 
a body, as orders of a court. Order is applied to the 
common concerns of life; injunction and precept to the 
moral conduct or duties of men. Injunction imposes a 
duty by virtue of the authority which enjoins. The pre¬ 
cept lays down or teaches such duties as already exist. 

To Commission, Authorize, Empower. We com¬ 
mission in matters where pur own will and convenience 
are concerned; we authorize in matters where our per¬ 
sonal authority is requisite; and we empower in matters 
where the authority of the law is required. 

Commodious, Convenient. Commodious is mostly 
applied to that which contributes to the bodily ease 
and comfort; convenient to whatever suits the purposes of 
men in their various transactions. 

Commonly, Generally, Frequently, Usually. 
What is commonly done is an action common to all; 
what is generally done is the action of the greatest part; 
what is frequently done is either the action of many, or 
an action many times repeated by the same person; 
what is usually done is done regularly by one or many. 

To Communicate, Impart. A thing may be com¬ 
municated directly or indirectly, and to any number of 
persons, as to communicate intelligence by signal or 
otherwise. Impart is a direct action that passes between 
individuals, as to impart instruction. 

Communion, Converse.. Both these terms imply 
a communication between minds; but the former may 
take place without corporeal agency, the latter never 
does. Spirits hold communion with each other; people 
hold converse. 

Comparison, Contrast. Likeness in the quality 
and difference in the degree are requisite for a com¬ 
parison; likeness in the degree and opposition in the 
quality are requisite for a contrast. 

Compatible, Consistent. Compatibility has prin¬ 
cipally a reference to plans and measures; consistency 
to character, conduct, and station. Everything is com¬ 
patible with a plan which does not interrupt its prose¬ 
cution; everything is consistent with a person’s station 
by which it is neither degraded nor elevated. 

To Compel, Force, Oblige, Necessitate. To com¬ 
pel denotes moral rather than physical force; but to 
force is properly applied to the use of physical force or 
a violent degree of moral force. A man may be com¬ 
pelled to walk if he have no means of riding; he may 
be forced to go at the will of another. Oblige expresses 
only an indirect influence, which may be resisted or 
yielded at discretion. We are compelled to do that 
which is repugnant to our will and our feelings. That 
which one is obliged to do may have the assent of the 
judgment if not of the will. We are necessitated by 
circumstances, or by anything which puts it out of our 
power to do otherwise. 

Compensation, Amends, Satisfaction, Recom¬ 
pense. Remuneration, Requital, Reward. A com¬ 
pensation is a return for a loss or a damage sustained; 
amends is a return for anything that is faulty in our¬ 
selves or toward others. Satisfaction is that which 
satisfies the individual requiring it — it is given for 
personal injuries; a recompense is a voluntary return 
for a voluntary service — it is made from a generous 
feeling. Remuneration is estimated rather according to 
the condition of the person and the dignity of the serv¬ 
ice, than for its positive worth. Authors often receive a 
remuneration for their works according to the reputa- 
tion they have previously acquired, and not according 
to the real merit of the work. A reward conveys no 
idea of an obligation on the part of the person making 
it; whoever rewards acts optionally. When evil is 





LANGUAGE 


231 


returned for good, that is a bad requital, and, as a proof 
of ingratitude, wounds the feelings. 

Competent, Fitted, Qualified. Competent mostly 
respects the mental endowments and attainments; fitted, 
the disposition and character; qualified, the artificial 
acquirements or natural qualities. 

To Complain, Lament, Regret. Complaint marks 
most of dissatisfaction; lamentation most of grief; 
regret most of pain. Complaint is expressed verbally; 
lamentation either by words or signs; regret may be 
felt without being expressed. Complaint is made of 
personal grievances; lamentation and regret may be 
made on account of others as well as ourselves. We 
complain of our ill health, of our inconveniences, or of 
troublesome circumstances; we lament our inability 
to serve another; we regret the absence of one whom 
we love. 

Complaint, Accusation. A complaint is mostly 
made in matters that personally affect the complainant; 
an accusation is made of matters in general, but es¬ 
pecially those of a moral nature. A complaint is made 
for the sake of obtaining redress; an accusation is made 
for the sake of ascertaining a fact or for the sake of 
bringing to punishment. 

Complaisance, Deference, Condescension. Com¬ 
plaisance signifies the act of complying with, or pleasing 
others; deference marks the inclination to defer, or 
acquiesce in the sentiments of another in preference to 
one’s own; condescension marks the act of conceding 
one’s point to yield to the satisfaction of others, rather 
than rigorously to exact one’s rights. The necessities 
and the allurements of society and of intimacy lead 
to complaisance; it makes sacrifices to the wishes, 
tastes, and personal feelings of others. Complaisance is 
the act of an equal; deference that of an inferior; 
condescension that of a superior. 

Complete, Perfect, Finished. That is complete 
which has no deficiency; that is perfect which has posi¬ 
tive excellence; and that is finished which is at an 
end. 

To Complete, Finish, Terminate. The character¬ 
istic idea of completing is that of making a thing alto¬ 
gether what it ought to be; that of finishing, the doing 
all that is intended to be done toward a thing; and that 
of terminating, simply putting an end to a thing. 

Compliant, Yielding, Submissive. A compliant 
person may want command of feeling; a yielding person 
may want fixedness of principle; a submissive person 
may want resolution. A too compliant disposition will 
be imposed upon by the selfish and the unreasonable; a 
too yielding disposition is most unfit for commanding; a 
too submissive disposition exposes a person to the exac¬ 
tions of tyranny. 

To Comply, Conform, Yield, Submit. To com¬ 
ply is to act from inclination; to conform is to act 
from judgment. Compliance is altogether optional; we 
comply with a thing or not, at pleasure. Conformity is 
binding on the conscience; it relates to matters in which 
there is a right and a wrong. To yield is to give way to 
another, either with one’s will, judgment, or outward 
conduct. To submit is to give up oneself altogether; it 
is the substitution of another’s will for one’s own. 

To Compose, Settle. We compose that which has 
been disjointed and separated, by bringing it together 
again; we settle that which has been disturbed and put 
in motion, by making it rest. 

Composed, Sedate. Composed is opposite to ruffled 
or hurried, and is a temporary state; sedate is opposed 
to buoyant or volatile, and is a permanent habit of the 
mind or the body. 

To Compound, Compose. Compound is used in the 
physical sense only; compose in the proper or the moral 
sense. A medicine is compounded of many ingredients; 
society is composed of various classes. 

Comprehensive, Extensive. Comprehensive re¬ 
spects quantity; extensive regards space. A compre¬ 
hensive view of a subject includes all branches of it; 
an extensive view of a subject enters into minute details. 
The comprehensive is associated with the concise; the 
extensive with the diffuse. 

To Comprise, Comprehend, Embrace, Contain, 
Include. A library comprises a variety of books; the 
whole is comprised within a small compass. Laws com¬ 
prehend a number of cases. A discourse embraces a 
variety of topics. A society contains very many indi¬ 
viduals; it includes none but those of a certain class, 
or it includes some of every class. 

To Conceal, Dissemble, Disguise. To conceal is 
simply to abstain from making known what we wish to 
keep secret; to dissemble and disguise signify to conceal, 
by assuming some false appearance. We conceal facts; 
we dissemble feelings; we disguise sentiments. 

To Conceal, Hide, Secrete. To conceal is to keep 


from observation; to hide is to put under cover; to 
secrete is to set at a distance or in unfrequented 
places. 

Concealment, Secrecy. Concealment has to do 
with what concerns otherssecrecy with that which 
concerns ourselves. What is concealed is kept from 
the observation of others; what is secret is known only 
to ourselves. 

Conceit, Fancy. Conceit applies only to internal 
objects; it is mental in the operation and the result; 
it is a species of invention: fancy is applied to external 
objects, or whatever acts on the senses. Nervous people 
are subject to strange conceits; timid people fancy they 
hear sounds or see objects in the dark, which awaken 
terror. 

To Conceive, Understand, Comprehend. Con¬ 
ception is the simplest operation of the three: when we 
conceive we may have but one idea; when we under¬ 
stand or comprehend we have all the ideas which the 
subject is capable of presenting. The builder conceives 
plans; the scholar understands languages; the meta¬ 
physician attempts to explain many things which are 
not to be comprehended. 

Conception, Notion. Conception is the mind’s own 
work, what it pictures to itself from the exercise of its 
own powers; notion is the representation of objects as 
they are drawn from observation. Conceptions are the 
fruit of the understanding and the imagination; notions 
are the result of experience and information. 

To Concert, Contrive, Manage. There is a secret 
understanding in concerting; invention in contriving; 
execution in managing. Measures are concerted; 
schemes are contrived; affairs are managed. 

To Conciliate, Reconcile. To conciliate is to get 
the good-will and affections for oneself; to reconcile 
is to unite the affections of two persons to each 
other. 

Conclusion, Inference, Deduction. Conclusions 
are drawn from real facts; inferences are drawn from 
the appearances of things; deductions only from argu¬ 
ments or assertions. Conclusions are practical; infer¬ 
ences ratiocinative; deductions are final. 

Conclusive, Decisive, Convincing. Conclusive ap¬ 
plies either to practical or argumentative matters; 
decisive to what is practical only; convincing to what 
is argumentative only. It is necessary to be conclusive 
when we deliberate, and decisive when we command. 
An argument is convincing, a chain of reasoning con¬ 
clusive. 

Concord, Harmony. Concord is generally employed 
for the union of wills and affections; harmony respects 
the aptitude of minds to coalesce. Harmony may be 
used in the sense of adaptation to things generally. 

Condition, Station. Condition has most relation to 
circumstances, education, birth, and the like; station 
refers rather to the rank, occupation, or mode of life 
which is marked out. 

To Conduce, Contribute. To conduce signifies to 
serve the full purpose; to contribute signifies only to 
serve a secondary purpose. Exercise conduces to the 
health; it contributes to give vigor to the frame. 

To Conduct, Manage, Direct. Conducting requires 
most wisdom and knowledge; managing most action; 
direction most authority. A lawyer conducts the cause 
intrusted to him; a steward manages the mercantile 
concerns for his employer; a superintendent directs the 
movements of all the subordinate agents. 

Confederate, Accomplice. A confederate is a part¬ 
ner in a plot or a secret association; an accomplice is a 
partner in some active violation of the laws. 

To Confer, Bestow. Conferring is an act of author¬ 
ity: bestowing that of charity or generosity. Princes 
and men in power confer; people in a private station 
bestow. 

Confidence, Trust. Confidence is an extraordinary 
trust, but trust is always ordinary unless the term be 
otherwise qualified. Confidence involves communica¬ 
tion of a man’s mind to another, but trust is confined 
to matters of action.. 

Confident, Dogmatical, Positive. Confidence im¬ 
plies a general reliance on one’s abilities in whatever we 
undertake; dogmatism implies a reliance on the truth 
of our opinions; positivity a reliance on the truth of our 
assertions. A confident man is always ready to act, 
as he is sure of succeeding; a dogmatical man is always 
ready to speak, as he is sure of being heard; a positive 
man is determined to maintain what he has asserted, 
as he is convinced that he has made no mistake. 

To Confirm, Corroborate. What confirms serves 
to strengthen the mind; what corroborates gives 
weight to the thing. An opinion or a story is confirmed; 
an evidence or the representation of a person is corrobo¬ 
rated. 



232 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


To Confirm, Establish. To confirm is applied to 
what is partial, if not temporary; to establish to tnat 
which is permanent and of importance, as to confirm 
a report, to establish a reputation, to confirm a treaty 
or alliance, to establish a trade or a government. 

Conformable, Agreeable, Suitable. Conformable 
is employed for matters of obligation; agreeable tor 
matters of choice; suitable for matters of propriety 
and discretion. What is conformable accords with some 
prescribed form or given rule of others; what is agree¬ 
able accords with the feelings,_ tempers, or judgments 
of ourselves or others; what is suitable accords witn 
outward circumstances. , 

To Confound, Confuse. A person confounds one 
thing with another; objects become confused, or a 
person confuses himself. It is a common error among 
ignorant people to confound names, and among chil¬ 
dren to have their ideas confused on commencing a 
new study. , . .. . , 

To Confront, Face. Confront implies to set face to 
face; and face signifies to set the face toward any object. 

Witnesses are confronted; a person faces danger. 

Confusion, Disorder. Confusion supposes the ab¬ 
sence of all order; disorder the derangement of order 
where it exists, or is supposed to exist. ' 

To Confute, Refute, Disprove, Oppugn. lo con¬ 
fute respects what is argumentative; refute what is 
practical and personal; disprove whatever is represented 
or related; oppugn what is held or maintained. An 
argument is confuted by proving its fallacy; a charge 
is refuted by proving the innocence of the party charged; 
an assertion is disproved by proving that it is incorrect; 
a doctrine is oppugned by a course of reasoning. 

To Connect, Combine, Unite. What is connected 
and combined remains distinct, but what is united loses 
all individuality. Things the most dissimilar may be 
connected or combined; things of the same kind only 
can be united. Houses are connected by means of a 
common passage; the armies of two nations are com¬ 
bined; two armies of the same nation are united. 

Connection, Relation. Families are connected with 
each other by the ties of blood or marriage; persons are 
connected with each other in the way of trade or busi¬ 
ness; objects stand in a certain relation to each other, 
as persons stand in the relation of giver and receiver, 
or of debtor and creditor. 

Conqueror, Victor. A conqueror is always supposed 
to add something to his possessions; a victor gains 
nothing but the superiority. Those who take possession 
of other men’s lands by force of arms make a conquest; 
those who excel in any trial of skill are the victors. 

To Consent, Permit, Allow. As the act of an equal 
we consent to that in which we have a common interest 
with others. We permit or allow what is for the accom¬ 
modation of others: we allow by not opposing; we 
permit by a direct expression of our will. Contracts 
are formed by the consent of the parties who are inter¬ 
ested. The proprietor of an estate permits his friends 
to sport on his grounds; he allows a passage through 
his premises. A parent consents to the establishment of 
his children; he permits them to read certain books; 
he allows them to converse with him familiarly. 

Consequence, Effect, Result, Issue, Event. A 
consequence is that which follows of itself, without any 
qualification or restriction; an effect is that which is 
effected or produced, or which follows from the connec¬ 
tion between the thing effecting, as a cause, and the 
thing effected. A result is general, following from a 
whole; there may be many consequences from the same 
thing, with one result only. We speak of the issue 
of a negotiation or a battle, and the event of a war. 
The fate of a nation sometimes hangs on the issue of a 
battle; the measures of government are often unjustly 
praised or blamed according to the event. 

To Consider, Reflect. To consider is employed 
for practical purposes; to reflect for matters of specula¬ 
tion or moral improvement. Common objects call for 
consideration; the workings of the mind itself, or ob¬ 
jects purely spiritual, occupy reflection. 

To Consider, Regard. There is more caution or 
thought in considering; more personal interest in re¬ 
garding. To consider is to bear in mind all that pru¬ 
dence or propriety suggests; to regard is to bear in 
mind all that our wishes or interests suggest. 

Consideration, Reason. The consideration influ¬ 
ences particular actions; the reason determines a line 
of conduct. 

Consonant, Accordant, Consistent. Consonant is 
employed in matters of representation; accordant in 
matters of opinion or sentiment; consistent in matters 
of conduct. 

Constancy, Stability, Steadiness, Firmness. 
Constancy respects the affections; stability the opinions; 


steadiness the action, or the motives of action; firmness 
the purpose or resolution. 

To Constitute, Appoint, Depute. To constitute is 
the act of a body; to appoint and depute, either of a 
body or an individual: a community constitutes any 
one their leader; a monarch appoints his ministers. 
Whoever is deputed has private and not public author¬ 
ity; his office is partial, often confined to the particular 
transaction of an individual, or a body of individuals. 

To Consult, Deliberate. Consultations always re¬ 
quire two persons at least; deliberations may be carried 
on either with a man’s self or with numbers. An individ¬ 
ual may consult with one or many; assemblies com¬ 
monly deliberate. 

To Consummate, Complete. Wishes are con¬ 
summated; plans are completed. 

Contagion, Infection. We consider contagion as 
to the manner of spreading from one body to another; 
we consider infection as to the act of its working itself 
into the system. Whatever acts by contagion acts im¬ 
mediately by direct personal contact; whatever acts by 
infection acts gradually and indirectly, or through the 
medium of a third body, as clothes, or the air when 
infected. 

Contagious, Epidemical, Pestilential. The con¬ 
tagious applies to that which is capable of being caught, 
and ought not, therefore, to be touched; the epidemical 
to that which is already caught or circulated, and 
requires, therefore, to be stopped; the pestilential to 
that which may breed an evil, and is, therefore, to be 
removed. Diseases are contagious or epidemical; the 
air or breath is pestilential. 

To Contaminate, Defile, Pollute, Taint, Corrupt. 

Whatever is impure contaminates; what is gross and 
vile in the natural sense defiles, and in the moral sense 
pollutes; what is contagious or infectious corrupts; and 
what is corrupted may taint other things. 

To Contemn, Despise, Scorn, Disdain. Contemn 
signifies to pollute or render worthless, which is the cause 
of contempt. Despise signifies to look down upon, 
which is a strong mark of contempt; scorn signifies 
stripped of all honors and exposed to derision, which 
situation is the cause of scorn; disdain signifies to hold 
altogether unworthy. 

To Contemplate, 3Ieditate, Muse. Different 

species of reflection are marked by these terms. We 
contemplate what is present or before our eyes; we 
meditate on what is past or absent. The heavens and 
all the works of the Creator are objects of contemplation; 
the ways of Providence are fit subjects for meditation. 
One muses on events or circumstances which have 
recently passed. 

Contemptible, Contemptuous. Contemptible is 
applied to the thing deserving contempt; contemptuous 
to that which is expressive of contempt. A production 
is contemptible: a sneer or a look is contemptuous. 

To Contend, Contest, Dispute. To contend is 
simply to exert a force against a force; to contest is to 
struggle together for an object; to dispute, according 
to its original meaning, applies to opinions only, and is 
distinguished from contend in this, that the latter 
signifies to maintain one’s own opinion, and the former 
to call in question the opinion of another. 

Contentment, Satisfaction. Contentment lies in 
ourselves; satisfaction is derived from external objects. 
One is contented when one wishes for no more: one is 
satisfied when one has obtained all one wishes. Con¬ 
tentment is within the reach of the poor man, to whom 
it is a continual feast; but satisfaction has never been 
procured by wealth, however enormous, or ambition, 
however boundless. 

Continual, Perpetual, Constant. What is con¬ 
tinual admits of no interruption: what is perpetual 
admits of no termination. There may be an end to that 
which is continual, and there may be intervals in that 
which is perpetual. Constant, like continual, admits 
of no interruption, and it also admits of no change. 
What is continual may not always continue in the same 
state; but what is constant remains in the same state. 

Continual, Continued. What is continual may 
have frequent pauses; what is continued ceases only to 
terminate. 

Continuance, Continuation, Duration. The con¬ 
tinuance is said of that which itself continues; the con¬ 
tinuation of that which is continued by some other 
agency, as the continuance of the rain, the continuation 
of a history, work, line, etc. Things are of long or short 
duration by comparison. 

• To Continue, Remain, Stay. To continue is asso¬ 
ciated with a state of action; to remain with a state of 
rest. We are said to continue to speak, or do anything, 
to remain stationary, or in a position. Stay is a volun¬ 
tary act, as to stay at a friend’s, or with a friend. 



LANGUAGE 


233 


To Continue, Persevere, Persist. We continue from 
habit or casualty; we persevere from reflection and the 
exercise of our judgment; we persist from attachment. 
A child perseveres in a new study until he has mastered 
it; he persists in making a request until he has obtained 
the object of his desire. 

Contracted, Confined, Narrow. Contracted signi¬ 
fies drawn into a smaller compass than it might other¬ 
wise be in: confined signifies brought within unusu¬ 
ally small bounds; it is said of that which is made or 
becomes so by circumstances. Narrow is the opposite 
of broad, in extent, scope, views, and resources. 
A limb is said to be contracted which is drawn up by 
disease; a situation is confined which has not the 
necessary or usual degree of open space; a road or a 
mind is narrow. 

To Contradict, Deny. One contradicts in direct terms 
by asserting something contrary; one denies by advancing 
arguments, or by suggesting doubts or difficulties. These 
terms may, therefore, both be used in reference to dispu¬ 
tations. We may deny the truth of a position by 
contradicting the assertions that are advanced in its 
support. 

To Controvert, Dispute. To controvert has regard 
to speculative points; to dispute respects matters of 
fact: there is more of opposition in controversy; more 
of doubt in disputing. A sophist controverts; a sceptic 
disputes. 

Contumacious, Rebellious. The contumacious resist 
only occasionally; the rebellious resist systematically: 
the contumacious stand only on certain points, and oppose 
the individual; the rebellious set themselves up against 
the authority itself. 

Convenient, Suitable. Convenient regards the cir¬ 
cumstances of the individual; suitable respects the 
established opinions of mankind, and is closely con¬ 
nected with moral propriety: nothing is convenient 
which does not favor one’s purpose; nothing is suitable 
which does not suit the person, place, and thing. 

Conversant, Familiar. A person is conversant in 
matters that come frequently before his notice; he is 
familiar with such as form the daily routine of his 
business. 

Conversation, Dialogue, Conference, Colloquy. 

A conversation is always something actually held be¬ 
tween two or more persons; a dialogue is mostly ficti¬ 
tious, and written as if spoken: any number of persons 
may take part in a conversation, but a dialogue always 
refers to the two persons who are expressly engaged. 
A conference is always specifically appointed and is 
mostly on public concerns. The colloquy has the same 
character as the dialogue but is not confined to two 
people. 

Convert, Proselyte. Convert is more extensive in 
its sense and application than proselyte: convert in its 
full sense includes every change of opinion, without 
respect to the subject. Proselyte, in its original applica¬ 
tion, denoted changes only from one religious. belief to 
another; proselyte now means a new convert to a 
religion, a religious sect, or to some particular system 
or party. 

To Convict, Detect. A person is convicted by 
means of evidence; he is detected by means of ocular 
demonstration. One is convicted of having been the 
perpetrator of some evil deed; one is detected in the 
very act of committing the deed. 

To Convict, Convince, Persuade. A person may 
be convicted of heresy, if it be proved to the satisfaction 
of others; he may be convinced that the opinion which 
he has held is heretical. So a person may be convicted 
who is involuntarily convinced of his error, but he is 
convinced if he is made sensible of his error without 
any fojce on his own mind. What convinces binds; 
what persuades attracts: our persuasion respects matters 
of belief or practice. 

Convivial, Social. The prominent idea in con¬ 
vivial is that. of sensual indulgence; the prominent 
idea in social is that of enjoyment from an intercourse 
with society. We speak of convivial meetings, convivial 
enjoyments, or the convivial board; but social inter¬ 
course, social pleasure, social amusements, and the 
like. 

To Copy, Transcribe. To copy respects the matter; 
to transcribe respects simply the act of writing. What 
is copied must be taken immediately from the original, 
with which it must exactly correspond; what is tran¬ 
scribed may be taken from the copy, but not necessarily 
in an entire state. A copier should be very exact; a 
transcriber should be a good writer. 

Copy, Model, Pattern, Specimen. The term copy 
is applied to that which is delineated, as writings or 
pictures, which must be taken faithfully and literally; 
a model is that which may be used as a guide or a rule; 


the pattern regards solely the outward form or the color 
of anything that is made or manufactured; the specimen 
is any portion of a material which serves to show the 
quality of that of which it forms a part. 

Coquette, Jilt. The coquette makes a traffic of her 
own charms by seeking a multitude of admirers; the 
jilt sports with the sacred passion of love, and barters 
it for the gratification of any selfish propensity. 

Correct, Accurate. What is don.e by the exercise 
of the judgment is said to be correct, as a correct style, 
a correct writer; what is done by the effort of the indi¬ 
vidual is more properly accurate, as accurate observa¬ 
tions, an accurate survey. 

Correction, Discipline, Punishment. As correc¬ 
tion and discipline have commonly required punishment 
to render them efficacious, custom has affixed to them 
a strong resemblance in their application, although they 
are distinguished from each other by obvious marks of 
difference. The prominent idea in correction (v. to cor¬ 
rect) is that of making right what has been wrong. In 
discipline, the leading idea is that of instructing or 
regulating. In punishment, the leading idea is that of 
inflicting pain. We remove an evil by correction; we 
prevent it by discipline. 

To Correspond, Accord. To correspond is to 
answer or conform to the description of something else. 
Things that correspond must be alike in size, shape, 
color, and every minute particular. Appearance and 
reality seldom correspond. To accord is to make to agree 
or correspond, to suit one thing to another. Things 
that accord must be suited to each other. His disposi¬ 
tion accords with his looks. 

Cost, Expense, Price, Charge. The cost is what 
a thing costs, or what is to be laid out for it; the expense 
is that which a person actually lays out; the price is 
that which a thing may fetch or which it may be worth: 
the charge is that which a person or a thing is charged 
with. We do a thing at our own cost, but at another’s 
expense; we can never set a price on anything until we 
have ascertained what it has cost us, nor can we know 
or defray the expense until the charge be made. In the 
moral acceptation, the attainment of an object is said 
to cost much pains; a thing is persisted in at the expense 
of health, of honor, or of life. The sacrifice of a man’s 
quiet is the price which he must pay for the gratification 
of his ambition. 

To Countenance, Sanction, Support. Persons are 
countenanced; things are sanctioned; persons or things 
are supported. Persons are countenanced in their pro¬ 
ceedings by the apparent approbation of others; meas¬ 
ures are sanctioned by the consent or the approbation of 
others who have due authority; measures or persons 
are supported by every means which may forward the 
object. 

Courage, Fortitude, Resolution. Courage respects 
action; fortitude respects passion: a man has courage 
to meet danger, and fortitude to endure pain. Resolution 
simply marks the will not to recede: we require resolu¬ 
tion not to yield to the first difficulties that offer. 

To Cover, Hide. The ruling idea in the word cover 
is that of throwing or putting something over a body; 
in the word hide is that of keeping carefully to one’s 
self, from the observation of others. 

Cover, Shelter, Screen. Cover includes the idea 
of concealing; shelter comprehends that of protecting 
from some immediate or impending evil; screen includes 
that of warding off some trouble. 

Credit, Favor, Influence. These terms mark the 
state we stand in with regard to others as flowing out of 
their sentiments toward ourselves: credit arises from 
esteem; favor from good-will or affection; influence 
from either credit or favor, or external circumstances. 
Influence is employed in directing others: weak people 
easily give their credit, or bestow their favor, by which 
an influence is gained over them to bend them to the 
will of others. 

Crime, Vice, Sin. A crime is a social offense; a 
vice is a personal offense. Every action which does 
injury to others, either individually or collectively, is a 
crime; that which' does injury to ourselves is a vice. 
Crime consists in a violation of human laws; vice in a 
violation of the moral law; sin in a violation of the 
Divine Law. 

Criminal, Culprit, Malefactor, Felon, Convict. 

When we wish to speak in general of those who by offenses 
against the laws or regulations of society have exposed 
themselves to punishment, we denominate them crimi¬ 
nals; when we consider them as already brought before 
a tribunal, we call them culprits; when we consider 
them in regard to the moral turpitude of their character, 
as the promoters of evil rather than of good, we entitle 
them malefactors; when we consider them as offending 
by the grosser violations of the law, they are termed 



234 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


felons; when we consider them as already under the 
sentence of the law, we denominate them convicts. 

Criterion, Standard. The criterion is employed 
only in matters of judgment; the standard is used in 
the ordinary concerns of life. The former serves for 
determining the characters and qualities of things; the 
latter for defining quantity and measure. 

Cruel, Inhuman, Barbarous, Brutal, Savage. 
A person is cruel who neglects the creature he should 
protect and take care of; he is inhuman if he withholds 
from him the common marks of tenderness or kindness 
which are to be expected from one human being to 
another; he is barbarous if he finds amusement in 
inflicting pain; he is brutal or savage according to 
the circumstances of aggravation which accompany the 
act of torturing. 

Crying, Weeping. Crying arises from an impatience 
in suffering corporeal pains; weeping is occasioned by 
mental grief. 

Cultivation, Culture, Civilization, Refinement. 

Cultivation is with more propriety applied to the thing 
that grows; culture to that in which it grows. The 
cultivation of flowers will not repay the labor unless the 
soil be prepared by proper culture. Civilization is the 
first stage of cultivation; refinement is the last. We 
civilize savages by divesting them of their rudeness, 
and giving them a knowledge of such arts as are requisite 
for civil society; we refine them by the introduction of 
the liberal arts. 

To Cure, Heal, Remedy. To cure is employed for 
what is out of order; to heal for that which is broken. 
Diseases are cured, wounds are healed; the former is a 
complex, the latter is a simple process. Whatever 
requires to be cured is wrong in the system; whatever 
requires to be healed is occasioned externally by violence, 
and requires external applications. To remedy, in the 
sense of applying remedies, has a moral application; 
an omission, a deficiency, or a mischief, requires to be 
remedied. 

Cure, Remedy. A cure is performed by the appli¬ 
cation of a remedy. 

Curious, Inquisitive, Prying. Curious respects 
all objects that can gratify the inclination, taste, or 
understanding; inquisitive respects such things only as 
satisfy the understanding; a prying temper is unceasing 
in its endeavors to get acquainted with the secrets of 
others. 

Cursory, Hasty, Slight, Desultory. An author 
will take a cursory view of those points which are not 
necessarily connected with his subject; an author who 
takes a hasty view of a subject will mislead by his errors; 
he who takes a slight view will disappoint by the shal¬ 
lowness of his information. Between cursory and 
desultory there is the same difference as between run¬ 
ning and leaping: we run in a line, but we leap from 
one part to another; so remarks that are cursory have 
more or less connection, but remarks that are desultory 
are without any coherence. 

Custom, Habit. Custom is a frequent repetition of 
the same act; habit the effect of such repetition. Cus¬ 
tom supposes an act of the will; habit implies an invol¬ 
untary movement. A custom is followed; a habit is ac¬ 
quired. 

Custom, Fashion, Manner, Practice. Custom 
is authoritative; it stands in the place of law, and 
regulates the conduct of men in the most important 
concerns of life. Fashion is arbitrary and capricious; it 
decides in matters of trifling import. Manners are 
rational; they are the expressions of moral feelings. 
Practice signifies actual doing or the thing done: it may 
be the practice of a person to do acts of charity, as the 
occasion requires; but, when he uniformly does a par¬ 
ticular act of charity at any given period of the year, 
it is properly denominated his custom. 

. Daily, Diurnal. Daily is the colloquial term which 
is applicable to whatever passes in the daytime; diurnal 
is the scientific term, which applies to what passes 
within or belongs to the astronomical day. 

Danger, Peril, Hazard. Danger signifies the 
chance of a loss; peril signifies either to go over or to 
perish; as, a critical situation, a rude trial, which may 
terminate in one’s ruin. In all walks of life we are in 
danger; the explorer undergoes perils. Hazard respects 
the possibility of either good or evil. When we run the 
hazard of a battle, we may either win or lose. 

Daring, Bold. He who is daring provokes resist¬ 
ance and courts danger; but the bold man is contented 
to overcome the resistance that is offered to him. A man 
may be bold in the use of words only; he must be daring 
in actions: he is bold in the defense of truth; he is 
daring in military enterprise. 

Dark, Obscure, Dim, Mysterious. Dark is 
opposed to light; obscure to bright. What is dark is 


altogether hidden; what is obscure is not to be seen 
distinctly, or without an effort. Dim expresses a de¬ 
gree of darkness, but it is employed more in relation 
to the person seeing than to the object seen. Any intri¬ 
cate affair, which involves the characters and conduct 
of men, may be mysterious. 

Deadly, Mortal, Fatal. Deadly is applied to what 
is productive of death; mortal to what terminates in 
or is liable to death; fatal applies not only to death, but 
to everything which may be of serious consequence. 

To Debate, Deliberate. These terms equally mark 
the acts of pausing or withholding the decision, whether 
applicable to one or many. To debate (v. to controvert, 
dispute) supposes always a contrariety of opinion: to 
deliberate (v. to consult, deliberate) supposes simply 
the weighing or estimating the value of the opinion that 
is offered. 

Debility, Infirmity, Imbecility. Debility is con¬ 
stitutional, or otherwise; imbecility is always constitu¬ 
tional; infirmity is accidental, and results from sickness 
or a decay of the frame. Debility may be either general 
or local; infirmity is always local; imbecility always 
general. 

Debt, Due. Debt is commonly applied to that 
which is owing from the person spoken of; due is always 
applied to that which is owing to the person: to pay 
one’s debts, and receive one’s due. 

Decay, Decline, Consumption. What is decayed 
is fallen or gone; what declines leads toward a fall, or 
is going. Consumption (v. to consume) implies a rapid 
decay. 

Deceit, Deception. A person is said to be guilty of 
deceit who has sought to deceive another for his own 
purposes; but deceptions may be practiced in a diver¬ 
sity of w T ays, and from a diversity of motives. Deceitful 
and deceptive are employed with this distinction: a 
person is said to be deceitful, and a thing deceptive. 

Deceit, Fraud, Guile. Deceit is practiced only in 
private transactions; fraud is practiced toward bodies 
as well as individuals, in public as well as in private. A 
child practices deceit toward its parents; frauds are 
practiced upon government. Guile marks a strong de¬ 
gree of moral turpitude in the individual; guileless is 
applied to characters which are the most diametrically 
opposed to, and at the greatest possible distance from, 
that which is false. 

Deceiver, Impostor. A deceiver is any one who 
practices any sort of deception; but an impostor is a 
deceiver who studiously deceives by putting on a false 
appearance. 

Decency, Decorum. Decency respects a man’s 
conduct; decorum, his behavior. 

Decided, Determined, Resolute. A man who is 
decided remains in no doubt; he who is determined is 
uninfluenced by the doubts or questions of others; he 
who is resolute (v. to determine, resolve) is uninfluenced 
by the consequences of his actions. 

Decided, Decisive. Decided marks that which is 
actually decided; decisive that wdiich appertains to 
decision. A person’s aversion or attachment is decided; 
a sentence, a judgment, or a victory, is decisive. 

Decision, Judgment, Sentence. A decision has no 
respect to the agent; it may be said of one or many; 
it may be the decision of the court, of the nation, of the 
public, of a particular body of men, or of a private 
individual. But a judgment is given in a public court, 
or among private individuals. A sentence is passed in 
a court of law, or at the bar of the public. 

To Declaim, Inveigh. Declaim signifies literally to 
cry aloud in a set form of words; inveigh involves 
injurious censure or reproach. Public men and public 
measures are subjects for the declaimer; private indi¬ 
viduals afford subjects for inveighing against. 

To Declare, Publish, Proclaim. In declaring, the 
leading idea is that of speaking out that which passes 
in the mind; in publishing, the leading idea is that of 
making public or common; in proclaiming, the leading 
idea is that of crying aloud. Facts and opinions are 
declared; events and circumstances are published; the 
measures of government are proclaimed. 

Decree, Edict, Proclamation. A decree is a more 
solemn and deliberative act than an edict; on the other 
hand, an edict is more authoritative than a decree. 
A decree is the decision of one or many; an edict speaks 
the will of an individual: councils and senates, as well 
as princes, make decrees; despotic rulers issue edicts. 
An edict is peculiar to a despotic government; a procla¬ 
mation is common to a monarchical and aristocratic 
form of government. 

To Dedicate, Devote, Consecrate, Hallow. There 

is something more solemn in the act of dedicating than 
in that of devoting; but less so than in that of conse¬ 
crating. To dedicate and devote may be employed in 




LANGUAGE 


235 


both temporal and spiritual matters; to consecrate and 
hallow only in the spiritual sense. We may dedicate or 
devote anything that is at our disposal to the service 
of some object; but the former is employed mostly in 
regard to superiors, and the latter to persons without 
distinction of rank. We dedicate a house to the service 
of God; we devote our time to the benefit of our friends, 
or to the relief of the poor. We may dedicate or devote 
ourselves to an object: the former always implies a 
solemn setting apart springing from a sense of duty: 
the latter an entire application of oneself from zeal 
and affection. To consecrate is to declare sacred by 
means of religious ceremony. The church is conse¬ 
crated; particular days are hallowed. 

Deduction, Abatement. Both these words imply 
a taking off from something. A person may make a 
deduction in an account for various reasons, but he 
makes an abatement in a demand when it is objected 
to as excessive. 

To Deface, Disfigure, Deform. To deface is an 
act of destruction; it is the actual destruction of that 
which has before existed. To disfigure is either an act 
of destruction or an erroneous execution, which takes 
away the figure. To deform is altogether an imperfect 
execution, which renders the form what it should not be. 

Defective, Deficient. Defective expresses the qual¬ 
ity or property of having a defect; deficient is employed 
with regard to the thing itself that is wanting. A book 
may be defective, in consequence of some leaves being 
deficient. A deficiency is, therefore, often what consti¬ 
tutes a defect. 

To Defend, Protect, Vindicate. A person may be 
defended in any particular case of actual danger or 
difficulty; he is protected from what may happen as 
well as what does happen. Defense respects the evil 
that threatens; protection involves the supply of neces¬ 
sities and the affording comforts. Vindicate respects 
a form of defense only in the moral sense of the word. 
Acts of importance are defended; those of trifling import 
are commonly vindicated. 

Defendant, Defender. The defendant defends him¬ 
self (v. to defend); the defender defends another. 

Defender, Advocate, Pleader. A defender exerts 
himself in favor of one that wants support. An advocate 
signifies one who is called to speak in favor of another; 
he exerts himself in favor of any cause that offers. A 
pleader, from plea or excuse, signifies him who pleads 
in behalf of one who is accused or in distress. 

Definite, Positive. Definite signifies that which is 
defined, or has the limits drawn or marked out; positive 
that which is placed or fixed in a particular manner. 
Definite is said of things as they present themselves or 
are presented to the mind, as a definite idea, a definite 
proposal. Positive is said of a person's temper of mind; 
a person is positive as to his opinions, or an assurance 
is positive which serves to make one positive. 

Deity, Divinity. Deity signifies a divine person; 
divinity signifies the divine essence or power. 

Dejection, Depression, Melancholy. Depression 
is but a degree of dejection. Slight circumstances may 
occasion a depression; distressing events occasion a 
dejection: the death of a near and dear relative may 
be expected to produce dejection in persons of the 
greatest equanimity. Melancholy is a disease which 
nothing but clear views of religion can possibly correct. 

To Delegate, Depute — Delegate, Deputy. To 
delegate is applied to the power or the office which is given; 
depute to the person employed. Parents delegate their 
office to the instructor; persons are deputed to act 
for others. A delegate is the person commissioned, 
who is bound to act according to his commission; the 
deputy is the person deputed, who acts in the place of 
another, but may act according to his own discretion 
or otherwise, as circumstances require. 

To Deliver, Rescue, Save. One may be delivered 
from any evil, whether great or small, and in any man¬ 
ner. To rescue is to deliver from a great impending 
danger or immediate evil, as to rescue from the hands 
of robbers, or from the jaws of a wild beast. To save 
signifies to keep from evil. 

To Demand, Require. We demand that which 
is owing and ought to be given; we require that which 
we wish and expect to have done. The creditor makes 
a demand on the debtor; the master requires a certain 
portion of duty from his servant. 

To Demur, Hesitate, Pause. We demur from 
doubt or difficulty; we hesitate from an undecided state 
of mind; we pause from circumstances. Demurring is 
a matter of prudence, it is always grounded on some 
reason; hesitating is rather a matter of feeling, and is 
oftener faulty than otherwise. When a request of a 
dubious nature is made of us, we hesitate in complying 
with it. 


Demur, Doubt, Hesitation, Objection. Demurs 

often occur in matters of deliberation; doubt in regard 
to matters of fact; hesitation in matters of ordinary 
conduct; and objections in matters of common consid¬ 
eration. Artabanes made many demurs to the proposed 
invasion of Greece by Xerxes. Doubts have been sug¬ 
gested respecting the veracity of Herodotus as a his¬ 
torian. It is not proper to ask that which cannot be 
granted without hesitation. There are but few things 
which we either attempt to do or recommend to others 
that are not liable to some kind of an objection. 

To Denote, Signify. Denote is employed with re¬ 
gard to things ana their characters; signify with regard 
to the thoughts or movements. A letter or character 
may be made to denote any number, as words are made 
to signify the intentions and wishes of the person. 

To Deny, Refuse. To deny respects matters of fact 
or knowledge; to refuse, matters of wish or request. 
We deny what immediately relates to ourselves; we 
refuse what relates to another. 

To Deplore, Lament. Deplore is a much stronger 
expression than lament: the former calls forth tears 
from the bitterness of the heart; the latter excites a 
cry from the warmth of feeling. Deploring indicates 
despair; lamenting marks only pain or distress. 

Deponent, Evidence, Witness. All these words 
are properly applied to judicial proceedings, where the 
deponent testifies generally to facts either in causes or 
otherwise. The evidence consists either of persons or 
things, which are brought before the court for the pur¬ 
pose of making a doubtful matter clear; the witness is 
always a person who bears witness to any fact for or 
against another. 

Deposit, Pledge, Security. The term deposit has 
most regard to the confidence we place in another; 
pledge has most regard to the security we give for our¬ 
selves; security is a form of pledge. A security is 
whatever makes a person secure against a loss, and in 
the ordinary acceptation consists of any instrument or 
written document which legally binds a person. 

Depravity, Depravation, Corruption. All these 
terms are applied to objects which are contrary to the 
order of Providence. But the term depravity character¬ 
izes the thing as it is; the terms depravation and corrup¬ 
tion designate the making or causing it to be so. Deprav¬ 
ity, therefore, excludes the idea of any cause; depra¬ 
vation always carries us to the cause or external agency: 
hence we may speak of depravity as natural, but we 
speak of depravation as the result of circumstances. 
There is a depravity in man which nothing but the 
grace of God can correct. The introduction of obscenity 
on the stage tends greatly to the depravation of morals. 
Bad company tends to the corruption of a young man’s 
morals. 

Depth, Profundity. Depth is indefinite in its sig¬ 
nification; and profundity is a positive and considerable 
degree of depth. Moreover, the word depth is applied 
to objects in general; profundity is confined in its 
application to moral objects. 

To Derive, Trace, Deduce. The act of deriving is 
immediate and direct; that of tracing a gradual process; 
that of deducing a ratiocinative process. We discover 
causes and sources by derivation; we discover the course, 
progress, and commencement of things by tracing; we 
discover the grounds and reasons of things by deduction. 

Desert, Merit, Worth. Desert is taken for that 
which is good or bad; merit for that which is good only. 
We deserve praise or blame; we merit a reward. Worth 
is that which is absolutely valuable; it must be sought 
for on its own account. 

To Design, Purpose, Intend, Mean. To design is 
to plan something studied and methodical, it requires re¬ 
flection; to purpose is to propose or set before the 
mind; to intend signifies the act to which the mind 
bends or inclines. We purpose seriously; we intend 
vaguely; we set about that which we purpose; we may 
delay that which we have only intended. Mean, which 
is a term altogether of colloquial use, differs but little 
from intend, except that it is used for matters requiring 
but little thought. 

To Desire, Wish, Long for. Hanker after. Covet. 

To desire is imperious; it demands gratification: to wish 
is less vehement; it consists of a strong inclination. 
To long for expresses strong and continued desire; to 
hanker after is to desire that which is set out of 
one’s reach; to covet is to desire that which belongs 
to another, or what it is in his power to grant. 

To Desist, Leave Off. To desist is voluntary or 
involuntary; to leave off is voluntary. We are fre¬ 
quently obliged to desist; but we leave off at our option. 
He who annoys another must be made to desist; he who 
does not wish to offend will leave off when requested. 
Despair, Desperation, Despondency. Despair is 



236 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


a state of mind produced by the view of external circum¬ 
stances; desperation and despondency may be the fruit 
of the imagination: the former, therefore, always rests 
on some ground; the latter are sometimes ideal. Des¬ 
peration marks a state of vehement and impatient feel- 
ing; despondency is a disease of the mind, which noth¬ 
ing but a firm trust in Providence can obviate. . 

Destiny, Fate, Lot, Doom. Destiny is used in 
regard to one’s station and walk in life; fate in regard 
to what one suffers; lot in regard to what one gets or 
possesses ; and doom is the final destiny which termi¬ 
nates unhappily, and depends mostly upon the will of 
another. Destiny is marked out; fate is fixed; a lot is 
assigned; a doom is passed. 

Destiny, Destination. Destiny is the point or line 
marked out in the walk of life; destination is the place 
fixed upon in particular: as every man has his peculiar 
destiny, so every traveler has his particular destination. 
Destiny is altogetfier set above human control; destina¬ 
tion is, however, the specific act of an individual, either 
for himself or another. 

To Destroy, Consume, Waste. To destroy is to 
reduce to nothing that which has been artificially raised 
or formed, as to destroy a house; to consume is to use 
up, as to consume food, or merchandise; to waste is to 
expend unnecessarily, extravagantly, to spend to no 
purpose, as to waste time or property. 

Destruction, Ruin. Destruction is an act of imme¬ 
diate violence; ruin is a gradual process. A thing is 
destroyed by some external action upon it; a thing 
falls to ruin of itself. 

To Detect, Discover. Detect is ahvays taken in a 
bad sense; discover in an indifferent sense. A person 
is detected in what he wishes to conceal; a person or a 
thing is discovered that has been previously unknown 
or unperceived. 

To Determine, Resolve. We determine how or 
what we shall do; this requires examination and choice. 
We resolve that we will do what we have determined 
upon; this requires a firm spirit. 

To Deviate, Wander, Swerve, Stray. Deviate 
always supposes a direct path which is departed from; 
wander includes no such idea. The act of deviating is 
commonly faulty; that of wandering is indifferent. 
To swerve is to deviate from that which one holds right; 
to stray is to wander in the same bad sense. Men swerve 
from their duty to consult their interest; the young 
stray from the path of rectitude to seek that of pleasure. 

To Devise, Bequeath. In the technical sense, to 
devise is to give lands by a will duly attested according 
to law; to bequeath is to give personalty after one’s 
death by a less formal instrument. 

To Dictate, Prescribe. Dictate, from the Latin 
“dictatus” and “dictum” (a word), literally signifies 
to make a word for another; and prescribe signifies to 
write down for another (v. to appoint): thus the former 
of these terms is used technically for a principal who 
gets his secretary to write down his words as he utters 
them; and the latter for a physician who writes down 
for his patient what he wishes him to take as a remedy. 
They are used figuratively for a sort of counsel given by 
a superior; to dictate is, however, a greater exercise of 
authority than to prescribe. He who dictates speaks 
with an adventitious authority; he who prescribes has 
the sanction of reason. 

Dictate, Suggestion. Dictate signifies the thing 
uttered, and has an imperative sense; suggestion signifies 
the thing intimated, and conveys the idea of its being 
proposed secretly or in a gentle manner. These terms 
are both applied, with this distinction, to acts of the mind. 
When conscience, reason, or passion present anything 
forcibly to the mind, it is called a dictate; when any¬ 
thing enters the mind in a casual manner, it is called a 
suggestion. 

Dictionary, Encyclopaedia. The definition of 
words, with their various changes, modifications, uses, 
acceptations, and applications, are the proper subjects of 
a dictionary; the nature and properties of things, with 
their construction, uses, powers, etc., are the proper 
subjects of an encyclopaedia. 

Dictionary, Lexicon, Vocabulary, Glossary, 
Nomenclature. Lexicon is a species of dictionary ap¬ 
propriately applied to the dead languages. Dictionary 
is applied to the wprds of a modern language. A vocabu¬ 
lary is a partial kind of dictionary, which may compre¬ 
hend a simple list of words, with or without explanation, 
arranged in order or otherwise. A glossary is an explana¬ 
tory vocabulary, which commonly serves to explain the 
obsolete terms employed in any old author. A nomen¬ 
clature is literally a list of names, and in particular a 
reference to proper names. 

To Die, Expire. Die designates in general the ex¬ 
tinction of being. Expire designates the last action of 


life in certain objects. Plants and trees die. The flame 
of a lamp expires. _ 

Difference, Variety, Diversity, Medley. Differ¬ 
ence and variety seem to lie in the things themselves; 
diversity and medley are created either by accident or 
design: a difference may lie in two objects only; a va¬ 
riety cannot exist without an assemblage: a difference 
is discovered by means of a comparison which the mind 
forms of objects to prevent confusion; variety strikes on 
the mind, and pleases the imagination with many agree¬ 
able images. Diversity arises from an assemblage of ob¬ 
jects naturally contrasted; a medley is produced by an 
assemblage of objects so ill suited as to produce a ludi¬ 
crous effect. 

Difference, Distinction. Difference (v. difference) 
lies in the thing; distinction is the act of the person: the 
former is, therefore, to the latter as the cause to the effect. 
The distinction rests on the difference: those are equally 
bad logicians who make a distinction without a difference, 
or who make no distinction where there is a difference. 
A difference is either external or internal; a distinction 
is always external: the former lies in the thing, the latter 
is designedly made. We have differences in character, and 
distinction in dress. 

Difference, Dispute, Altercation, Quarrel. A 

difference, as distinguished from the others, is generally 
of a less serious and personal kind; a dispute consists not 
only of angry words, but of much ill blood and unkind of¬ 
fices; an altercation is a wordy dispute, in which differ¬ 
ence of opinion is drawn out into a multitude of words; a 
quarrel is the most serious of all differences, which leads 
to every manner of violence. 

Different, Distinct, Separate. Different is op¬ 
posed to similar; there is no difference between ob¬ 
jects absolutely alike. Distinct is opposed to identical: 
there can be no distinction where there is only one and 
the same being. Separate is opposed to things united; 
there can be no separation between objects that coalesce 
or adhere. 

Different, Unlike. Different is positive, unlike is 
negative: we look at what is different and draw a com¬ 
parison; but that wdiich is unlike needs no comparison. 
A thing is said to be different from every other thing, or 
unlike anything seen before. 

Difficulties, Embarrassments, Troubles. These 
terms are all applicable to a person’s concerns in life. 
Difficulties may relate to the obstacles that arise in con¬ 
ducting a business. Embarrassments may relate to the 
confusion attending a state of debt. Troubles may relate 
to the pain which is the natural consequence of not 
fulfilling engagements or answering demands. 

Difficulty, Obstacle, Impediment. Difficulty 
signifies not easy to be done; obstacle signifies the thing 
that stands in the way between a person and the object 
he has in view; impediment signifies something that 
entangles the feet. A difficulty interferes with the com¬ 
pletion of any work; an obstacle interferes with the at¬ 
tainment of any end; an impediment interrupts the 
progress, and prevents the execution of one’s wishes. 

Diffuse, Prolix. Both mark defects of style op¬ 
posed to brevity. The diffuse is properly opposed to the 
precise; the prolix to the concise or laconic. A diffuse 
writer is fond of amplification, the prolix writer is fond 
of circumlocution, minute details, and trifling particu¬ 
lars. 

To Digress, Deviate. Both in the original and the 
accepted sense, these words express going out of the 
ordinary course. We digress only in a narrative, whether 
written or spoken; we deviate in actions as well as in 
words, in our conduct as well as in writings. 

To Dilate, Expand. A bladder dilates on the ad¬ 
mission of air, or the heart dilates with joy. Knowledge 
expands the mind, or a person’s views expand with cir¬ 
cumstances. 

Diligent, Expeditious, Prompt. Diligent marks 

the interest one takes in doing something; he is diligent 
who loses no time, who keeps close to the work from 
inclination. Expeditious marks the desire one has to 
complete the thing begun. Prompt marks one’s desire 
to get ready; he is prompt who sets about a thing with¬ 
out delay, so as to make it ready. 

Direction, Address, Superscription. A direction 
may serve to direct to places as well as to persons. An 
address is never used but in direct application to the per¬ 
son. A superscription has more respect to the thing than 
to the person. A direction is given to such as go in search 
of persons and places. An address is put either on a card, 
a letter, or in a book. A superscription is placed at the 
head of other writings, or over tombs and pillars. 

Direction, Order. Direction contains most of in¬ 
struction in it; order most of authority. Directions 
should be followed; orders obeyed. 

Disaffection, Disloyalty, Disaffection may be said 



LANGUAGE 


237 


with regard to any form of government; disloyalty with 
regard to monarchy, obligations, or vows. Many were 
disaffected to the usurpation of Oliver Cromwell, because 
they would not be disloyal to their king. 

To Disappear, Vanish. A thing disappear seither 
gradually or suddenly; it vanishes of a sudden; it dis¬ 
appears in the ordinary course of things; it vanishes by 
an unusual effort, a supernatural or a magic power. 

To Disapprove, Dislike. Disapprove is an act of 
the judgment; dislike is an act of the will or of the affec¬ 
tion. To approve or disapprove is peculiarly the part 
of a superior, or one who determines the conduct of 
others; to dislike is altogether a personal act, in which 
the feelings of the individual are consulted. 

Disbelief, Unbelief. Disbelief properly implies the 
believing that a thing is not, or refusing to believe that 
it is. Unbelief expresses properly a believing the con¬ 
trary of what one has believed before: disbelief is most 
applicable to the ordinary events of life; unbelief to seri¬ 
ous matters of opinion. 

To Disclaim, Disown. To disclaim is to throw off 
a claim; to disown is not to admit as one’s own. 

Discord, Strife. Discord consists mostly in the feel¬ 
ing; strife consists mostly in the outward action. Dis¬ 
cord evinces itself in various ways, by looks, words, or 
actions; strife displays itself in words or acts of violence. 

To Discover, Manifest, Declare. We discover 
by any means direct or indirect; we manifest by un¬ 
questionable marks; we declare by express words: 
talents and dispositions discover themselves; particular 
feelings and sentiments manifest themselves; facts, 
opinions, and sentiments are declared. 

Discredit, Disgrace, Reproach, Scandal. Dis¬ 
credit interferes with a man’s respectability; disgrace 
marks him out as an object of unfavorable distinction; 
reproach makes him a subject of adverse criticism; 
6candal makes him an object of offense or even of 
abhorrence. 

To Discuss, Examine. Discuss signifies to shake 
asunder or to separate thoroughly so as to see the whole 
composition; examine is used where the judgment holds 
the balance. Discussion is altogether carried on by 
verbal and personal communication; examination pro¬ 
ceeds by reading, reflection, and observation. 

Disgust, Loathing, Nausea. Disgust is less than 
loathing, and loathing than nausea. When applied to 
sensible objects we are disgusted with dirt; we loathe 
the smell of food if we have a sickly appetite; we nause¬ 
ate medicine. When applied metaphorically, we are 
disgusted with affectation; we loathe the endearments 
of those who are offensive; we nauseate all the enjoy¬ 
ments of life, after having made an intemperate use of 
them, and discovered their inanity. 

Dishonest, Knavish. What is dishonest violates 
the established laws of man; what is knavish supposes 
peculiar art and design in the accomplishment. 

Dishonor, Disgrace, Shame. Dishonor deprives 
a person of those outward marks of honor which men 
look for according to their rank and station; disgrace 
deprives a man of the favor and the kindness which he 
has heretofore received from others. Shame is occasioned 
by direct moral turpitude, or by that of which one ought 
to be ashamed. 

To Disjoint, Dismember. A limb of the body may 
be disjointed if it be so put out of the joint that it cannot 
act; but the body itself is dismembered when the differ¬ 
ent limbs or parts are separated from each other. 

Dislike, Disinclination. Dislike applies to what one 
has or does; disinclination only to what one does. 

To Dismay, Daunt, Appall. We are dismayed by 
alarming circumstances; we are daunted by terrifying cir¬ 
cumstances; we are appalled by horrid circumstances. 

Disorder, Disease, Distemper, Malady. In a 
general sense disorder is altogether indefinite; but in its 
restricted sense it expresses less than all the rest: it is 
the mere commencement of a disease. Disease compre¬ 
hends every serious and permanent disorder in the animal 
economy, and is, therefore, of universal application. 
The disorder is slight, partial, and transitory; the disease 
is deep-rooted and permanent. The disorder may lie in 
the extremities; the disease lies in the humors and the 
vital parts. Distemper is used for such particularly as 
throw the animal frame most completely out of its tem¬ 
per or course, and is consequently applied properly to 
virulent disorders, such as the small-pox. Malady has less 
of a technical sense than the other terms; it refers more 
to the suffering than to the state of the body. 

Disparity, Inequality. Disparity applies to two 
objects which should meet or stand in coalition with each 
other; inequality is applicable to those that are com¬ 
pared with each other. The disparity of age, situation, 
and circumstances is to be considered with regard to per¬ 
sons entering into a matrimonial connection: the in¬ 


equality in the portion of labor which is to be performed 
by two persons is a ground for the inequality of their 
recompense. 

Dispassionate, Cool. Dispassionate is taken nega¬ 
tively, it marks merely the absence of passion; cool is 
taken positively, it marks an entire freedom from pas¬ 
sion. When we meet with an angry disputant it is neces¬ 
sary to be dispassionate, in order to avoid quarrels; in 
the moment of danger our safety often depends upon our 
coolness. 

To Dispel, Disperse. Dispel is a more forcible ac¬ 
tion than disperse: we destroy the existence of a thing 
by dispelling it; we destroy merely the junction by dis¬ 
persing it. 

To Dispense, Distribute. Dispense is an indis¬ 
criminate action; distribute is a particularizing action: 
we dispense to all; we distribute to each individually. 

Displeasure, Anger, Disapprobation. Displeas¬ 
ure is always a softened and gentle feeling; anger is al¬ 
ways a harsh feeling, and sometimes rises to vehemence 
and madness. Displeasure is always produced by some 
adequate cause, real or supposed; but anger may be 
provoked by every or any cause, according to the temper 
of the individual. Displeasure is an act of the will, it is 
an angry sentiment; disapprobation is an act of the 
judgment, it is an opposite opinion. 

Disposal, Disposition. Disposal is a personal act; 
it depends upon the will of the individual: disposition 
is an act of the judgment; it depends upon the nature 
of the things. The removal of a thing from oneself is 
involved in a disposal; the good order of the things is 
comprehended in their disposition. 

To Dispose, Arrange, Digest. We may dispose 
ordinary matters by simply assigning a place to each; 
in this manner trees are disposed in a row. We arrange 
and digest by an intellectual effort. We arrange by put¬ 
ting those together which ought to go together; and 
we digest by both separating that which is dissimilar, 
and bringing together that which is similar: in this 
manner books are arranged in a library according to 
their size or their subject; the materials for a literary 
production are digested. 

Disposition, Temper. Disposition is permanent 
and settled; temper may be transitory and fluctuating. 
The disposition comprehends the springs and motives of 
actions; the temper influences the action of the moment: 
it is possible and not infrequent to have a good disposi¬ 
tion with a bad temper, and vice versa. 

Disposition, Inclination. We may always expect 
a man to do that which he is disposed to do; but we can¬ 
not always calculate upon his executing that to which 
he is merely inclined. We indulge a disposition; we 
yield to an inclination. The disposition comprehends 
the whole state of the mind at the time; an inclination 
is particular, referring always to a particular object. 

To Disregard, Neglect, Slight. We disregard the 
warnings, the words, or opinions of others; we neglect 
their injunctions or their precepts. To disregard re¬ 
sults from the settled purpose of the mind; to neglect 
from a temporary forgetfulness or oversight. Slight is al¬ 
together an intentional act toward an individual. 

Dissension, Contention, Discord. A collision of 
opinions produces dissension; a collision of interests 
produces contention; a collision of humors produces 
discord. 

Distant, Far, Remote. Distant is used to designate 
great space; far only that which is ordinary. Astrono¬ 
mers estimate that the sun is ninety-four millions of 
miles distant from the earth; a person lives not very far 
off, or a person is far from the spot. Remote expresses 
the relative idea of having disappeared from sight. 

To Distinguish, Discriminate. To discriminate 
is in fact to distinguish specifically; hence we speak of 
a distinction as true or false, but of a discrimination as 
nice. We distinguish by means of the senses as well as by 
the understanding; we discriminate by the understanding 
only. 

Distinguished, Conspicuous, Noted, Eminent, 
Illustrious. A thing is distinguished in proportion as 
it is distinct or separate from others; it is conspicuous 
in proportion as it is easily seen; it is noted in proportion 
as it is widely known. Eminent applies to those things 
which set a man high in the circle of his acquaintances; 
illustrious applies to that which makes him shine before 
the world. 

Distress, Anxiety, Anguish, Agony. Distress is 
the pain felt when in a strait from which we see no means 
of extricating ourselves; anxiety is that pain which 
one feels on the prospect of an evil. Distress always de¬ 
pends upon some outward cause; anxiety often lies in 
the imagination; anguish arises from the reflection on 
the evil that is past; agony springs from witnessing or 
suffering intense mental or bodily pain. 




238 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


To Distress, Harass, Perplex. A person is dis¬ 
tressed either in his outward circumstances or his 
feelings; he is harassed mentally or corpp really; he is per¬ 
plexed in his understanding, more than in his feelings. A 
deprivation distresses; provocations and hostile meas¬ 
ures harass; stratagems and ambiguous measures perplex. 

Distrust, Suspicion, Diffidence. Distrust is said 
either of ourselves or of others; suspicion is said only of 
others; diffidence only of ourselves. To be distrustful 
of a person is to impute no good to him; to be suspicious 
of a person is to impute positive evil to him. As regards 
oneself, a person may distrust his own powers for the 
execution of a particular office, or have a distrust of 
himself in company; he has a general diffidence, or he 
is naturally diffident. 

To Disturb, Interrupt. We may be disturbed 
either inwardly or outwardly; we are interrupted only 
outwardly: our minds may be disturbed by disquieting 
reflections, or we may be disturbed in our rest or in our 
business by unseemly noises. 

To Divide, Separate, Part. That is divided which 
has been or has been conceived to be a whole; that is 
separated which might be joined. An army may be 
divided into two or three divisions or portions: the di¬ 
visions are frequently separated in their march. To part 
is to divide or separate into distinct portions or pieces. 

To Divide, Distribute, Share. We divide the 
thing; we distribute to the person. To share is to make 
into parts, the same as divide, and it is to give those 
parts to some persons, the same as distribute: but the 
person who shares takes a part himself; he who dis¬ 
tributes gives it all to others. 

Doctrine, Precept, Principle. A doctrine requires 
a teacher; a precept requires a superior with authority; 
a principle requires only a maintainer or a holder. A 
doctrine is always framed by some one; a precept is 
enjoined or laid down by some one; a principle lies in 
the thing itself. A doctrine is composed of principles; 
a precept rests upon principles or doctrines. 

Doctrine, Dogma, Tenet. A doctrine rests on the 
authority of the individual by whom it is framed; a 
dogma on the authority of the body by whom it is main¬ 
tained; a tenet rests on its own intrinsic merits. A 
tenet is a species of principles maintained in matters of 
opinion by persons in general. 

To Doubt, Question. Doubt lies altogether in the 
mind; it is a less active feeling than question: by the 
former we merely suspend decision; by the latter we 
actually demand proofs in order to assist us in deciding. 
We may doubt in silence; we cannot question without 
expressing it, directly or indirectly: we doubt the truth 
of a position; we question the veracity of an author. 

Doubt, Suspense. Doubt respects that which we 
should believe; suspense that which we wish to know 
or ascertain. We are in doubt for the want of evidence; 
we are in suspense for the want of certainty. Doubt inter¬ 
rupts our progress in the attainment of truth; suspense 
impedes us in the attainment of our objects. 

To Draw, Drag, Haul, or Hale, Pull, Pluck, Tug. 
Draw expresses here the idea common to the first three 
terms, namely, of putting a body in motion from behind 
oneself or toward oneself. To drag is to draw a thing 
with violence, or to draw that which makes resistance; 
to haul is to drag it with still greater violence. To pull 
signifies only an effort to draw without the idea of mo¬ 
tion; horses pull very long sometimes before they can 
draw a heavily laden cart uphill. To pluck is to pull 
with a sudden twitch in order to separate; to tug is to 
pull with violence. 

Dream, Reverie. Dreams and reveries are alike 
opposed to the reality, and have their origin in the 
imagination; but the former commonly passes in sleep, 
and the latter when awake. 

Dull, Gloomy, Sad, Dismal. When applied to 
natural objects, dull and gloomy denote the want of 
necessary light or life: in this sense metals are more or 
less dull according as they are stained with dirt: the 
weather is dull when the sun is obscured by clouds, and 
gloomy when the atmosphere is darkened by fogs or 
thick clouds. Dismal denotes not merely the want of 
that which is necessary, but also the presence of that 
which is repugnant to the senses; as, a countenance or 
a sound may be dismal. Sad is not applied so much 
to sensible as moral objects; the loss of a parent is sad. 

Durable, Lasting, Permanent. Durable is natur¬ 
ally said of material substances; and lasting of those 
which are spiritual, although in ordinary discourse 
sometimes they exchange offices. Permanent applies 
more to the affairs of men. That which perishes quickly 
is not durable; that which ceases quickly is not lasting; 
that which is only for a time is not permanent. 

Durable, Constant. What is durable is so from 
its inherent property; what is constant is so by the 


power of the mind. No durable connections can be 
formed where avarice or lust prevails. 

Duty, Obligation. Duty has to do with the con¬ 
science, and arises from the natural relations of society; 
an obligation arises from circumstances, and is a species 
of duty. He who guarantees to pay a sum of money 
contracts an obligation. He who marries contracts new 
duties. 

Ease, Quiet, Rest, Repose. Ease and quiet 
respect action on the body; rest and repose respect the 
action of the body. Ease denotes an exemption from 
any painful agency in general; quiet denotes an exemp¬ 
tion from that in particular which noise, disturbance, 
or the violence of others may cause; rest simply denotes 
the cessation of motion; repose is that form of rest 
which is agreeable after labor. 

Easy, Ready. Easy marks the freedom of being 
done; ready the disposition or willingness to do. The 
former refers mostly to the thing or the manner, the 
latter to the person. 

To Eclipse, Obscure. Heavenly bodies are eclipsed 
by the intervention of other bodies between them and 
the beholder; things are in general obscured which are 
in any way rendered less striking or visible. So, figur¬ 
atively, real merit is eclipsed by the intervention of 
superior merit; it is often obscured by an ungracious 
exterior in the possessor, or by his unfortunate circum¬ 
stances. 

Education, Instruction, Breeding. Instruction 

and breeding are to education as parts to a whole. In¬ 
struction respects the communication of knowledge, 
and breeding respects the manners or outward conduct; 
education comprehends not only both these, but the 
formation of the mind, the regulation of the heart, and the 
establishment of the principles. Good instruction makes 
one wiser; good breeding makes one more polished and 
agreeable; good education makes one really good. 

To Effect, Produce, Perform. To produce signi¬ 
fies to bring something forth or into existence; to per¬ 
form to do something to the end. To effect is to produce 
a result by performing. Whatever is effected is the 
consequence of a specific design; it always requires, 
therefore, a rational agent to effect. What is produced 
may follow incidentally, or arise from the action of an 
irrational agent or an inanimate object; what is per¬ 
formed is done by specific efforts. 

Effusion, Ejaculation. An effusion commonly 
flows from a heated imagination uncorrected by the judg¬ 
ment; it is, therefore, in general not only incoherent 
but extravagant and senseless. An ejaculation is produced 
by the warmth of the moment, but never without refer¬ 
ence to some particular circumstance. Enthusiasts 
are full of extravagant effusions; contrite sinners will, 
often express their penitence in pious ejaculations. 

Elderly, Aged, Old. The elderly man has passed 
the meridian of life; the aged man is fast approaching 
the term of our existence; the old man has already 
reached this term, or has exceeded it. 

Eligible, Preferable. What is eligible is desirable 
in itself, what is preferable is more desirable than another. 

Embarrassments, Perplexities, Entanglements. 
Embarrassments depend altogether on ourselves; the 
want of prudence and presence of mind is the common 
cause. Perplexities depend on extraneous circumstances 
as well as on ourselves; extensive dealings with others 
are mostly attended with perplexities. Entanglements 
arise mostly from the evil designs of others. 

Emissary, Spy. Both these words designate a per¬ 
son sent out by a body on some public concern among 
their enemies; but they differ in their office according 
to the etymology of the words. The emissary is sent 
so as to mix with the people to whom he goes, to be in 
all places, and to associate with every one individually 
as may serve his purpose. The spy takes his station 
wherever he can best perceive what is passing; he 
keeps himself at a distance from all but such as may 
particularly aid him in the object of his search. The 
emissary is generally employed by those who have some 
illegitimate object to pursue; spies, on the other hand, 
are employed by all regular governments in a time of 
warfare. 

Empire, Reign, Dominion. Empire signifies com¬ 
mand, or the power exercised in commanding; it properly 
refers to the country or the people commanded: reign 
signifies the act of reigning; it refers to. the individual 
who reigns. Dominion may be applied in the proper 
sense tp the power which man exercises over the brutes 
or inanimate objects, and figuratively to the power of the 
passions. 

To Employ, Use. We employ whatever we take 
into our service, or make subservient to our convenience 
for a time; we use whatever we entirely devote to our 
purpose. 



LANGUAGE 


239 


Encomium, Eulogy, Panegyric. We bestow 
encomiums upon any work of art or production of genius, 
without reference to the performer; we bestow eulogies 
on the exploits of a hero, who is of another age or country; 
but we write panegyrics either in a direct address, or 
in direct reference to the person who is panegyrized. 
The encomium is produced by merit, real or supposed; 
the eulogy may spring from admiration of the person 
eulogized; the panegyric may be mere flattery, resulting 
from servile dependence. 

To Encourage, Embolden. To encourage is to give 
courage, and to embolden is to make bold; the former 
impels to action in general, the latter to that which is 
more difficult or dangerous. 

To End, Terminate, Close. To end is indefinite 
in its meaning and general in its application. Terminate 
and close are modes of ending: to terminate is to end 
finally; to close to end gradually. Whatever is begun 
will end, and it may end in any way; but what terminates 
is that which has been designedly brought to an end. 
A string, a line, a verse, etc., may end; but a road is said 
properly to terminate. 

To Endeavor, Aim, Strive, Struggle. An endeavor 
springs from a sense of duty; we endeavor to do that 
which is right, and avoid that which is wrong. Aiming 
is the fruit of an aspiring temper; the object aimed at 
is always something superior either in reality or imagina¬ 
tion. Striving is the consequence of an ardent desire; 
the thing striven for is always conceived to be of impor¬ 
tance. Struggling is the effect of necessity; it is propor¬ 
tioned to the difficulty of attainment; the thing strug¬ 
gled for is indispensably necessary. 

Endeavor, Effort, Exertion. Endeavor expresses 
little more than this common idea, being a term of gen¬ 
eral import. Effort and exertion are particular modes 
of endeavor, the former being a special strong endeavor, 
the latter a continued strong endeavor. 

Energy, Force, Vigor. With energy is connected 
the idea of activity; with force that of capability; with 
vigor that of health. Energy lies only in the mind; force 
and vigor are the property of either body or mind. 

To Enlarge, Increase, Extend. Enlarge is applied 
to dimension and extent; increase is applicable to quanti¬ 
ty, signifying to become greater in size by the junction of 
other matter; extend signifies to make greater in space. 
We speak of enlarging a house, a room, premises, or 
boundaries; of increasing an army, or property, capital, 
expense, etc.; of extending the boundaries of an empire. 

Enmity, Animosity, Hostility. Enmity lies in 
the heart; it is deep and malignant. Animosity, from 
animus, a spirit, lies in the passions; it is fierce and 
vindictive. Hostility, from hostis, a political enemy, 
lies in the action; it is mischievous and destructive. 
Enmity is altogether personal; hostility respects public 
or private measures; enmity often lies concealed in the 
heart, and does not betray itself by any open act of 
hostility. 

Enormous, Prodigious, Monstrous. The enor¬ 
mous contradicts our rules of estimating and calculating; 
the prodigious raises our minds beyond their ordinary 
standard of thinking; the monstrous contradicts nature 
and the course of things. What is enormous excites 
our surprise or amazement; what is prodigious excites 
our astonishment; what is monstrous does violence to 
our senses and understanding. 

Enough, Sufficient. He has enough whose desires 
are satisfied ; he has sufficient whose wants are supplied. 
Enough is in German genug, which comes from gen- 
iigen, to satisfy. Sufficient, in Latin sufficiens, parti¬ 
ciple of sufficio, compounded of sub and facio, signifies 
made or suited to the purpose. 

Enterprising, Adventurous. The enterprising 
character conceives great projects, and pursues objects 
that are difficult to be obtained; the adventurous 
character is contented with seeking that which is new, 
and placing himself in dangerous and unusual situations. 

Epithet, Adjective. Epithet is the technical term 
of the rhetorician; adjective that of the grammarian. 
The same word is an epithet as it qualifies the sense; 
it is an adjective as it is a part of speech. Thus, in the 
phrase, “Alexander the Great,” great is aD epithet, inas¬ 
much as it designates Alexander in distinction from 
all other persons; it is an adjective as it expresses a 
uality in distinction from the noun, Alexander, which 
enotes a thing. 

Equal, Even, Equable, Like, or Alike, Uniform. 

Equal is said of degree, quantity, number, and dimen¬ 
sions, as equal in years; even is said of the surface and 
osition of bodies; a board is made even with another 
oard. Like is said of accidental qualities in things, as 
alike in color or in feature; uniform is said of things 
only as to their fitness to correspond; those which are 
unlike in color, shape, or make, are not uniform, and 


cannot be made to match as pairs. Equable is used only 
in the moral acceptation, in which all the others are 
likewise employed. 

Error, Mistake, Blunder. Error in its universal 
sense is the general term, since every deviation from 
what is right in rational agents is termed error. Into 
whatever we attempt to do or think error will be sure to 
creep. The other terms designate modes of error, which 
refer mostly to the common concerns of life: mistake 
is an error of choice; blunder an error of action. 

Error, Fault. Error respects the act; fault respects 
the agent: an error may lie in the judgment, or in the 
conduct; but a fault lies in the will or the intention. 

Eruption, Explosion. Eruption is the coming into 
view, by a sudden bursting; explosion signifies bursting 
out with a noise: hence of flames there will be properly 
an eruption, but of gunpowder an explosion. 

To Estimate, Compute, Rate. To estimate is to 
obtain the aggregate sum in one’s mind, either by an 
immediate or a progressive act; to compute is to obtain 
the sum by the gradual process of putting together 
items; to rate is to fix the relative value in one’s mind 
by deduction and comparison. A builder estimates the 
expense of building a house on a given plan; a pro¬ 
prietor of houses computes the probable diminution in 
the value of his property in consequence of wear and 
tear; the surveyor rates the present value of lands or 
houses. 

Eternal, Endless, Everlasting. The eternal is set 
above time; the endless lies within time. That is prop¬ 
erly eternal which has neither beginning nor end; that 
is endless which has a beginning, but no end; that 
which is everlasting has neither interruption nor cessa¬ 
tion. 

To Evade, Equivocate, Prevaricate. We evade 
by artfully turning the subject or calling off the atten¬ 
tion of the inquirer; we equivocate by the use of ex¬ 
pressions of double interpretation; we prevaricate by the 
use of loose and indefinite expressions. We avoid giving 
satisfaction by evading; we give a false satisfaction by 
equivocating; we give dissatisfaction by prevaricating. 

Event, Incident, Accident, Adventure, Occur¬ 
rence. These terms are expressive of what passes in 
the world, which is the sole signification of the term 
event; while to that of the other terms are annexed 
some accessory ideas. An incident is a personal 
event; an accident an event which happens by the 
way; an adventure an extraordinary event; an occur¬ 
rence an ordinary or domestic event. Event, in its 
ordinary and limited acceptation, excludes the idea of 
chance; accident excludes that of design; incident, 
adventure, and occurrence are applicable in both cases. 

To Exact, Extort. To exact is to demand perempto¬ 
rily; it is commonly an act of injustice: to extort is 
to get with violence; it is an act of tyranny. 

Exact, Nice, Particular, Punctual. To be exact 
is to arrive at perfection; to be nice is to be free from 
faults; to be particular is to be nice in certain particu¬ 
lars; to be punctual is to be exact in certain points. 
We are exact in our conduct or in what we do; nice 
and particular in our mode of doing it; punctual as to 
the time and the season for doing it. 

Example, Pattern, Ensample. The example must 
be followed generally; the pattern must be followed 
particularly, not only as to what but how a thing is to 
be done: the former serves as a guide to the judgment; 
the latter to guide the actions. The ensample is a form 
of example, the word being employed only in the solemn 
style. 

Example, Instance. The example is set forth by 
way of illustration or instruction; the instance is ad¬ 
duced by way of evidence or proof. 

To Excite, Incite, Provoke. To excite is said more 
particularly of the inward feelings; incite is said of the 
external actions; provoke is said of both. A person’s 
passions are excited; he is incited by any particular 
passion to a course of conduct; a particular feeling is 
provoked, or one is provoked to a particular step by 
some feeling. 

Excursion, Ramble, Tour, Trip, Jaunt. Excur¬ 
sion signifies going out of one’s course; a ramble (from 
roam) is a going without any course or regular path; 
a tour, from the word turn or return, is a circuitous 
course; a trip, meaning a quick, light step, is properly a 
pedestrian excursion or tour, or any journey of short 
duration; those who have no better means of spending 
their time make jaunts. 

To Excuse, Pardon. We excuse a person by ex¬ 
empting him from blame; we pardon by giving up 
the punishment of the offense one has committed. We 
excuse a small fault; we pardon a great fault: we 
excuse that which personally affects ourselves; we 
pardon that which offends against morals. 




THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


To Execute, Fulfill, Perform., To execute is to 
bring about an end; it involves active measures, and is 
peculiarly applicable to that which is extraordinary, or to 
that which requires particular spirit and talents. Schemes 
of ambition are executed. To fulfill is to satisfy a moral 
obligation. We fulfill the duties of citizens. To perform 
is to carry through by simple action or labor; it is more 
particularly applicable to the ordinary and regular busi¬ 
ness of life. We perform a work or a task. 

To Exercise, Practice. We exercise in that where 
the powers are called forth; we practice in that wfiere 
frequency and habitude of action are requisite. 

Exigency, Emergency. The exigency is more com¬ 
mon, but less pressing; the emergency is imperious 
when it comes, but comes less frequently. A prudent 
traveler will never carry more money with him than 
what will supply the exigencies of his journey; m case 
of an emergency he will borrow of his friends rather than 
risk his property. , , 

To Exonerate, Exculpate. The first is the act of 
another; the second is one’s own act. We exonerate 
him upon whom a charge has lain, or who has the load 
of guilt; we exculpate ourselves when there is any 
danger of being blamed: circumstances may sometimes 
tend to exonerate; the explanation of some person is 
requisite to exculpate. 

Expediency, Fitness. The expediency of a thing 
depends altogether upon the outward circumstances; 
the fitness is determined by a moral rule. 

To Explain, Expound, Interpret. Single words or 
sentences are explained; a whole work, or considerable 
parts of it, is expounded; the sense of any writing or 
symbolical sign is interpreted. 

Expedient, Resource. The expedient is an arti¬ 
ficial means; the resource is a natural means. A cun¬ 
ning man is fruitful in expedients; a fortunate man 
abounds in resources. 

To Explain, Illustrate, Elucidate. To explain is 
simply to render intelligible; to illustrate and elucidate 
are to give additional clearness. Everything requires 
to be explained to one who is ignorant of it; but the 
best informed will ^require to have abstruse subjects 
illustrated, and obscure subjects elucidated. 

To Expostulate, Remonstrate. We expostulate 
in a tone of authority; we remonstrate in a tone of com¬ 
plaint. He who expostulates passes a censure, and 
claims to be heard; he who remonstrates presents his 
case and requests to be heard. 

Extraneous, Extrinsic, Foreign. The extraneous 
is that which forms no necessary or natural part of 
anything. The extrinsic is that which forms a part or 
has a connection with a thing, but only in an indirect 
form; it is not an inherent or component part. The 
foreign is that which forms no part whatever, and has no 
kind of connection with'an object or an incident. 

Extraordinary, Remarkable. The extraordinary 
is that which is out of the ordinary course, but it does 
not always excite remark, and is not, therefore, remark¬ 
able, as when we speak of an extraordinary loan; on 
the other hand, when the extraordinary conveys the 
idea of what deserves notice, it expresses what is re¬ 
markable. 

Extravagant, Prodigal, Lavish, Profuse. The 

extravagant man spends his money without reason; 
the prodigal man spends it in excesses. One may be 
extravagant with a small sum where it exceeds one’s 
means; one can be prodigal only with large sums. 
Lavish and profuse are properly applied to particular 
actions, the former to denote an expenditure more or 
less wasteful or superfluous, the latter to denote a full 
supply without any sort of scant. 

Exuberant, Luxuriant. These terms are both ap¬ 
plied to any flourishing growth ot abundance: exuber¬ 
ance expresses the excess; luxuriance the perfection. 

Facetious, Conversable, Pleasant, Jocular, Jo¬ 
cose. Facetious may be employed either for writing 
or conversation; the rest only in conversation. The 
facetious man deals in that kind of discourse which may 
excite laughter; a conversable man may instruct as 
well as amuse. The pleasant man says everything in a 
pleasant manner; his pleasantry even on the most 
delicate subject is without offense. The person speaking 
is jocose; the thing said, or the manner of saying it, 
is jocular. 

Factious, Seditious. Factious is an epithet to 
characterize the tempers of men; seditious character¬ 
izes their conduct. The factious man attempts to 
raise himself into importance, he aims at authority, 
and seeks to interfere in the measures of government; 
the seditious man attempts to excite others, and to 
provoke their resistance to established authority: the 
first wants to be a law-giver; the second does not hesi¬ 
tate to be a law-breaker. 


Fair, Clear. Fair is used in a positive sense; clear 
in a negative sense: there must be some brightness in 
what is fair; there must be no spots in what is clear. 
The weather is said to be fair, which is not only free 
from what is disagreeable, but somewhat enlivened by 
the sun; it is clear when it is free from clouds or mists. 

Faith, Creed. These words are synonymous when 
taken for the thing trusted in or believed; but they 
differ in this: faith has always a reference to the prin¬ 
ciple in the mind; creed respects the thing which is the 
object of faith. 

Faith, Fidelity. Faith here denotes a mode of 
action, namely, in acting true to the faith which others 
repose in us; fidelity, a disposition of the mind to ad¬ 
here to that faith which others repose in us. We keep 
our faith; we show our fidelity. 

Faithful, Trusty. Faithful respects the principle 
altogether; it is suited to all relations and stations, 
public and private. Trusty includes not only the prin¬ 
ciple, but the mental qualifications in general; it applies 
to those in whom particular trust is to be placed. It is 
the part of a Christian to be faithful to all his engage¬ 
ments; it is a particular excellence in a servant to be 
trusty. 

Faithless, Perfidious, Treacherous. A faithless 
man is faithless only for his own interest; a perfidious 
man is expressly so to the injury of another. Perfidy 
may lie in the will to do; treachery lies altogether in 
the thing done. A friend is perfidious whenever he 
evinces his perfidy; but he is said to be treacherous 
only in the particular instance in which he betrays the 
confidence and interests of another. 

Fall, Downfall, Ruin. Fall applies to that which 
has been erect; downfall to that which has been ele¬ 
vated. Everything which is set up, although as trifling 
as a stick, may have a fall; but we speak of the downfall 
of the loftiest trees or the tallest spires. A man may re¬ 
cover from his fall, but his downfall is commonly followed 
by the entire ruin of his concerns, and often of himself. 

Fallacious, Deceitful, Fraudulent. The fallacious 
has respect to falsehood in opinion; deceitful to that 
which is externally false: our hopes are often fallacious; 
the appearances of things are often deceitful. Falla¬ 
cious, as characteristic of the mind, excludes the idea 
of design; deceitful excludes the idea of mistake; fraud¬ 
ulent is a gross species of the deceitful. 

Fame, Reputation, Renown. Fame may be ap¬ 
plied to any object, good, bad, or indifferent; reputa¬ 
tion is applied only to real eminence in some depart¬ 
ment; renown is employed only for extraordinary men 
and brilliant exploits. 

Fame, Report, Rumor, Hearsay. Fame serves 
to form or establish a character either of a person or a 
thing; it will be good or bad, according to circumstances: 
the fame of our Saviour’s miracles went abroad through 
the land. A report serves to communicate information 
of events; it may be more or less correct according to 
the veracity or authenticity of the reporter. A rumor 
serves the purposes of fiction; it is more or less vague 
according to the temper of the times and the nature of 
the events. The hearsay serves for information or in¬ 
struction, and is seldom so incorrect as it is familiar. 

Famous, Celebrated, Renowned, Illustrious. 
Famous signifies literally having fame or the cause of 
fame; it is applicable to that which causes a noise or 
sensation; to that which is talked of, written upon, 
discussed, and thought of; to that which is circulated 
among all ranks and orders of men. Celebrated signifies 
literally kept in the memory by a celebration or memo¬ 
rial, and is applicable to that which is praised and 
honored with solemnity. Renowned signifies literally 
possessed of a name, and is applicable to whatever 
extends the name, or causes the name to be often re¬ 
peated. Illustrious signifies literally what has or gives 
a luster; it is applicable to whatever confers dignity. 

Fanciful, Fantastical, Whimsical, Capricious. 
Fanciful is said of that which is irregular in the taste or 
judgment; fantastical is said of that which violates all 
propriety, as well as regularity: the former may consist 
of a simple deviation from rule; the latter is something 
extravagant. Whimsical is a form of the fanciful in 
regard to one’s likes or dislikes; capricious respects 
errors of temper, or irregularities of feeling. 

Fancy, Imagination. The fancy employs itself 
about things without regarding their nature; but the 
imagination aims at tracing a resemblance, and getting 
a true copy. The fancy consequently forms combina¬ 
tions, either real or unreal, as chance may direct; but 
the imagination is less often led astray. The fancy is 
busy in dreams, or when the mind is in a disordered 
state; but the imagination is supposed to act when the 
intellectual powers are in full play. 

Fatigue, Weariness, Lassitude. Fatigue is an 



LANGUAGE 


241 


exhaustion of the animal or mental powers; weariness is 
a wearing out of the strength, or a breaking of the spirits; 
lassitude is a general relaxation of the animal frame. 

Fearful, Dreadful, Frightful, Tremendous, Ter¬ 
rible, Terrific, Horrible, Horrid. A contest is fear¬ 
ful when the issue is important, but the event doubtful; 
the thought of death is dreadful to one who feels him¬ 
self unprepared. The frightful is less than the tremen¬ 
dous; the tremendous than the terrible; the terrible 
than the horrible. Shrieks may be frightful; thunder 
and lightning may be tremendous; the roaring of a lion 
is terrible; the glare of his eye terrific; the actual spec¬ 
tacle of killing is horrible or horrid. We may speak of 
a frightful, dreadful, terrible, or horrid dream; or 
frightful, dreadful, or terrible tempest; dreadful, ter¬ 
rible, or horrid consequences. 

To Feel, be Sensible, Conscious. To feel is said 
of the whole frame, inwardly and outwardly; it is the 
accompaniment of existence: to be sensible is said only 
of the senses. It is the property of all living creatures 
to feel pleasure and pain in a greater or less degree; 
those creatures which have not the sense of hearing will 
not be sensible of sounds. One is conscious only of what 
passes inwardly; we are conscious of having fallen 
short of our duty. 

To Feign, Pretend. One feigns in order to gain 
some future end: a person feigns sickness in order to 
be excused from paying a disagreeable visit. One pre¬ 
tends in order to serve a present purpose: a child who 
wishes to excuse 1 himself for his idleness pretends to 
have lost his book. 

To Felicitate, Congratulate. Felicitate signifies to 
make happy, and is applicable only to ourselves; con¬ 
gratulate is applicable either to ourselves or others: 
we felicitate ourselves on having escaped the danger; 
we congratulate others on their good fortune. 

Female, Feminine, Effeminate. In the female 
character we expect to find that which is feminine. The 
female dress, manners, and habits, have engaged the 
attention of all essayists, from the time of Addison to the 
present period. The feminine is natural to the female; 
the effeminate is unnatural to the male. 

Ferocious, Fierce, Savage. Ferocious marks the 
untamed character of a cruel disposition; fierce has a 
greater mixture of pride and anger in it; savage 
marks a more permanent, but not so violent a sentiment 
of either cruelty or anger as the two former. Ferocity 
and fierceness are in common applied to the brutes, to 
designate their natural tempers: savage is mostly em¬ 
ployed to designate the natural tempers of man, when 
uncontrolled by the force of reason and a sense of religion. 

Fervent, Ardent. The affections are properly fer¬ 
vent; the passions are ardent: we are fervent in feeling, 
and ardent in acting. 

Final, Conclusive. Final designates simply the 
circumstance of being the last; conclusive the mode of 
finishing or coming to the last. A determination is final 
which is to be succeeded by no other; a reasoning is con¬ 
clusive that puts a stop to further question. 

To Find, Discover, Invent. The merit of finding 
or inventing consists in newly applying or modifying 
the materials, which exist separately; the merit of 
discovering consists in removing the obstacles which 

? revent us from knowing the real nature of the thing. 

magination and industry are requisite for finding or 
inventing; acuteness and penetration for discovering. 
Find is applicable to the operative arts; invent to the 
mechanical; discover to the speculative. 

To Find Fault With, Blame, Object- To. We find 
fault with a person for his behavior; we find fault with our 
house or servant; we blame a person for his temerity or 
his improvidence; we object to a measure that is pro¬ 
posed. We find fault with or blame that which has 
been done; we object to that which has been or is to be 
done. 

Fine, Delicate, Nice. Fine, in the natural sense, 
denotes smallness in general. Delicate denotes a degree 
of fineness that is agreeable to the taste. Thread is said 
to be fine; silk is said to be delicate, when to fineness of 
texture it adds softness. Nice is said of what is agreeable 
to the appetite. 

Finite, Limited. Finite is the natural property of 
things; and limited is the artificial property: the former 
is opposite only to the infinite; but the latter, which lies 
within the finite, is opposed to the unlimited or the in¬ 
finite. This world is finite, and space infinite; the power 
of a prince is limited. 

Firm, Fixed, Solid, Stable. Firm (v. constancy). 
Fixed denotes the state of being secure; solid, in Latin 
solidus, comes from solum, the ground, which is the most 
solid thing existing; stable (v. constancy). That is 
firm which is not easily shaken; that is fixed which is 
fastened to something else, and not easily torn; that is 


solid which is able to bear, and does not easily give way; 
that is stable which is able to make a stand against re¬ 
sistance, or the effects of time. 

Fit, Apt, Meet. A hou'se is fit for the accommoda¬ 
tion of the family according to the plan of the builder; 
the young mind is apt to receive either good or bad im¬ 
pressions. Meet is a term of rare use, except in spiritual 
matters or in poetry: it is meet to offer our prayers to 
the Supreme Disposer of all things. 

Flatterer, Sycophant, Parasite. The flatterer is 
one who flatters by words. The sycophant and the para¬ 
site are therefore always flatterers, and something more, 
for the sycophant adopts every mean artifice by which he 
can ingratiate himself, and the parasite submits to every 
degradation and servile compliance by which he can ob¬ 
tain his base purpose. 

Flexible, Pliable, Pliant, Supple. Flexible is used 
in a natural or moral sense; pliable in the familiar sense 
only; pliant in the higher and moral application only. 
What can be bent in any degree, as a stick, is flexible; 
what can be bent as wax, or folded like cloth, is pliable. 
Supple, whether in a proper or a figurative sense, is an 
excess of pliability ; what can be bent backward and for¬ 
ward, like osier twig, is supple. 

To Fluctuate, Waver. To fluctuate conveys the 
idea of strong agitation; to waver, that of constant 
motion backward and forward. When applied in the 
moral sense, to fluctuate designates the action of the 
spirits or the opinions; to waver is said only of the will 
or opinions. 

To Follow, Succeed, Ensue. Follow and succeed 
are used of persons and things; ensue of things only. 
Follow, in respect of persons, denotes the going in order; 
succeed denotes the going or being in the same place 
immediately after another: many persons may follow 
one another at the same time; but only one individual 
properly succeeds another. Ensue is used, in specific cases; 
quarrels too often ensue from the conversations of violent 
men who differ either in religion or politics. 

To Follow, Pursue. The idea of going after any 
object in order to reach or obtain it is common to these 
terms, but under different circumstances: to follow a 
person is mostly with a friendly intention; to pursue with 
a hostile intention. 

Follower, Adherent, Partisan. A follower is one 
who follows a person generally; an adherent is one who 
holds to his cause; a partisan is the follower of a party. 

Folly, Foolery. Folly is the abstract of foolish, and 
characterizes the thing; foolery is the abstract of fool, 
and characterizes the person. Young people are per¬ 
petually committing follies if not under proper control; 
fashionable people lay aside one foolery only to take up 
another. 

Fool, Idiot, Buffoon. Fool is doubtless connected 
with our word foul, in German faul, which is either nasty 
or lazy, and with the Greek word, which signifies worthless 
or good for nothing. Idiot comes from the Greek word 
signifying either a private person or one that is rude and 
unskilled in the ways of the world. Buffoon, in French 
“ bouffon,” is in all probability connected with our word 
beef, buffalo, and bull, signifying a senseless fellow. 
The fool is either naturally or artificially a fool; the 
idiot is a natural fool; the buffoon is an artificial fool. 
Whoever violates common-sense in his actions is a fool; 
whoever is unable to act according to common-sense is an 
idiot; whoever intentionally violates common-sense is a 
buffoon. 

Foolhardy, Adventurous, Bash. The foolhardy 
man ventures in defiance of consequences: the adven¬ 
turous man ventures from a love of the arduous and the 
bold; the rash man ventures for want of thought. 

Force, Violence. The arm of justice must exercise 
force in order to bring offenders to a proper account; 
one nation exercises violence against another in the act 
of carrying on war. Force is mostly conformable to rea¬ 
son and equity; violence is always resorted to for the 
attainment of that which is unattainable by law: force 
is always something desirable; violence is always some¬ 
thing hurtful. We ought to listen to arguments which 
have force in them; we endeavor to correct the violence 
of all angry passions. 

Forefathers, Progenitors, Ancestors. Fore¬ 
fathers signifies our fathers before us, and includes our 
immediate parents; progenitors signifies those begotten 
before us, exclusive of our immediate parents; ancestors 
is said of those from whom we are remotely descended. 

To Foretell, Predict, Prophesy, Prognosticate. 
We may foretell common events, although we cannot 
redict or prophesy anything important: one foretells 
y a simple calculation or guess. To predict and prophesy 
are extraordinary gifts: one predicts by a supernatural 
power, real or supposed; one prophesies by means of 
inspiration. To prognosticate is an act of the under- 



242 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


standing; it is guided by outward symptoms as a rule. 
A physician prognosticates the crisis of a disorder by the 
symptoms discoverable in the patient. 

Forgetfulness, Oblivion. Forgetfulness character¬ 
izes the person, or that which is personal; oblivion the 
state of the thing: the former refers to him who forgets; 
the latter to that which is forgotten. 

To Forgive, Pardon, Absolve, Remit. Individuals 
forgive each other personal offenses; they pardon of¬ 
fenses against law and morals: the former is an act of 
Christian charity; the latter an act of clemency. To 
remit is to refrain from inflicting; it has more par¬ 
ticular regard to the punishment; it is granted either 
by the prince or magistrates; it arrests the execution 
of justice. To absolve is to free from penalty either 
by the civil judge or the ecclesiastical minister; it re¬ 
establishes the accused in the rights of innocence. 

To Form, Fashion, Mold, Shape. As everything 
respects a form when it receives existence, so to form 
conveys the idea of producing. When we wish to repre¬ 
sent a thing as formed in any distinct or remarkable 
way, we may speak of it as fashioned. God formed man 
out of the dust of the ground; he fashioned him after 
his own image. When we wish to represent a thing as 
formed according to a precise rule, we should say it was 
molded; thus the habits of a man are molded at the 
will of a superior. When we wish to represent a thing 
as receiving the accidental qualities which distinguish 
it from others, we talk of shaping it. 

Form, Ceremony, Rite, Observance. Form re¬ 
spects all determinate modes of acting and speaking, 
that are adopted by society at large, in every transaction 
of life; ceremony respects those forms of outward be¬ 
havior which are made the expressions of respect and 
deference; rite and observance are applied to national 
ceremonies in matters of religion. Every country has 
adopted certain rites founded upon its peculiar religious 
faith, and prescribed certain observances by which 
individuals can make a public profession of their faith. 

Formidable, Dreadful, Terrible, Shocking. The 
formidable acts neither suddenly nor violently; the 
dreadful may act violently, but not suddenly: thus the 
appearance of an army may be formidable; but that of 
a field of battle is dreadful. The terrible and the shock¬ 
ing act both suddenly and violently; but the former acts 
both on the senses and the imagination, the latter on the 
moral feelings: thus, the glare of a tiger’s eye is terrible; 
the unexpected news of a friend’s death is shocking. 

Forsaken, Forlorn, Destitute. To be forsaken 
(v. to abandon) is to be deprived of the company and 
the assistance of those we have looked to; to be forlorn is 
to be forsaken in time of difficulty, to be without a guide 
in an unknown road; to be destitute is to be deprived 
of the first necessaries of life. 

To Forswear, Perjure, Suborn. To forswear is 
applied to all kinds of oaths; to perjure is employed only 
for such oaths as have been administered by the civil 
magistrate. A soldier forswears himself who breaks his 
oath of allegiance by desertion; a man perjures himself 
in a court of law who swears to the truth of that which 
he" knows to be false. Suborn signifies to make to for¬ 
swear: a perjured man has all the guilt upon himself; 
but he who is suborned shares his guilt with the suborner. 

To Foster, Cherish, Harbor, Indulge. These 
terms are all employed here in the moral acceptation, 
to express the idea of giving nourishment to an object. 
To foster in the mind is to keep with care and positive 
endeavors; as when one fosters prejudices by encourag¬ 
ing everything which favors them: to cherish in the 
mind is to hold dear or set a value upon; as w r hen one 
cherishes good sentiments, by dwelling upon them with 
inward satisfaction. To harbor is to allow room in the 
mind, and is generally taken in the worst sense, for giving 
admission to that which ought to be excluded; as when 
one harbors resentment by permitting it to have a resting- 
place in the heart: to indulge in the mind is to give the 
whole mind to it, to make it the chief source of pleasure; 
as when one indulges an affection, by making the will 
and the outward conduct bend to its gratifications. 

Foundation, Ground, Basis. A report is said to be 
without any foundation which has taken its rise in mere 
conjecture, or in some arbitrary cause independent of all 
fact. A man’s suspicion is said to be without ground 
when not supported by the shadow of external evi¬ 
dence: both foundation and basis are the lowest parts 
of any structure; but the former lies under ground, the 
latter stands above. The foundation supports some large 
and artificially erected pile; the basis supports a simple 
pillar. 

Fragile, Frail, Brittle. Man, corporeally considered 
is a fragile creature, his frame is composed of fragile ma¬ 
terials; mentally considered, he is a frail creature, for he 
is liable to every sort of frailty. Fragile applies to what¬ 


ever will break from the effects of time; brittle to that 
which will not bear a temporary violence. 

Frank, Candid, Ingenuous, Free, Open, Plain. 
The frank man is under no constraint; his thoughts and 
feelings are both set at ease, and his lips are ever ready 
to give utterance to the dictates of his heart: the candid 
man has nothing to conceal; he speaks without regard 
to self-interest or any partial motive; he speaks nothing 
but the truth. The ingenuous man throws off all disguise; 
he scorns all artifice, and brings everything to light; he 
speaks the whole truth. Free, open, and plain have not so 
high an office as the first three. The frank, free, and open 
men all speak without constraint; but the frank man is 
not impertinent like the free man, nor indiscreet like the 
open man. The frank man speaks only of what concerns 
himself; the free man speaks of what concerns others; 
the open man says all he knows and thinks, from the in¬ 
considerate levity of his temper. The plain man speaks 
plainly but truly; he gives no false coloring to his 
speech. 

Free, Liberal. To be free signifies to act or think 
at will; to be liberal is to act according to the dictates 
of an enlarged heart and an enlightened mind. 

Free, Familiar. To be free is to be disengaged from 
all the constraints which the ceremonies of social inter¬ 
course impose; to be familiar is to be upon the footing 
of a friend, of a relative, or of one of the same family. 

Free, Exempt. Free is applied to everything from 
which any one may wish to be free; but exempt, on the 
contrary, is applied to those burdens which we should 
share with others. 

Freedom, Liberty. Freedom is personal and private; 
liberty is public. The freedom of the city is the privilege 
granted by the city to individuals; the liberties of the 
city are the immunities enjoyed by the city. 

To Frequent, Resort To, Haunt. Frequent is 
more commonly used of an individual who goes often to 
a place; resort and haunt of a number of individuals. 
A man may frequent a theater, a club, or any other social 
meeting, innocent or otherwise; people from different 
quarters may resort to a fair, a church, or any other place 
where they wish to meet for a common purpose; but 
those who haunt any place go to it in privacy for some 
bad purpose. 

To Frighten, Intimidate. The danger that is near 
or before the eyes frightens; that which is seen at a dis¬ 
tance intimidates. 

Funeral, Obsequies. We speak of the funeral as 
the last sad office which we perform for a friend; it is 
accompanied by nothing but by mourning and sorrow. 
We speak of obsequies as the greatest tribute of respect 
whicb can be paid to the person of one who was high in 
station or public esteem. 

To Gape, Stare, Gaze. Gape and stare are taken in 
an ill sense: the former indicates the astonishment of 
gross ignorance; the latter not only ignorance but im¬ 
pertinence. Gaze is taken always in a good sense, as in¬ 
dicating a laudable feeling of astonishment, pleasure, or 
curiosity. 

To Gather, Collect. To gather signifies to bring 
things of a sort together; to collect annexes also the idea 
of binding or forming into a whole. We gather that which 
is scattered in different parts: thus stones are gathered 
into a heap; vessels are collected so as to form a fleet. 

General, Universal. What is general includes the 
greater part or number; what is universal includes every 
individual or part. 

Genteel, Polite. Gentility respects rank in life; 
politeness the refinement of the mind and outward 
behavior. A genteel education is suited to the station 
of a gentleman; a polite education fits for polished 
society and conversation, and raises the individual 
among his equals. 

Gentle, Tame. Any unbroken horse may be gentle, 
but not tame; a horse that is broken in will be tame, 
but not always gentle. Gentle signifies literally well¬ 
born, and is opposed either to the fierce or the rude; 
tame is opposed either to the wild or the spirited. 

Gift, Present, Donation. The gift is an act of 
generosity or condescension; it contributes to the benefit 
of the receiver: the present is an act of kindness courtesy 
or respect ; it contributes to the pleasure of the receiver. 
The gift is private, and benefits the individual; the 
donatipn is public, and serves some general purpose. 
What is given to relieve the necessities of any poor per¬ 
son is a gift; what is given to support an institution is 
a donation. 

To Give, Grant, Bestow. The idea of communi¬ 
cating to another what is our own, or in our power, is 
common to these terms; this is the whole signification 
of give. To grant is to give at one’s pleasure; to bestow 
is to give from a certain degree of necessity. We give 
money, clothes, food, or whatever is transferable. 




LANGUAGE 


243 


Granting is confined to such objects as afford pleasure 
or convenience; bestowing is applied to such objects 
only as are necessary to supply wants, which always 
consist of that which is transferable. 

To Give, Present, Offer, Exhibit. We give to 
our domestics; we present to princes; we offer to God; we 
give to a person what we wish to be received; we present 
to a person what we think agreeable. A poem is said to 
exhibit marks of genius. 

To Give Up, Abandon, Resign, Forego. To give 
up is applied to familiar cases; abandon to matters of 
importance: one gives up an idea, an intention, a plan, 
and the like; one abandons a project, a scheme, a 
measure of government. A man gives up his situation 
by a positive act of his choice; he resigns his office when 
he feels it inconvenient to hold it. So, likewise, we give 
up expectations, and resign hopes; we resign that 
which we have, and we forego that which we might 
have. 

Glaring, Barefaced. Glaring designates the thing: 
barefaced characterizes the person: a glaring falsehood 
is that which strikes the observer in an instant to be 
a falsehood; a barefaced lie or a falsehood betrays the 
effrontery of him who utters it. 

Glimpse, Glance. A glimpse is the action of the 
object appearing to the eye; a glance is the action of 
the eye seeking the object. One catches a glimpse of 
an object; one casts a glance at an object. 

Glory, Honor. Glory is something dazzling and 
widely diffused; honor is something less splendid, but 
more solid. Glory impels to extraordinary efforts and 
to great undertakings; honor induces to a discharge of 
one’s duty. 

To Glory, Boast, Vaunt. To glory is to exult or 
to rejoice; to boast is to set forth to one’s advantage; 
to vaunt is to set oneself up before others. To glory 
is more particularly the act of the mind, the indulgence 
of the internal sentiment; to boast denotes rather the 
expression of the sentiment; to vaunt is properly to 
proclaim praises aloud, and is taken either in an indif¬ 
ferent or in a bad sense. 

Godlike, Divine, Heavenly. Godlike is a more 
expressive, but less common term than divine: the 
former is used only as an epithet of peculiar praise for 
an individual; divine is generally employed for that 
which appertains to a superior being, in distinction from 
that which is human. A heavenly being denotes the 
angels or inhabitants of heaven, in distinction from 
earthly beings. As divine is opposed to human, so is 
heavenly to earthly. 

Good-nature, Good-humor. Good-nature and 
good-humor both imply the disposition to please and 
be pleased; but the former is habitual and permanent, 
the latter is temporary and partial. The former lies in 
the nature and frame of the mind, the latter in the 
state of the humors or spirits. 

To Govern, Rule, Regulate. The exercise of 
authority enters more or less into the signification of 
these terms; but to govern implies the exercise likewise 
of judgment and knowledge. To rule implies rather 
the unqualified exercise of power, the making the will 
the rule. A king governs his people by means of wise 
laws and an upright administration; a despot rules 
over a nation according to his arbitrary decision. To 
regulate is to govern or control simply by judgment; 
the word is applicable to things of minor moment, where 
the force of authority is not so requisite: one governs 
the affairs of a nation, or a large body where great 
interests are involved; we regulate the concerns of an 
individual. 

Government, Administration. Both these terms 
may be employed either to designate the act of governing 
and administering, or the persons governing and admin¬ 
istering. In both cases government has a more exten¬ 
sive meaning than administration: the former includes 
every exercise of authority; administration implies only 
that exercise of authority which consists in putting 
the laws or the will of another in force. When we 
speak of the government, as it respects the persons, 
it implies the whole body of constituted authorities; 
and the administration, only that part which puts in 
execution the intentions of the whole. 

Grace, Charm, Elegance. Grace is altogether 
corporeal; charm is either corporeal or mental: the grace 
qualifies the action of the body; the charm is an inherent 
quality in the body itself. A lady moves, dances, and 
walks with grace; the charms of her person are equal to 
those of her mind. A graceful figure is rendered so by 
the deportment of the body. A comely figure has that in 
itself which pleases the eye. Grace is a quality pleasing 
to the eye; but elegance is a quality of a higher nature, 
and inspires admiration. Elegant is applicable, like 
graceful, to the motion of the body, or like comely to 


the person, and is extended in its meaning also to lan¬ 
guage, and even to dress. 

To Gratify, Indulge, Humor. To gratify is a 
positive act of the choice; to indulge is a negative act 
of the will, a yielding of the mind to circumstances. One 
gratifies his desires or appetites; he indulges his humors, 
or indulges in pleasures. We gratify and indulge others 
as well as ourselves, and mostly in the good sense. To 
gratify is for the most part in return for services; 
it is an act of generosity: to indulge is to yield to the 
wishes or be lenient to the infirmities of others; it is 
an act of kindness or good-nature. To humor is mostly 
taken in a bad sense. 

Gratuitous, Voluntary. Gratuitous is opposed to 
that which is obligatory; voluntary is opposed to that 
which is compulsory, or involuntary. 

Grave, Serious, Solemn. Grave expresses more 
than serious; it does not merely bespeak the absence of 
mirth, but that heaviness of mind which is displayed 
in all the movements of the body. Serious, on the 
other hand, bespeaks no depression, but simply steadi¬ 
ness of action, and a refrainment from all that is jocular. 
A judge pronounces the solemn sentence of condemna¬ 
tion in a solemn manner; a preacher delivers many 
solemn warnings to his hearers. 

Great, Large, Big. Great applies to all sorts of 
dimensions by which things are measured: large may 
apply to generous giving; it usually refers to magni¬ 
tude, bulk, or scope. Big denotes great as to ex¬ 
pansion or capacity. A house, a room, is great or 
large; an animal or a mountain is great or big; a road, 
a eity, a street, and the like, is termed great rather 
than large. We may speak of a large portion, or of a 
mind big with conception. 

Great, Grand, Sublime. These terms are synony¬ 
mous only in their moral application. Great simply 
designates extent; grand includes likewise the idea of 
excellence and superiority. A great undertaking char¬ 
acterizes only the extent of the undertaking; a grand 
undertaking bespeaks its superior excellence. Sublime 
designates the dimensions of height. A scene may be 
either grand or sublime; it is grand as it fills the imagina¬ 
tion with its immensity; it is sublime as it elevates the 
imagination beyond the surrounding and less important 
objects. 

To Groan, Moan. Groan is a deep sound produced 
by hard breathing; moan is a plaintive, long-drawn 
sound produced by the organs of utterance. The groan 
proceeds involuntarily as an expression of severe pain, 
either of body or mind; the moan proceeds often from 
the desire of awakening attention or exciting compassion. 

Gross, Coarse. These terms are synonymous in the 
moral application. Grossness of habit is opposed to 
delicacy; coarseness to softness and refinement. A per¬ 
son becomes gross by an unrestrained indulgence of his 
sensual appetites, particularly in eating and drinking; 
he is coarse from the want of polish either as to his mind 
or manners. 

To Guard, Defend, Watch. To guard, in its 
largest sense, comprehends both watching and defending, 
that is, both the preventing the attack and the resisting 
it when it is made. In the restricted sense, to guard is 
properly to keep off an enemy; to defend is to drive him 
away when he makes the attack. Watch, like guard, 
consists in looking to the danger, but it does not neces¬ 
sarily imply the use of any means to prevent the danger: 
he who watches gives an alarm. 

Guard, Guardian. The guard only defends against 
external evils; the guardian takes upon him the office 
of parent, counselor, and director. 

To Guess, Conjecture, Divine. We guess that a 
thing actually is; we conjecture that which may be: 
we guess that it is a certain hour; we conjecture as to the 
meaning of a person’s actions. To guess and to con¬ 
jecture are natural acts of the mind. To divine, in its 
proper sense, is a supernatural act; in this sense impos¬ 
tors in our time presume to divine in matters that are 
set above the reach of human comprehension. The 
term is, however, employed to denote a kind of guessing 
in different matters, as to divine the meaning of a mys¬ 
tery. 

Guest, Visitor, or Visitant. Guest signifies one 
who is entertained; visitor or visitant is the one who 
pays the visit. The visitor simply comes to see the 
person, and enjoy social intercourse; but the guest par¬ 
takes also of hospitality. 

Guise, Habit. The guise is that which is unusual, 
and often only occasional; the habit is that which is 
usual among particular classes. A person sometimes 
assumes the guise of a peasant, in order the better to 
conceal himself; he who devotes himself to the clerical 
profession puts on the habit of a clergyman. 

Habitation, Home, House, Residence. Habitation 



244 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


implies merely a dwelling-place; house refers to a build¬ 
ing constructed purposely for dwelling therein. Home 
is usually restricted to mean an endeared dwelling as 
the scene of domestic ties and family life. Residence is 
a more formal, though less exact, term than house. 

To Happen, Chance. Happen respects all events, 
without including any collateral idea; chance compre¬ 
hends likewise the idea of the cause and order of events. 
Whatever comes to pass happens, whether regularly in 
the course of things, or particularly and out of the order; 
whatever chances, happens altogether without concert, 
intention, and often without relation to any other thing. 

Happy, Fortunate. Both words are applied to 
the external circumstances of a man: the former 
conveys the idea of that which is abstractly good ; the 
latter implies rather what is agreeable to one’s wishes. 
A man is happy in his marriage; he is fortunate in his 
trading concerns. Happy excludes the idea of chance; 
fortunate excludes the idea of personal effort. 

Harbor, Haven, Port. The idea of a resting-place 
for vessels is common to these terms. Harbor carries 
with it little more than the common idea of affording a 
resting or anchoring place; haven conveys the idea of 
security; port conveys the idea of an enclosure. A 
haven is a natural harbor; a port is an artificial harbor. 

Hard, Firm, Solid. That is hard which will not 
yield to a closer compression; that is firm which will 
not yield so as to produce a separation. Ice is hard, as 
far as it respects itself, when it resists every pressure; 
it is firm, with regard to the water which it covers, 
when it is so closely bound as to resist every weight with¬ 
out breaking. Hard and solid respect the internal 
constitution of bodies, and the adherence of the com¬ 
ponent parts; but hard denotes a much closer degree of 
adherence than solid: the hard is opposed to the soft; 
the solid to the fluid. 

Hardly, Scarcely. Where the idea of practica¬ 
bility predominates, hardly seems most proper; where 
the idea of frequency predominates, scarcely seems 
preferable. One can hardly judge of a person’s features 
by a single and partial glance; we scarcely ever see men 
lay aside their vices from a thorough conviction of their 
enormity. 

To Hasten, Accelerate, Speed, Expedite, Dis¬ 
patch. To hasten expresses little more than the gen¬ 
eral idea of quickness in moving toward a point; thus, 
he hastens who runs to get to the end of his journey. 
Accelerate expresses, moreover, the idea of bringing 
something to a point; thus, every mechanical business 
is accelerated by the order and distribution of its several 
parts. The word speed includes not only quick but 
forward movement. He who goes with speed goes effectu¬ 
ally fprward, and comes to his journey’s end the soonest. 
This idea is excluded from the term haste, which may 
often be a planless, unsuitable quickness. Hence the 
proverb, “The more haste, the worse speed.” Expedite 
and dispatch are terms of higher import, in applica¬ 
tion to the most serious concerns in life: expedite 
expresses a process, a bringing forward toward an end; 
dispatch implies a putting an end to, making a clear¬ 
ance. We do everything in our power to expedite a 
business; we dispatch a great deal of business within 
a given time. 

To Hasten, Hurry. To hasten and to hurry both 
imply to move forward with quickness in any matter; 
the former may proceed with some design and good 
order, but the latter always supposes perturbation and 
irregularity. 

To Hate, Detest. To hate is a personal feeling 
directed toward the object independently of its quali¬ 
ties; to detest (v. to abhor) is a feeling independent 
of the person, and altogether dependent upon the 
nature of the thing. One hates, but does not detest, 
the person who has done an injury to oneself; and 
one detests, rather than hates, the person who has done 
injuries to others. 

Hateful, Odious. Hateful is properly applied to 
whatever violates general principles of morality; lying 
and swearing are hateful vices. Odious is more commonly 
applied to such things as affect the interests of others, 
and bring odium upon the individual. 

Haughtiness, Disdain, Arrogance. Haughtiness 
is founded on the high opinion we entertain of ourselves; 
disdain, on the low opinion we have of others; arro¬ 
gance is the result of both, but if anything, more of the 
former than of the latter. Haughtiness and disdain are 
properly sentiments of the mind, and arrogance a mode 
of acting resulting from a state of mind. 

To Have, Possess. To have is sometimes to have 
in one’s hand or within one’s reach; but to possess is 
to have as one’s own. A clerk has* the money which he 
has fetched for his employer; the latter possesses the 
money which he has the power of turning to his use. 


To Hazard, Risk, Venture. He who hazards an 

opinion or an assertion does it from presumptuous feel¬ 
ings and upon slight grounds; chances are rather against 
him than for him that it may prove erroneous. He who 
risks a battle does it often from necessity; he chooses 
the lesser of two evils; although the event is dubious, 
yet he fears less from a failure than from inaction. 
He who ventures on a mercantile speculation does it 
from a love of gain. 

Healthful, Wholesome, Salubrious, Salutary. 

Healthful is applied to exercise, to air, situation, climate, 
and most other things except food, for which wholesome 
is commonly substituted. The life of a farmer is reckoned 
the most healthful; the simplest diet is the most 
wholesome. Healthful and wholesome are rather nega¬ 
tive in their sense; salubrious and salutary are positive. 
That is healthful and wholesome which does no injury to 
the health; that is salubrious which serves to improve 
the health; that is salutary which serves to remove 
a disorder. 

To Heap, Pile, Accumulate, Amass. .To heap is 
an indefinite action; it may be performed with or with¬ 
out order: to pile is a definite action done with design 
and order; thus we heap stones, or pile wood. To ac¬ 
cumulate is properly to bring or add heap to heap, 
which is a gradual and unfinished act; to amass is to 
form into a mass, which is a single complete act. A man 
may accumulate guineas or anything else in small quan¬ 
tities, but he properly amasses wealth. 

Hearty, Warm, Sincere, Cordial. There are 
cases in which it may be peculiarly proper to be hearty, 
as when we are supporting the cause of religion and 
virtue; there are other cases in which it is peculiarly 
proper to be warm, as when our affections ought to be 
roused in favor of our friends. In all cases we ought to 
be sincere, when we express either a sentiment or a 
feeling; it is peculiarly happy to be on terms of cordial 
regard with those who stand in any close relation to us. 
The man himself should be hearty; his heart should be 
warm; professions should be sincere; a reception cordial. 

Heed, Care, Attention. Heed (v. to attend) ap¬ 
plies to matters of importance to one’s moral conduct; 
care (v. care, solicitude) to matters of minor import. 
A man is required to take heed; a child is required to 
take care: the former exercises his understanding in 
taking heed; the latter exercises his thoughts and his 
senses in taking care. We speak of giving heed and 
paying attention: the former is applied only to that 
which is conveyed to us by another, in the shape of a 
direction, a caution, or an instruction; the latter is 
said of everything which we are said to perform. 

Heinous, Flagrant, Flagitious, Atrocious. A 
crime is heinous which seriously offends against the 
laws of men; a sin is heinous which seriously offends 
against the will of God. An offense is flagrant which is 
in direct defiance of established opinions and practice. 
It is flagitious if a gross violation of the moral law, or 
coupled with any grossness. A crime is atrocious which 
is attended with any aggravating circumstances. 

To Help, Assist, Aid, Succor, Relieve. Help 
signifies to do good to; assist signifies to place one¬ 
self by another so as to give him our strength; aid sig¬ 
nifies to profit toward a specific end; succor signifies 
to run to the help of anyone; relieve signifies to alle¬ 
viate. We help a person to prosecute his work, or help 
him out of a difficulty; we assist in order to forward a 
scheme, or we assist a person in the time of his embar¬ 
rassment; we aid a good cause, or we aid a person to 
make his escape; we succor a person who is in danger; 
we relieve him in time of distress. 

To Hesitate, Falter, Stammer, Stutter. A per¬ 
son who is not in the habit of public speaking, or of 
collecting his thoughts into a set form, will be apt to 
hesitate even in familiar conversation; he who first 
addresses a public assembly will be apt to falter. Chil¬ 
dren who first begin to read will stammer at hard words; 
one who has an impediment in his speech will stutter 
when he attempts to speak in a hurry. 

Heterodoxy, Heresy. To be of a different persua¬ 
sion is heterodoxy; to have a faith of one’s own is heresy. 

High, Tall, Lofty. High expresses the idea of 
extension upward, which is common to them all. What 
is tall is high, but what is high is not always tall; that 
which attains considerable height by growing is tall; 
a thing may be high because on a pedestal. Lofty is said 
of that which is extended in breadth as well as in height. 
We say that a house is high, a chimney tall, a room 
lofty. 

To Hinder, Stop. To hinder is to interfere with the 
progress of a person or a thing; to stop refers simply 
to the cessation of motions. 

To Hold, Keep, Detain, Retain. To hold is a 
physical act; it requires a degree of bodily strength, 



LANGUAGE 


245 


or at least the use of the limbs: to keep is simply to 
have by one at one’s pleasure. Detain and retain are 
modes of keeping: the former signifies keeping back 
what belongs to another; the latter signifies keeping a 
long time for one’s own purpose. 

To Hold, Occupy, Possess. We hold a thing for 
a long or a short time; we occupy it for a permanence: 
we hold it for ourselves or others; we occupy it only for 
ourselves. We hold it for various purposes; we occupy 
only for the purpose of converting it to our private use. 
To occupy is only to hold under a certain compact; 
but to possess is to hold as one’s own. 

Holiness, Sanctity. Holiness is to the mind of a 
man what sanctity is to his exterior, with this differ¬ 
ence, that holiness to a certain degree ought to belong 
to every man professing Christianity; but sanctity, as 
it lies in the manners, the outward garb, and the de¬ 
portment, is becoming only to certain persons, and at 
certain times. 

Hollow, Empty. That is hollow which has an 
empty space, or cavity, as a hollow tree. That which 
has nothing in it is empty, as an empty chair. 

Holy, Sacred, Divine. Whatever is most inti¬ 
mately connected with religion and religious worship, 
in its purest state, is holy, unhallowed by a mixture of 
inferior objects, and elevated in the greatest possible 
degree, so as to suit the nature of an infinitely perfect 
and exalted Being. The sacred derives its sanction from 
human institutions, and is connected rather with our 
moral than with our religious duties. What is holy is 
altogether spiritual, and abstracted from the earthly. 
The divine is often contrasted with the human; but there 
are many human things which are denominated divine. 
What is divine, therefore, may be so superlatively 
excellent as to be conceived of as having the stamp of 
inspiration from the Deity. 

To Honor, Reverence, Respect. To honor is only 
an outward act; to reverence is either an act of the mind 
or is the outward expression of a sentiment; to respect is 
mostly an act of the mind, though it may admit of being 
expressed by some outward act. We honor God by 
adoration and worship; we honor our parents by obey¬ 
ing them and giving them our personal service; we 
reverence our Maker by cherishing in our minds a dread 
of offending Him; we respect a person or a thing that 
is lofty, worthy, or honorable. 

Hot, Fiery, Burning, Ardent. In the figurative 
application, a temper is said to be hot or fiery; rage is 
burning; the mind is ardent in pursuit of an object. 
Zeal may be hot, fiery, burning, or ardent; but in the 
first three cases it denotes the intemperance of the 
mind when heated by religion or politics. The latter is 
admissible so long as it is confined to a good object. 

Human, Humane. The human race or human 
beings are opposed to the irrational part of the creation; 
a humane race or a humane individual is opposed to 
one that is cruel and fond of inflicting pain. 

Humble, Modest, Submissive. A man is humble 
from a sense of his comparative inferiority to others in 
oint of station and outward circumstances; or he is 
umble from a sense of his imperfections, and a con¬ 
sciousness of not being what he ought to be. He is mod¬ 
est, inasmuch as he sets but little value on his qualifi¬ 
cations, acquirements, and endowments. Between 
humble and submissive there is this prominent feature 
of distinction, that the former marks a temper of mind, 
the latter a mode of action: we may be submissive 
because we are humble; but we may likewise be sub¬ 
missive from fear, from interested motives, and the like. 

Humor, Temper, Mood. The humor is so fluc¬ 
tuating that it varies in the same mind perpetually; 
but the temper is so far confined that it always shows 
itself to be the same whenever it shows itself at all. 
The humor makes a man different from himself; the 
temper makes him different from others: hence we 
speak of the humor of the moment; of the temper of 
youth or of old age. Humor and mood agree in denot¬ 
ing a particular and temporary state of feeling; but 
they differ in the cause: the former is attributable 
rather to the physical state of the body, and the latter 
to the moral frame of the mind. Mood is a temporary 
or capricious state or condition of the mind in regard 
to passion or feeling. There is no calculating on the 
humor of a man; it depends upon his mood whether he 
performs ill or well. 

Hurtful, Pernicious, Noxious, Noisome. Be¬ 
tween hurtful and pernicious there is the same distinc¬ 
tion as between hurting and destroying: that which is 
hurtful may hurt in various ways; but that which is 
pernicious necessarily tends to destruction. Confinement 
is hurtful to the health; bad company is pernicious to 
the morals. Noxious and noisome are forms of the 
hurtful: that which is noxious inflicts a direct injury; i 


that which is noisome inflicts it indirectly. Noxious 
insects are such as wound; noisome vapors are such 
as tend to create disorders. 

Idea, Thought, Imagination. The idea is the 
simple representation of an object; the thought is the 
reflection; and the imagination is the combination of 
ideas. We have ideas of the sun, the moon, and all 
material objects; we have thoughts on moral subjects; 
we have imaginations drawn from the ideas already 
existing in the mind. 

Ideal, Imaginary. The ideal is not directly op¬ 
posed to, but abstracted from, the real: the imaginary, 
on the other hand, is directly opposed to the real; it 
is the unreal thing formed by the imagination. Ideal 
happiness is the happiness which is formed in the mind 
without having any direct and actual prototype in 
nature; the imaginary is that which is opposite to 
some positive existing reality. The pleasure which a 
lunatic derives from the conceit of being a king is alto¬ 
gether imaginary. 

Idle, Lazy, Indolent. One is termed idle who will 
do nothing useful; one is lazy who will do nothing at 
all without great reluctance; one is indolent who does 
not care to do anything or set about anything. 

To Illuminate, Illumine, Enlighten. We illumi¬ 
nate by means of artificial lights: the sun illuminates 
the world by its own light. Preaching and instruction 
enlighten the minds of men. Illumine is but a poetic 
variation of illuminate. 

Imminent, Impending, Threatening. All these 
terms are used in regard to some evil that is exceedingly 
near: imminent conveys no idea of duration; impend¬ 
ing excludes the idea of what is momentary. A person 
may be in imminent danger of losing his life in one 
instant, and the danger may be over the next instant; 
but an impending danger is that which has been long 
in existence and gradually approaching. A threatening 
evil gives intimations of its own approach: we perceive 
the threatening tempest in the blackness of the sky. 

To Impair, Injure. To impair is a progressive 
mode of injuring; to injure is to do harm either by 
degrees or by an instantaneous act. Straining of the 
eyes impairs the sight, but a blow injures rather than 
impairs the eye. 

Imperious, Lordly, Domineering, Overbearing. 

A person’s temper or his tone is denominated imperious; 
his air or deportment is lordly; his tone is domineering. 
Overbearing is employed for men in the general relations 
of society, whether superiors or equals. A man of an 
imperious temper and some talent will frequently be 
so overbearing in the assemblies of his equals as to awe 
the rest into silence. 

To Implicate, Involve. Implicate, from plico, to 
fold, denotes to fold into a thing; and involve, from 
volvo, to roll, signifies to roll into a thing: by this 
explanation we perceive that to implicate marks some¬ 
thing less entangled than to involve; for that which 
is folded may be folded only once, but that which is 
rolled is turned many times. In application, therefore, 
to human affairs, people are said to be implicated who 
have taken ever so small a share in a transaction; but 
they are involved only when they are deeply concerned. 

To Impugn, Attack. He who impugns may some¬ 
times proceed insidiously and circuitously to undermine 
the faith of others; he who attacks always proceeds 
with more or less violence. When there are no argu¬ 
ments wherewith to impugn a doctrine, it is easy to 
attack it with ridicule and scurrility. 

Inability, Disability. The inability lies in the 
nature of the thing, and is irremediable; the disability 
lies in the circumstances, and may sometimes be removed. 

Inadvertency, Inattention, Oversight. Anyone 
may be guilty of inadvertencies, since the mind that is 
occupied with many subjects equally serious may be 
turned so steadily toward some that others may escape 
notice; but inattention, which designates a direct want 
of attention, is always a fault, and belongs only to the 
young, or to such as are thoughtless by nature. An over¬ 
sight is properly a species of inadvertency, which arises 
from looking over, or passing by, a thing: we must be 
guarded against oversights in business, as their conse¬ 
quences may be serious. 

Inclination, Tendency, Propensity, Proneness. 

All these terms are employed to designate the state of 
the will toward an object. Inclination denotes its first 
movement toward an object; tendency is a continued 
inclination; propensity denotes a still stronger leaning 
of the will; and proneness characterizes an habitual and 
fixed state of the will toward an object. Propensity 
and proneness both designate a downward direction, 
and consequently refer only to that which is bad and 
low: a person has a propensity to drinking, and a 
proneness to lying. 



246 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


To Inclose, Include. A yard is inclosed by a wall; 
particular goods are included in a reckoning. 

To Inconvenience, Annoy, Molest. We incon¬ 
venience in small matters, or by omitting such things 
as might be convenient; we annoy or molest by doing 
that which is positively painful: we are inconvenienced 
by a person’s absence; we are annoyed by his presence 
if he renders himself offensive; we are molested by that 
which is weighty and oppressive. The rude insults of 
ill-disposed persons may molest. 

To Increase, Grow. To increase is either a gradual 
or an instantaneous act; to grow is a gradual process: 
a stream increases by the addition of other waters; but 
if we say that the river or the stream grows, it is sup¬ 
posed to grow by some regular and continual process of 
receiving fresh water, as from the running in of different 
rivulets or smaller streams. 

To be Indebted, Obliged. Indebted is more bind¬ 
ing and positive than obliged: we are indebted to who¬ 
ever confers an essential service; we are obliged to 
him who does us any service. A man is indebted to 
another for the preservation of his life; he is obliged to 
him for an ordinary act of civility. 

Indifferent, Unconcerned, Regardless. Indiffer¬ 
ent respects only the will, unconcerned either the will or 
the understanding, regardless the understanding only. 
We are indifferent about matters of minor consideration; 
we are unconcerned or regardless about serious matters 
that have remote consequences. An author will seldom 
be indifferent about the success of his work; he ought 
not to be unconcerned about the influence which his 
writings may have on the public, or regardless of the 
estimation in which his own character as a man may be 
held. 

Indubitable, Unquestionable, Indisputable, Un¬ 
deniable, Incontrovertible, Irrefragable. When a 
fact is supported by such evidence as admits of no kind 
of doubt, it is termed indubitable; wdien the truth of an 
assertion rests on the authority of a man whose character 
for integrity stands unimpeached, it is termed unques¬ 
tionable authority; when a thing is believed to exist on 
the evidence of every man’s senses, it is termed unde¬ 
niable; when a sentiment has always been held as either 
true or false, without dispute, it is termed indisputable; 
when arguments have never been refuted in any degree, 
they are termed incontrovertible; when arguments have 
never been satisfactorily answered, they are termed 
irrefragable. 

Indulgent, Fond. Indulgence lies more in forbear¬ 
ing from the exercise of authority; fondness in the out¬ 
ward behavior and endearments: they may both arise 
from an excess of kindness or love. An indulgent parent 
is seldom a prudent parent; a fond parent is foolishly 
tender and loving. All who have the care of young people 
should occasionally relax from the strictness of the dis¬ 
ciplinarian and show an indulgence where a suitable 
opportunity offers. A fond mother takes away from the 
value of indulgences by an invariable compliance with 
the humors of her children. 

Infamous, Scandalous. Infamous and scandalous 
are both said of that which is calculated to excite great 
displeasure in the minds of all who hear it, and to degrade 
the offenders in the general estimation. But the infamous 
seems to be that which produces greater publicity and 
more general reprehension than the scandalous, conse¬ 
quently it is more serious in its nature, and a greater 
violation of good morals. 

To Inform, Instruct, Teach. To inform is the act 
of persons in all conditions; to instruct and teach are 
the acts of superiors, either on one ground or another: 
one informs by virtue of an accidental superiority or 
priority of knowledge; one instructs by virtue of superior 
knowledge or superior station; one teaches by virtue of 
superior knowledge, rather than of station. 

Information, Intelligence, Notice, Advice. In¬ 
formation is knowledge communicated from one person 
to another; intelligence is the active principle of the 
mind by which one is made to understand; notice is 
that which brings a circumstance to our knowledge; 
advice signifies that which is made known. 

Ingenuity, Wit. Ingenuity comprehends invention; 
wit is the fruit of the imagination, which forms new and 
sudden conceptions of things. One is ingenious in mat¬ 
ters either of art or science; one is witty only in matters 
of sentiment. 

Ingenuous, Ingenious. We love the ingenuous 
character on account of the qualities of his heart; we 
admire the ingenious man on account of the endowments 
of his mind. One is ingenuous as a man, or ingenious as 
an author. A man confesses an action ingenuously; he 
defends it ingeniously. The ingenuous man is frank, 
candid; the ingenious man is clever, skillful. 

Injustice, Injury, Wrong. The violation of justice, 


or a breach of the rule of right, constitutes injustice; 
but the quantum of ill which falls on the person consti¬ 
tutes injury. A wrong partakes both of injustice and 
injury; it is, in fact, an injury done by one person to 
another in express violation of justice. 

Inside, Interior. The term inside may be applied 
to bodies of any magnitude, small or large; interior is 
peculiarly appropriate to bodies of great magnitude. 
We may speak of the inside of a nutshell, but not of its 
interior. The interior of the church was beautifully 
decorated. 

To Insinuate, Ingratiate, A person who insinuates 
adopts every art to steal into the good-will of another; 
but he who ingratiates adopts natural means to con¬ 
ciliate good-will. 

Insinuation, Reflection. An insinuation always 
deals in half words; a reflection is commonly open. 
They are both leveled at the individual with no good 
intent: the insinuation is general, and may be em¬ 
ployed to convey any unfavorable sentiment; the re¬ 
flection is particular, and commonly passes between 
intimates and persons in close connection. 

To Insist, Persist. Both these terms being derived 
from the Latin “ sisto,” to stand, express the idea of rest¬ 
ing or keeping to a thing; but insist signifies to rest on a 
point, and persist signifies to keep on with a thing, to 
carry it through. We insist on a matter by maintaining 
it; we persist in a thing by continuing to do it. 

Insolvency, Failure, Bankruptcy. Insolvency is 
a state; failure, an act flowing out of that state; and 
bankruptcy an effect of that act. Insolvency is a con¬ 
dition of not being able to pay one’s debts; failure is a 
cessation of business, from the want of means to carry 
it on; and bankruptcy is a legal surrender of all one’s 
remaining goods into the hands of one’s creditors, in con¬ 
sequence of a real or supposed insolvency. 

Instant, Moment. A dutiful child comes the instant 
he is called; a prudent person embraces the favorable 
moment. When they are both taken for the present 
time, instant expresses a much shorter space than mo¬ 
ment. 

Insurrection, Sedition, Rebellion, Revolt. There 

may be an insurrection against usurped power, which is 
always justifiable; but sedition and rebellion are leveled 
against power universally acknowledged to be legitimate. 
Insurrection is always open; it is a rising up of many 
in a mass, but it does not imply any concerted, or any 
specifically active measure. Rebellion is the consumma¬ 
tion of sedition; the scheme of opposition which has 
been digested in secrecy breaks out into open hostilities, 
and becomes rebellion. Revolt is mostly taken either in 
an indifferent or a good sense for resisting a foreign do¬ 
minion which has been imposed by force of arms. 

Intellect, Genius, Talent. Intellect is the power or 
faculty of knowing, improved by cultivation and ex¬ 
ercise; in this sense we speak of a man of intellect, or of 
a work that displays great intellect. Genius is the par¬ 
ticular bent of the intellect which is born with a man, as 
a genius for poetry, painting, music, etc. Talent is a 
particular mode of intellect which qualifies its possessor 
to do some things better than others, as a talent for learn¬ 
ing languages, a talent for the stage, etc. 

Interchange, Reciprocity. Interchange is an act; 
reciprocity is an abstract property: by an interchange 
of sentiment, friendships are engendered; the recip¬ 
rocity of good services is what renders them doubly 
acceptable to those who do them, and to those who 
receive them. 

Interest, Concern. We have an interest in what¬ 
ever touches or comes near to our feelings or our external 
circumstances; we have a concern in that which de¬ 
mands our attention. Interest is that which is agreeable; 
concern, on the other hand, is something involuntary or 
painful. 

Interval, Respite. The term interval respects time 
only; respite includes the idea of ceasing from action for 
a time. Intervals of ease are a respite to one who is op¬ 
pressed with labor. 

Intervention, Interposition. The light of the moon 
is obstructed by the intervention of the clouds; the life 
of an individual is preserved by the interposition of a 
superior. 

To Intrude, Obtrude. To intrude is to go into any 
society unasked and undesired; to obtrude is to put one¬ 
self in the way of another by joining the company and 
taking a part in the conversation without invitation or 
consent. 

Invalid, Patient. An invalid is so denominated 
because he lacks his ordinary share of health and strength; 
the patient is one who is laboring under some bodily 
suffering. 

To Invest, Endue, or Endow. One is invested with 
that which is external; one is endued with that which 



LANGUAGE 


247 


is internal. We invest a person with an office or a dig¬ 
nity: a person is endued with good qualities. Endow is 
but a variation of endue, and yet it seems to have ac¬ 
quired a distinct office: we may say that a person is 
endued or endowed with a good understanding; but as 
an act of the imagination endow is not to be substituted 
for endue, for we do not say that it endows but endues 
things With properties. 

Irrational, Foolish, Absurd, Preposterous. 

Irrational is applicable more frequently to the thing than 
to the person, to the principle than to the practice. 
Foolish, on the contrary, is commonly applicable to the 
person as well as to the thing, to the practice rather than 
to the principle; absurd is applied to anything, however 
trivial, which in the smallest degree offends our under¬ 
standing: the conduct of children is therefore often 
foolish, but not absurd and preposterous. It is absurd 
for a man to persuade another to do that which he in 
like circumstances would object to do himself; it is 
preposterous for a man to expose himself to the ridicule 
of others, and then be angry with those who will not 
treat him respectfully. 

Irreligious, Profane, Impious. All men who are 
not positively actuated by principles of religion are ir¬ 
religious. Profanity and impiety are, however, of a still 
more heinous nature; they consist not in the mere ab¬ 
sence of regard for religion, but in a positive contempt for 
it and open outrage against its laws. The profane man 
treats what is sacred as if it were profane; the impious 
man is directly opposed to the pious man: the former 
is filled with defiance and rebellion against his Maker; 
the latter is filled with love and fear. 

Jealousy, Envy, Suspicion. We are jealous of 
what is our own; we are envious of what is another’s. 
Jealousy fears to lose what it has; envy is pained at 
seeing others have that which it wants for itself. Sus¬ 
picion denotes an apprehension of injury, has more of 
distrust in it than jealousy; the suspicious man is al¬ 
together fearful of the intentions of another. 

Journey, Travel, Voyage. Journey signifies the 
course that is taken in the space of a day, or, in general, 
any comparatively short passage from one place to an¬ 
other. Travel signifies such a course or passage as re¬ 
quires labor, and causes fatigue; in general, any long 
course. Voyage is now confined to passages by sea. 

Joy, Gladness, Mirth. What creates joy and glad¬ 
ness is of a permanent nature; that which creates mirth 
is temporary: joy is the most vivid sensation in the soul; 
gladness is the same in quality, but inferior in degree. 
Joy is awakened in the mind by the most important 
events in life. 

Judgment, Discretion, Prudence. Judgment is 
conclusive; it decides by positive inference; it enables 
a person to discover the truth. Discretion is intuitive; 
it discerns or perceives what is in all probability right. 
A person who exercises prudence does not inconsiderately 
expose himself to danger: a measure is prudent that 
guards against the chances of evil; the impetuosity of 
youth naturally impels them to be imprudent. 

Justness, Correctness. We estimate the value of 
remarks by their justness, that is, by their accordance to 
certain admitted principles. Correctness of outline is of 
the first importance in drawing; correctness of dates 
enhances the value of a history. 

To Keep, Preserve, Save. The idea of having in 
one’s possession is common to all these terms, which is, 
however, the simple meaning of keep. To preserve 
signifies to keep with care, and free from all injury; to 
save, from safe, is to keep laid up in a safe place, and 
free from destruction. 

Keeping, Custody. The keeping amounts to little 
more than having purposely in one’s possession; but 
custody is a particular kind of keeping, for the purpose 
of preventing an escape. Inanimate objects may be in 
one’s keeping; but a prisoner, or that which is in danger 
of getting away, is placed in custody. 

To Know, Be Acquainted With. We may know 
things or persons in various ways; we may know them 
by name only, or we may know their internal properties 
or characters, etc. One is acquainted with either a per¬ 
son or a thing only in a direct manner, and by an im¬ 
mediate intercourse in one’s own person. 

Knowledge, Science, Learning, Erudition. Knowl¬ 
edge is a general term which simply implies the thing 
known; science is the department of systematized 
knowledge; learning is that kind of knowledge which 
one derives from schools, or through the medium of 
personal instruction; erudition is scholastic knowledge 
obtained by profound research. 

Land, Country. The term land, in its proper sense, 
excludes the idea of habitation; the term country ex¬ 
cludes that of the earth, or the parts of which it is com¬ 
posed: hence we speak of the land, as rich or poor, ac¬ 


cording to what it yields; of a country, as rich or poor, 
according to what its inhabitants possess. 

Large, Wide, Broad. A field is said to be wide both 
from its figure and from the extent of ita space in the 
cross directions. In like manner, a house is large from 
its extent in all directions; it is said to be wide from the 
extent which it runs in front. What is broad is in sense, 
and mostly in application, wide. Large is opposed to 
small; wide to close; broad to narrow. 

Laudable, Praiseworthy, Commendable. Things 
are laudable in themselves; they are praiseworthy or 
commendable in this or that person: that which is 
laudable is entitled to encouragement and general ap¬ 
probation. An honest endeavor to be useful to one’s 
family or oneself is at all times laudable. What is 
praiseworthy obtains the respect of all men. 

To Lay or Take Hold Of, Catch, Seize, Snatch. 
To lay or take hold of is here the generic expression; it 
denotes simply getting into one’s possession, which is 
the common idea in the signification of all these terms, 
which differ in regard to the motion in which the action is 
performed. To catch is to lay hold of with an effort; 
to seize is to lay hold of with violence; to snatch is 
to lay hold of by a sudden effort. 

To Lead, Conduct, Guide. One leads by helping a 
person onward in any manner, as to lead a child by the 
hand; conduct and guide are different modes of lead¬ 
ing, the former by virtue of one’s office or authority, the 
latter by one’s knowledge or power, as to conduct an 
army, to guide a traveler in an unknown country. 

To Lean, Incline, Bend. In the proper sense, lean 
and incline are both said of the position of bodies; bend 
is said of the shape of bodies. That which leans rests on 
one 6ide, or in a sideward direction; that which inclines, 
leans or turns only in a slight degree; that which bends, 
forms a curvature. 

To Leave, Quit, Relinquish. We leave that to 
which we may intend to return; we quit that to which 
we return no more; we relinquish it unwillingly: we leave 
persons or things; we quit and relinquish things only. 

Leavings, Remains. Leavings are the consequence 
of a voluntary act; they signify what is left: remains 
are what follow in the course of things; they are the 
residue. 

Letter, Epistle. Letter is a term altogether fa¬ 
miliar; it may be used for whatever is written by one 
friend to another, even those which were written by the 
ancients, as the letters of Cicero, Pliny, and Seneca. In 
strict propriety epistle is more formal than letter. An 
epistle is a written message or communication usually 
of serious import; it is usually applied to the ancient 
letters of sacred character or of literary excellence, as 
the epistles of St. Paul. 

To Lie, Lay. To lie is neuter, and designates a state. 
To lay is active, and denotes an action on an object; it 
is properly to cause to lie. A thing lies on the table; some 
one lays it on the table. 

To Lift, Heave, Hoist. We lift with or without 
an effort; we heave and hoist always with an effort. 
We lift a child up to let him see anything more distinctly; 
workmen heave the stones or beams which are used in 
a building; sailors hoist the long-boat into the water. 

Likeness, Resemblance, Similarity, or Simili¬ 
tude. Likeness respects either external or internal 
properties; resemblance respects only the external 
properties; similarity respects the circumstances or 
properties. We speak of a likeness between two persons; 
of a resemblance in the cast of the eye; of a similarity 
in age and disposition. Similitude is a higher term than 
similarity when used in a moral sense. 

To Linger, Tarry, Loiter, Lag, Saunter. To 
linger is to stop altogether, or to move but slowly forward; 
to tarry is properly to suspend one’s movements: the 
former proceeds from reluctance to leave the spot on 
which we stand; the latter from motives of discretion. 
To loiter is to move slowly and reluctantly. To lag is to 
move more slowly than others. To saunter is alto¬ 
gether the act of an idler; those who have no object 
in moving either backward or forward will saunter if 
they move at all. 

Little, Small, Diminutive. What is little is so in 
the ordinary sense in respect to size; it is properly 
opposed to great: the small is that which is less than 
others in point of bulk; it is opposed to the large. The 
diminutive is that which is less than it ought to be; as, 
a person is said to be diminutive in stature who is below 
the ordinary stature. 

Living, Benefice. We speak of a living as a resource 
immediately derived from the parish, in distinction 
from a curacy, which is derived from an individual; we 
speak of a benefice in respect to the terms by which it 
is held, according to the ecclesiastical law. 

Lodging, Apartment. A lodging, or a place to 




248 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


dwell in, comprehends single rooms, or many rooms, 
or in fact any place which can be made to serve the 
purpose; apartment respects only suites of rooms. 

Look, Glance. We speak of taking a look, or 
casting a glance. 

Look, Appearance. The look of a thing respects the 
impressions which it makes on the senses, that is, the 
manner in which it looks; its appearance implies the 
simple act of its coming into sight. 

To Lose, Miss. What is lost is supposed to be entirely 
and irrecoverably gone; but what is missed may be 
only out of sight or not at hand at the time when it is 
wanted. 

Madness, Frenzy, Rage, Fury. Madness is a con¬ 
firmed derangement in the organ of thought; frenzy 
is only a temporary derangement from the violence of 
any disease or from any other cause. Rage refers more 
immediately to the agitation that exists within the mind; 
fury refers to that which shows itself outwardly: a per¬ 
son contains or stifles his rage; but his fury breaks out 
into some external mark of violence. 

3Iagniflcence, Splendor, Pomp. Magnificence lies 
not only in the number and the extent of the objects 
presented, but in the degree of richness as to their coloring 
and quality. Splendor is but a characteristic of magnifi¬ 
cence, attached to such objects as dazzle the eye by the 
quantity of light, or by the beauty and strength of color¬ 
ing. Pomp signifies in general formality and ceremony. 

To Make, Form, Produce, Create. To make is 
the most general and unqualified term; to form signi¬ 
fies to give a form to a thing, that is, to make it after a 
given form; to produce is to bring forth into the light, 
to call into existence; to create is to bring into existence 
by an absolute exercise of power. 

Malevolence, Maliciousness, Malignity. Male¬ 
volence has a deep root in the heart, and is a settled part 
of the character; we denominate the person malevolent, 
to designate the ruling temper of his mind. Maliciousness 
may be applied as an epithet to particular parts of a 
man’s character or conduct; one may have a malicious 
joy or pleasure in seeing the distresses of another. 
Malignity is not so often employed to characterize the 
person as the thing; the malignity of a design is esti¬ 
mated by the degree of mischief which was intended to 
be done. 

31anly, 31anful. Manly, or like a man, is opposed 
to juvenile, and of course applied properly to youths; 
but manful, or full of manhood, is opposed to effeminate, 
and is applicable more properly to grown persons. 

3Ianners, 31orals. Manners (v. air, manner) re¬ 
spect the minor forms of acting with others and toward 
others; morals include the important duties of life. By 
an attention to good manners we render ourselves good 
companions; by an observance of good morals we become 
good members of society. 

3Iark, Trace, Vestige, Footstep, Track. The 

mark is said of a fresh and uninterrupted line; the 
trace is said of that which is broken by time: a carriage 
in driving along the sand leaves marks of the wheels, 
but in a short time all traces of its having been there 
w r ill be lost. The vestige is a species of mark or trace 
caused by the feet of men, or, which is the same thing, 
by the works of active industry, as the vestiges of build¬ 
ings. Footstep is employed only for the steps of an 
individual. The track is made by the steps of many. 

Martial, Warlike, 31ilitary, Soldier-like. We 
speak of martial array, martial preparations, martial 
law, a court martial; but of a warlike nation, meaning 
a nation, which is fond of war; a warlike spirit or tem¬ 
per, also a warlike appearance, inasmuch as the temper 
is visible in the air and carriage of a man. We speak 
of military in distinction from naval, as military ex¬ 
peditions, military movements, and the like. The con¬ 
duct of an individual is soldier-like or otherwise. 

31eeting, Interview. Meeting is the act of coming 
into the company of anyone; interview is a personal 
conference, usually a formal meeting for consultation, 
as an interview with the president. A meeting is an 
ordinary concern and its purpose familiar; meetings 
are daily taking place between friends. 

3Iemory, Remembrance, Recollection, Remi¬ 
niscence. Memory is the power of recalling images 
once made in the mind; remembrance is the exercise 
of memory in a conscious agent, and may be the effect 
of repetition or habit; recollection carries us back to 
distant periods. Reminiscence is altogether an abstract 
exercise of the memory, which is employed on purely 
intellectual ideas in distinction from those which are 
awakened by sensible objects: the mathematician makes 
use of reminiscence in deducing unknown truths from 
those which he already knows. 

3Iercantile, Commercial. Mercantile, from mer¬ 
chandise, respects the actual transaction of business 


or a transfer of merchandise by sale or purchase. Com¬ 
mercial comprehends the theory and practice of ex¬ 
change : hence we speak in a peculiar manner of a mer¬ 
cantile house, a mercantile situation, and the like; but 
of a commercial education, a commercial people, and 
the like. 

3Iinister, Agent. The minister gives his counsel, 
and exerts his intellectual powers in the service of 
another; but the agent executes the orders or commis¬ 
sions given him: a minister is employed by government 
in political affairs- an agent is employed by individuals 
in commercial and pecuniary affairs. 

To 3Iix, 31ingle, Blend, Confound. Mix is here 
a general and indefinite term, signifying simply to put 
together; but we may mix two or several things. We 
mingle several objects: things are mixed so as to lose 
all distinction; but they may be mingled and yet retain 
a distinction. To blend is only partially to mix, as colors 
blend which fall into each other. To confound is to mix 
in a wrong way, as objects of sight are confounded when 
they are erroneously taken to be joined. 

3Iodesty, Bashfulness, Diffidence. Modesty is a 
proper distrust of ourselves; bashfulness is a state of 
feeling which betrays itself in a downcast look or a timid 
air; diffidence is a culpable distrust. Diffidence alto¬ 
gether unmans a person, and disqualifies him for his duty. 

3Ioisture, Humidity, Dampness. Moisture is 
used in general to express any small degree of infusion 
of a liquid into a body; humidity is employed scien¬ 
tifically to describe the state of having any portion of 
such liquid: hence we speak of the moisture of a table, 
the moisture of paper, but of the humidity of the air, or 
of a wall that has contracted moisture of itself. Damp¬ 
ness is that form of moisture that arises from the 
gradual contraction of a liquid in bodies capable of 
retaining it; in this manner a cellar is damp. 

3Ioney, Cash. Money is applied to everything 
which serves as a circulating medium; cash is, in a strict 
sense, used for coin only. 

3Iotion, 3Iovement. We speak of a state of motion 
as opposed to a state of rest, of perpetual motion, the 
laws of motion, and the like. On the other hand, we 
say, to make a movement when speaking of an army, 
a general movement when speaking of an assembly. 

3Ioving, Affecting, Pathetic. The good or bad 
feelings may be moved; the tender feelings only are 
affected. A field of battle is a moving spectacle; the 
death of a friend is an affecting spectacle. The pathetic 
applies only to what is addressed to the heart; hence 
an address is pathetic. 

3Iutual. This word is often confounded with com¬ 
mon. Mutual is used in referring to a thing that 
belongs to only two people, as, John and I have a 
mutual dislike; he dislikes me and I dislike him. We 
cannot say John and I have a mutual dislike for Mary. 
Common is used with reference to a third object or per¬ 
son, as, Mary is our common friend; she is yo.ur and 
my friend. It is wrong to say Mary is our mutual 
friend. Dickens’s use of this word in “ Our Mutual 
Friend” is condemned by many good authorities. 

To Name, Call. Name is employed for distinguish¬ 
ing or addressing one by name. To call signifies properly 
to address one loudly, consequently we may name with¬ 
out calling, when we only mention a name in conversa¬ 
tion; and we may call without naming. 

Native, Natural. Of a person we may say that 
his worth is native, to designate that it is some valuable 
property which is born with him; that it is natural, as 
opposed to that which is acquired or otherwise. 

Necessity, Necessary. Necessity is the mode or 
state of circumstances, or the thing which circum¬ 
stances render necessary; the necessary is that which 
is absolutely and unconditionally indispensable. Habit 
and desire create necessities; nature only requires 
necessaries. 

To Neglect, Omit. To neglect is to disregard, to 
treat with little or no attention or respect; to omit is 
to leave out, to leave unnoticed or undone. We neglect 
an opportunity, we neglect the means, the time, the use, 
and the like; we omit a word, a sentence, a figure, and 
the line may be omitted or otherwise, as convenience 
requires. 

Neighborhood, Vicinity. Neighborhood is em¬ 
ployed in reference to the inhabitants, or in regard to 
inhabited places, to denote nearness of persons to each 
other or to objects in general; but vicinity is employed 
to denote nearness of one object to another, whether 
person or thing. 

New, Novel, 3Iodern, Fresh, Recent. All these 

epithets are applied to what has not long existed. New 
expresses this idea simply without any qualifications; 
novel is something strange or unexpected; the modern 
is the thing of to-day, as distinguished from that which 



LANGUAGE 


249 


existed in former times; the fresh is that which is so 
new as not to be the worse for use, or that which has not 
been before used or employed; the recent is that which 
is so new as to appear as it it were just made or done. 

News, Tidings. News is unexpected; it serves to 
gratify idle curiosity: tidings are expected; they serve 
to allay anxiety. In [time of war the public is eager 
after news; and they who have relatives in the army 
are anxious to have tidings of them. 

To Nominate, Name. To nominate and to name 
are both to mention by name: the former is to men¬ 
tion for a specific purpose; the latter is to mention 
for general purposes. Persons only are nominated; 
things as well as persons are named: one nominates a 
person in order to propose him, or appoint him, to an 
office; but one names a person casually, in the course 
of conversation, or one names him in order to make 
some inquiry respecting him. 

To Notice, Remark, Observe. To notice is a more 
cursory action than to remark; we may notice a thing 
by a single glance, or on merely turning the head. 
To remark supposes a reaction of the mind on an 
object. We observe things in order to judge of or draw 
conclusions from them, as to observe the condition of 
the weather. We remark things as matters of fact, as 
to remark the manner of a speaker. 

Numeral, Numerical. Numeral, or belonging to 
number, is applied to a class of words in grammar, as 
a numeral adjective or a numeral noun; numerical, or 
containing number, is applied to whatever other objects 
respect number, as a numerical difference, where there 
is a difference between any two numbers, or a difference 
expressed by numbers. 

Obedient, Submissive, Obsequious. One is obedi¬ 
ent to command, submissive to power or the will, obse¬ 
quious to persons. Obedience is always taken in a good 
sense. 

To Object, Oppose. To object to a thing is to pro¬ 
pose or start something against it; but to oppose it is 
to set oneself up steadily against it. 

Obnoxious, Offensive. In the sense of giving 
offense, obnoxious implies as much as hateful, offensive 
little more than displeasing. A man is obnoxious to a 

arty, whose interest or principles he is opposed to; 

e may be offensive to an individual merely on account 
of his manners or on account of any particular actions. 

To Observe, Watch. We observe a thing in order 
to draw an inference from it; we watch anything in 
order to discover what may happen: we observe with 
coolness; we watch with eagerness. 

Occasion, Opportunity. The occasion is that which 
determines our conduct, and leaves us no choice; it 
amounts to a degree of necessity. The opportunity is that 
which invites to action; it tempts us to embrace the 
moment for taking the step. 

Occasional, Casual. Occasional carries with it 
more the idea of unfrequency, and casual that of unfix¬ 
edness, or the absence of all design. Our acts of charity 
may be occasional; but they ought not to be casual. 

Offender, Delinquent. Those who go into a pro¬ 
hibited place are offenders; those who stay away when 
they ought to go are delinquents. 

Offspring, Progeny, Issue. Offspring is a familiar 
term applicable to one or many children; progeny is 
employed only as a collective noun for a number; issue 
is used in an indefinite manner without particular regard 
to number. When we speak of the children themselves 
we denominate them the offspring; when we speak of 
the parents, we denominate the children their prog¬ 
eny. The issue is said only in regard to a man that is 
deceased; his property descends to his male issue in a 
direct line. 

Omen, Prognostic, Presage. The omen and prog¬ 
nostic are both drawn from external objects; the presage 
is drawn from one’s own feelings. The omen is drawn 
from objects that have no necessary connection with the 
thing they are made to represent; it is the fruit of the 
imagination, and rests on superstition. The prognostic, 
on the contrary, is a sign which in some degree partakes 
of the quality of the thing denoted. 

Opinionated or Egotistic, Conceited, Egotistical. 
An opinionated man is not only fond of his own opinion, 
but full of his own opinion; he has an opinion on every¬ 
thing, which is the best possible opinion. A conceited 
man has a conceit or an idle fond opinion of his own 
talent; it is not only high in competition with others, 
but it is so high as to be set above others. The egotistical 
man makes himself the darling object of his own con¬ 
templation; he admires and loves himself to that degree 
that he can talk and think of nothing else. 

Option, Choice. The option or the power of choos¬ 
ing is given; the choice itself is made: hence we say a 
thing is at a person’s option, or it is his own option, or 


the option is left to him, in order to designate his freedom 
of choice more strongly than is expressed by the word 
choice itself. 

Orifice, Perforation. These terms are both scien¬ 
tifically employed to designate certain cavities in the 
human body; but the former respects that which is 
natural, the latter that which is artificial. All the vessels 
of the human body have their orifices, which are so con¬ 
structed as to open or close of themselves. Surgeons 
frequently make perforations into the bones. 

Outward, External, Exterior. Outward, or in¬ 
clined to the out, after the manner of the out, indefinitely 
describes the situation; external is employed only in 
regard to such objects as are conceived to be independent 
of man as a thinking being: hence, we may speak of the 
outward part of a building, of a board, and the like; 
but of external objects acting on the mind, or of an ex¬ 
ternal agency. When we speak of anything which has 
two coats, it is usual to designate the outermost by the 
name of the exterior. 

To Paint, Depict. To paint is employed either 
literally to represent figures on paper, or to represent 
circumstances and events by means of words; to depict 
is used only in this latter sense, but the former word ex¬ 
presses a greater exercise of the imagination than the 
latter. It is the art of the poet to paint nature in lively 
colors; it is the art of the historian or the narrator to 
depict a real scene of misery in strong colors. 

Part, Piece, Patch. Things may be divided into 
parts without any express separation; but when divided 
into pieces they are actually cut asunder: hence we may 
speak of a loaf as divided into twelve parts when it is con¬ 
ceived only to be so; and divided into twelve pieces 
when it is really so. The patch is that which is always 
broken and disjointed, a something imperfect: many 
things may be formed out of a piece; but the patch only 
serves to fill up a chasm. 

Particular, Individual. Particular is much more 
specific than individual: the particular confines us to 
one object only of many; the individual may be said of 
any one object among many. 

Peace, Quiet, Calm, Tranquillity. Peace implies 
an exemption from public or private broils; quiet im¬ 
plies a freedom from noise or interruption. Calm is a 
form of quiet, which respects objects in the natural 
or the moral world; it indicates the absence of violent 
motion as well as violent noise; it is that state which 
more immediately succeeds a state of agitation. Tran¬ 
quillity expresses the situation as it exists in the present 
moment, independently of what goes before or after; 
it is sometimes applicable to society, sometimes to natural 
objects, and sometimes to the mind. 

Pellucid, Transparent. Pellucid is said of that 
which is pervious to the light, or of that into which the 
eye can penetrate; transparent is said of that which is 
bright throughout. A stream is pellucid; it admits of 
the light so as to reflect objects but it is not transparent 
to the eye. 

Penurious, Economical, Saving, Sparing, Thrifty, 
Niggardly. To be economical is a virtue in those who 
have but narrow means. He who is saving when young 
will be avaricious when old. To be sparing is to use 
frugally or stintingly; thrifty suggests careful manage¬ 
ment; penurious means miserly or sparing in regard to 
the use of money; niggardly is spending or letting go 
in the smallest possible quantities. 

To Perpetrate, Commit. One may commit offenses 
of various degrees and magnitude; but one perpetrates 
crimes only, and those of the more heinous kind. 

Pillar, Column. The word pillar is the most general 
in its application to any structure, whether rude or other¬ 
wise; the term column, on the other hand, is applied to 
whatever is ornamental, as the Grecian order of columns. 

Piteous, Doleful, Woeful, Rueful. Piteous is ap¬ 
plicable to one’s external expression of bodily or mental 
pain; a child makes piteous lamentations when it suffers 
from hunger, or has lost its way. Doleful applies to those 
sounds which convey the idea of pain; there is some¬ 
thing doleful in the tolling of a funeral bell or in the sound 
of a muffled drum. Woeful applies to the circumstances 
and situations of men; a scene is woeful in which we wit¬ 
ness a large family of young children suffering under the 
complicated horrors of sickness and want. Rueful applies 
to the outward indications of inward sorrow depicted in 
the looks or countenance. 

Pity, Compassion. Pity is excited principally by 
the weakness or degraded condition of the subject; com¬ 
passion by his uncontrollable and inevitable misfortunes. 

Playful, Gamesome, Sportive. Playful is appli¬ 
cable to youth or childhood, when there is the greatest 
disposition to play. Gamesome and sportive are ap¬ 
plied to persons of maturer years, the former in the bad 
sense, and the latter in the good sense. A person may 



250 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


be said to be gamesome who gives in to idle jests, or 
sportive who indulges in harmless sport. 

To Poise, Balance. To poise is properly to keep 
the weight from pressing on either side; to balance is to 
adjust or equalize two forces. The idea of bringing into 
an equilibrium is common to both terms. A thing is 
poised as respects itself; it is balanced as respects other 
things. 

Poison, Venom. A poison must be administered 
inwardly to have its effect; a venom will act by an ex¬ 
ternal application: the juice of the hellebore is a poison; 
the tongue of the adder and the tooth of the viper contain 
venom. 

Politeness, Polish, Refinement. Politeness and 
polish do not extend to anything but externals; refine¬ 
ment applies as much to the mind as to the body. Rules 
of conduct, and contact with good society, will make a 
man polite; lessons in dancing will serve to give a 
polish; refined manners or principles will naturally arise 
out of refinement in men. 

Position, Posture. The position is that in which a 
body is placed in respect to other bodies, as the standing 
with one’s face or back to an object is a position; but a 
posture is that position which a body assumes in respect 
to itself, as a sitting or reclining posture. 

To Pour, Spill, Shed. We pour with design; we spill 
by accident: we pour water over a plant or a bed; we 
spill it on the ground. Shed refers to great quantities. 

Powerful, Potent, Mighty. Powerful is applicable 
to strength as well as to power: a powerful man is one 
who by size and make can easily overpower another; a 
powerful person is one who has much in his power. Po¬ 
tent is used only in this latter sense, in which it expresses 
a larger extent of power: a potent monarch is much more 
than a powerful prince. Mighty expresses a still higher 
degree of power; might is power unlimited by any con¬ 
sideration or circumstance. A giant is called mighty in 
the physical sense; genius which takes everything within 
its grasp is said to be mighty. 

To Press, Squeeze, Pinch, Gripe. The forcible 
action of one body on another is included in all these 
terms. In the word press this is the only idea; the rest 
differ in the circumstances. We may press with the foot, 
the hand, or any particular limb. One squeezes com¬ 
monly with the hand. One pinches either with the fingers 
or with an instrument constructed in a similar formr one 
ripes with teeth, claws, or any instrument that can gain 
old of the object. 

Presumptive, Presumptuous, Presuming. A 

presumptive heir is one presumed or expected to be heir; 
presumptive evidence is evidence founded on some pre¬ 
sumption or supposition; so likewise presumptive rea¬ 
soning. But a presumptuous man, a presumptuous 
thought, a presumptuous behavior, all indicate an over- 
confidence in regard to one’s own powers; a man is pre¬ 
suming inasmuch as he is disposed to take unwarranted 
liberties. 

To Prevent, Anticipate. To prevent is literally to 
come beforehand, and anticipate to take beforehand: 
the former is employed for actual occurrences; the latter 
as much for calculations as for actions. To prevent is 
the act of a person toward other persons or things; to 
anticipate is the act of a being either toward himself or 
another. In this sense God is said to prevent man by 
interposing so as to direct his purposes to the right 
object or in the right direction. 

Previous, Preliminary, Preparatory, Introduc¬ 
tory. Previous applies to actions and proceedings in 
general, as a previous question, a previous inquiry, a 
previous determination. Preliminary is employed only 
for matters of contract: a preliminary article, a pre¬ 
liminary condition, are what precede the final settlement 
of any question. Preparatory is employed for matters 
of arrangement: the disposing of men in battle is pre¬ 
paratory to an engagement. Introductory is employed 
for matters of science or discussion: remarks are in¬ 
troductory to the main subject in question. 

Principle, Motive. The principle lies in conscious 
and unconscious agents; the motive only in conscious 
agents: all nature is guided by certain principles; man 
is put into action by certain motives. 

Privacy, Retirement, Seclusion. Privacy is op¬ 
posed to publicity; he who lives in privacy is one who 
follows no public line, who lives so as to be little known: 
retirement is opposed to openness or freedom of access; 
he who lives in retirement withdraws from the society 
of others, he lives by himself. Seclusion is the excess of 
retirement; he who lives in seclusion bars all access to 
himself, he shuts himself from the world. 

Proceeding, Transaction. Proceeding signifies lit¬ 
erally going before; and transaction the thing carried 
through: the former implies, therefore, something that 
is going forward; the latter something that is already 


done. We are witnesses to the whole proceeding; we 
inquire into the whole transaction. 

Production, Performance, Work. The term pro¬ 
duction cannot be employed without specifying or re¬ 
ferring to the source from which it is brought forth, or 
the means by which it is brought forth, as the produc¬ 
tion of art, the production of the inventive faculty. A 
performance cannot be spoken of without referring to 
the individual by whom it has been executed; hence we 
speak of this or that person’s performance. When we 
wish to specify anything that results from work or labor, 
it is termed a work: in this manner we speak either of 
the work of one’s hands, or of a work of the imagi¬ 
nation. 

Profligate, Abandoned, Reprobate. A profligate 

man has lost all by his vices, and consequently to his 
vices alone he looks for regaining the goods or the for¬ 
tune which he has squandered; as he has nothing to lose, 
and everything to gain in his own estimation, by pursuing 
the career of his vices, he surpasses all others in his un¬ 
principled conduct. An abandoned man gives up to 
his passions, which, having the entire sway over nim, 
naturally impel him to every excess. The reprobate 
man is one who has been reproved until he becomes 
insensible to reproof, and is given up to the malignity 
of his own passions. 

Prominent, Conspicuous. What is prominent is, 
in general, on that very account conspicuous; but many 
things may be conspicuous which are not expressly 
prominent. Nothing is prominent except that which 
projects beyond a certain line; everything is conspicuous 
which may be seen by many. 

Promise, Engagement^ Word. In promises the 
faith of an individual is admitted upon his word, and 
built upon as if it were a deed; in engagements the in¬ 
tentions of an individual for the future are all that are 
either implied or understood. As a promise and an 
engagement can be made only by words, word is often 
used for either, or for both, as the case requires. 

Proportionate, Commensurate, Adequate. Pro¬ 
portionate is here a term of general use; the others are 
particular terms, employed in a similar sense, in regard 
to particular objects. That is proportionate which rises 
as a thing rises, and falls as a thing falls; that is com¬ 
mensurate which is made to rise to the same measure or 
degree; that is adequate which is sufficient to meet the 
requirements. 

To Provide, Procure, Furnish, Supply. Provide 

and procure are both actions that have a special reference 
to the future; furnish and supply are employed for that 
which is of immediate concern. One provides a dinner 
in the contemplation that some persons are coming to 
partake of it; one procures help in the contemplation 
that it may be wanted. We furnish a room, as we find it 
necessary for the present purpose. One supplies a family 
with any article of domestic use. 

To Publish, Promulgate, Divulge, Reveal, Dis¬ 
close. To publish is the most general of these terms, 
conveying in its extended sense the idea of making 
known; it is in many respects indefinite: we may 
publish to many or few. To promulgate is always to 
make known to many. We may publish that which is 
a domestic or a national concern; we promulgate proper¬ 
ly only that which is of general interest; we divulge 
things intended to be kept secret; we commonly divulge 
the secrets or the crimes of another; we reveal the secret 
or the mystery of a transaction; we disclose from 
beginning to end an affair which has never before been 
known or accounted for. 

To Put, Place, Lay, Set. To put is a general term 
meaning to bring to a position: we may put a thing 
into one’s room, one's desk, one’s pocket, and the like. 
To place is to put in a specific manner, and for a 
specific purpose: one places a book on a shelf. To lay 
and to set are still more specific than place, the former 
being applied only to such things as can be made to lie, 
and set only to such as can be made to stand: a book 
may be said to be laid on the table when placed in a down¬ 
ward position, and set when placed on one end. 

Qualification, Accomplishment. The qualifica¬ 
tion serves the purpose of utility; the accomplishment 
serves to adorn: by the first we are enabled to make our¬ 
selves useful; by the second we are enabled to make our¬ 
selves agreeable. 

Quarrel, Broil, Feud. Quarrel is the general and 
ordinary term; broil and feud, including active hostility, 
are particular terms. The idea of a variance between 
two or more persons is common to these terms; but the 
former respects the complaints and charges which are 
reciprocally made. Broil respects the confusion and the 
entanglement which arise from a contention and a col¬ 
lision of interests; feud respects the hostilities which 
arise out of the variance. 



LANGUAGE 


251 


Question, Query. Questions and queries are both 
put for the sake of obtaining an answer. A question 
may be for a reasonable or an unreasonable cause; a 
query is mostly a rational question: idlers may put 
questions from mere curiosity; learned men put queries 
for the sake of information. 

Radiance, Brilliancy. Radiance denotes the emis¬ 
sion of rays, and is, therefore, peculiarly applicable to 
bodies naturally luminous, like the heavenly bodies; 
brilliancy denotes the whole body of light emitted, and 
may, therefore, be applied equally to natural and arti¬ 
ficial light. 

Rapacious, Ravenous, Voracious. Rapacious is 
the quality peculiar to beasts of prey, or to what is like 
beasts of prey. A lion is rapacious when it seizes on its 
prey; it is ravenous in the act of consuming it. The 
word ravenous respects the haste with which one eats; 
the word voracious respects the quantity which one 
consumes. A ravenous person is loath to wait for the 
dressing of his food; he consumes it without any prepara¬ 
tion: a voracious person not only eats in haste, but he 
consumes great quantities, and continues to do so for a 
long time. 

Rashness, Temerity, Haste, Precipitancy. Rash¬ 
ness is a general and indefinite term, in the significa¬ 
tion of which an improper celerity is the leading idea: 
in the signification of temerity, the leading idea is want 
of consideration, springing mostly from an overweening 
confidence, or a presumption of character. Haste and 
precipitancy are but modes or characteristics of rashness, 
and consequently employed only in particular cases, as 
haste in regard to our movements, and precipitancy in 
regard to our measures. 

Ready, Apt, Prompt. Ready is in general applied 
to that which has been intentionally prepared for a given 
purpose; prompt is applied to that which is at hand so 
as to answer the immediate purpose; apt is applied to 
that which is fit, or from its nature has a tendency to 
produce effects. 

To Reclaim, Reform. Reclaim signifies to call 
back to its right place that which has gone astray; re¬ 
form signifies to form anew that which has changed its 
form: they are allied only in their application to the 
moral character. A man is reclaimed from his vicious 
courses by the force of advice or exhortation; he may 
be reformed by various means, external or internal. 

To Recline, Repose. When we recline we put our¬ 
selves into a particular position; but when we repose we 
put ourselves into that position which will be easiest. 

To Recover, Retrieve, Repair, Recruit. We re¬ 
air that which has been injured; we recruit that which 
as been diminished; we recover property from those 
who wish to deprive us of it; we retrieve our misfor¬ 
tunes, or our lost reputation. 

Recovery, Restoration. Recovery (v. to recover) 
is the regaining of any object which has been lost or 
missing; restoration is the getting back what has been 
taken away, or that of which one has been deprived. 
What is recovered may be recovered with or without 
the use of means; the restoration is effected by foreign 
agency. 

Reform, Reformation. Whatever undergoes such 
a change as to give a new form to an object occasions 
a reform; when such a change is produced in the moral 
character, it is termed a reformation: the concerns of a 
state require occasional reform; those of an individual 
require reformation. 

To Refuse, Decline, Reject, Repel, Rebuff. We 

refuse what is asked of us, for want of inclination to 
comply; we decline what is proposed from motives of 
discretion; we reject what is offered to us, because it 
does not fall in with our views. To repel is to reject with 
violence; to rebuff is to refuse with contempt, or with 
what may be considered as such. 

To Relax, Remit. In regard to our attempts to act, 
we may speak of relaxing our endeavors, and remitting 
our labors or exertions; in regard to our dealings with 
others, we may speak of relaxing in discipline, relaxing 
in the severity or strictness of our conduct, and of 
remitting a punishment or a sentence. 

To Repeat, Recite, Rehearse, Recapitulate. To 
repeat is to say or utter again; to recite is to repeat in 
a formal manner; to rehearse is to repeat or recite by 
way of preparation; to recapitulate is to repeat the 
chapters or principal heads of any discourse. 

To Repress, Restrain, Suppress. To repress is to 
press back or down; to restrain is to strain back or down: 
the former is the general, the latter the specific term. 
We always repress when we restrain, but not vice versa. 
Repress is used mostly for pressing down, so as to keep 
that inward which wants to make its appearance. 
Restraint is an habitual repression by which a thing is 
kept down. To suppress, which is to keep under, or 


keep from appearing or being perceptible, is also used 
in respect to ourselves or others, as to repress one’s 
feelings, to suppress laughter, sighs, etc. 

Reproach, Contumely, Obloquy. The idea of 
contemptuous or angry treatment of others is common to 
all these terms; reproach is the general term, contumely 
and obloquy are the particular terms. Reproach is 
either deserved or undeserved; the name of Puritan is 
applied as a term of reproach to such as affect greater 
purity than others. Contumely is always undeserved; 
it is the insolent resistance to authority. Obloquy is 
always supposed to be deserved; it is applicable to 
those whose conduct has rendered them objects of 
general censure, and whose name, therefore, has almost 
become a reproach. 

To Restore, Return, Repay. We restore upon a 
principle of equity; we return upon a principle of 
justice and honor; we repay upon a principle of un¬ 
deniable right. We cannot always claim that which 
ought to be restored; but we can not only claim but 
enforce the claim in regard to what is to be returned or 
repaid. 

To Retard, Hinder. We retard or make slow the 
progress of any scheme toward completion; we hinder 
or keep back the person who is completing the scheme: 
we often retard a person, therefore, by hindering his 
progress; but we frequently hinder a person without 
expressly retarding him. 

Right, Claim, Privilege. Right, in its full sense, 
is altogether an abstract thing which is independent of 
human laws and regulations; claims and privileges are 
altogether connected with the establishments of civil 
society. We have often a claim to a thing which is not 
in our power to substantiate; and, on the other hand, 
claims are set up in cases which are totally unfounded 
on any right. Privileges are rights granted to individuals, 
depending either on the will of the grantor, or on the 
circumstances of the receiver, or on both; privileges are, 
therefore, partial rights transferable at the discretion 
of persons individually or collectively. 

Royal, Regal, Kingly. Royal signifies belonging 
to a king, in its most general sense; regal signifies 
appertaining to a king, in its particular application; 
kingly properly signifies like a king. A royal carriage, 
a royal residence, royal authority, all designate the 
general and ordinary appurtenances of a king. Regal 
government, regal state, regal power, denote the peculiar 
properties of a king; kingly always implies what is 
becoming a king, or after the manner of a king: a kingly 
crown is such as a king ought to wear. 

Rural, Rustic. Rural applies to all country objects 
except man; it is, therefore, always connected with the 
charms of nature: rustic applies only to persons, or to 
what is personal, with reference to the country; it is, 
therefore, generally associated with the want of culture. 

Safe, Secure. We may be safe without using any 
particular measures; but none can reckon on any degree 
of security without great precaution. A person may be 
very safe on the top of a coach; but if he wish to be 
secure from falling off, he must be fastened. 

Salute, Salutation, Greeting. A salute may con¬ 
sist either of a word or an action; salutations pass from 
one friend to another: the salute may be either direct 
or indirect; the salutation is always direct and personal. 
Guns are fired by way of a salute. Bows are given in the 
way of a salutation. Greeting is frequently a particular 
mode of salutation adopted on extraordinary occasions, 
indicative of great joy or satisfaction in those who greet. 

To Satisfy, Please, Gratify. What satisfies is not 
always calculated to please; nor is that which pleases 
that which will always satisfy: plain food satisfies a 
hungry person; it does not please him when he is not 
hungry. To gratify is to please in a high degree, to pro¬ 
duce a vivid pleasure: we may be pleased with trifles; 
but we are commonly gratified with such things as act 
strongly either on the senses or the affections. 

Seaman, Waterman, Sailor, Mariner. All these 
words denote persons occupied in navigation: the sea¬ 
man, as the word implies, follows his business on the sea; 
the waterman is one who gets his livelihood on fresh 
water. The sailor and the mariner are both specific 
terms to designate the seaman: every sailor and every 
mariner is a seaman, although every seaman is not a 
sailor or a mariner. The former is one who is employed 
about the laborious part of the vessel; the latter is one 
who traverses the ocean to and fro, who is attached to 
the water, and passes his life upon it. 

Secret, Hidden, Latent, Occult, Mysterious. 
What is secret is known to some one; what is hidden 
may be known to no one: it rests in the breast of an 
individual to keep a thing secret; it depends on the 
course of things if anything remains hidden. The latent 
is the secret or the concealed, in cases where it ought to be 



252 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


open: a latent motive is that which a person inten¬ 
tionally, though not justifiably, keeps to himself. An 
occult science is one that is hidden from the view of 
persons in general, which is attainable by but few; 
occult causes or qualities are those which lie too remote 
to be discovered by the inquirer. The operations of 
Providence are said to be mysterious, as they are alto¬ 
gether past our finding out. 

To See, Perceive, Observe. The eye sees when 
the mind is absent; the mind and the eye or other 
senses perceive in conjunction: hence, we may say that 
a person sees, but does not perceive. We observe not 
merely by a simple act of the mind, but by its positive 
and fixed exertion. . 

To Seem, Appear. Seem is said of that which is 
dubious, contingent, or future; appear, of that which 
is actual, positive, and past. A thing seems strange 
which we are led to conclude as strange from what we 
see of it; a thing appears clear when we have a clear 
conception of it. 

Sensualist, Voluptuary, Epicure. The sensualist 
lives for the indulgence of his senses; the voluptuary is 
devoted to his pleasures, and, as far as these pleasures 
are the pleasures of sense, the voluptuary is a sensualist. 
The epicure is one who makes the pleasures of sense his 
god, and in this sense he is a sensualist and a voluptuary. 
In the application of these terms, however, the sensual¬ 
ist is one who is a slave to the grossest appetites; the 
voluptuary is one who studies his pleasures so as to make 
them the most valuable to himself; the epicure is a 
kind of voluptuary who practices more than ordinary 
refinement in the choice of his pleasures. 

Sequel, Close. When a work is published in dis¬ 
tinct parts, those which follow at the end may be termed 
the sequel; if it appears all at once, the concluding 
pages are the close. 

Servant, Domestic, Menial, Drudge. In the term 
servant is included the idea of service performed; in 
the term domestic, the idea of one belonging to the 
house or family; in the word menial is included the idea 
of labor; and in the term drudge, that of wearisome labor. 

Shade, Shadow. Both these terms express that 
darkness which is occasioned by the sun’s rays being 
intercepted by any body: shade simply expresses the 
absence of light; shadow signifies also the figure of the 
body which intercepts the light. 

Sharp, Acute, Keen. The general property ex¬ 
pressed by these epithets is that of sharpness, or an 
ability to cut. The term sharp, in German scharf, from 
scheren, to cut, is generic and indefinite; the two others 
are modes of sharpness differing in the circumstance or 
in the degree. Acute is not only more than sharp in the 
common sense, but signifies also sharp-pointed: a knife 
may be sharp; but a needle is properly acute. Things 
are sharp that have either a long or a pointed edge; but 
keen is applicable only to the long edge, and that in 
the highest degree of sharpness: a common knife may 
be sharp; but a razor or a lancet is properly said to be 
keen. 

Short, Brief, Concise, Succinct, Summary. We 

may term a stick, a letter, or a discourse, short. We 
speak of brevity only in regard to the mode of speech; 
conciseness and succinctness as to the matter of speech; 
summary as to the mode either of speaking or of acting. 
The brief is opposed to the prolix; the concise and the 
succinct to the diffuse; the summary to the circum¬ 
stantial or ceremonious. 

Show, Exhibition, Representation, Sight, Spec¬ 
tacle. A show consists of that which merely pleases 
the eye; it is not a matter either of taste or art, but 
merely of curiosity: an exhibition, on the contrary, 
presents some effort of talent or some work of genius; 
and a representation sets forth the image or imitation 
of something by the power of art. Hence we speak of a 
show of wild beasts, an exhibition of paintings, and a 
theatrical representation; sights and spectacles present 
themselves to view. Whatever excites notice is a sight; 
a spectacle, on the contrary, is that kind of sight which 
has something in it to interest either the heart or the 
head of the observer: processions are sights; battles or 
bull-fights are spectacles. 

Sick, Sickly, Diseased, Morbid. Sick denotes a 
partial state, sickly a permanent state of the body, a 
roneness to be sick. He who is sick may be made well; 
ut he who is sickly is seldom really well. Sickly ex¬ 
presses a permanent state of indisposition unless other¬ 
wise qualified; but diseased expresses a violent state of 
derangement without specifying its duration. Sickly 
and morbid are applied to the habitual state of the 
feelings or character: a sickly sentimentality; a morbid 
sensibility. Morbid is used in no other, except in a 
technical sense. 

Sign, Signal. The sign enables us to recognize an 


object; it is, therefore, sometimes natural: signal serves 
to give warning; it is always arbitrary. 

Simple, Single, Singular. We may speak of a 
simple circumstance as independent of anything; of a 
single instance or circumstance as unaccompanied by 
any other; and of a singular instance as one that rarely 
has its like. 

Simulation, Dissimulation. Simulation is the 
making oneself like what one is not; and dissimulation 
is the making oneself appear unlike what one really 
is. The hypocrite puts on the semblance of virtue to 
recommend himself to the virtuous; the dissembler 
conceals his vices when he wants to gain the simple or 
the ignorant to his side. 

Slack, Loose. Slack is said only of that which 
is tied, or that with which anything is tied; loose is 
said of any substances, the parts of which do not adhere 
closely. 

To Slant, Slope. Slant is said of small bodies only; 
slope is said indifferently of all bodies, large and small. 
A book may be made to slant by lying in part on another 
book on a desk or a table; but a piece of ground is said 
to slope. 

To Slip, Slide, Glide. To slip is an involuntary, 
and slide a voluntary, motion: those who go on the 
ice in fear will slip; boys slide on the ice by way of 
amusement. To slip and slide are lateral movements 
of the feet; but to glide is the movement of the whole 
body, and just that easy motion which is made by 
slipping, sliding, flying, or swimming: a person glides 
along the surface of the ice when he slides; a vessel 
glides along through the water. 

To Soak, Drench, Steep. A person’s clothes are 
soaked in rain when the water has penetrated every 
thread; he himself is drenched in the rain when it has 
penetrated, as it were, his very body. Steep respects a 
manner of soaking employed as an artificial process. Soak 
is, however, a permanent action by which hard things are 
rendered soft; steep is a temporary action by which 
soft bodies become penetrated with a liquid: thus salt 
meat requires to be soaked; fruits are steeped in brandy. 

Social, Sociable. Social people seek others; so¬ 
ciable people are sought for by others. 

Solicitation, Importunity. Solicitation is general; 
importunity is particular: importunity is trouble¬ 
some solicitation. Solicitation is itself indeed that 
which gives trouble to a certain extent, but it is not 
always unreasonable. There may be cases in which 
we may yield to the solicitations of friends, to do 
that which we have no objection to being obliged to do; 
but importunity is that solicitation which never ceases 
to apply for that which it is not agreeable to give. 

Solitary, Desert, Desolate. Solitary simply de¬ 
notes the absence of all beings of the same kind: thus a 
place is solitary to a man where there is no human being 
but himself. Desert conveys the idea of a place made 
solitary by being shunned, from its unfitness as a place 
of residence. Desolate conveys the idea of a place made 
solitary, or bare of inhabitants, and all traces of habita¬ 
tion, by violent means. 

Sound, Sane, Healthy. Sound is extended in its 
application to all things that are in the state in which 
they ought to be, so as to preserve their vitality: thus, 
animals and vegetables are said to be sound when in 
the former there is nothing amiss in their breath, and in 
the latter in their root. Healthy expresses more than 
either sound or sane: we are healthy in every part, 
but we are sound in that which is essential to life. He 
who is sound may live, but he who is healthy enjoys 
life: sane is applicable to human beings, in the same 
sense, but with reference to the mind; a sane person is 
opposed to one that is insane. 

To Speak, Say, Tell. To speak may simply consist 
in uttering an articulate sound; but to say is to com¬ 
municate some idea by means of words: a child begins 
to speak the moment it opens its lips to utter any ac¬ 
knowledged sound; but it will be some time before it 
can say anything. To say is to communicate that which 
passes in our own minds, to express our ideas and feelings 
as they rise. To tell is to communicate events or circum¬ 
stances respecting ourselves or others. 

To Spread, Expand, Diffuse. To spread may be 
said of anything which occupies more space than it has 
done, whether by a direct separation of its parts, or by 
an accession to the substance; but to expand is to spread 
by means of extending or unfolding the parts. A mist 
spreads over the e'arth; a flower expands its leaves. 
To diffuse is to scatter, to cause to spread, as to*diffuse 
information. 

Staff, Stay, Prop, Support. Anything may be 
denominated a staff which holds up after the manner of 
a staff, particularly as it respects persons: bread is said 
to be the staff of life. The stay makes a thing secure 



LANGUAGE 


253 


for the time being, it keeps it in its place. A prop is 
usually of a temporary nature, a support is more per¬ 
manent. Every pillar on which a building rests is a 
support: the timbers which keep a damaged structure 
from falling are props. Whatever supports, that is, 
bears the weight of an object, is a support, whether in 
a state of motion like a staff, or in a state of rest like a 
stay or a prop. 

To Stain, Soil, Sully, Tarnish. All these terms 
imply the act of diminishing the brightness of an object, 
but the term stain denotes something grosser than the 
other terms, and is applied to inferior objects. Things 
which are not remarkable for purity or brightness may 
be stained, as hands when stained with blood. Nothing 
is sullied or tarnished but what has some intrinsic value. 
A fine picture or piece of writing may be easily soiled by 
a touch of the finger. The finest silver is the soonest 
tarnished: hence, in the moral application, a man’s life 
may be stained by the commission of some gross immo¬ 
rality; his honPr may be sullied, or his glory tarnished. 

State, Realm, Commonwealth. The ruling idea 
in the sense and application of the word state is that of 
government in its most abstract sense; affairs of state 
may either respect the internal regulations of a country, 
or they may respect the arrangements of different states 
with each other. The term realm is employed for the 
nation at large, but confined to such nations as are 
monarchical and aristocratical. The term commonwealth 
refers rather to the aggregate body of men and their 
possessions, than to the government of a country: it is 
the business of the minister to consult the interests of 
the commonwealth. 

To Stir, Move. We may move in any manner, but 
to stir is to move so as to disturb the rest and com¬ 
posure either of the body or the mind. 

Story, Tale. The story is either an actual fact or 
something feigned; the tale is frequently feigned. 
Stories are circulated respecting accidents and occur¬ 
rences which happen to persons. Tales of distress are 
told by many merely to excite compassion. 

Stream, Current, Tide. All rivers are streams, 
which are more or less gentle according to the nature of 
the ground through which they pass. The force of the 
current is very much increased by the confinement of 
any water between rocks, or by means of artificial im¬ 
pediments. The tide is high or low, strong or weak, at 
different hours of the day; when the tide is high, the 
current is strongest. 

To Strengthen, Fortify, Invigorate. Whatever 
adds to the strength, be it in ever so small a degree, 
strengthens; exercise strengthens either body or mind: 
whatever gives strength for a particular emergency for¬ 
tifies; religion fortifies the mind against adversity: what¬ 
ever adds to the strength, so as to give a positive degree 
of strength, invigorates; morning exercise in fine weather 
invigorates. 

Strict, Severe. He who has authority over others 
must be strict in enforcing obedience, in keeping good 
order, and in encouraging attention to duty; but it is 
possible to be very severe in punishing those who are 
under us, and yet to be very lax in all matters that our 
duty demands of us. 

Strife, Contention. Strife is mostly used for verbal 
conflict, in which each person strives against the other by 
the use of contumelious or provoking expressions. Con¬ 
tention is used for an angry striving with others, either 
in respect to matters of opinion or matters of claim, in 
which each party seeks to get the better of the other. 

Successive, Alternate. The successive may be 
accidental or intentional; the alternate is always inten¬ 
tional. It may rain for three successive days, or a fair 
may be held for three successive days. Trees are placed 
sometimes in alternate order, when every other tree is 
of the same size and kind. 

To Surround, Encompass, Environ, Encircle. 

We may surround an object by standing at certain dis¬ 
tances all round it; in this manner a person may be 
surrounded by other persons; a garden is surrounded 
by a wall. To encompass is to surround in the latter 
sense, and applies to objects of a great or indefinite 
extent: the earth is encompassed by the air. To sur¬ 
round is to go round an object of any form, whether 
square or circular, long or short; but to environ and 
to encircle carry with them the idea of forming a circle 
round an object. Thus a town or a valley may be envi¬ 
roned by hills, a basin of water may be encircled by trees, 
or the head may be encircled by a wreath of flowers. 

Sympathy, Compassion, Commiseration, Con~ 
dolence. Sympathy has the literal meaning of fellow- 
feeling, that is, a kindred or like feeling, or feeling in 
company with another. Compassion, commiseration, con¬ 
dolence signify a like suffering, or a suffering in company. 
Sympathy preserves its original meaning in its application, 


for we laugh or cry because of sympathy. Compassion is 
altogether a moral feeling, which makes us enter into the 
distresses of others. We may, therefore, sympathize with 
others, without essentially serving them; but, if we feel 
compassion, we naturally turn our thoughts toward 
relieving them. Commiseration is awakened toward 
those who are in an abject state of misery. Condolence 
supposes an entire equality, and is often produced by 
some common calamity. 

Taste, Genius. Taste seems to designate the capac¬ 
ity to derive pleasure from an object; genius designates 
the power we have for accomplishing any object. 

To Tease, Vex, Taunt, Tantalize, Torment. To 
tease is applied to that which is most trifling; torment 
to that which is most serious. We are teased by a fly 
that buzzes in our ears; we are vexed by the careless¬ 
ness and stupidity of our servants; we are taunted by 
the sarcasms of others; we are tantalized by the fair 
prospects which only present themselves to disappear 
again; we are tormented by the importunities of trouble¬ 
some beggars. 

Tenacious, Pertinacious. To be tenacious is to 
hold a thing close, to let it go with reluctance; to be per¬ 
tinacious is to hold it out in spite of what can be advanced 
against it. A man of a tenacious temper insists on trifles 
that are supposed to affect his importance; a perti¬ 
nacious temper insists on everything which is apt to 
affect his opinions. 

Tenet, Position. The tenet is the opinion which we 
hold in our minds; the position is that which we lay 
down for others. Our tenets may be hurtful, our posi¬ 
tions false. 

Thankfulness, Gratitude. Our thankfulness is 
measured by the number of our words; our gratitude 
is measured by the nature of our actions. A person 
who afterward proves very ungrateful may appear very 
thankful at the time. 

Thick, Dense. We speak of thick in regard to hard 
or soft bodies, as a thick board or thick cotton; we speak 
of thick in regard to solid or liquid bodies, as a thick 
cheese or thick milk: we use the term dense mostly in 
regard to the air in its various forms, as a dense air. 

To Think, Suppose, Imagine, Believe, Deem. 
We think a thing right or wrong; we suppose it to be 
true or false; we imagine it to be real or unreal. In 
regard to moral points, in which case the word deem 
may be compared with the others, to think is a conclu¬ 
sion drawn from certain premises. I think that a man has 
acted wrongly. To suppose is to take up an idea ar¬ 
bitrarily or at pleasure; to imagine is to take up an idea 
by accident, or without any connection with the truth or 
reality. To deem is to form a conclusion; things are 
deemed hurtful or otherwise in consequence of observa¬ 
tion. We think as the thing strikes us at the time; we 
believe from a settled deduction. 

Threat, Menace. We may be threatened with either 
small or great evils; but we are menaced only with great 
evils. 

Timely, Seasonable. The former signifies within 
the time, that is, before the time is past; the latter ac¬ 
cording to the season, or what the season requires. A 
timely notice prevents that which would otherwise hap¬ 
pen ; mercy and kindness are seasonable in the time of 
affliction. 

Torment, Torture. Torture is an excess of torment. 
We may be tormented by a variety of indirect means; 
but we are mostly said to be tortuerd by the direct means 
of the rack, or similar instrument. 

To Transfigure, Transform, Metamorphose. 
Transfigure is to make to pass over into another figure; 
transform and metamorphose are to put into another 
form: the former is said only of spiritual beings, and par¬ 
ticularly in reference to our Saviour; the other two terms 
are applied to that which has a corporeal form. Trans¬ 
formation is commonly applied to that which changes 
its outward form; in this manner a harlequin transforms 
himself into all kinds of shapes and likenesses. Meta¬ 
morphosis is applied to the form internal as well as exter¬ 
nal, that is, to the whole nature. 

Trembling, Tremor, Trepidation. Trembling ex¬ 
presses any degree of involuntary shaking of the frame, 
from the affection either of the body or the mind; cold, 
nervous affections, fear, and the like are the ordinary 
causes of trembling. Tremor is a slight degree of trem¬ 
bling, which arises mostly from a mental affection; when 
the spirits are agitated, the mind is thrown into a tremor 
by any trifling incident. Trepidation is more violent than 
either of the two, and springs from the defective state of 
the mind; it shows itself in the action, or the different 
movements of the body, rather than in the body. 

To Trouble, Disturb, Molest. Trouble is the most 
general in its application; we may be troubled by the 
want of a thing, or troubled by that which is unsuitable: 



254 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


we are disturbed and molested only by that which 
actively troubles. Pecuniary wants are the greatest 
troubles in life. Trouble may be permanent; disturb¬ 
ance and molestation are temporary, and both refer to 
the peace which is destroyed. A disturbance ruffles or 
throws out of a tranquil state; a molestation burdens or 
bears hard either on the body or the mind. 

Truth, Veracity. Truth belongs to the thing; ve¬ 
racity to the person: the truth of the story is admitted 
upon the veracity of the narrator. 

To Turn, Bend, Twist, Distort, Wring, Wrest, 
Wrench. We turn a thing by moving it from one point 
to another; thus we turn the earth oyer. To bend is 
simply to change direction; thus a stick is bent, or a 
body may bend its direction to a certain point. To twist 
is to bend many times, to make many turns. To distort 
is to turn or bend out of the right course; thus the face 
is distorted in convulsions. To wring is to twist with 
violence; thus linen which has been wetted is wrung. 
To wrest or wrench is to separate from a body by means 
of twisting; thus a stick may be wrested out of the hand, 
or a hinge wrenched off the door. 

To Turn, Wind, Whirl, Twirl, Writhe. Turn is 
to cause to rotate; wind is to turn a thing round in a 
regular manner; whirl, to turn it round in a violent man¬ 
ner; twirl, to turn it round in an irregular and unmeaning 
way; writhe,to turn round in convolution within itself. 

Unbelief, Infidelity, Incredulity. The Jews are 
unbelievers in the mission of our Saviour; the Turks are 
infidels, inasmuch as they do not believe in the Bible: 
Deists and Atheists are likewise infidels, inasmuch as 
they set themselves up against Divine revelation. Well- 
informed people are always incredulous of stories respect¬ 
ing ghosts and apparitions. 

Understanding, Intellect, Intelligence. Under¬ 
standing is employed to describe a familiar and easy 
power or operation of the mind in forming distinct ideas 
of things. Intellect is employed to mark the same 
operation in regard to higher and more abstruse objects. 
Understanding applies to the first exercise of the 
rational powers: it is therefore aptly said of children 
and savages that they employ their understandings on 
the simple objects of perception. Intellect, being a 
matured state of the understanding, is most properly 
applied to the efforts of those who have their powers in 
full vigor; we speak of understanding as the character¬ 
istic distinction between man and brute. Intellect is 
applied merely to human power, and intelligence to the 
spiritual power of higher beings, as the intelligence of 
angels; so, when applied to human beings, it is taken 
in the most abstract sense for the intellectual power: 
hence we speak of intelligence as displayed in the coun¬ 
tenance of a child whose looks evince that he has exerted 
his intellect, and thereby has proved that it exists. 

Unless, Except. Unless, which is equivalent to if 
less, if not, or if one fail, is employed only for the partic¬ 
ular case; but except has always a reference to some 
eneral rule, of which an exception is hereby signified: 

shall not do it unless he asks me; no one can enter 
except those who are provided with tickets. 

Unspeakable, Ineffable, Unutterable, Inexpres¬ 
sible. The unspeakable is said of objects in general, 
particularly of those which are above human concep¬ 
tion, and surpass the power of language to describe, as 
the unspeakable goodness of God. Ineffable is said of 
such objects as cannot be painted in words with ade¬ 
quate force, as the ineffable sweetness of a person’s 
look. Unutterable and inexpressible are extended in 
their signification to that which is incommunicable by 
signs from one being to another: grief is unutterable 
which it is not in the power of the sufferer by any sounds 
to bring home to the feelings of another; grief is inex¬ 
pressible which is not to be expressed by looks, or words, 
or any sign. 

Unworthy, Worthless. Unworthy is a term of 
less reproach than worthless: the former signifies not 
to be worthy of praise or honor; the latter signifies 
to be without all worth, and consequently in the fullest 
sense bad. There are many unworthy members in 
every religious community; but every society that is 
conducted upon proper principles will take care to 
exclude worthless members. 

Usage, Custom, Prescription. Usage is what 
one has been long accustomed to do; custom (v. custom) 
is what one generally does; prescription is what is indi¬ 
cated by usage to be done. The usage acquires force and 
sanction by dint of time; the custom acquires sanction 
by the frequency of its being done or by the numbers doing 
it; the prescription acquires force by the authority 
which prescribes. 

To Utter, Speak, Articulate, Pronounce. Utter, 
from out, signifies to put out; that is, to send forth a 
sound; this, therefore, is a more general term than 


speak, which is to utter an intelligible sound. We may 
utter a groan; we speak words only, or that which is 
intended to serve as words. Speak, therefore, is only 
a form of utterance; a dumb man has utterance, but 
not speech. Articulate and pronounce are modes of 
speaking. To articulate, from articulum, a joint, is to 
pronounce distinctly the letters or syllables of words; 
this is the first effort of a child beginning to speak. 
Pronounce is a formal mode of speaking. 

To Value, Prize, Esteem. To value is to estimate the 
worth, real or suppositious, relative or absolute, of a 
thing; in this sense men value gold above silver, or an 
appraiser values goods. Prize and esteem are taken 
only as mental actions: the former is taken in reference to 
sensible or moral objects; the latter, only to moral objects. 
We may value books according to their market price, 
or we may value them according to their contents: we 
prize books only for their contents; in this sense 
prize is a much stronger term than value. 

Venial, Pardonable. Venial is applied to what 
may be tolerated without express disparagement to the 
individual, or without direct censure; but the pardonable 
is that which may only escape severe censure, but cannot 
be allowed: garrulity is a venial offense in old age; 
levity in youth is pardonable in single instances. 

View, Survey, Prospect. We take a view or survey; 
the prospect presents itself: the view is of an indefinite 
extent; the survey is always comprehensive in its nature. 
Ignorant people take but narrow views of things; the 
capacious mind of a genius takes a survey of all nature. 
Our prospects are very delusive. Sometimes our pros¬ 
pects depend upon our views, at least in matters of 
religion. He who forms erroneous views of a future 
state has but a wretched prospect beyond the grave. 

Violent, Furious, Boisterous, Vehement, Impet¬ 
uous. A man is violent in his opinions, violent in his 
measures, violent in his resentments; he is furious in 
his anger, or has a furious temper; he is vehement in 
his affections or passions, vehement in love, vehement 
in zeal, vehement in pursuing an object. Violence 
transfers itself to some external object on which it acts 
with force; but vehemence respects that manner of 
violence which is confined to the person himself: we 
may dread violence, because it is always liable to do 
mischief. Impetuosity is rather the extreme of violence 
or vehemence. An impetuous attack is an excessively 
violent attack; an impetuous character is an exces¬ 
sively vehement character. Boisterous is said of the 
manner and of the behavior rather than of the mind. 

Wakefulness, Watchfulness, Vigilance. Wakeful¬ 
ness is an affair of the body, and depends upon the temper¬ 
ament; watchfulness is an affair of the will, and depends 
upon the determination. Some persons are more wakeful 
than they wish to be; few are as watchful as they ought 
to be. Vigilance expresses a high degree of watchful¬ 
ness. A sentinel is watchful who on ordinary occasions 
keeps good watch; but it is necessary for him, on extra¬ 
ordinary occasions, to be vigilant, in order to detect 
whatever may pass. 

To Want, Need, Lack. To want is to be without 
that which contributes to our comfort, or is an object 
of our desire; to need is to be without that which is 
essential to our existence or our purposes. To lack 
expresses little more than the general idea of being with¬ 
out, unaccompanied by any collateral idea; it is usual 
to consider what we want as artificial, and what we need 
as natural and indispensable. What one man wants is 
a superfluity to another; but that which is needed by one 
is in like circumstances needed by all. 

Wave, Billow, Surge, Breaker. Those waves 
which swell more than ordinarily are termed billows;- 
those waves which rise higher than usual are termed 
surges; those waves which dash against the shore, or 
against vessels, with more than ordinary force, are 
termed breakers. 

Weak, Feeble, Infirm. We may be weak in body 
or mind; but we are feeble and infirm only in the body: 
we may be weak from disease, or weak by nature; both 
equally convey the gross idea of a defect. But the 
terms feeble and infirm are qualified expressions for 
weakness: an old man is feeble from age; he may like¬ 
wise be infirm in consequence of sickness. 

Weight, Burden, Load. A person may sink under 
the weight that rests upon him; a platform may break 
down from the weight upon it: a person sinks under 
his burden or load; a cart breaks down from the load. 

Whole, Entire, Complete, Total, Integral. Whole 
excludes subtraction; entire excludes division; com¬ 
plete excludes deficiency. A whole orange has had nothing 
taken from it; an entire orange is not yet cut; and a 
complete orange is grown to its full size. Total is the 
opposite of partial. Integral is applied now to parts or 
numbers not broken. 




LANGUAGE 


255 


Wicked* Iniquitous, Nefarious. It is wicked 
to deprive another of his property unlawfully, under 
any circumstances; but it is iniquitous if it be done by 
fraud and circumvention; and nefarious if it involves 
any breach of trust. 

To Will, Wish. We can will nothing but what we 
can effect; we may wish for many things which lie above 
our reach. 

Wisdom, Prudence. Wisdom directs all matters 
present or to come; prudence, which acts by foresight, 
directs what is to come. Rules of conduct are framed 
by wisdom, and it is the part of prudence to apply these 
rules to the business of life. 

Wonder, Miracle, Marvel, Prodigy, Monster. 
Wonders are natural; miracles are supernatural. The 
whole creation is full of wnnders; the Bible contains 
an account of the miracles which happened in those days. 
Wonders are real; marvels are often fictitious; prodigies 
are extravagant and imaginary; monsters are violations 
of the laws of nature. The production of a tree from a 
grain of seed is a wonder; but the production of a calf 
with two heads is a monster. 

Work, Labor, Toil, Drudgery, Task. Every 
member of society must work for his support, if he is not 
in independent circumstances. The poor are obliged to 
labor for their daily subsistence; some are compelled to 


toil incessantly for the pittance which they earn. Drudg¬ 
ery falls to the lot of those who are the lowest in society. 
A man wishes to complete his work; he is desirous of 
resting from his labor; he seeks for a respite from his 
toil; he submits to drudgery. Task is a work imposed 
by others, and is, consequently, more or less burden¬ 
some. 

Writer, Author. Writer'refers us to the act of writ¬ 
ing; author t<? the act of inventing. There are, there¬ 
fore, many writers, who are not authors; but there ia 
no author of books who may not be termed a writer. 
Compilers and contributors to periodical works are 
properly writers, though not always entitled to the name 
of authors. Poets and historians are properly termed 
authors rather than writers. 

Youthful, Juvenile, Puerile. Youthful signifies 
full of youth, or in the complete state of youth; juvenile 
signifies the same; but puerile signifies literally boyish. 
Hence the first two terms are taken in an indifferent 
sense; but the latter in a bad sense, or at least always 
in the sense of what is suitable to a boy only: thus we 
speak of youthful vigor, youthful employments, juvenile 
performances, juvenile years, and the like: but puerile 
objections, puerile conduct, and the like. We expect 
nothing from a youth but what is juvenile; we are sur¬ 
prised and dissatisfied to see what is puerile in a man. 


WORDS AND PHRASES 
MODERN 

GREEK AND LATIN 
ab extra, From without. 
ab incunabilis. From the cradle. 
ab initio. From the beginning. 
ab origine, From the origin or commencement. 
ab ovo, From the egg; from the very beginning. 
ab ovo usque ad mala (lit., from the egg to the apples, a 
term borrowed from Roman banquets, which began 
with eggs and ended with fruit), From beginning to 
end; from first to last. 

absen8 hceres non erit (The absent one will not be the heir), 
Out of sight, out of mind. 
absit invidia, Let there be no ill-will; envy apart. 
abuno disce omnes (From one example judge of the 
rest), From a single instance infer the whole. 
ab urbe condita, From the building of the city, i. e., 
Rome. [A. U. C.] 

a capite ad calcem, From head to heel. 
a cruce salus, Salvation by or from the cross. 
ad arbitrium, At will; at pleasure. 

ad calendas grcecas, At the Greek calends, i. e., never. 

(The Greeks had no calends.) 
ad captandum vulgus, To attract or please the rabble. 
a Deo et rege, From God and the king. 
ad extremum, To the extreme; at last. 
ad gustum. To one’s taste, 
ad hominem, Personal; to the individual. 
a die, From that day. 
ad intemecionem. To extermination. 
ad libitum, At pleasure. 
ad modum. In the manner of. 
ad multos annos, For many years. 
ad nauseam, So as to disgust or nauseate. 
ad patres, Gathered to his fathers; dead. 
ad rem. To the purpose; to the point. 
adscriptus glebce, attached to the soil. 
adsum, I am present; I am here. 
ad summum. To the highest point or amount. 
ad unguem. To a nicety; exactly. 
ad unum omnes, To a man. 

ad utrumque paralus, Prepared for either event or case. 
ad vivum, Like life; to the life. 

cegrescit medendo, It becomes worse from the remedies 
employed. 

eequabiliter et diligenter. Equably and diligently. 
aequo animo. With a calm mind. 
astatis suce, Of his or her age. 
a fortiori, For the stronger reason. 

age quod agis, Do what you are doing; attend to your 
business. 

alere flammam, To feed the flame. 

alloi kamon, alloi onanto (Gr.), Some toil, others reap 
the advantage. 

alma mater. Kind or benign mother. (Specifically one’s 
college or university.) 
alter ego, Another self. 
alter ipse amicus, A friend is another self. 
alterum tantum, As much more. 

amantium irce amoris integratio, Lovers’ quarrels are the 
renewing of love. 

a maximis ad minima, From the greatest to the least. 


FROM THE CLASSIC AND 
LANGUAGES 

amicus humani generis, A friend of the human race. 
amicus usque ad aras, A friend even to the altar (of sacri¬ 
fice), i. e., To the last extremity. 
amor patriae, Love of country; patriotism. 
anangka d' oude theoi machontai (Gr.), Not even the 
gods can fight against necessity. 
andron epiphanon pasa ge taphos (Gr.), All the world is 
a burial-place for illustrious men. 
aner ho pheugon kai palin machesetai (Gr.), The man 
who flies shall fight again. (A line said to have been 
written by Demosthenes as an excuse for his running 
away and leaving his shield behind him at the battle 
of Cheronsea, 338 B. C.) 

anguis in herba, A snake in the grass; a false friend; an 
unforeseen danger. 

animo et fide. Courageously and faithfully. 
anno cetatis suae, In the year of his or her age. 
anno Christi, In the year of Christ. [A. C.] 
anno humanas salutis. In the year of man’s redemption. 
[A. H. S.] 

anno salutis, In the year of redemption. fA. S.] 
anno urbis conditae. In the year from the time the city— 
i. e., Rome —■ was built. 

annus mirabilis, A year of wonders. (Often applied in 
English History to the year 1666, noteworthy for 
the war with the Dutch, the Plague, and the Great 
Fire of London. See Dryden’s poem “Annus 
Mirabilis.”) 

ante bellum, Before the war. 
ante lucem, Before daybreak. 
ante meridiem, Before noon, 
o posse ad esse. From possibility to reality. 
a posteriori, From what follows; from effect to cause. 
a priori, From what goes before; from cause to effect. 
aptestos pithos (Gr.), A cask that will never fill; an endless 
job. (The allusion is to the Danaides, who, for the mur¬ 
der of their husbands, were condemned to draw water 
in sieves.) 

arbiter elegantiarum, A judge or authority in matters of 
taste. 

arcana coelestia, Celestial secrets. 
arcana imperii, State secrets. 

ardentia verba, Words that burn; glowing language. 
argumentum ad crumenam, (An argument to the purse), 
An appeal to one’s interests. 

argumentum ad invidiam, (An argument to envy), An 
appeal to low passions. 

argumentum ad judicium, An argument appealing to the 
judgment. 

argumentum baculinum, (The argument of the cudgel), 
An appeal to force. 

ariston men hudor (Gr.), Water is the chief of the elements, 
i. e., as being the origin of all things. (In the Theogony 
of Hesiod, Oceanus and Thetis are regarded as the 
parents of all the deities who presided over Nature.) 
ars est celare artem. True art is to conceal art. 
ars longa, vita brevis. Art is long, life is short. 
artium magister, Master of arts. 

asinus ad lyram (lit., an ass at the lyre), An awkward 
fellow. 

at spea non frada, But hope is not yet crushed. 





256 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


audi alteram partem, Hear the other side. 
aurea mediocritas, The golden mean. 
aut Caesar aut nullus, Either Csesar or nobody; either in 
the first place or nowhere. 

aut vincere aut mori, To conquer or die; death or vic¬ 
tory. 

auxilium ab alto, Help from on high. 
a verbis ad verbera, From words to blows. 
avito viret honore, He flourishes on the honors of his 
ancestors. 

beatce memoriae, Of blessed memory. 
bella! horrida bella, War I horrid war. 
bella matribus detestata, War, so detested by mothers. 
bellum internecinum, A war of extermination. 
bene ordsse est bene studuisse, To have studied well is to 
have prayed well. 

bis dot qui cito dot, He gives twice who gives quickly or 
opportunely. 

bis peccare in bello non licet, One must not blunder twice 
in war. 

bis pueri senes, Old men are twice boys. 
bona fide, In good faith. 
bona fides. Good faith. 

brevi manu (With a short hand). Offhand; extempore; 
summarily. 

brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio, If I labor to be brief, I 
become obscure. • 

cadit qucestio. The question falls; there is no discussion. 
caeca est invidia, Envy is blind. 
ccctera desunt, The rest is wanting. 
cceteris paribus, Other things being equal. 

Candida Pax, White-robed Peace. 

cantabit vacuus coram latrone viator, The penniless trav¬ 
eler will sing in the presence of the highwayman; a 
man who has nothing has nothing to lose. 
cantate Domino, Sing unto the Lord. (The opening 
words of many Psalms. Vulgate.) 
carpe diem, Usually explained, according to popular ideas 
of Epicurean philosophy, as — Enjoy the present day; 
but capable of higher interpretation — Seize the 
present opportunity; improve time. 
casus belli, A cause justifying war; a ground of war. 
causa sine qua non, An indispensable cause. 
cedant arma togce, Let arms yield to the gown; let violence 
give place to law. 

chremat 'aner (Gr.), Money makes the man. 
circuitus yerborum, A circumlocution. 
circulus in probando, A circle in the proof: the fallacy of 
using the conclusion as one of the premises; a vicious 
circle. 

clarior e tenebris, Brighter from obscurity. 
clarum et venerabile nomen, An illustrious and venerable 
name. 

cogito, ergo sum, I think, therefore I exist. 
comitas inter gentes, Comity between nations. 
commune bonum, A common good. 

communibus annis, On the annual average ; one year with 
another. 

communi consensu, By common consent. 
conditio sine qua non, An indispensable condition. 
conjunctis viribus, With united powers. 
consensus facit legem. Consent makes the law. (If two 
persons make an agreement in good faith and with 
full knowledge, the law will insist on its being carried 
out.) 

consilio et animis, By wisdom and courage. 
consilio et prudentia, By wisdom and prudence. 
constantia et virtute, By constancy and virtue. 
consuetudo pro lege servatur, Custom is held as law. 
(The English common law is based on immemorial 
usage.) 

contra bonos mores. Contrary to good morals. 
copia verborum, A plentiful supply of words; flow of 
language. 

coram nobis, In our presence. 

coram non judice. Before a person who is not a judge; 

not before the proper tribunal. 
crambe repetita, Cabbage warmed up the second time; 
hence used proverbially for any tedious repetition of a 
truism, an old story, etc. 

credat Judceus Apella, Let the (.superstitious) Jew Apella 
believe it; tell that to the marines. 
crede quod habes, et habes, Believe that you have it, and 
you have it. 

credo, quia absurdum, (Corrupted from a passage in Ter- 
tullian), I believe it, because it is absurd. 
credula res amor est, Love is ready to believe. 
crescit amor nummi, quantum ipsa pecunia crescit, The 
love of money grows as our wealth increases. 
crescit eundo, It increases as it goes. 
crescit sub pondere virtus, Virtue increases under every 
oppression. 

creta an carbone notandum, To be marked with chalk or 


charcoal. (The Romans marked lucky days with 
white, and unlucky ones with black.) 
crux, A cross; a difficulty; a stumbling-block; a puzzle; 
e. g., crux criticorum, crux mathematicorum, crux medi- 
corum, The puzzle of critics, mathematicians, physi¬ 
cians. 

cucullus non facit monachum, The cowl does not make 
the monk; don’t trust to appearances. 
cui bono? (A maxim of Cassius, quoted by Cicero), For 
whose advantage? Generally used, however, as, 
What is the good of it? 

cui Fortuna ipsa cedit. To whom Fortune herself yields. 
culpam poena premit comes, Punishment follows hard on 
crime. 

cum grano, cum grano salis, With a grain of salt; with 
some allowance or modification. 
cum privilegio, With privilege. 

cum tacent, clamant, Although they keep silence, they 
cry aloud; their silence is more expressive than 
words. 

curiosa felicitas, Nice felicity of expression (applied by 
Petronius Arbiter, cxviii, 5, to the writings of Horace); 
happy knack. 

currente calamo, With a running pen; offhand. 
da locum melioribus, Give place to your betters. 
damnant quod non intelligunt, They condemn what they 
do not understand. 

dare pondus fumo, To give weight to smoke; to impart 
value to that which is worthless; to attach importance 
to trifles. 

data et accepta. Expenses and receipts. 
date obolum Belisario, Give an obolus to Belisarius. (It 
is said that this general, when old and blind, was 
neglected by Justinian, and obliged to beg. Gibbon 
treats the story as a fable.) 

Davus sum, non CEdipus, I am Davus, not (Edipus. 

I am no conjurer; I am a bad hand at riddles. 
deceptio visus, An optical illusion. 

decori decus addit avito. He adds honor to the ancestral 
honors. 

de die in diem, From day to day. 

de gustibus non est disputandum, There is no disputing 
about tastes. 

Dei gratia, By the grace of God. [D. G.] 
de jure, By the law; by right. 

de lana caprina, About goat’s wool; hence about any 
worthless object. 

delenda est Carthago, Carthage must be utterly destroyed. 
(A phrase with which Cato the Elder urged the Roman 
people to the destruction of Carthage, which he looked 
on as a dangerous rival to Rome.) 
de minimis non curat lex, The law does not concern 
itself with trifles. 

de mortuis nil nisi bonum, Let nothing be said of the 
dead but what is good. 

de nihilo nihil, in nihilum nil posse reverti, From nothing 
nothing is made, and nothing that exists can be 
reduced to nothing. (The doctrine of the eternity of 
matter.) 
de novo, Anew. 

de omnibus rebus, et quibusdam aliis, About everything, 
and something more besides. (Applied ironically to an 
immature literary production, in which very many 
subjects are treated.) 

Deo adjuvante, non timendum, With the help of God, 
there is nothing to be afraid of. 

Deo duce, With God for a leader. 

Deo favente, With the favor of God. 

Deo gratias, Thanks be to God. 

Deo juvante, With the help of God. 

Deo monente, God giving warning. 

Deo, non fortuna, From God, not from Chance. 

Deo volente, God willing. 

de profundis, Out of the depths. (The first words of 
Ps. cxxix—- Vulg.) 

desinit in piscem mulier formosa superne, A woman, 
beautiful above, has a fish’s tail. (A description of 
an incongruous style.) 

di8 krambe thanatos (Gr.), Cabbage, twice over, is death; 
repetition is tedious. 

dii majorum gentium, The gods of the superior houses; 

the twelve superior gods. 
dii penates, Household gods. 
disjecta membra, Scattered remains. 
docendo discimus, We learn by teaching. 

Dominus vobiscum. The Lord be with you. (The words 
in which the priest blesses the people in the Roman 
Church.) 

domus et placens uxor, Home and the good wife. 
do ut des, I give that you may give; the principle of 
reciprocity. 

dramatis personae, The characters of the play. 




LANGUAGE 


257 


dulce eat desipere in loco, It is pleasant to play the fool 
at times. 

dulce et decorum eat pro patrid mori, It is sweet and glori¬ 
ous to die for one’s country. 
dum spiro, spero, While I breathe, I hope. 
dum vivimus, vivamus, Let us live while we live; i. e., 
Let us enjoy life. 
durante vita, During life. 

ecce homo, Behold the man. (Indicative of the giving 
up of Christ to the people by Pilate.) 
e flamma cibum petere, To seek food from the flames; to 
pick the remnants of food from the funeral pyre; to be 
reduced to the last extremity. 
ego et rex meus, My king and I. (An expression attrib¬ 
uted to Cardinal Wolsey, and unjustly made the 
subject of a charge against him, as if he had written 
“I and my King.”) 

eheu! fugaces labuntur anni, Alas! our fleeting years 
pass away. 

elapso tempore, The time having elapsed. 

en nukti boule (Gr.), In the night there is counsel; sleep on it. 

en oino aletheia (Gr.), In wine there is truth. 

eo animo, With that design. 

eo nomine, By that name. 

e pluribus unum, One out of, or composed of, many. 

(The motto of the United States of America.) . 
epulia accumbere divum, To sit down at the banquets of 
the gods. 

e re nata. According to the exigency. 
ease quam videri, To be, rather than to seem. 
eat modua in rebus, There is a middle course in all things. 
e8to perpetua, Let it endure forever. 
e8to quod esse videris, Be what you seem to be. 
e tan, e epi tan (Gr.), Either this, or upon this; either bring 
this back, or be brought home, dead, upon it. (The 
words of a Spartan mother when she gave a shield to 
her son going on military service.) 
et catera, And the rest. 

et id genus omne, And everything of the sort. 
et sequentes, et sequentia, And those that follow. 
et sic de cceteris. And so of the rest. 
et sic de aimilibus. And so of similar things. 
et tu, Brute! And thou also, Brutus. (Usually given as 
the last words of Julius Caesar, when he saw Brutus 
amongst his murderers.) 

eventus atultorum magister, Fools must be taught by 
experience. 

ex abundantia, Out of the abundance. 
ex adverso, From the opposite side. 
ex cequo et bono, According to what is right and good. 
ex animo. Heartily; sincerely. 
ex capite. From the head; from memory. 
ex cathedra, From the chair or pulpit; spoken with 
authority; by virtue of office. 
excelsior, Higher; more elevated. 

exceptio probat regulam, The exception proves the rule. 
(If the case in point ,were not an exception, there 
would be no rule.) 

exceptis exdpiendis, Due exceptions (or allowances) 
having been made. 

ex concesso, From what has been conceded. 
ex curia, Out of court. 
ex delicto. From the crime. 

exegi monumentum cere perennius, I have reared a monu¬ 
ment more lasting than brass. (A prophetic estimate 
by Horace of the value of his poems.) 
exempla sunt odiosa, Examples are offensive. 
exempli gratia, By way of example. [E. G.] 
exeunt, They go out. 
exeunt omnes, All go out. 

ex facto jus oritur, The law arises from the fact. (Till 
the nature of the offense is known, the law cannot be 
set in motion.) 
exit, He (or she) goes out. 

exitu8 acta probat, The result justifies the deed. 
ex mera gratia, Through mere favor. 
ex mero motu, Of his own free will. 
ex necessitate rei, From the urgency of the case. 
ex officio, By virtue of office. 
ex parte, On one part or side. 

ex pede Herculem, You may judge of Hercules by his 
foot; the whole by the part. 
experientia docet stultos, Experience teaches even fools. 
experimentum crucis, The experiment of the cross; a 
decisive experiment; a crucial test. 
experto crede, Believe one who has tried it, or who 
speaks from experience; experto crede Roberto, Believe 
Robert, who has tried it, or who speaks from experience. 
expertus metuit, Having had experience of it, he dreads 
it; a burnt child dreads the fire. 
ex post facto, After the deed is done; retrospective. 
expressis verbis, In express terms. 
ex quocunque capite, For whatever reason. 


ex tacito, Tacitly. 

extempore, Offhand; without preparation. 
extinctus amabitur idem, This same man will be loved 
after his death. 

extra muros. Outside the walls. 

ex ungue leonem, You may tell the lion by his claws. 
faber quisque fortunce suae, Every man is the architect of 
his own fortune; hence, faber fortunce suce, a self- 
made man. 

facile est inventis addere. It is easy to improve what has 
been already invented. 

facile princeps, The acknowledged chief; one who stands 
indisputably first. 

facilis est descensus Averni, The descent to hell is easy; 

it is easy enough to get into trouble. 
fac simile, An exact imitation. 

faces populi, fax populi, The scum of the population. 
fama clamosa, A current scandal. 

fama nihil est celerius, Nothing travels more swiftly than 
scandal. 

fama semper vivat, May his fame last forever. 
fas est et ab hoste doceri, It is right to be taught even by 
an enemy; you may get a hint from the other side. 
fata obstant, The Fates oppose. 
fata viam invenient, The Fates will find out a way. 
fax mentis incendium gloria, The passion for glory is the 
torch, of the mind. 

felicitas multos habet amicos, Prosperity has many friends. 
felo de se, One who commits self-felony; a suicide. 
fera natura, Of a wild nature; applied to wild beasts. 
festina lente, Make haste slowly; don’t be impetuous. 
fiat experimentum in corpore vili, Let the experiment be 
made on a body of no value. 
fiat justitia ruat calum, Let justice be done though the 
heavens should fall. 
fiat lux, Let there be light. 
fide et amore, By faith and love. 
fide et fiducia, By fidelity and confidence. 
fide et fortitudine, By fidelity and fortitude. 
fidei coticula crux, The cross is the touchstone of faith. 
fidei defensor, Defender of the faith. 
fide, non armis, By faith, not by force of arms. 
fide, sed cui vide, Trust, but see whom you are trust¬ 
ing. 

fides et justitia, Fidelity and justice. 

fides Punica, Punic faith; treachery. (Among the Ro¬ 
mans the bad faith of the Carthaginians was notorious.) 
fidus Achates, Faithful Achates (the companion of 
iEneas); a true friend. 
fidus et audax. Faithful and bold. 

fieri facias, A legal paper authorizing execution on the 
goods of a debtor. 

filius nullius, A son of nobody; an illegitimate son. 
(He has no legal rights as a son in respect to the 
inheritance of property.) 

filius terra, A son of the earth; one of low origin. 
finis coronal opus, The end crowns the work. 
flagrante bello, While the war was raging; during hostil¬ 
ities. 

flagrante delicto, In the commission of the crime; in the 
very act. 

flamma fumo est proxima, Flame is akin to fire; where 
there’s smoke there’s fire. 
flecti, non frangi, To be bent, not broken. 
flosculi sententiarum, Flowers of fine thoughts. 
fanum habet in cornu, He has hay on his horn (the mark 
put on a bull to show he was savage); beware of him. 
fons et origo malorum, The source and origin of our 
miseries. 

forensis strepitus, The clamor of the forum; “.Brawling 
courts, and dusty purlieus of the Law.” 
forte scutum salus ducum, A strong shield is the safety of 
leaders. 

fortes fortuna juvat, Fortune favors the brave. 
forti et fideli nihil difficile, Nothing is difficult to the brave 
and faithful. 

fortiter et rede, With fortitude and rectitude. 
fortiter, fideliter, felicitef, Boldly, faithfully, successfully. 
fortiter in re, With firmness in action. 
fortuna favet fatuis, Fortune favors fools. 
fortuna filius, A spoiled child of Fortune. 
frangas, nonfledes, You may break me, but you shall not 
bend me. 

fraus pia, A pious fraud. 

fronti nulla fides. There is no trusting the features; don’t 
trust to appearances. 

fruges consumere nati, Born to consume the fruits of the 
earth; born only to eat. 

fugit irreparabile tempus, Irrecoverable time glides away. 
fuimus Troes, We once were Trojans; we have seen bet¬ 
ter days. 

fuit Ilium, There once was a Troy; Troy was, but is no 
more; the place is gone. 



258 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


fumum et opes, strepitumque Romas, The smoke, the show, 
the rattle, of the town (Rome). 
functus officio, Having discharged his duties; hence, out 
of office. 

furor arma ministrat, Rage provides arms; one uses any 
weapon in a rage. 

furor loquendi, A rage for speaking. 
furor poeticus, Poetical fire. 
furor scribendi, A rage for writing. 
gallice, In French. 

gaudeamus igitur, Therefore, let us rejoice. (The burden 
of a Macaronic s®ng.) 

gaudet tentamine virtus, Virtue rejoices in temptation. 
genius loci, The genius or presiding spirit of the place. 
gens togata, Applied first to Roman citizens, as wearing 
the toga, the garment of peace; hence, civilians 
generally. 

glaukas eis Athenas (Gr.), Owls to Athens. (The owl was 
sacred to Minerva, the guardian divinity of Athens; 
hence, owls were abundant, so that the proverb is like 
“to carry coals to Newcastle.’’) 
glossa diple, A double tongue. 

gloria in excelsis Deo, Glory to God in the highest. 
gloria Patri, Glory be to the Father. 

gnothi seauton( Gr.), Know thyself. (A precept inscribed in 
gold letters over the portico of the temple at Delphi. 
Its authorship has been ascribed to Pythagoras, to 
several of the wise men of Greece, and to Phemonoe, 
a mythical Greek poetess. According to Juvenal, 
this precept descended from heaven.) 
gradu diverso, via una, The same road by different steps. 
gradus ad Pamassum, A step to Parnassus; aid in writ¬ 
ing Latin poetry; a work on Latin verse-making con¬ 
taining rules and examples. 
gratia placendi, For the sake of pleasing. 
gratis dictum, Mere assertion. 

graviora manent, Greater afflictions are in store; the 
worst is yet to come. 

graviora qucedam sunt remedia periculis, Some remedies 
are worse than the disease. 
grex venalium, A venal throng. 

gutta cavat lap-idem, non vi, sed scepe cadendo, The drop 
hollows out the stone by frequent dropping, not by 
force; constant persistence gains the end. 
haud lo7igis intervallis, At frequent intervals. 
he gloss’ omomoch ’, he de -phren anomotos (Gr.), My tongue 
has sworn, but my mind is unsworn; I have said it, 
but don’t mean to do it. 

helluo librorum, A devourer of books; a bookworm. 
heu pietas! heu -prisca fides, Alas 1 for piety, 1 Alas I for 
our ancient faith. 

hiatus valde deflendus, A gap or deficiency greatly to be 
deplored. (Words employed to mark a blank in a work, 
but often used of persons whose performances fall 
short of their promises.) 
hie et ubique, Here and everywhere. 
hie facet, Here lies; sepultus, buried. 
hie labor, hoc opus est, Here is labor, here is toil. 
hie sepultus, Here [lies] buried. 

hinc illee lacrimce, Hence these tears; this is the cause of 
the trouble. 

hodie mihi, eras tibi, It is my lot to-day, yours to-morrow. 

(A line often found in old epitaphs.) 
hoi polloi (Gr.), The many, the common people. 
homo factus ad unguem, Usually quoted thus, though the 
proper form is ad unguer factus homo. A highly pol¬ 
ished, accomplished man. (The expression is bor¬ 
rowed from the practice in sculptors, who, in modeling, 
give the finishing touch with the nail; or from joiners, 
who test the accuracy of joints in wood by the nail.) 
homo multarum liter arum, A man of many letters; a man 
of extensive learning. 

homo solus aut deus aut daemon, A man to live alone must 
be either a god or a devil. 

homo sum; humani nihil a me alienum puto, I am a man; 
and I consider nothing that concerns mankind a mat¬ 
ter of indifference to me. 

hon hoi theoi philousin apothneskei neos (Gr.), (A fragment 
from Menander.) He whom the gods love dies young. 
honores mutant mores, Honors change manners. 
honos habet onus, Honor is burdened with responsibility. 
horoe canonicce, Canonical hours; prescribed times for 
prayers. 

horresco referens, I shudder as I tell the story. 
hortus siccus, A dry garden; a collection of dried plants; 
an herbarium. 

hos ego yersiculos feci, tulit alter honores (Virgil, on the 
occasion when some verses he had written on the shows 
at Rome were unjustly claimed by Bathyllus, who 
was rewarded for them), I wrote these lines, another 
has borne away the honor. 
humanum est errare. To err is human. 
hunc tu caveto, Beware of him. 


id genus omne, All that class. (A contemptuous expres¬ 
sion for the dregs of the population.) 
ignorantia non excused legem, Ignorance is no plea 
against the law. 

ignoratio elenchi, Ignorance of the point in dispute. (The 
logical fallacy of arguing to the wrong point.) 
ignoti nulla cupido, There is no desire for that which is 
unknown; our wants are increased by knowledge. 
ignotum per ignotius, (To explain) a thing not under¬ 
stood by one still less understood. 

Ilias malorum, An Iliad of woes; a host of evils. (From 
the fact that the siege of Troy lasted ten years.) 
imitatores, servum pecus. Ye imitators; a servile herd. 
immedicabile vulnus, An incurable wound; an irrepar¬ 
able injury. 

imo pectore, From the bottom of onfe’s heart. 
impari marte. With unequal military strength. 
impedimenta, Luggage; the baggage of an army. 
imperium in imperio, A government existing within 
another. (Said of a power set up against constituted 
authority.) _ 

implicite, By implication. 

impos animi, Of weak mind. 

in actu, In the very act; in reality. 

in ceternum, For ever. 

in articulo mortis, At the point of death. 

in camera. In the judge’s chamber; in secret. 

in capite, In chief. 

in coelo quies, _ There is rest in heaven. 

incredulus odi, Being incredulous, I cannot endure it. 

in curia, In court. 

inde irce, Hence tins resentment. 

in dubio, In doubt. 

in cequilibrio, In equilibrium. 

in esse, In being. 

in extenso. At length. 

in extremis, In very bad circumstances; at the point of 
death. 

infandum, regina, jubes renovare dolorem, You command 
me, O Queen, to revive unspeakable grief. 
in flagrante delicto, In the commission of the act. 
in forma pauperis. As a poor man. 
infra dig., infra dignitatem. Beneath one’s dignity. 
in futuro, In future; henceforth. 

in hoc signo vinces, In this sign thou shalt conquer. 
(The motto is said to have been adopted by Con¬ 
stantine after his vision of a cross in, the heavens 
just before his decisive battle with Maxentius, A. D. 
312 .) 

in limine, On the threshold; preliminarily. 

in loco, In the place; upon the spot; in the place of. 

in loco parentis, In the place of a parent. 

in medias res, In the very midst of things. 

in memoriam, In memory of. 

in nomine, In the name of. 

in nubibus, In the clouds; hence, undefined, uncertain, 
vague. 

in nuce, In a nutshell. 

in omnia paratus, Prepared for all things. 
inopem copia fecit, Abundance has made him poor. 
in pace, In peace. 

in perpetuam rei memoriam, In everlasting remembrance 
of the event. 
in perpetuum. For ever. 
in pleno, In full. 
in posse, In possible existence. 
in propria persona. In on'e’s own person. 
in puris naturalibus. In a state of nature; stark naked. 
in re, In the matter of. 
in rerum natura, In the nature of things. 
in soe.cula sceculorum, For ever. 

inscitia est adversum stimulum calces, It is mere folly to 
kick against the spur. 
in situ, In its proper position. 
in statu quo, In its former state. 
in suspenso, In suspense. 

in te, Domine, speravi (Ps. xxxi, Vulg.), In thee, O Lord, 
have I put my trust. 
inter alia, Among other things. 

inter arma leges silent, In the time of war the laws are 
silent. 

inter canem et lupum, Between the dog and the wolf; 
twilight. 

interdum vulgus rectum videt, Sometimes the rabble see 
what is right. 

inter nos, Between ourselves. 

inter pocula. At one’s cups. 

in terrorem. In terror; as a warning. 

inter se, Amongst themselves. 

inter spem et metum, Between hope and fear. 

in totidem verbis, In so many words. 

in toto, In the whole; entirely. 

intra muros, Within the walls. 



LANGUAGE 


259 


in transitu, On the passage; in course of transit. 
intra parietes, Within the walls; private. 
in usum Delphini, For the use of the Dauphin. 
in utroque fidelis, Faithful in both. 
in vacuo, In a vacuum. 

in verba magistri jurare, To swear to a master’s words; 

to accept opinions upon authority. 
inverso ordine, In an inverse order. 

in vino veritas, In wine there is truth. (When a person 
is under the influence of wine he shows himself in his 
true colors.) 

invita Minerva, Minerva (Goddess of Wisdom) being 
unwilling; hence, without genius. 
ipse dixit, He himself has said it; a mere assertion. 
ipsissima verba, The identical words. 
ipso facto, By the fact itself. 
ipso jure, By the law itself. 
ira furor brevis est, Anger is a brief madness. 
ita est, It is so. 

ita lex scripta est, Such is the written law. 
italice, In Italian characters. 

jacta alea est. (The exclamation of Julius Caesar when he 
passed the Rubicon.) The die is cast. 
jam redit et Virgo, redeunt Saturnia regna, Now the Virgin 
and the Saturnian age return. (Of the reign of Astraea, 
the Goddess of Justice, in the Golden Age.) 
januis clausis, With closed doors; in secret. 
joci causa, For the sake of a joke. 
jubilate Deo (Ps. c. 1), O be joyful in the Lord. 
jucundi acti labores, The remembrances of past labor is 
sweet. 

judicium Dei, The judgment of God. 
judicium parium aut leges terrce (Magna Charta), The 
judgment of our peers or the laws of the land. 
jure divino, By divine law. 
jure humano, By human law. 
juris peritus, One learned in the law. 
juris utriusque doctor, Doctor of both laws, i. e., of canon 
and civil laws. 
jus canonicum, Canon law. 
jus civile, The civil law. 
jus divinum, The divine law. 

jus et norma loquendi. The law and rule of speech. 
jus gentium, The law of nations. 
jus gladii, The right of the sword. 
jus possessionis, The right of possession. 
jus proprietatis, The right of property. 
jus summum scepe summa malitia est, Extreme law is 
often extreme wrong. 

kairon gnothi (Gr.), Know your opportunity. (A saying 
of Pittacus, one of the Wise Men of Greece.) 
hat' exochen (Gr.), Pre-eminently. 

labitur et labetur in omne volubilis cevum , It glides on, and 
will glide on for ever. 
laborare est or are, Work is prayer. 
labor ipse voluptas, Labor itself is a pleasure. 
labor omnia vincit, Labor overcomes all difficulties. 
laborum dulce lenimen, The sweet solace of our labors. 
lapis philosophorum, The philosopher’s stone. 
lapsus calami, A slip of the pen. 
lapsus linguae, A slip of the tongue. 
lapsus memoriae, A slip of the memory. 
lares et penates, Household gods. 

lateat scintillula forsan, Perchance some small spark may 
lie concealed. (The motto of the Royal Humane 
Society.) 

latine dictum, Spoken in Latin. 

laudari a viro laudato, To be praised by a man that 
is praised, i. e., by an eminent man. 
laudationes eorum qui sunt ab Homero laudati, Praises 
from those who were themselves praised by Homer. 
laudator temporis acti, One who praises the good old 
days. 

laudum immensa cupido, An insatiable desire for praise. 
laus Deo, Praise to God. 
lector benevole, Kind, or gentle, reader. 
legatus a latere (A legate from the side [of the Pope]), A 
papal legate. 

lex loci, The law of the place. 

lex non scripta, The unwritten law; the common law. 
lex scripta, The written or statute law. 
lex talionis, The law of retaliation. 
lex terrce, The law of the land. 
licentia vatum, The license allowed to poets. 
limae labor et mora, The labor and delay of the file; the 
slow-and laborious polish of a literary work. 
lis litem general, Strife begets strife. 
litem hte resolvere, To settle strife by strife; to end one 
controversy by another. 
lite pendente, During the trial. 

litera scripta manet, The written character remains. 
loci communes, Common places. 
loco citato, In the place quoted. 


locus classicus, A classical passage; the acknowledged 
place of reference. 

locus criminis, The scene of the crime. 
locus in quo, The place in which. 
longo intervallo, By or with a long interval. 
lucidus ordo, A perspicuous arrangement. 
lucri causa. For the sake of gain. 

lupum auribus teneo, I hold a wolf by the ears; I have 
caught a Tartar. 

lupus est homo homini, Man is a wolf to his fellow-man; 
one man preys on another. 

lupus in fabula, The wolf in the fable; talk of the devil 
and he will appear. 

lusus natures, A freak of nature; a deformed animal or 
plant. 

magister ceremoniarum, A master of the ceremonies. 
magna civitas, magna solitudo, A great city is a great 
solitude. 

magnee spes altera Romce, A second hope of mighty Rome. 

(Any young man of promise.) 
magna est veritas et proevalebit, Truth is mighty, and will 
prevail. 

magna est vis consuetudinis, Great is the power of habit. 
magnas inter opes inops, Poor in the midst of great wealth. 
magnum bonum, A great good. 

magnum opus, A great undertaking; the great work of a 
man’s life. 

magnum vectigal est parsimonia, Thrift is itself a good 
income. 

mala fide, With bad faith; treacherously. 
mali exempli, Of a bad example. 

mali principii malus finis, The bad end of a bad be¬ 
ginning. 

malis avibus, With unlucky birds, i. e., with bad omens. 
malo modo, In an evil manner. 
malus pudor, False shame. 

manibus pedibusque, With hands and feet; tooth and 
nail. 

manu forti, With a strong hand. 
manu propria, With one’s own hand. 
mare clausum, A closed sea; a bay. 

mars gravior sub pace latet, A more serious warfare is 
concealed by seeming peace. 

materiem superabat opus, The workmanship was more 
valuable than the raw material. 
mediocria firma, Moderate things are surest. 
medio tutissimus ibis, You will travel safest in a middle 
course. 

mega biblion mega kakon (Gr.), (Adapted from a maxim 
of Callimachus), A big book is a big nuisance. 
megale polis megale eremia (Gr.), A great city is a great 
solitude. 

meden agan (Gr.), Nothing in excess. 
me judice, I being the judge; in my opinion. 
memor et fidelis, Mindful and faithful. 
memoria in ceterna, In eternal remembrance. 
mens agitat molem, A mind informs the mass. (Used by 
Virgil in a pantheistic sense of the world; often 
applied to an unwieldy, dull-looking person.) 
mens sana in corpore sano, A sound mind in a healthy 
body. 

mens sibi conscia recti, A mind conscious of its own 
rectitude. 

meo periculo, At my own risk. 
meo voto, At my own wish. 

metron ariston (Gr.), Moderation is best. (A favorite 
saying of the philosopher Cleobulus.) 
mia chelidon ear ou poiei (Gr.), One swallow does not 
make a spring. 

mihi cura futuri, My care is for the future. 

mirabile dictu, Wonderful to relate. 

mirabile visu, Wonderful to see. 

modo et forma, In manner and form. 

modus operandi, The manner of working. 

mollia tempora fandi, The favorable moment for speaking. 

more majorum, After the manner of our ancestors. 

more suo, In his usual manner. 

mors janua vitae, Death is the gate of [everlasting] life. 
mors omnibus communis, Death is common to all men. 
mos pro lege, Usage has the force of law. 
motu proprio, Of his own accord. 
multum in parvo, Much in little. 

munus Apolline dignum, A gift worthy the acceptance of 
Apollo. 

mutatis mutandis, The necessary changes being made. 
mutato nomine, de te fabula narratur, With a mere 
change of name the story is applicable to you. 
nascimur poetce, fimus oratores, We are born poets, we 
become orators by training. 
natale solum, The land of one’s birth. 
naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret, Though you 
may drive out Nature with a pitchfork, she will always 
come back; inborn character is ineradicable. 




260 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ne cede malis, sed contra audentior ito, Do not yield id mis¬ 
fortunes; on the contrary, go more boldly to meet 
them. . 

necessitas non habet legem, Necessity knows no law. 
nec mora, necrequies, Neither delay, nor rest; without 
intermission. 

nec pluribu8 impar, No unequal match for many. (Ine 
motto assumed by Louis XIV. when he planned the 
subjugation of Europe.) 

nec prece, nec pretio, Neither by entreaty nor bribery; 

neither by paying nor praying. 
nec scire fas est omnia, We are not allowed to know all 
things. . 

nec temere, nec timide, Neither rashly nor timidly. 
nefasti dies, (Days on which judgment could not be 
pronounced nor public assemblies be held.) Unlucky 
days. 

ne fronti crede, Don’t trust to appearances. 
nemine contradicente, No one contradicting. 
nemine dissentiente, No one dissenting. 
nemo fuit repente turpissimus, No man becomes a villain 
all at once. 

nemo me impune lacessit, No one provokes me with 
impunity. (The motto of the Order of the Thistle.) 
nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit, No man is wise at 
all times; the wisest may make mistakes. 
nemo solus satis sapit, No man is sufficiently wise of 
himself. 

ne (non) plus ultra, Nothing further; the uttermost 
point; perfection. 

ne puero gladium. Do not entrust a sword to a boy. 
ne quid detrimenti respublica capiat, Lest the State suffer 
any injury. (The injunction given to the Dictator 
when invested with supreme authority.) 
nervi belli pecunia, Money is the sinews of war. 
ne sutor ultra crepidam, The shoemaker should not go 
beyond his last. (A Latin version of a rebuke said to 
have been addressed by Apelles to a shoemaker who 
pointed out some errors in the painting of a slipper 
in one of the artist’s works, and then began to criticise 
other parts of the picture.) 

ne tentes, aut perfice, Do not attempt, or carry it out 
thoroughly. 

nihil tetigit quod non ornavit, He touched nothing with¬ 
out embellishing it. 

nil admirari, To be astonished at nothing. 
nil conscire sibi, nulla pallescere culpa, To be conscious 
of no fault, to turn pale at no accusation. 
nil desperandum, There is no cause for despair; never 
despair. 

nil nisi cruce. Nothing but by the cross; no reward 
without suffering. 

nimium ne crede colori, Do not trust too much to your 
good looks. 

nisi Dominus, frustra (Ps. cxxvii, 1. Vulg.), Unless the 
Lord is with us, our labor is vain. 
nitor in adversum, I strive against opposition. 
nobilitas sola est atque unica virtus, Virtue is the true and 
only nobility. 

nolens volens. Whether willing or not. 
noli me tangere, Touch me not. 

non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, It is not 
every man’s lot to go to Corinth (the headquarters of 
luxury and refinement); hence, it is not every man’s 
good fortune to-be able to see great cities. 
non deficiente crumena, While the money lasts. 
non est inventus, He is not found. 

non ignara mali, miseris succurrere disco. Not unacquaint¬ 
ed with misfortune, I learn to succor the wretched. 
non libet, It does not please me. 

non multa, sed multum, Not many things, but much. 
non nobis solum nati sumus, We are not born for ourselves 
alone. 

non omne licitum honestum, Every lawful act is not 
necessarily honorable. 

non omnia possumus omnes, We cannot, all of us, do 
everything. 

non passibus cequis, Not with equal steps. (Sometimes 
applied to a person who has been outstripped by 
another in the race for fame, wealth, etc.) 
non quis, sed quid, Not who, but what; measures, not 
men. 

non sequitur, It does not follow; an unwarranted con¬ 
clusion. 

non sibi, sed patriae, Not for himself, but for his native 
land. 

non sum qualis eram, I am not what I once was. 
nosce te ipsum, Know thyself. 

noscitur e sociis, A man is known by the company he 
keeps. 

nota bene (N. B.), Mark well. 

novu8 homo (lit., a new man), A mushroom; an upstart. 
nudia verbis, In plain words. 


nulla dies sine linea, No day without a line, i. e., without 
something done. 
nulli 8ecundu8, Second to none. 
nunc aut nunquam, Now or never. 

nunquam minus solus quam cum solus, Never less alone 
than when alone. 
obiit, He (or she) died. 

obiter dictum, A thing said incidentally; an unofficial 
expression of opinion. 

obscurum per obscurius, Explaining an obscurity by 
something still more obscure. 
oderint dum metuant, Let them hate so long as they fear. 

(A favorite saying of Caligula.) 
odi profanum vulgus, et arceo, I hate the vulgar rabble, 
and drive them away. 

odium theologicum, The hatred of theologians. 
offidna gentium, The workshop of the world. 
o fortunatos nimium, sua si bona norint, O more than 
happy, if they only knew their advantages. 
ohe! iam satis, Oh! there is now enough. 
omne ignotum pro magnifico, Everything unknown is 
taken for magnificent. 

omnem movere lapidem, To turn every stone; to make 
every exertion. 

omne simile est dissimile, Every like is unlike; if there 
were not unlikeness there would be identity. 
omne solum forti patria est, Every land is a brave man’s 
home. 

omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci, He has gained 
every point who has mixed the useful and the agree¬ 
able. 

omnia ad Dei gloriam (1 Cor. x. 31. Vulg.), All things for 
the glory of God. 

omnia mors oequat, Death levels all distinctions. 
omnia mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis, All things are 
subject to change and we change with them. 
omnia vincit amor, nos et cedamus amori, Love conquers 
all things, let us too yield to love. 
omnia vincit labor, Labor conquers all things. 
omnis amans amens, Every lover is demented. 
opera pretium est, It is w r orth while. 
ora et labora, Pray and work. 
ora pro nobis, Pray for us. 
orate pro anima. Pray for the soul (of). 
orator fit, poeta nascitur, The orator is made; the poet is 
born. 

ore rotundo, With loud resounding voice. 
o tempora, o mores, Alas for the times and the manners. 
otiosa sedulitas, Laborious trifling. 
otium cum dignitate, Ease with dignity. 
otium sine dignitate. Ease without dignity. 
pace, By leave of; with the consent of. 
pace tua, By your leave. 
pacta conventa. The conditions agreed on. 
pallida mors aequo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas regum - 
que turres, Pale Death, with impartial foot, knocks at 
the cottages of the poor and the palaces of kings. 
palmam qui meruit ferat, Let him bear the palm who has 
deserved it. 

par negotiis neque supra, Equal to, but not above his 
business. 

par nobile fratrum, A noble pair of brothers; a well- 
matched pair. 

pars pro toto, The part for the whole. 
particeps criminis, A partaker in the crime; an acces¬ 
sory. 

parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus, The mountains 
are in labor; a ridiculous mouse will be born. 
parva componere magnis, To compare small things with 
great ones. 

pater familias, The father of the family. 
pater noster, Our father. 

pater patriae, The father of his country. (A title bestowed 
by the Roman Senate on Caesar Octavianus Augustus.) 
pathemata mathemata (Gr.), One learns by suffering. 
patres conscripti, The Conscript Fathers; the Roman 
Senate. (Often jocularly applied to the members of 
a town council.) 

patris gar esti pas’hin an pratte tis en, Every land where a 
man is successful is his native land. 
pax orbis terrarum, The sovereignty of the world. (A 
legend of frequent occurrence on Roman coins.) 
pax Ro?nana, The Roman Empire. 
pax vobiscum. Peace be with you. 

peithein dor a kai theous logos (Gr.), Gifts persuade even 
the gods, as the proverb says. 
per, By, through, by means of. 

per ambages, By circuitous ways; with circumlocu¬ 
tion. 

per angusta ad augusta, Through trial to triumph. 
per aspera ad astra, Through rough ways to the stars; 

through suffering to renown. 
per fas et nefas, Through right and wrong. 



LANGUAGE 


261 


perfervidum ingenium Scotorum, The intensely earnest 
character of the Scotch. 
per gradus, Gradual! y. 

periculum in mora, There is danger in delay. 
per interim, In the meantime. 
per mare, per terras, By sea and land. 
per saltum, By a leap; by fits and starts. 
per se, In itself; for its own sake. 
petitio principii, A begging of the question. 
placet. It seems right; it is approved of. (The formula 
by which the members of an (Ecumenical Council or 
a University senate record affirmative votes. The 
negative formula is non placet.) 
poeta nascitur, non fit, The poet is born, not made. 
pondere, non numero, By weight, not by number. 
pons asinorum, The bridge of asses. 

populu8 vult decipi, decipiatur, The people wish to be 
deceived, let them be deceived. 
post helium auxilium, Aid after the war. 
post equitem sedet atra cura, Black care sits behind the 
rich man on horseback; riches and high position bring 
cares. 

privmonitus, prcemunitus, Forwarned, forearmed. 
prima facie, At the first glance. 
principia, non homines. Principles, not men. 
principiis obsta, Resist the first advances. 
prior tempore, prior jure, First in point of time, first by 
right; first come first served. 
pro aris et focis, For our altars and hearths; for our 
homes. -— 

probatum est, It is proved. 

probitas laudatur et alget, Honesty is praised, and left to 
starve. 

pro bono publico, For the public good. 

pro Deo et ecclesia, For God and the Church. 

pro forma, As a matter of form. 

proh pudor. For shame. 

pro memoria. As a memorial. 

pro rege, lege, grege, For the king, the law, and the 
people. 

pugnis et calcibus, With fists and heels; with might and 
main. 

punica fides, Punic faith; treachery. 

quce fuerunt vitia mores sunt, What were once vices are 
now in fashion. 

quae nocent, docent, Things which injure, instruct; we 
are taught by painful experience; what pains us, 
trains us. 

qualis ab incepto processerit et sibi constet, as he begins, 
let him go on, and be consistent with himself. 
qualis rex, talis grex, Like king, like people. 
qualis vita, finis ita, As life is, so will its end be. 
quamdiu se bene gesserit, As long as he behaves himself; 
during good behavior. 

quandoque bonus dormilat Homerus, Even good Homer 
nods sometimes; the wisest make mistakes. 
quanti est sapere, How valuable is wisdom. 
quantum libet, As much as you like. 
quantum meruit, As much as he deserved. 
quantum mutatus ab illo, How changed from what he 
was. 

quern di diligunt adolescens moritur, He whom the gods 
love dies young. 

quid faciendum? What is to be done? 

quid nunc ? What now ? what news ? 

quid pro quo, One thing for another; an equivalent. 

quid rides? Why do you laugh? 

qui nimium probat, nihil probat, He who proves too 
much proves nothing. 

qui non proficit, deficit, He who does not advance, loses 
ground. 

quis custodiet ipsos custodes? Who shall keep the keepers? 
qui tacet consentire videtur, He who keeps silent is as¬ 
sumed to consent; silence gives consent. 
qui timide rogat docet negare, He who asks timidly courts 
denial. 

quoad hoc, To this extent. 
quo animo, With what intention. 

quocunque jaceris stabit, Wherever you throw it, it will 
stand. (The motto of the Isle of Man.) 
quocunque modo, In whatever manner. 
quocunque nomine, Under whatever name. 
quod averted Deus ! God forbid 1 

quod bene notandum, Which is to be especially noted. 
quod erat demonstrandum. Which was to be proved. [Q. 
E. D.] 

quod erat faciendum, Which was to be done. [Q. E. F.] 
quod hoc sibi vult? What does this mean ? 
quod non opus est, asse carum est (a saying of Cato, 
quoted by Seneca), What is not necessary is dear at 
a penny. 

quod vide [q. v.], Which see. 

quo fata vocant, Whither the Fates call. 


quo fas et gloria ducunt, Where duty and glory lead. 
quorum pars magna fui, Of whom I was an important 
part. 

quos Deus vult perdere, prius demented (probably altered 
from a passage in Euripides), Those whom God wills 
to destroy he first deprives of their senses. 
quot homines, tot sentential, Many men, many minds. 
rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno, An extremely 
rare bird, and very like a black swan (supposed not 
to exist). The first four words are often used ironi¬ 
cally. 

ratione soli, According to the soil. 
recte et suaviter, Justly and mildly. 
rectus in curia, Upright in court; with clean hands. 
redolet lucerna, It smells of the lamp. (Said of any 
labored literary production.) 
re infecta, The business being unfinished. 
relata refero, I tell the tale as I heard it. 
religio loci, The spirit of the place. 

rem acu tetigisti, You have touched the matter with a 
needle; you have described it accurately. 
remis velisque. With oars and sails; with all one’s 
might. 

requiescat in pace, May he rest in peace. 
res angusta domi, Narrowed circumstances at home; 
limited means. 

res est sacra miser, A man in distress is a sacred object. 
res gestae, Things done; exploits. 

res judicata, A matter decided; a case already settled. 
respice finem. Look to the end. 
resurgam, I shall rise again. 

ridere in stomacho, To laugh inwardly; to laugh in one’s 
sleeve. 

ride si sapis, Laugh if you are wise. 

rixatur de lana scepe caprina, He often quarrels about 
goats’ wool, i. e., trifles. 
ruat coelum, Let the heavens fall. 

rudis indigestaque moles, A rude and undigested mass. 
rus in urbe, A residence in or near town, with many of the 
advantages of the country. 

rusticus expected dum defluat amnis, at ille labitur, et 
labetur in omne volubilis eevum, The peasant waits till 
the river shall cease to flow, but it glides on, and will 
glide on forever. 
sal atticum, Attic salt, i. e., wit. 
salvo jure, Without prejudice. 
salvo pudore, Without offense to modesty. 
sapere aude, Dare to be wise. 

sat cito, si sat bene, Quickly enough if well enough. 
satis eloquentice, sapiential parum. Eloquence enough, but 
too little wisdom. 

satis superque, Enough, and more than enough. 

sat pulchra, si sat bona, Fair enough if good enough; 

handsome is that handsome does. 
secundum artem, According to the rules of art. 
semel abbas, semper abbas, Once an abbot, always an 
abbot. 

semel insanivimus omnes, We have all been mad at some 
time. 

semper avarus eget, The avaricious man is always in 
want. 

semper fidelis, Always faithful. 
semper idem, Always the same. 
semper paratus, Always prepared. 
semper timidum scelus, Crime is always fearful. 
sequiturque patrem, non passibus cequis, He follows his 
father, but not with equal steps. 
sero venientibus ossa. The bones for those who come late; 

those who come late get the leavings. 
serus in ccelum redeas, May it be long before you return 
to heaven; long life to you. 
servare modum, To keep within bounds. 
servus servorum Dei, The servant of the servants of God. 

(One of the titles of the pope.) 
sic eunt fata hominum, Thus go the destinies of men. 
sic itur ad astra, Thus do we reach the stars. 
sic passim, So in various places. 
sic semper tyrannis, Ever thus to tyrants. 
sic transit gloria mundi, So the glory of this world passes 
away. (The first words of a sequence said to have 
been used at the installations of the popes.) 
sicut ante, As before. 

sicut patribus, sit Deus nobis, May God be with us, as 
he was with our fathers. 

sic volo, sic jubeo, stat pro ratione voluntas, Thus I will, 
thus I command, my pleasure stands for a reason. 
sic vos non vobis, Thus do ye, but not for yourselves. 
(The commencement of each of four verses which Virgil 
wrote, but left incomplete, on the occasion when 
Bathyllus claimed some lines really written by the 
poet, who alone was able to complete the verses, and 
thus prove their authorship. Used of persons by 
whose labors others have unduly profited.) 



262 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


si Deus nobiscum, quis contra nosf If God be with us, 
who shall be against us? 

site et philosophus esto, Hold your tongue, and you will 
pass for a philosopher. 
simile gaudet simili, Like loves like. 

similia similibus curantur, Like things are cured by like. 

(The principle of homoeopathy.) 
si monumentum requiris, circumspice, If you seek my 
monument, look around. (The epitaph of Sir Chris¬ 
topher Wren in St. Paul’s Cathedral, of which he was 
the architect.) 

simplex munditiis, Simple, in neat attire; neat, not 
gaudy. 

sine cur a, Without care or change, 
sine dubio, Without doubt, 
stne mora , Without delay. 
sine prcejudicio, Without prejudice. 

sine qua non, Without which, not; an indispensable 
condition. 

si parva licet componere magnis, If it be lawful to com¬ 
pare small things with great. 
sit tibi terra levis, May the earth lie light upon thee. 
(An inscription often found on Roman tombstones; 
frequently abbreviated to S. T. T. L.) 
si vis pacem, para helium, If you wish for peace, prepare 
for war. 

skene pas ho bios (Gr.), Life is a stage. 

8olitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant, They make a wilder¬ 
ness and call it peace. 

sophen de miso (Gr.), I hate a blue-stocking. 

spes sibi quisque. Let each man’s hope be in himself; 

let him trust to his own resources. 
speude bradeos (Gr.), Make haste slowly. (A favorite 
saying of Augustus Caesar.) 

splendide mendax, Nobly untruthful; untrue for a good 
object. (Often used ironically of an unblushing liar.) 
spone sua, Spontaneously; of one’s (or its) own accord. 
spretce injuria formes, The affront offered to her slighted 
beauty. (In allusion to the resentment of Juno 
because Paris gave the golden apple to Venus as the 
prize of beauty.) 

stat magni nominis umbra, He stands the shadow of a 
mighty name. 

stat nominis umbra, An adaptation of the preceding, 
used by “ Junius ” as the motto of his Letters, 
status quo, status in quo, statu quo, The state in which. 
status quo ante helium. The state in which the bellige¬ 
rents were before war commenced. 
sta, viator, heroem calcas, Stop, traveler, thou treadest 
on a hero’s dust. (The epitaph inscribed by Conde 
over the grave of his great opponent, Merci.) 
stemmata quid faciunt? Of what value are pedigrees? 
studium immane loquendi, An insatiable desire for 
talking. 

sua cuique voluptas, Every man has his own pleasures. 
suaviter in modo, fortiter in re, Gentle in manner, reso¬ 
lute in execution. 

sub colore juris, Under color of law. 

sublata causa, tollitur effectus, The effect ceases when 
the cause is removed. 
sub pcena, Under a penalty. 
sub rosa, Under the rose; secretly. 

sub silentio, In silence; without formal notice being 
taken. 

sub specie, Under the appearance of. 
sub voce, Under such or such a word. 
sui generis, Of its own kind; unique. 
summum jus, summa injuria est, The rigor of the law is 
the height of oppression. 
sumptibus publicis, At the public expense. 

8uo marte, By his own powers or skill. 
suppressio veri, suggestio falsi, The suppression of the 
truth is the suggestion of a falsehood. 
surgit amari aliquid, Something bitter arises. 
suum cuique, Let each have his own. 
suus cuique mos, Every one has his own particular habit. 
tangere ulcus, To touch a sore; to reopen a wound. 
tantcene animis codestibus irce, Can such anger dwell in 
heavenly minds? 

telum imbelle sine ictu, A feeble dart, devoid of force. 

(Applied, fig., to a weak argument.) 
tempori parendum, We must move w r ith the times. 
tempus edax rerum, Time the devourer of all things. 
tempus fugit. Time flies. 

tempus omnia reveled, Time reveals all things. 

tenax propositi, Firm of purpose. 

teres atque rotundus, A man polished and complete. 

terra cotta, Baked clay. 

terra firma, The firm land; the continent. 

terra incognita, An unknown land. 

tertium quid, A third something (produced by the union 
of two different things, or the collision of two opposing 

forces). 


teste, By the evidence of. 

timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, I fear the Greeks, even 
when they bring gifts. (Used of distrusting the kind¬ 
ness of a foe.) 

to kalon (Gr.), The beautiful. 
to prepon (Gr.), What is becoming or decorous. 
tot homines, quot sententice, So many men, so many minds. 
trahit sua quemque voluptas, Each man is led by his own 
taste. 

transeat in exemplum., Let it pass into a precedent. 
tria juncta in uno, Three joined in one (the motto of the 
Order of the Bath). 

trium literarum homo, A man of three letters; a thief 
(fur being Latin for thief). 

Troja fuit, Troy was; Troy has perished. 

Tros Tyriusve mihi nullo disenmine agetur, Trojan or 
Tyrian shall have the same treatment from me. 
truditur dies die, One day follows hard on another. 
uberrima fides, Implicit faith. 

ubi bene ibi patria, Where one is well off, there is his 
country. 

ubi jus incertum, ibi jus nullum, Where the law is uncer¬ 
tain, there is no law. 

ubi mel ibi apes. Where the honey is, there are the bees. 
ubi tres medici, duo athei, Where there are three physi¬ 
cians there are two atheists. 

ultima ratio regum, The last argument of kings (engraved 
on French cannon by order of Louis XIV.). 
ultimus Romanorum, The last of the Romans. (Used by 
Brutus of Cassius.) 

unguibus et rostro, With claws and beak. 
unguis in ulcere, A nail in the wound, to keep it open. 
urbem lateritiam invenit, marmoream reliquit, He found 
the city (Rome) brick, but left it marble. 
usque ad nauseam, To disgust. 
us us loquendi, Usage in speaking. 
ut infra. As stated or cited below. 

uti possidetis, As you now possess. (A diplomatic phrase 
meaning that at the termination of hostilities the con¬ 
tending parties are to retain whatever territory they 
may have gained during the war.) 
ut supra, As stated or cited above. 
vade in pace, Go in peace. 

vee victis, Woe to the conquered. (Said to have been 
the exclamation of Brennus, when he threatened to 
exterminate the Romans.) 

valeat quantum votere potest, Let it pass for what it is 
worth. 

Vare, legiones redde, Varus, give back my legions. (A 
frequent exclamation of Caesar Augustus when he 
thought of the defeat and slaughter of Quinctilius 
Varus with three legions by the Germans. Often used 
of a commander who has recklessly sacrificed troops, 
or of a financier who has wasted funds.) 
varies lectiones, Various readings. 

varium et mutabile semper femina, Woman is always a 
changeable and capricious thing. 
veluti in speculum, As in a mirror. 

venalis populus, venalis curia patrum, The people and 
the senators are equally venal. 
vendidit hie auro patriam, He sold his country for gold. 
venenum in auro bibitur, Poison is drunk out of gold; 

the rich run more risk of being poisoned than the poor. 
venia necessitati datur, Pardon is granted to necessity; 
necessity has no law. 

venienti occurrite morbo, Meet the coming disease; take 
it in time; prevention is better than cure. 
venit summa dies et ineluctabile tempus, The last day has 
come, and the inevitable doom. 
veni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered. (The laconic 
despatch in which Julius Csesar announced to 1 the 
Senate his victory over the Pharnaces.) 
ventis secundis, With favorable winds. 
vera incessu patuit dea, She stood revealed, an undoubted 
goddess in her walk. 

verbum sat sapienti, A word is sufficient for a wise man. 
veritas odiiim parit, Truth begets hatred. 
veritatis simplex oratio est, The language of truth is 
simple. 

vestigia . . . nulla retrorsum, No signs of any returning, 
usually translated, no stepping back. 
vexata queestio, A disputed question. 
via media, A middle course. 

via trita, via tutissima, The beaten path is safest. 
vidrix causa dis placuit, sed victa Catoni, The winning 
cause was pleasing to the gods, the conquered one to 
Cato. 

video meliora proboque, deteriora sequor, I see and 
approve the better course, but I follow the worse. 
vidit et erubuit lympha pudica Deum, The modest water 
saw its God and blushed. (On the miracle at Cana 
in Galilee.) 

vi et armis, By main force. 



LANGUAGE 


263 


vilius argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum, Silver is of 
less value than gold, gold than virtue. 
vincet amor patriae, The love of country will prevail. 
vir bonus dicendi peritus, A good man skilled in the art 
of speaking. (The Roman definition of an orator.) 
viresque acguirit eundo, She (Rumor) gains strength as 
she travels. 

Virgilium vidi tantum, I only saw Virgil; I was not inti¬ 
mate with the great man. 
virtute officii, By virtue of one’s office. 
virum volitare per ora, To hover on the lips of men; to 
be in everybody’s mouth. 
vis comica, Comic power or talent. 

vis consilii expers mole ruit sua. Force, without judgment, 
falls by its own weight. 

vita hominis sine Uteris mors est, The life of man without 
literature is death. 

vitam impendere vero, To risk one’s life for the truth. 
vix ea nostra voco, I scarcely call these things our own. 
vixere fortes ante Agamemnona, Brave men lived before 
Agamemnon. 

volenti non fit injuria, No injury is done to a consenting 
party. 

vox clamantis in deserto, The voice of one crying in the 
wilderness. 

vox et prceterea nihil, A voice and nothing more; a mere 
sound; hence, fine words without weight or meaning. 
vox faucibus hossit, His voice died in his throat; he was 
dumb with amazement. 

vox populi, vox Dei (an old proverb quoted by William 
of Malmesbury in the Twelfth Century), The voice of 
the people is the voice of God. 
vultus animi janua et tabula, The countenance is the 
portrait and picture of the mind. 
zonam perdidit, He has lost his purse; he is in distressed 
circumstances. 

MODERN LANGUAGES 

Phrases not designated are from the French; those from 
other languages are distinguished thus: (Ger.) = Ger¬ 
man; (It.) = Italian; and (Sp.) = Spanish. 

a bon marche, Cheap. 

absence d'esprit, Absence of mind. 

a cheval, On horseback. 

a che vuole, non mancano modi (It.),Where there’s a will, 
there’s a way. 
d compte. On account. 

d corps perdu. Headlong; neck or nothing, 
d convert, Under cover; protected; sheltered, 
d deux mains (for both hands), Having a double office 
or employment. 

adieu, la voiture, adieu, la boutique (good-bye, carriage; 

good-bye, shop), All is over. 
d discretion, At discretion; unrestrictedly, 
d droite, To the right. 
affaire d'amour, A love affair. 
affaire d'honneur, An affair of honor; a duel. 
affaire du coeur. An affair of the heart; a love affair, 
d fin, To the end or object. 
a fond, To the bottom; thoroughly, 
d forfait, By contract; by the job. 
d gauche, To the left, 
d genoux. On one’s knees, 
d grands frais, At great expense, 
d haute voix, Aloud, 
d huis clos, With closed doors; secretly 
aide-toi, et le Ciel V aidera, Help yourself, and Heaven 
will help you. 

d Vabandon. Disregarded; uncared for. 
d labelle etoile, Under the canopy of heaven; in the openair. 
d la bonne heure, Well-timed; in good time; favorably, 
d Vabri, Under shelter, 
d la campagne, In the country, 
d la carte, By the card, 
d la derobee, Stealthily, 
d la frangaise, In French fashion, 
d la grecque, After the Greek fashion, 
d la mode, In the fashion; according to the custom or 
fashion. 

d la Tartufe, Like Tartufe (the hypocritical hero of 
Molifere’s comedy, Tartufe). Hence, hypocritically. 
al buon vino non bisogna frasca (It.), Good wine needs no 
bush. 

d Venvi, With emulation. 

al fresco (It.), In the open air. 

d Vimproviste, Unawares; on a sudden. 

Alles hat seine Zeit (Ger.), All in good time. 
allez-vous en, Away with you; be off. 
allons, Come on. 

Allzuviel ist ungesund (Ger.), Too much of a good thing, 
d Voutrance, To the death. 
al piu (It.), At most. 


d main armee, By force of arms. 
am Anfang (Ger.), At the beginning. 
amar y saber no puede ser (Sp.), No one can love and be 
wise at the same time. 

dme de boue (lit., soul of mud), A base-minded person. 
amende honorable, Fit reparation; a satisfactory apology, 
d merveille, Marvellously; extraordinarily. 
ami de cour (lit., a friend of the court), A false friend; 

one who is not to be depended on. 
ami de peuple, Friend of the people. 
amour propre, Vanity; self-love. 
ancien regime. The former condition of things, 
d outrance, To the last extremity. 
a pas de geant, With a giant’s stride, 
d perte de vue, Till out of sight, 
d peu pres, Nearly. 
a pied, On foot. 

a point, Just in time; exactly; exactly right, 
d prima vista (It.), At the first glance. 
a propos, To the point. 

d propos de rien (lit., apropos to nothing), Motiveless; 

for nothing at all. 
argent comptant, Ready money. 

arriere pensee, Mental reservation; unavowed purpose, 
d tort et d travers, At random. 
au bon droit. To the just right. 

au bout de son Latin, At the end of his Latin; to the 
extent of his knowledge. 
au contraire, On the contrary. 

au cour ant, Well acquainted with: well informed. 

au desespoir, In despair. 

au fait, Expert. 

au fond, To the bottom. 

au gratin, With cheese. 

au jus, With the natural juice. 

au pis alter, At the very worst. 

au reste. As for the rest. 

au revoir, Till we meet again. 

aussitot dit, aussitot fait, No sooner said than done. 

autant d’hommes, autant d’avis, Many men, many minds. 

autre droit, Another’s right. 

autre fois, Another time. 

autre vie, Another’s life. 

aut vincere aut mori, Victory or death. 

aux armes, To arms. 

avant propos, Preface; introductory matter, 
d volonte, At pleasure. 
a vostra salute (It.), To your health, 
d votre sante, To your health. 
a vuestra salud (Sp.), To your health. 
ballon d'essai, A balloon sent up to test the direction of 
air-currents; hence, anything said or done to gauge 
public feeling on any question. 
bas bleu, A blue-stocking; a woman who seeks a repu¬ 
tation for learning. 

beau-ideal, A model of ideal perfection. 
beaux esprits, Men of wit, or genius. 
bel esprit, A wit; a genius. 

benedetto e quel male che vien solo (It.), Blessed is the 
misfortune that comes alone. 
beh-trovato (It.), Well invented. 
bSte noire (lit., a black beast), A bugbear. 
billet doux, or billet d’ amour, A love letter. 
bizarre, Odd; fantastic. 

blanc mange (a delicate dessert), White jelly. 
blase, Surfeited. 
bon ami, Good friend. 
bon bon, A sweet-meat; confectionery. 
bon gre, mat gre, With good or bad grace; willing or 
unwilling. 

bonhomie, Good-natured simplicity. 
bon jour, Good day; good morning. 
bon mot, A witticism. 

bonne et belle, Good and handsome. (Of a woman.) 

bonne foi, Good faith. 

bon soir, Good evening. 

bon ton, High fashion; first-class society, 

boudoir, A small private apartment. 

bouillon, Soup. 

brevete, Patented. 

cap-a-pie, From head to foot. 

carte blanche, ^ Full power. 

castello che da orecchia si vuol rendere (It.), The fortress 
that parleys soon surrenders. 
cela va sans dire, That goes without saying; that is 
understood. 

ce n' est que le premier pas qui coute, It is only the first 
step that is difficult, 
c’ est d dire, That is to say. 

c’ est une autre chose, That is quite another thing. 
chacun a son gout, Everyone to his taste. 
chacun tire de son cote, Everyone inclines to his own side 
or party. 




264 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


chanson, A song. 
chapeau, A hat. 

chapeau de bras, A military cocked hat. 
chapelle ardente, The chamber where a dead body lies in 
state. 

chateau, A castle. 

chauffeur, Driver of an automobile. 
chef, Man cook. 
chef-d'oeuvre, A masterpiece. 
chemin de fer (lit., iron road), A railway. 
chere amie, A dear (female) friend; a lover. 
che sard, sard (It.), What will be, will be. 
cheval de bataille (lit., a war-horse), Chief dependence 
or support; one’s strong point. 
chi tace confessa (It.), He who keeps silent admits his 
guilt. 

ci git, Here lies. (A common inscription on tombstones.) 

comme il faut, Proper; as it should be. 

comment vous portez vous, How are you ? 

compagnon de voyage, A traveling companion. 

compte rendu, An account rendered; a report. 

con amore (It.), With affection; very earnestly. 

concours, Competition (as for a prize); contest. 

con diligenza (It.), With diligence. 

con dolore {It.), With grief; sadly. 

conseil de famille, A family council or consultation. 

conseil d'etat, A council of state; a privy council. 

consomme, A clear soup. 

contretemps, An awkward mishap. 

cordon sanitaire. A line of sentries to prevent, as far as 
possible, the spread of contagion or pestilence. (Used 
also of other precautionary measures.) 
couleur de rose, Rose color. 
coup, A stroke. 

coup de grace, A finishing-stroke. (Formerly applied to 
the fatal blow by which the executioner put an end to 
the torments of a culprit broken on the wheel.) 
coup de main, A sudden attack, enterprise, or under¬ 
taking. 

coup de maitre, A master-stroke. 
coup d' essai, A first attempt. 

coup d' elat, A stroke of policy; a sudden and decisive 
blow (usually inflicted by unconstitutional means). 
coup d' oeil, A rapid glance. 
coup de pied, A kick. 
coup de plume, A literary attack. 
coup de soleil, A sunstroke. 
coup de theatre, A theatrical effect. 
courage sans peur, Fearless courage. 
coute qv’il coute, Cost what it may. 
cuisine, A kitchen; cookery. 
dame d'honneur, A maid of honor. 

Das geht Sie Nichts an (Ger .), That does not concern you. 

de bonne augure, Of good omen. 

de bonne grace, With good will; willingly. 

debris, Refuse. 

debut, First appearance. 

debutante, A young lady just entering society. 

decollete, Open-breasted. 

degage, Free, easy, without constraint. 

de gaiete de coeur, In sport; sportively. 

dejeuner a la fourchette, A meat breakfast. 

de mal en pis, From bad to worse. 

demi-tasse, A small cup. 

denouement, An unraveling or winding up. 

dernier ressort, The last resource. 

desagrement, Something disagreeable or unpleasant. 

detour, A circuitous march. 

di buona volonta sta pieno Vinferno (It.), Hell is full of 
good intentions. 

Dieu est toujours pour les plus gros bataillons, God is 
always on the side of the largest battalions; the 
largest army has the best chance. 

Dieu et mon droit, God and my right. 

Dieu vous garde, God protect you. 

di grado en grado (It.), Step by step; gradually. 

Dios me libre de hombre de un libro (Sp.), God deliver 
me from a man of one book. 
di salto (It.), By leaps. 

di tutti novello par bello (It.), Everything new seems 
beautiful. 

dolce far niente (It.), Sweet idleness. 

dorer la pilule, To gild the pill. 

double entente, Double meaning. 

douceur, A bribe. 

durante vitd, During life. 

eau de cologne, Cologne water. 

eau de vie, The water of life — applied usually to brandy 
eclat, Splendor, brilliancy. 

edition de luxe, A splendid edition of a book, hand¬ 
somely bound, and usually well illustrated. 

Ehrlich wahrt am langsten (Ger.), Honesty is the best 
policy. 


Eile mit Weile (Ger.), The more haste the less speed. 
Eine Schwalbe macht Jceinen Sommer (Ger.), One swallow 
does not make a summer. 

Ein gebranntes Kind scheut das Feuer (Ger.), A burnt 
child dreads the fire. 
elite, A select body of persons. 
embonpoint, Roundness; good condition. 
en ami. As a friend. 
en arriere, In the rear; behind. 
en attendant, In the meantime. 
en avant, Forward. 
en badinant, In sport; jestingly. 

en cueros, en cueros vivos (Sp.), Naked; without clothing. 
Ende gut, Alles gut (Ger.), All’s well that ends well. 
en deshabille, In undress; in one’s true colors. 
en Dieu est ma fiance, My trust is in God. 
en Dieu est tout, In God are all things. 
en effet, Substantially; really; in effect. 
en famille, With one’s family; at home. 
enfant gate, A spoilt child. 

enfants perdu (lit., lost children), A forlorn hope. 

enfant trouve, *A foundling. 

enfin, In short; finally; at last. 

en flute, Carrying guns on the upper deck only. 

en grande tenue, In full official, or evening, dress. 

en masse, In a body or mass. 

ennui, Weariness. 

en passant, In passing; by the way. 
en plein jour, In open day. 

en queue, Immediately after; in the rear. Used speci¬ 
ally of persons waiting in line, as at the door of a 
theater, at the ticket-office of a railway station, etc. 
en rapport, In harmony, relation, or agreement. 
en regie, Regular, regularly; in order. 
en revanche. In return; as a compensation for. 
en route, On the way. 
ensemble, The whole 
en suite, In company; in a set. 
en tasse, In a cup. 

entente cordiale, A good understanding, especially be¬ 
tween two states. > 
entourage, Surroundings. 
entre deux feux, Between two fires. 
entre deux vins (lit., between two wines), Half-drunk. 
entree, Entry; first course. 

entremets, Small and dainty dishes set between the 
principal ones at table. 
entre nous, Between ourselves; in confidence. 
en verite, In truth; really. 

Es fehlt mir Nichts (Ger.), Nothing is the matter with 
me. 

Es freut mich sehr (Ger.), I am very glad. 

Es ist nicht Alles Gold, was glanzt (Ger.), All is not gold 
that glitters. 

esprit de corps, The animating spirit of a collective body 
of persons, e. g., of a regiment, the bar, the clergy, etc. 
esprit des lois, Spirit of the laws. 
esprit fort, A daring investigator; a free-thinker. 

Es thut mir sehr leid (Ger.), I am very sorry. 

Ewigkeit (Ger.), Eternity. 

faqon de parler, Manner of speaking; phrase; locution. 

faire bonne mine, To put a good face on the matter. 

faire Vhomme d'importance, To give oneself airs. 

faire sans dire, To act without ostentation or boasting. 

faire son devoir, To do one’s duty. 

fait accompli, An accomplished fact. 

faux pas, A false step; an act of indiscretion. 

femme couverte, A married woman. 

femme de chambre, A chambermaid. 

femme de charge, A housekeeper. 

femme galante, A gay woman; a prostitute. 

femme sole, An unmarried woman. 

fendre un cheveu en quatre, To split a hair in four; to 
make subtle distinctions. 
fete, A feast, festival; holiday. 

fete\ champetre, A rural out-of-door feast; a festival in 
the fields. 

feu de joie, A bonfire, or discharge of firearms as a sign 
of rejoicing. 

fille de chambre, A chambermaid. 
fille de joie, A gay woman; a prostitute. 
fille d'honneur, A maid of honor. 
fin de siecle, The end of the century. 
fleur-de-lis, The flower of the lily. 
flux de bouche, Inordinate flow of talk; garrulity. 
fra Modesto non fu mai priore (It.), Friar Modest never 
became prior. 

frisch begonnen, halb gewonnen (Ger.), Well begun is 
half done. 

froides mains, chaude amour, Cold hands, warm heart. 
front a front, Face to face. 

fuyez les dangers de loisir, Fly from the dangers of 
leisure. 



LANGUAGE 


265 


gaiete de coeur, Gaiety of heart. 

garage, A place where automobiles are stored and kept 
in order. 

garqon, A lad, a waiter. 

garde a cheval, A mounted guard. 

garde du corps, A body guard. 

garde mobile, A body of troops liable to be called out 
for general service. 
garde royale, Royal guard. 
gardez. Take care; be on your guard. 
gardez-bien, Take good care; be very careful. 
gardez la fox, Keep the faith. 

Gehen sie Ihres Weges (Ger.), Go your way. 

gens d'armes, Men-at-arms; military police. 

gens de condition, People of rank. 

gens d’eglise, The clergy; clerics. 

gens de guerre, Military men. 

gens de lettres, Literary men. 

gens de lois, Lawyers. 

gens de meme famille, People of the same family; birds 
of a feather. 

gens de peu, The lower classes. 
gentilhomme, A gentleman. 

gibier de potence, A gallows-bird; one who deserves 
hanging. 

giovine santo, diavolo vecchio (It.), A young saint, an 
old devil. 

gitano (Sp.), A gipsy. 

Gleich und gleich gesellt sich gem (Ger.), Birds of a feather 
flock together. 

gli assenti hanno torto (It.), The absent are in the wrong. 
goutte d goutte, Drop by drop. 
gouvernante, A governess; housekeeper. 
grdce b, Dieu, Thanks be to God. 

grande chere et beau feu, Good fare and a good fire; 

comfortable quarters. 
grande parure, grande toilette, Full dress. 
grand merci, Many thanks. 

grosse tete et peu de sens, A big head and little sense. 
guerra a cuchillo (Sp.), War to the knife- 
guerra, cominciata, inferno scatenato (It.), War begun, 
hell unchained. 

guerre d mort, War to the death. 
guerre a outrance, War to the uttermost. 

Haben Sie Geld bei sich? (Ger.), Have you any money 
about you? 

haut et bon, Great and good. 

haut goto, High flavor; elegant taste. 

haut ton, Highest fashion. 

homme d'affaires, A man of business; an agent. 
homme de bien, A good man; an upright man. 
homme de fortune, A fortunate man. 
homme de robe, A person in a civil office. 
homme d'esprit, A wit; a genius. 
homme d'etat, A statesman. 

honi soit qui mal y pense, Shame be to him who thinks 
evil of it. (The motto of the Order of the Garter.) 
hors de combat, Disabled; unfit to continue a contest. 
hors de la loi, Outlawed. 

hors de propos, Wide of the point; inapplicable. 
hors de saison, Out of season; unseasonable. 
hors d'oeuvre. Out of course; out of accustomed place. 
(Used substantively of small appetizing dishes served 
usually at the beginning of a meal.) 
hotel de ville, A town-hall. 
hotel Dieu, A hospital. 
hotel garni. Furnished lodgings. 

hurtar para dar por Dios (Sp.), To steal in order to give 
to God. 

Ich dien (Ger.), I serve. 

idee fixe, A fixed idea; intellectual monomania. 
ignorance crasse, Gross ignorance. 
i gran dolori sono multi (It.), Great griefs are silent. 
il a le diable au corps, The devil is in him. 
il faut de Vargent, Money is wanting. 

il n’a ni bouche ni eperon, He has neither mouth nor 
spur; he has neither wit nor courage. 
il ne faut jamais defier unfou. One should never provoke 
a fool. 

il n'est sauce que d'appetit, Hunger is the best sauce. 
il penseroso (It.), The pensive man. (The title of one 
of Milton’s poems.) 

il sent le fagot. He smells of the faggot; he is suspected 
of heresy. 

impoli, Unpolished; rude. 
in bianco (It.), In blank; in white. 

in un giorno non si fe 'Roma (It.), Rome was not built 
in a day. 

ir por lana, y volver trasquilado (Sp.), To go for wool,' 
and come back shorn. 

jamais bon coureur ne fut pris, A good runner is not to 
be taken; old birds are not to be caught with chaff. 
je maintiendrai le droit, I will maintain the right. 


je ne sais quoi, I know not what. (Used adjectively of 
something indefinable, or very difficult to define.) 
je n’oublierai jamais, I will never forget. 
je suis pret, I am ready. 
jet d'eau, A fountain; a jet of water. 
jeu de mots, A play upon words; a pun. 
jeu d'esprit, A witticism. 
jeu de theatre, A stage trick; clap-trap. 
je vis en espoir, I live in hope. 

kein Kreuzer, kein Schweizer (Ger.), No money, no Swiss. 
la critique est aisee, Vart est difficile, Criticism is easy 
enough, but art is difficult. 

Lade nicht Alles in ein Schiff (Ger.), Do not ship all in 
one vessel: do not put all your eggs into one basket! 
Vadversite fait les hommes, et le I'bonheur les monstres, 
Adversity makes men, and prosperity monsters. 
la fortuna aiuta i pazzi (It.), Fortune helps fools. 
la Fortune passe partout, Fortune passes everywhere; 

all men are subject to the vicissitudes of Fortune. 
laissez faire, To let alone. 

laissez nous faire, Let us act for ourselves; let us alone. 
Vallegro (It.), The merry man. (The title of one of 
Milton’s poems.) 

V amour et lafumee ne peuvent se cacher, Love and smoke 
cannot be hidden. 

langage des halles, The language of the markets; Bil¬ 
lingsgate. 

la patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux, Patience is 
bitter, but its reward is sweet. 
la povert'a h la madre di tutte le arti (It.), Poverty is the 
mother of all the arts. 

Vargent, Silver; money. 

lasciate ogni speranza voi, che’ntrate (It.), All hope 
abandon ye, who enter here. 

Lassen Sie mich gehen (Ger.), Let me alone. 

Vavenir, The future. 

la vertu est la seule noblesse, Virtue is the sole nobility. 
le beau monde, The world of fashion; society. 
le bon temps viendra, There’s a good time coming. 
le coto en ote le goto, The expense takes away the pleas¬ 
ure. 

le demi-monde, Women of equivocal reputation bordering 
between courtesanship and respectability. 
le grand monarque, The grand monarch. (A title ap¬ 
plied to Louis XIV. 1643-1715.) 
le grand oeuvre, The great work; the search for the 
philosopher’s stone. 

le jeu n'en vaut pas la chandelle, The game is not worth 
the candle (by the light of which it is played); the 
object is not worth the trouble. 
le monde est le livre des femmes, The world is woman’s 
book. 

le mot d’enigme, The solution of the mystery. 

Vempire des lettres, The empire of letters. 
le parole son feminine, e i fatti son maschi (It.), Words 
are feminine, and deeds are masculine. 
le pas, Precedence. 
le point de jour, Daybreak. 
le roi et I'etat, The king and the state. 
le roi le veto, The king wills it. 

les absentslont toujours tort, The absent are always wrong. 
lese majeste, High treason. 
les extremes se touchent, Extremes meet. 
les murailles ont des oreilles, Walls have ears. 
les plus sages ne le sont pas toujours, The wisest are not 
always wise. 

Vetoile du nord, The star of the north. 
le tout ensemble, The whole taken together. 
lettre de cachet, A sealed letter containing orders; a 
royal warrant, usually authorizing the imprisonment, 
without trial, of a person named therein. 
lettre de change, Bill of exchange. 
lettre de creance, Letter of credit. 

le vrai n'est pas toujours vraisemblable, Truth is not always 
probable; truth is stranger than fiction. 

Vhomme propose, et Dieu dispose, Man proposes and God 
disposes. 

Vinconnu, The unknown. 

I'incroyable, The incredible; the marvelous. (The word 
incroyable was applied substantively to the fops of 
the Directory period in the great French Revolution.) 
lingerie, Linen goods; also, collectively, all the linen, 
cotton, and lace articles of a woman’s wardrobe. 
litterateur, A literary man. 
lo barato es caro (Sp.), A bargain is dear. 

Vocchio del padrorte ingrassa id cavallo (It.), The master’s 
eye fattens the horse. 
loyaute m'oblige. Loyalty binds me. 
ma chere, My dear (fem.). 
mademoiselle, A young unmarried lady. 
maestro di color che sanno (It.), Master of those that 
know. (Applied by Dante to Aristotle.) 
mafoi, Upon my faith; upon my word. 



266 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


maintien le droit, Maintain the right. 

maison de campagne, A country house. ; 

maison de sante, A private asylum or hospital. 

maison de ville, A town hall.. 

maxtre des basses oeuvres, A nightman. 

maitre des hautes oeuvres. An executioner; a hangman. 

maitre d’hotel, A house steward. 

maladie du pays, Home-sickness. 

mat h propos, Out of place; ill suited. 

mat de dents, Toothache. 

mat de mer. Sea-sickness. 

mat de tete, Headache. . . 

mat entendre, A misunderstanding; a mistake. 

malgre nous, In spite of us. 

malheur ne vient jamais seul, Misfortunes never come 
singly. 

mardi gras, Shrove Tuesday. 
mariage de conscience, A private marriage. 
manage de convenance, A marriage of convenience; or 
from interested motives. 

matinee, A reception, or a musical or dramatic enter¬ 
tainment, held in the daytime. 
mauvaise honte, False modesty. 
mauvais goilt, False taste. 
mauvais sujet, A worthless fellow. 
mayonnaise, A kind of salad dressing made with oil. 
medecin, gueris-toi toi-meme, Physician, heal thyself. 
menu, BUI of fare. 

Mir ist Alles einerlei (Ger.), It’s all the same to me. 

mise-en-scene, The staging of a play. 

mon ami, My friend. 

mon cher, My dear (fellow). 

monsieur, Sir; master; gentleman. 

mot du guet, A watchword. 

mots d'usage, Words in common use. 

muraglia bianca, carta di matto (It.), A white wall is the 
fool’s pajDer. 

naive, Having unaffected simplicity. 

naivete, Native simplicity. 

nee, Born. . • 

neglige, A morning dress. 

Neue Besen kehren gut (Ger.), A new broom sweeps 
clean. 

ni Vun ni Vautre, Neither the one nor the other. 
n’importe, It is of no consequence. 

noblesse oblige, Nobility imposes obligations; much is ex¬ 
pected from persons of good position. 
nom de guerre, A war-name; an assumed name; a pseu¬ 
donym. 

nom de plume, An assumed title. 
non mi ricordo (It.), I do not remember. 
non obstant clameur de haro, Despite the hue and cry. 
non ogni fiore fa buon odore (It.), It is not every flower 
that smells sweet. 

non vender la pelle dell’ orse prima di pigliarlo (It.), 
Don’t sell the bearskin before you have caught the 
bear. 

Noth kennt kein Gebot (Ger.), Necessity knows no law. 
notre dame, Our Lady, the Virgin Mary. 
n’oubliez pas, Don’t forget. 

nous avons change tout cela, We have changed all that. 
nous verrons, We shall see. 
nouvelles, News. 

nouvellette, A short tale or novel. 
nul bien sans peine, No pains, no gains. 
nulla nuova, buona nuova (It.), No news is good news. 
ogni bottega ha la sua malizia (It.), Every shop has its 
trick; there are tricks in all trades. 
olla podrida (It.), A heterogeneous mixture. 
on connait I’ami au besoin, A friend is known in time of 
need. 

on dit, They say. 

oro e che oro vale (It.), That is gold which is worth gold; 

all is not gold that glitters. 
oublier je ne puis, I can never forget. 
oui-dire, Hearsay. 

ouvrage de longue haleine, A long-winded business. 

ouvrier, A workman; an artisan. 

par ci, par la, Here and there. 

par excellence, Preeminently. 

par exemple, For instance. 

parole d’honneur, Word of honor. 

partout, Everywhere. 

parvenu, An upstart. 

pas a pas, Step by step. 

passe, Worn out. 

pate de foie gras, A pie made (in Strassburg) from the 
livers of geese. 

peine forte et dure, Very severe punishment; a kind of 
judicial torture 
penchant, Inclination; liking. 

pensee, A thought expressed in terse vigorous language. 
per (It.), For; through; by. 


per contante (It.), For cash. 
per contra (It.), On the contrary. 
pere de famille, The father of the family. 
perdu, Lost. 

per mese (It.), By the month. 

per piii strade si va a Roma (It.), There are many roads 
to Rome. 
petit, Small. 

petit coup, A small mask; a domino. 
petit maitre, A little master; a fop. 
peu-a-peu, Little by little; by degrees. 
pied a terre, A resting-place; a temporary lodging.. 
pigliar due colombi a unafava (It), To catch two pigeons 
with one bean; to kill two birds with one stone. 
pis alter, The worst or last shift. 
poco a poco (It.), Little by little; by degrees. 
point d’appui, Prop; point of support. 
pommes de terre, Potatoes (apples of the earth). 
pot-pourri, A medley. 

pour acquit, Paid; settled. (The usual form of receipt.) 
pour faire rire, To excite laughter. 
pour faire visite, To pay a visit. 
pour passer le temps, To while away the time. 
pour prendre conge, To take.leave. (Usually abbreviated 
to P. P. C.) 

prendre la lune avecles dents. To seize the moon in one’s 
teeth; to aim at impossibilities. 
presto maturo, presto marcio (It.), Soon ripe, soon rotten. 
pret d'accomplir. Ready to accomplish. 
pret pour mon pays, Ready for my country. 
preux chevalier, A brave knight. 
prima donna, Leading lady singer in an opera. 
protege. One protected by another. 
puree, A thick soup. 

puree aux croutons, A thick soup with small cubes of 
toasted bread. 

quelque chose, Something; a trifle. 

qui a bu boira, The tippler will go on tippling; it is hard 
to break off bad habits. 

quien poco sabe, presto lo reza (Sp.), He who knows 
little soon tells it. 
quien sabe? (Sp.), Who knows? 
qu'il soit comme il est desire, Let it be as desired. 
qui m’aime aime mon chien, Love me, love my dog. 
qui n’a sante, n'a rien, He who has not health, has 
nothing. 

qui va la? Who goes there? 
qui vive ? Who goes there ? 
raison d’etat, A state reason. 

raison d'etre, The reason for a thing’s existence. 
regime, Mode or style of rule or management. 
rendezvous, A place of meeting. 

respondez s’il vous plait (r. s. v. p.), Reply if you please. 
respondre en Normand, To answer in Norman; to speak 
evasively. 

resume, A summing up. 

rete nuova non piglia uccello vecchio (It.), A new net 
won’t catch an old bird. 

revenons a nos moutons, Let us return to our sheep; let 
us come back to our subject. 
rien n’est, beau que le vrai, There is nothing beautiful 
but truth. 

rira bien qui rira le dernier, He laughs well who laughs 
_ last. 

rire entre cuir et chair, rire sous cape, To laugh in one’s 
sleeve. 

robe de chambre, A dressing-gowm; a morning-gown. 
robe de nuit, A night-dress. 
role, A part in a performance. 
rouge, Red coloring for the skin. 
ruse de guerre, A military stratagem. 
sanan cuchilladas, mas no malas palabras (Sp.), Wounds 
from a knife will heal, but not those from the tongue. 
sans ceremonie, Without ceremony. 
sans peur et sans reproche, Fearless and stainless. 
sans rime et sans raison, Without rhyme or reason. 
sans souci, Free from care. 
sauve qui pent, Save yourselves. 
savant, A man of science. 
savoir faire, Tact. 
savoir vivre, Good breeding. 

sdegno d’amante poco dura (It.), A lover’s anger is short¬ 
lived. 

seance, A sitting. 

selon les regies. According to rule. 

sempre il mal non vien per nuocere (It.), Misfortune is 
not always an evil. 

se non b vero, b ben trovato (It.), If it is not true, it is 
cleverly invented. 

Sie sehen gut aus (Ger.), You look well. 
soiree, An evening party. 

souffler le chaud et le froid, To blow hot and cold. 
so viel ich weiss (Ger.), As far as I know. 



LANGUAGE 


267 


Sturm und Drang (Ger.), Storm and stress. 

table d'hote, Table of the host. 

t&che sans tache, A work without a stain. 

tant mieux, So much the better. 

tant pis, So much the worse. 

tel maxtre, tel valet, Like master, like man. 

tete-a-tete, A conversation between two parties. 

tiens h la verite, Maintain the truth. 

tiens tafoi, Keep thy faith. 

toujours perdrix, Always partridges; the same thing 
over and over again. 
toujours pret, Always ready. 
tour de force, A feat of strength or skill. 
tourner casaque, To turn one’s coat; to change sides. 
tout-a-fait, Wholly; entirely. 
tout-a-l’ heure, Instantly. 
tout au contraire, On the contrary. 
tout-a-vous, Entirely yours. 
tout bien ou rien, All or nothing. 
tout-de-suite, Immediately. 
tout ensemble. The whole. 

tout le monde est sage apres coup, Everybody is wise 
after the event. 

traduttori, traditori (It.), Translators are traitors. 
trousseau, Wedding outfit. 

iutte le strade conducono a Roma (It.), All roads lead to 
Rome. 

Uebung macht den Meister (Ger.), Practice makes perfect. 


un bienfait n’est jamais perdu, A kindness is never lost. 
un sot a triple etage, A consummate fool. 
un “ tiens ” vaut mieux que deux “ tu Vauras,” One ” take 
it” is worth two ‘‘you shall have it”; A bird in the 
hand is worth two in the bush. 
valet de chambre, An attendant. 

vedi Napoli e poi mori (It.), See Naples and then die. 
verite sans peur. Truth without fear. 

Viele Hand'machen bald ein End’ (Ger.), Many hands 
make quick work. 

vi et armis, By force of arms; by violence. 
vigueur de dessus, Strength from on high. 
vino dentro, senno furore (It.), When the wine is in, the 
wit is out. 

vis h vis, Face to face. 
vive la bagatelle, Success to trifles. 
vive le roi, Long live the king. 
voila, See there; there is; there are. 
voila tout, That’s all. 

voila une autre chose, That’s quite another thing. 
voir le dessous des cartes, To see the face of the cards; 
to be in the secret. 

vous y per dr ez vos pas, You will have your walk for 
nothing; you will lose your labor over it. 

Was fehlt Ihnen? (Ger.), What is the matter with you? 
Wie die Arbeit, so der Lohn (Ger.), As the labor, so the 
reward. 

Zeitgeist (Ger.), The spirit of the age. 


WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED 

It is in the delicate but firm utterance of the unaccented vowels with correct sound that the cultured 
person is most surely distinguished from the uncultured.— Richard Grant White. 

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 

a, as in farm, father; d, as in ask, fast; d, as in at, fat; a, as in day, fate; d, as in care, fare; 
e, as in met, set; e, as in me, see; e, as in her, ermine; x, as in pin, sin; l, as in pine, line; 6, as in 
not, got; 6, as in note, old; o, as in for, fought; 6, as in sole, only; 6, as in fog, orange,’ the 
English sound of u in burn and burnt is perhaps the nearest equivalent to 6 ; oo, as in cook, look; 
do, as in coon, moon; u, as in cup, duck; w, as in use, amuse; xt, as in fur, urge; the English 
sound of u in luke and duke resembles the original sound of u; g, as in get, begin; n represents 
the nasal tone (as in French) of the preceding vowel, as in encore (dN'-/cdr'). 


abdomen, db-do'-men, not db'-do-men. 
Abercromby, ab'-er-krum-bi. 
abstemious, db-ste'-mi-us, not db-stem'-l-us. 
abstractly, ab'-strakt-li. 
acclimate, dk-kll'-mat, not dk'-klxm-at. 
accompaniment, dk-kuxn'-pdn-xm-ent, not dk- 
kump'-nxm-ent. 

accouchement, ak-kdbsh-mdN '. 
accouter, ak-koo'-ter, not ak-kow'-tZr. 
accrue, dk-kru! , not dk-kroo'. 
acetylene, d-set'-xl-en; ds'-et-il-en. 

Achaean, d-ke'-dn. 
acoustic, d-kow'-stik or d-kdo'-stlk. 
across, d-kros', not a-krdst'. 
acts, dkts, not dks. 
address (n.), ad-dres'. 
address (vb.), dd-dres'. 
adjectively, dd'-jek-txv-U. 
adjourn, dd-jurn 
admirative, dd-ml'-ra-tiv. 

Adonis, d-dd'-nis, not a-don'-ts. 
adult, d-dult', not dd'-ult. 
adventure, dd-vent'-yur . 
adverse, dd'-vers. 
aerometer, a-lr-om!-e-ter. 
iEschylus, es'-kil-us, not es'-ku-lus. 

Africanus, df-rlk-a'-nus. 
again, d-gen not a-gan'. 
against, d-genst', not a-ganst'. 
agile, dj'-il, not dj'-ll. 

Agincourt, dzh-aN-kdor '. 

Agricola, d-grlk'-o-ld. 

Aida, a-e'-dd. 

ailment, al'-ment, not al'-munt. 
aisle, ll. 


& PAnglaise, d IdN-gldz'. 
alas, d-las', not a-las'. 
albino, al-bi'-no. 

Alcott, oV-kut, not dl'-kut. 
algebra, dl'-je-brd, not dl'-je-brd. 
algebraist, dl'-je-bra-ist. 

Algernon, dV-fer-nun. 

Algonquin, dl-gon'-kwm. 

alien, al'-yen, not a'-li-en. 

allopathist, dl-ldp'-dth-ist, not dl'-ld-pdth-lst. 

allusion, al-lu'-zhun, not al-ldo'-zhun. 

alma mater, al'-md ma'-tlr , not al'-ma md'-tSr. 

almond, a'-mund. 

alpaca, dl-pdk'-d, not dl-d-pdk'-d. 

alterative, oV-tlr-d-txv. 

alternately, al-ter'-nat-lx, not dl'-ter-nat-li. 

ameliorate, d-mel'-yo-rdt, not d-me'-lx-o-rat. 

amenable, d-me'-nd-bl, not a-men'-a-bl. 

ament, dm'-ent. 

ammonia, dm-mo'-ni-d , not dm-mo'-nyd. 
Ampere, aN-pdr'. 
anaemic, d-nem'-xk, not d-ne'-mik. 
anarchist, an'-dr-kxst. 
anchor, ang'-kbr. 

Andromache, dn-drom'-d-ke. 

Angelus, dn'-je-lus. 

animalcule, dn-xm-dV-kul, not dn-im-dl'-ku-le. 
antarctic, dnt-ark'-tik, not ant-dr'-tik. 

Antilles, an-tll'-ez or dN-tel'. 

Antiochus, dn-tx'-o-kds, not dn-tl-5k'-us. 
Antipater, dn-txp'-d-tbr. 
anxiety, dng-zx'-e-tx, not dngk-sl'-e-tl. 
anxious, dngk'-shds , not dng'-shus. 

Apache, a-pa'-cha. 
aperient, d-pe'-rl-ent. 






268 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


aperture, tip'-dr-tur. 

apostle, a-pds'-l, not d-pds'-l, nor d-pos'-tl. 
apotheosize, tip-o-the'-o-slz. 
apparatus, tip-pa-ra'-tus, not tip-pa-ra'-tus. 
appellate, tip-pel'-lat. 
appendicitis, tip-pen-dis-l'-tls. 
appetitive, tip'-pe-tl-tiv. 
appreciation, dp-pre-shi-a'-shun. 
apricot, a'-prl-kdt, not tip'-ri-kdt. 
apropos, tip'-ro-po, not tip-rd-po'. 
aqua, a'-kwd. 

aquarium, d-kwa'-rl-tim, not d-kwd'-rl-um. 
aqueduct, tik'-we-dukt, not tik'-we-duk. 

Arab, tir'-tib. 

archangel, drk-an'-jel, not arch-tin' -]el. 
archbishop, drch-bish'-dp, not arch'-bish-dp. 
archduke, tirch-duk', not drch'-duk. 
archfiend, arch'-fend, not arch-fend'. 
archipelago, ar-ki-pU'-d-go, not ar-chi-pel'-d-gd. 
architect, ar'-kl-tekt, not dr'-chl-tekt. 
arctic, drk'-tik, not ar'-tik. 

Argive, dr'-jiv , not dr'-giv. 
arid, &r'-ld, not a'-rid. 

Aristotle, tir'-ls-tdt-l, not tir-ls-tdt'-l. 

Armida, tir-me'-dd. 

ascetic, tis-set'-lk. 

ask, dsk, not tisk. 

askance, as-kdns', not tis-ktins'. 

asphalt, tis-ftilt', not tis'-ftilt. 

astrakhan, tis-trd-ktin', not tis'-trd-ktin. 

atheneum, tith-e-ne'-tim, not a-the'-ne-um. 

attach^, dt-td-shti'. 

attacked, tit-t&kt', not tit-t&k'-ted. 

attorney, tit-tdr'-ni. 

aunt, ant, not tint, nor dnt. 

aurora borealis, d-ro'-rd bo-re-a'-lls. 

automobile, o-td-md'-bil; Fr. pron., d-td-mo-beV. 

automobilist, 6-td-mo'-bil-ist. 

avoirdupois, av-dr-du-poiz', not tiv-lr-du-poi '. 

Avon, a'-vdn, not tiv'-dn. 

11 Stratford-on-Awm.” 
awakening, d-wak'-en-lng. 

Baal, ba'-til. 
bacillus, bd-sil'-us. 
backslide, bak-slld', not btik'-slld. 
backslider, btik-sll'-ddr, not btik'-sli-ddr. 
bade, btid, not bad. 

Baden, bd'-den. 

banana, ba-na'-nd, not btin-tin'-d. 

Bancroft, btin'-kroft, not bting'-krdft. 
bandoline, btin'-do-lm, not btin-do-len'. 

Bangkok, bting-kdk'. 

banquet, bting'-kwet, not btin'-kwdt. 

Bantam (Java), ban-tam'. 
baptism, btip'-tizm, not btip'-tlz-um. 
bargain, bar'-gen, not bar'-gun. 

Bamegat, bar-ne-gtit'. 
barrel, btir'-rel, not btir'-rul. 
basin, ba'-sn, not ba'-sln. 
basket, bds'-ket, not btis'-ket. 
bath, bdth, not b&th. 

Baton Rouge, btit'-tin roozh; Fr. pron., 6a-<6N' 
roozh. 

Bayard (Thomas F.), bl'-ard, not ba'-ard. 
Beatrice, be'-a-trls, not be-a'-trls, nor be-tit'- 
rls. 

Beauchamp (Fr.), bo-shan'. 

Beauchamp (Eng.), be'-chtim. 

“The Beauchamp Tower.” 
because, be-kdz'. 


bedstead, bdd'-sted, not bdd'-stld. 

Beelzebub, be-el'-ze-bub, not bel'-ze-bub. 
been, bin. 

Beethoven van, van ba'-to-ven. 
believe, be-lev', not blev. 
belles-lettres, bel-let'-tdr. 
bellows, bU'-tis. 

Beloochistan, bel-od-chls-tdn'. 
beloved (adj.), be-luv'-ed. 
beloved (part.), be-liivd'. 

Bengal, ben-gol', not ben'-gol. 
benignant, be-ntg'-n&nt, not be-nl'-ntint. 
Bethsaida, beth-sa'-id-d. 
betrothal, be-trdth'-til, not be-tro'-thtil. 
bicycle, bl'-slk-l, not bl'-sl-kl. 
biennial, bl-en'-i-til. 

Bigelow, big'-u-lo, not big'-lo. 
bijou, be-zhoo'. 
billet-doux, bil'-a-ddo. 
bindery, blnd'-dr-l, not blnd'-ri. 

Bingen, bmg'-en, not bing'-gen. 

11 J5mgren-on-the- Rhine.' ’ 
biographer, bil-dg'-rd-flr. 
biography, bl-dg'-rd-fl. . 
biology, bl-dl'-d-jt, not bi-dl'-o-jl. . 
biparous, bip'-d-rtis. 
bismuth, biz'-muth, not bis'-muth. 
bitumen, bi-tu'-mdn, not bit'-yu-men. 
blackguard, bl&g'-gdrd, not bl&k'-gdrd. 
blanch, bldnch, not bltinch. 
blanc mange, bid mdnf. 
blase, bld-za'. 

blasphemous, bids'-fe-mtis, not bltis-fe'-mus. 
blast, bldst, not bltist. 
blessed (adj.), bles'-ed. 
blessed (part.), bldst. 

Blois, blwd. 

boisterous, bois'-tdr-us, not bois'-trus. 
bolero, bd-la'-ro. 

Boleyn (Anne), bool'-In. 
bona-fide, bo'-nd fl'-de, not bo'-nd fid. 
Bonheur (Rosa), bo-ndr’, not bdn'-tir. 
bon marche, bdN mdr-sha'. 
bonnet, bdn'-et, not bun'-et. 
borrow, bdr'-ro, not bdr'-rti. 

Boswell, bdz'-wel. 

boudoir, bod-dwor'; Fr. pron., boo-dwar'. 
Boulogne, boo-ion'; Fr. pron., boo-ldn'-yu. 
bouquet, bod-ka' or bod'-ka, not bo-kd'. 
Bourbon (island and dynasty), boor'-bun. 
bovine, bo'-vln, not bo'-ven. 

Bowdoin (College), bo'-dn. 
bow-legged, bo'-legd, not bo'-leg-ed. 

Bremen, brem'-en; Ger. pron., bra'-mdn. 
brigand, brig'-tind, not brig-tind'. 
bristle, brls'-l, not brlst'-l. 
bronchitis, brdn-kl'-tis. 

Bronte (Charlotte), brdn'-te. 

Brookline, brook'-lln. 

Brougham, brod'-tim or broom. 

Bryn-Mawr (Wales), brun-mowr'. 
Bryn-Mawr (Penna.), brin-mdr'. 
Bucephalus, bu-sef'-d-lus. 

Buchanan, buk-tin'-tin or bu-k&n'-tin. 
buffet (cupboard), boof-a'. 
bungalow, bung'-gd-lo. 
bureaucracy, bu-ro'-krd-sl. 

Burgundy, bdr'-gun-dl, not bur-gun'-dl. 
burlesque, bdr-lesk', not bdr'-lesk. 

Burmese, bdr-mez' or bdr-mes'. 




LANGUAGE 


269 


business, bXz'-ri&s, not bXz'-X-ri&s. 
butcher, bodch'-dr, not bod'-chZr. 

Cabot, kdb'-dt, not kdb-dt'. 

Caedmon, ked'-mdn or kdd'-mon. 

Caesarea Philippi, ses-d-re'-d fil-Xp'-pl. 
caf6, kd-fa'. 

Caius, ka'-yus. 

Calais, ka-la'. 

calf, kdf, more properly kdf. 
caliph, ka'-lif. 
calm, kam, not kdm. 
calve, kdv, not kdf. 
calyx, ka'-liks, not kdl'-Xks. 

Camille, kd-mel'. 

campagna, kam-pan'-yd. 

cancel, kdn'-sel, not kdn'-sl. 

candelabra, kdn-de-la'-brd, not kdn-de-la'-brd. 

canine, kd-nln'. 

canon, kdn'-yun or kan-yon'. 

cantalever, kdn'-td-lev-er. 

Canton (U. S.), kdn'-ton. 

Canute, kd-nut'. 
canyon, kdn'-yun. 

capitulate, kd-pit'-yu-lat, not ka-pXch'-oo-lat. 
caret, ka'-ret or kar'-et. 
caricature, kdr'-ik-d-tur. 

Carnegie (Andrew), kdr-neg'-e. 

Carnot, kar-no'„ 

Carolinian, kdr-o-Un'-Vdn, not kdr-o-ll'-nX-dn. 
carte-blanche, kart-bldnsh'. 

Carthaginian, kar-thd-jin'-i-dn, not kar-thd-je'- 
nX-dn. 

cartridge, kar'-trXj, not kat'-rij. 

Casabianca, ka-sa-be-aN'-kd. 

cashmere, kdsh'-mer. 

casino, kd-se' -nd. 

castanet, kds'-td-net. 

catalogue, kdt'-d-log, not kdt'-d-log. 

catalpa, kd-tdl'-pd, not kd-tol'-pd. 

catch, kdch. 

catchup, kdch'-Up, not kcch'-Up. 
catechism, kdt'-e-Jcizm, not kdt'-e-klz-Um. 
catsup, kdt'-sUp. 

Cavalleria Rusticana, ka-vdl-la-re'-d rods-te-kd'- 

nd. 

caveat, ka'-ve-dt, not kdv'-e-dt. 

Celebes (islands), sel'-e-bez. 
celestial, sel-es'-chdl. 
cello, chel'-lo. 

cemetery, sem'-e-ter-l, not sem'-e-trt. 
centennial, sen-ten'-m-dl, not sen-ten'-ydl. 
century, sen'-tu-ri. 
ceramic, se-rdm'-ik, not ke-rdm'-Xk. 
cerebrum, ser'-e-brum, not se-re'-brum. 

Cesarean, se-za'-re-dn, not se-zar-e'-dn. 

Chaldean, kdl-de'-dn, not kdl'-de-dn. 
challis, shdl'-U. 
chamois, shdm'-X. 
champagne, shdm-pdn'. 

Chantilly, shaN-tel-ye' or shdN-te-ye'. 
chaos, ka'-ds. 
chaperon, shdp'-lr-on. 
charge d’affaires, shar-zha' ddf-fdr'. 

Charlemagne, shar-le-man'. 

Charon, ka'-rdn, not cha'-rdn. 

Charybdis, kd-rib'-dis. 

chasm, kdzm, not kdz'-Um. 

chasten, cha'-sn, not chds'-n, nor chas'-tn. 

chastise, chds-tlz ', not chds'-tiz. 

chastisement, chds'-tiz-m%nt, not chds-tlz'-mint. 


Chaucer, cho'-slr, not chow'-sdr . 
chauffeur, shd-for', 
chef, shef. 

Chelsea, chel'-se, not chel'-se-d. 

Cheltenham, chelt'-num. 
chemise, she-mez'. 
chemisette, shem-e-zet'. 
chenille, she-nel'. 

cherubim, cher'-u-bim, not cher'-Ub-Xm. 

chestnut, ches'-nUt, not chest'-nUt. 

cheviot (cloth), chev'-e-Ut. 

chicken, chik'-en, not chik'-n. 

chiffon, shif-fdn'. 

chiffonier, shif-dn-er'. 

children chil'-dren, not chil'-ddrn.' 

Chiron, kl'-ron. 
chiropodist, ki-rop'-d-dist. 
chisel, chiz'-el, not chiz'-l. 

Chisolm, chlz'-Um. 

Chopin, sho-pdN'. 

chorister, kor'-is-ter, not ko'-rist-dr. 
chorus, ko'-rus, not kor'-us. 
chyle, kil. 
chyme, klm. 

Cienfu^gos, se-en-fwa'-gos. 
cinchona, sXn-ko'-nd, not sin-cho'-nd. 
circuit, ser'-kity not ser'-kut. 
citadel, sit'-a-dl, not sit'-d-del. 
civil, siv'-il , not siv'-l. 
clairvoyant, kldr-voi'-dnt. 
clandestine, kldn-des'-tin. 
clapboard, klab'-ord, not kldp'-bord. 

Clapham, klap'-um. 

clarinet, kldr'-Xn-et. 

cleanly (adj.), klen'-U. 

cleanly (adv.), klen'-li. 

clematis, klem'-d-tis, not kle-md'-tXs. 

Cleopatra, kle-o-pa'-trd, not kle-o-pa'-trd, nor kl& 
o-pdt'-rd. 

clique, klek, not kUk. 

Clive, kllv. 
clothes, kldthz. 
cocaine, ko'-kd-Xn. 

Cocytus, kd-sl'-tus. 
codeine, ko-de'-in. 

cognomen, kog-nd'-men, not kdg'-no-men. 
coiffure, kwa-fur'. 

colander, kul'-dn-der, not kdl'-dn-der. 

Colchester, kol'-ches-ter, not kol'-ches-tZr. 
cold-chisel, kold'-chiz-el. 

Coleridge, kol'-rij. 

colosseum, kol-ds-se'-Um. 

column, kdl'-um, not kol'-yum. 

comeliness, kum'-U-nes, not kdm'-li-nes. 

comely, kum'-U, not kom'-li. 

commiserate, kom-miz'-dr-at, not kdm-mis'-Zr-at. 

commodious, kdm-mo'-di-us, not kom-md'-jus. 

commune (n), kdm'-mun. 

comparable, kdm'-pd-rd-bl, not kom-pdr'-d-bl. 

complex, kom'-pleks, not kom-pleks'. 

comport, kdm-port'. 

comptroller, kdn-tro’-ler. 

concrete (n. and adj.), kdn'-kret. 

concrete (vb.), kdn-kret', 

condolence, kdn-do'-lens, not kdn'-do-Uns. 

confidant, kdn-fid-ant ', not kon'-fid-dnt. 

congenial, kdn-jen'-ydl. 

congregate, kdng'-gre-gat. 

Congress, kdng'-gres. 

connoisseur, kdn-nis-sdr' or kdn-nXs-sddr '. 




270 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


conquest, kdng'-kufest, not kon'-kwest. 
conscientious, kdn-shX-en'-shus, not kdn-sX-en'- 
shus. 

conservatoire, kbix-ser-va-twar'. 

considerable, kdn-sXd'-dr-d-bl, not kon-sXd'-ra-bl. 

consignee, kdn-sXn-e'. 

constable, kdn'-std-bl, not kon'-std-bl. 

Consuelo, kdN-su-a-ld'. 
consul, kdn'-siU, not kown'-sul. 
contemplative, kdn-tem'-pla-tXv, not kdn'-tem- 
pla-tiv. 

continuity, kdn-ti-nu'-Xt-X. 

contractor, kdn-trdk'-ter. 

contretemps, kon-tru-tan'. 

conversant, kdn'-ver-sdnt, not kon-vdr'-stint. 

coquet, ko-ket'. 

coral, kdr’-dl, not ko'-rdl. 

cordial, kdr'-jdl or kord'-ydl. 

Cordova, kdr'-do-vd. 
cornet, kdr'-ri&t, not kdr-net'. 
corolla, ko-rdl'-d. 
corps (military), kor; pi., korz. 
cortege, kdr-tdzh'. 

Cortez (Fernando), kor'-tez. 
cosmetic, kdz-met'-Xk, not kos-met'-Xk. 
cote (n.), kot, not kdt. 
cotillion, ko-tXl'-ydn. 
coupe, kod-pa'. 

Courbet, kodr-ba'. 
courteous, ktirt'-e-tis. 
cousin, kuz'-n, not kuz'-Xn. 
covetous, kdv'-et-us, not kuv'-e-chils. 

Coxsackie, kodk-sb'-ke. 
craunch, Jcranch, not krdnch. 
creche, krash. 

credence, kre'-dens, not kred'-ens. 
credulous, kred'-yu-lus, not krej'-do-liis. 
creek, krek, not krik. 

Creighton, kra'-tun. 
crematory, krem'-d-to-rl. 

Crito, krl'-to. 

crouch, krowch, not krodch. 

Cruikshank, krdok'-shdngk. 
cuisine, kwe-zen'. 

culinary, ku'-lin-a-ri, not kul'-in-a-rl. 
cupboard, kub'-berd. 
cupola, kii'-po-ld, not ku'-pd-ld. 
curator, ku-ra'-ter. 

Cuyahoga, kl-d-ho'-gd. 
cycle, sl'-kl, not sik'-l. 

Czerny, cher'-ne. 

daguerreotype, dd-ger'-o-tlp, not dd-ger'-e-o-tlp. 
damage, ddm'-dj, not dctm'-ij. 

Damrosch, dam'rosh, not ddm'-rdsh. 

Danish, da'-nish, not dan'-ish. 

Dartmouth, dart'-muth, not dart'-mowth. 
data, da'-td, not da'-td. 
daub, ddb, not dob. 
debutante, da-bu-tont'. 
decade, dek'-ad, not de-kad'. 
decent, de'-sent, not de'-sunt. 
d6collet6, da-kdl-ta', not da-kdl'-ta. 
deficit, def'-ls-lt, not de-fis'-it. 
deign, dan. 

delirious, de-ttr'-l-us, not de-le'-rl-us. 

Delsarte, del-sart', not del'-sart. 
depths, depths, not deps. 

desideratum, de-sxd-lr-d'-tum, not de-sid-lr-a'- 
turn. 

despicable, des'-pik-d-bl, not de-spik'-d-bl. 


destine, dZs'-tin. 

different, dif'-fZr-ent, not dif'-rent. 
digitalis, dij-i-ta'-lis, not dlj-t-td'-lls. 
diploma, di-plo'-md, not di-plo'-md. 
direct, dl-rekt', not dl-rekt'. 
discourse, dis-kdrs', not dis'-kors. 
discretion, dis-kresh'-un. 
disease, dlz-ez', not dis-ez'. 
disputant, dis'-pu-tant, not dis-pu'-tdnt. 
district, dls'-trikt, not de'-strikt. 
diverge, div-erj', not dl-vdrj'. 
divulge, div-ulf, not dl'-vulj. 
domain, do-man', not do'-man. 
donkey, dong'-ki, not dung'-kl. 

Doric, ddr'-ik, not do'-rXk. 

Doris, do'-ris. 
douche, doosh. 
drawers, dro'-lrz, not drdrz. 
drought, drowt. 
drowned, drownd. 

Duncan, dung'-kdn, not dun'-kdn. 

Eames (Emma), amz, not emz. 
eau de cologne, o du kd-lon'. 
eczema, ek'-ze-md, not ek-ze'-md. 

Edam, cL-dam', not e'-ddm. 

Eden, e-dn, not e'-den. 

education, ed-yu-ka'-shun, not ej-dd-ka'-shdn. 
Eiffel (Tower), ef'-fel. 
eleven, e-lev'-n, not lev'-n. 

Elgin, el'-gin, or el'-jXn. 

41ite, d,-let'. 

elongate, e-ldng'-gdt, not e-ldn'-gat. 

ISmile, a-mel'. 

enchant, en-chdnt', not en-chdnt'. 
encore, ang-kor'. 
engine, en'-jin, not en'-jln. 
enquiry, en-kwl'-rX, not en'-kwXr-X. 
erasure, e-ra'-zhiir, not e-rci'-shur. 

Erebus, dr'-e-bus. 

erysipelas, er-X-sip'-e-lds, not ir-i-sip-'e-lds. 
etiquette, et'-i-ket. 

Eustachian, yu-sta,'-ki-dn 

exaggeration, egz-dj-er-a!-shun. 

examine, egz-dm'-in, not eks-dm'-Xn. 

example, egz-am'-pl. 

exist, egz-ist', not eks'-Xst. 

exit, eks'-Xt, not egz'-Xt. 

exogenous, eks-dj'-e-nus. 

expedient, eks-pe'-dX-ent, not eks-pe'-jent. 

expiratory, eks-pir'-d-to-rX. 

exquisite, eks'-kwXz-Xt, not eks-kwiz'-Xt. 

extant, eks'-tant, not eks-tdnt'. 

ex-tempore, eks-tem'-po-re, not eks-tem'-por. 

Eyre (Jane), dr, not Ir. 

factory, fak'-to-rX, not fdk'-trX. 

falcon, fo'-kn. 

Falkland, fok'-ldnd. 
family, fdm'-X-Vi, not fdm'-lX. 
faucet, fo'-set, not fds'-et. 

Fauntleroy, font'-le-roi, not fdnt'-l-roi. 

Faure, for. 

favorite, fa'-vdr-Xt, not fa'-ver-it. 

fecund, fek'-und, not fe'-kund. 

fellow, fel'-lo, not fel'-lu. 

feminine, fem'-Xn-Xn, not fem'-Xn-ln. 

f§te, fat. 

fiance, /e-dN-sa'. 

fiancee, fe-dN-sa'. 

fibril, fl'-brXl, not fib'-ril. 

finance, fXn-dns', not fl'-ndns. 



LANGUAGE 


271 


finances, fin-tins'-ez, not fi'-ntins-ez. 
financial, fin-tin'-shtil, not fi-ntin'-shtil. 
financier, fin-tin-ser', not fi'-ntin-ser. 
florid, flor'-ld, not flo'-rid. 
florin, fldr'-in, not flo'-rin. 
forbade, fdr-btid', not for-bad'. 
forest, fbr'-est, not for'-ust. 
forum, / o'-rum, not for'-um. 
fragile, frtij'-il , not frtij'-il. 
franchisement, frtin'-chiz-ment. 
frappe, frd-pti'. 
friends, frendz, not frenz. 
friendship, frend'-ship, not fren'-ship. 

Froebel, fro'-bel. 

frontier, frbn'-ter, not frun'-ter. 

Froude, frood. 
fuel, fu'-el, not fu'-ul. 
fungi, fun'-ji, not fung'-gi. 
furniture, fdr'-nit-yur. 
gallery, gtil'-er-i, not gtil'-ri. 

Galway, gdl'-wa, not gtil'-wa. 
gamut, gtim'-ut, not ga'-mut. 
gangrene, gting'-gren, not gtin'-gren. 
garage, gti-rdzh'. 
garrulous, gtir'-roo-lus. 
gastritis, gtis-tri'-tis. 
gather, gtith'-er, not geth'-er. 
gazetteer, gdz-et-er', not ga-zet'-br. 
generally, jen'-er-til-i, not jen'-rtil-i. 
Gennesaret (Lake), gen-nes'-d-ret. 
gentlemen, jen'-tl-men, not jen'-tl-mun. 
genuine, jen'-yu-in, not jen'-yu-in. 
gerund, jer'-ilnd, not je'-rund. 
get, get, never git. 
ghastly, gdst'-li, not gtist'-li. 
gist, fist, not gist. 
gladiolus, gld-di'-o-lus. 

Gladstone, gltid'-stun, not gltid'-ston. 
glottis, glot'-is, not glo'-tis. 
glycerine, glis'-br-in, not glis'-er-en. 
gneiss, nis. 

Goethe von, fon go'-te. _ 

Goliath, go-li'-tith , not go-li'-a. 
gondola, gon'-do-ld, not gon-do'-ld. 
gone, gdn. 

Gounod, gob-no'. 

government, guv'-ern-ment, not guv'-br-ment. 
granddaughter, grtind'-dd-ter, not grtin'-do-ter. 
grandson, grtind'-sun, not grtin'-sun. 
grasp, grdsp, not grtisp. 
gratis, gra'-tis, not grtit'-is. 

Greenwich (Eng.), gren'-ij. 

Greenwich (U. S.), gren'-wich. 
grimace, grim-as', not grim'-as. 
grimy, gri'-mi, not grim'-i. 
risly, griz'-U, not gris'-U. 
aemoglobin, hem-o-glo'-bin. 

Haiti, ha'-ti. 

handbook, htind'-book, not htin'-bdbk. 

Hawaii, ha-wi'-e. 

Hawaiian, ha-wi'yan. 
hearth, harth, not herth. 

Heidelberg, hi'-del-berG. 
height, hit, not hith. 

Heine (Heinrich), hin'-ri k hi'-nb. 
heinous, ha'-nils, not he'-nils. 
helm, hblm, not hel'-um. 

Henlopen (Cape), hbn-lo'-pen. 
heraldic, he-rtil'-dik, not her'-til-dik. 
herring, her'ing , not her'-in. 


Hiawatha, hi-d-wd'-thd, not he-d-wa'-thd. 
highwayman, hi'-wa-mtin, not hi-wa'-mtin. 
history, his'-tb-ri, not his'-tri. 
homestead, hom'-sted, not hom'-stid. 
homceopathist, ho-me-dp'-d-thist. 
honest, bn'-est, not on'-ust. 
honorable, on'-tir-d-bl, not tin'-rd-bl. 
hoof, hoof, not hoof. 
horrid, hbr'-rid, not hdr'-rid. 
horseradish, hdrs'-rtid-ish, not hbrs'-red-ish. 
hovel, hov'-el, not huv'-el. 
hundred, hiin'-dred, not hiln'-derd. 
hydraulics, hi-drd'-liks, not hi-drol'-iks. 
hypocrisy, hip-ok'-ris-i. 
ice-cream, is'-krem, not is-krem'. 
idiosyncrasy, id-i-o-sing'-krd-si. 
ignoramus, ig-no-ra'-mils, not ig-no-ra'-mils. 
illustrate, il-lils'-trat, not il'-lus-trat. 
impious, im'-pi-us, not im-pi'-ils. 
importune, im-pdr-tun'. 
impotent, im'-po-tent, not im-po'-tent. 
inaugurate, in-o'-gu-rtit, not in-6'-gur-tit. 
incomparable, in-kbm'-pd-rd-bl, not in-kbm-pdr' 
ti-bl. 

Indian, in'-di-tin or ind'-ytin. 
indisputable, in-dis'-pu-td-bl, not in-dis-pu'-td- 
bt. 

industry, in'-dus-trl, not in-dus'-tri. 
infamous, in'-fd-mus. 

Ingelow (Jean), jen in'-je-lo. 
innocent, in'-no-sent, not in'-no-silnt. 
inquiry, in-kwi'-ri, not in'-kwir-i. 
insatiable, in-sti'-shd-bl or in-sa'-shi-d-bl. 
instead, in-sted', not in-stid'. 
interesting, in'-ter-est-ing, not in-ter-est'-ing. 
international, in-ter-ntish'-un-til, not in-ter-na 
shiln-til. 

inundate, in-un'-dtit, not in'-un-dtit. 

Iroquois, ir-o-kwoi'. 

Isinglass, i'-zing-glds, not i'-zin-glds. 

Islip, is'-lip. 

italian, i-ttil'-ytin, not i-ttil'-ytin. 
italic, i-ttil'-ik, not i-tal'-ik. 
ivory, i'-vo-ri, not i'-vri. 
jardiniere, zhdr-de-nydr'. 

Jekyll (Dr.), je'-kil, not jek'-il. 

Jesuit, jez'-yu-it, not fezh'-yu-it. 
jocund, jok'-ilnd. 
joist, joist, not jois. 
jostling, jbs'-ling, not jost'-ling. 
judgment, juj'-ment, not juj'-munt. 
jugular, jii'-gu-ler, not jug'-yu-lbr. 
just (adv.), just, never jest. 
kaleidoscope, kd-li'-db-skop. 
kept, kept, not kep. 
kettle, ket'-l, not kit'-l. 

Khiva, ke'-vti. 
kiln, kil, not kiln. 
kinetograph, ki-ne'-to-grdf. 
kitchen, kich'-en, riot kich'-n. 
kumiss, koo'-mis. * 

laboratory, Itib'-b-rd-to-ri, not Itib'-ra-to-rl. 
laborer, la'-bbr-er, not la'-brbr. 

Lalla Rookh, la'-Id-rook, not la-ld-rdok'. 
L’Allegro, la-la'-gro. 

lamentable, Itim'-ent-d-bl, not la-ment'-d-bl. 
Lancaster, Itingk'-tis-ter, not Itin'-ktis-tbr. 
language, Iting'-gwaj, not Iting'-gwij. 
languor, Iting'-gwbr. 

Laocoon, lti-bk'-o-tin, not la-b-koon'. 




272 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


laryngitis, Idr-in-ji'-tis, not Idr-in-je'-tis, 
larynx, Idr'-ingks or la'-ringks. 

Latin, lat'-in. 
laudanum, l6'-dd-num. 
laugh, laf. 
laundress, lan'-dres. 
lava, la'-vd or la'-vd, not Idv'-d. 
learned (adj.), Ur'-ned. 
learned (part.), l&rnd. 
legate, leg'-at, not le'-gat. 

Leicester, les'-tlr. 

Leigh (Aurora), le, not la. 
length, length , not lenth. 
leper, lep'-lr. 
lettuce, let'-is, not let'-ds. 
library, li'-bra-ri, not li'-brl. 
licorice, lik'-o-ris , not lik'-o-rish. 
lief, lef, not lev. 

Ligny (Battle of), len-ye'. 
lingerie, Idn-zMr-e'. 

Liszt (Franz), frants list. 
literature, lit'-Ir-d-tur. 

lithographer, lith-dg'-rd-fbr, not lith'-d-grdf-Sr. 
Llewellyn, loo-el'-in. 
longevity, lon-jev'-it-i. 
long-lived, Idng'-livd, not long'-livd. 

Lorelei, lo'-ra-li. 

Lyceum, li-se'-um, not li'-se-um. 
mackerel, mdk'-lr-el, not mdk'-rel. 
magazine, mdg-d-zen'. 
magna charta, mdg'-nd kar'-td. 
magnolia, mag-no'-U-d, not mdg-nol'-yd. 
malign, md-lin'. 

mallow (marsh), mal'-o, not mel'-o. 
malpractice, mal-prak'-tis, not m&l'-prdk-tis. 
mamma, md-ma! or ma'-md. 
mandamus, man-da'-mus, not mdn-dam'-us. 
mange, manj, not manj. 
mania, ma'-ni-d, not man’-yd. 
maniacal, md-ni'-dk-til, not ma'-ni-ak-dl. 
manoeuvre, ma-noo'-vr. 

manufactory, mdn-yu-fdk'-to-ri, not mdn-yu-fdk'- 
tu-ri. 

Maracaybo, ma-ra-ki'-bo. 

Mardigras, mar-de-gra'. 

Maria Theresa, ma-ri'-d te-re'-sd. 

Marie Antoinette, md-re' dN-twa-net'. 

maritime, mdr'-it-im. 

marquis, mar'-kwis; Fr. pron. mar-ke'. 

Marseilles, mar-salz'. 

masculine, mds'-ku-lin, not mas'-ku-lin. 

mask, mdsk, not mdsk. 

massage, mds'-aj or md-sdzh'. 

masseur, md-ser' (Fr. md-sor'). 

masseuse, md-sez' (Fr. md-soz'). 

matron, ma'-trdn, not mdt'-rdn. 

mattress, mdt'-res. 

mausoleum, md-so-le'-tim. 

mauve, mov. 

measure, mezh'-ur. 

mediseval, me-di-e'-vdl. 

memory, mem'-o-ri, not mem'-ri. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, men’-del-son bar-tol'-de. 

meningitis, mZn-in-ji'-tis. 

Mephistopheles, Mef-is-tdf'-l-lez. 

meringue, me-fdng'. 

metric, met'-rik, not me'-trik. 

Mignon, men-yovt'. 
migraine, mi-grdn'. 
milch, milch, not milk. 


minuet, min'-yu-et, not min-yu-et'. 
mischievous, mis'-che-vds, not mis-che'-vus. 
misconstrue, mis-kdn'-stru, not mis-kdn-stru', 
miserable, miz'-er-d-bl, not miz'-rd-bl. 

Miserables (Les), la me-za-ra'-bl. 
mistletoe, miz'-l-to, not mis'-l-to. 
mitten, mit'-ten, not mit'-n. 
modiste, mo-dest'. 
moire, mwa-ra'. 

monologue, m5n'-o-l6g, not mo'-no-log. 
monomania, mdn-o-ma'-ni-d, not mo-nd-md?- 
ni-d. 

musicale, mu-ze-kdl’. 

mystery, mis'-ter-i, not mis'-tri. 

mythology, mith-6l'-o-ji, not mi-thdl'-o-fi. 

nasal, na'-zdl. 

natural, nat'-yu-rdl. 

nature, nat'-yur. 

nausea, nd'-she-d or nd'-shd, not nd'-se-d. 
necessarily, nes'-es-ser-il-i, not nes-es-ser'-il-l. 
n6e, na. 

n6glig6, na-gle-zha'. 

Neilson, nel'-sun. 
nephritis, ne-fri'-tis. 
nervine, nlr'-vin, not nlr'-ven. 

Neufchatel, no-sha-tU'. 
neuralgia, nu-rdl'-ji-d, not nu-rdl'-jd. 
nicety, ni'-se-ti, not nis'-ti. 
nom de plume, noN du plum. 
nominative, ndm'-in-d-tiv, not ndm'-nd-tiv. 
nonchalant, noN-shd-laN'. 
nonpareil, ndn-pd-rel ’, not ndn-pd-reV. 
Northampton, ndrth-amp'-tun, not north-hdmp 
tun. 

Norwich (Eng.), ndr'-ij. 

Norwich (U. S.), ndr'-wich or ndr'-ich. 
Nottingham, ndt'-ing-um. 
noxious, nok'-shus, not ndk'-shi-ds. 
nuisance, nu'-sans, not noo'-sans. 
nuptial, nup'-shal, not nup'-chdl. 

Nuyts (Islands), nits. 
nymph, nimf. 
oaths, othz , not oths. 
oatmeal, dt'-mel, not ot-mel'. 
obeisance, o-be'-sdns or o-ba'-sdns. 
obelisk, ob'-e-Usk, not ob'-lisk. 
obesity, d-bes'-it-i , not d-bes'-it-i. 

Obi, 6'-be. 

objurgate, db-jdr'-gat , not 5b'-jdr-gat. 
occult, dk-kdlt', not dk'-kult. 
octave, dk'-tav, not dk'-tiv. *> 

Odyssey, dd'-is-e, not o-dis'-e. 

office, df'-fis. 

often, df'-n, not df'-ten. 

olden, old'-n, not old'-en. 

oleander, o-le-dn'-der , not d'-le-dn-dZr. 

Ole Bull, o'-le bool. 

olfactory, dl-fdk'-td-rl, not dl-fdk'-tri. 

orchid, dr'-kid, not dr'-chid. 

ordeal, dr'-de-dl, not 6r-de'-dl. 

ordinarily, dr'-din-a-ri-U, not or-din-a'-ri-U . 

orthopedic, dr-tho-ped'-ik. 

oust, owst, not dost. 

overalls, o'-vlr-6lz, not o'-vlr-hdlz. 

Ovid, dv'-id , not o'-vid. 

Oyer, o'-ylr, not oi'-ylr. 
pajama, pd-jd'-md. 
palatial, pd-la'-shdl, not pdl-dsh'-dl. 
palmistry, pdl'-mis-tri , not pa'-mis-trl. 
panacea, pdn-d-se'-d. 




LANGUAGE 


273 


panorama, ptin-o-rti'-md or ptin-o-ra'-md, not 
ptin-o-rtim'-d. 
papa, pd-pti' or pti'-pd. 
papier-mache, pdp-yti! mti-sha'. 
papyrus, pd-px'-rus, not ptip'-xr-us. 
paresis, ptir'-e-sis, not pa-re'-sis. 
parliament, ptir'-lim-ent. 

Parsifal, ptir'-sif-til. 
participle, ptir'-ti-sip-l, not part'-sip-l. 
partner, ptirt'-ndr, not ptird'-ndr. 
partridge, ptir'-trij, not ptit'-rij. 
passe, pti-sa'. 

Pasteur, pas-tor'. 

patron, pa'-trun, not ptit'-run. 

pedagogue, ped'-d-gog. 

pedometer, pe-dom'-c-tdr. 

penchant, paw-shim'. 

pergola, pdr'-gd-lti. 

perhaps, per-htips'-, not prtips. 

peritonitis, per-i-to-nx'-tis, not per-i-to-ne'-tis. 

perpetuity, pdr-pe-tu'-i-tx. 

persist, pdr-sist', not per-zist'. 

perspicuity, per-spx-ku'-i-ti. 

perspiration, pdr-spxr-a'-shun, not pres-pir-a'- 
shun. 

petite, pd-tet'. 
pharyngitis, jdr-in-ji'-tis. 
phial, fx'-til. 

phosphorus, fds'-fdr-us, not fds-fo'-rus. 
photographer, fo-tdg'-rd-fdr. 
photogravure, fd-to-grti-vur'. 
physicist, fiz'-is-lst. 
piano, pe-ti'-no. 

picture, pik'-tur, not pik'-chur. 
plague, plag, not pleg. 
plait, plat. 

Pleiades, ple'-yd-dez. 
pneumatics, nu-mtit'-iks. 
poem, po'-em, not po'-tim. 
polliwig, pol'-x-wxg, not pdl'-x-wdg. 
polygamy, po-lxg'-d-mx, not pol'-xg-a-ml. 
posthumus, pdst'-hu-mus. 
potato, po-ta'-to , not po-ta'-tu. 
precedence, pre-se'-dens, not pres'-e-dens. 
predicament, pre-dik'-d-ment, not per-dxk'-d- 
ment. 


preface (n), pref'-as. 
preferable, pref'-er-d-bl, not pre-fdr'-d-bl. 
prelate, prel'-at, not pre'-lat. 
president, prez'-i-dent, not prez'-i-dunt. 
pretence, pre-tens' , not pre'-tens. 
prettily, prxt'-il-i, not pret'-il-x. 
preventive, pre-vent'-xv. 
prima donna, pre'-md don'-nd. 
prodigious, pro-dij'-Us. 
program, pro'-grdm, not pro'-grum. 
propinquity, pro-ping'-kwit-i. 
prosperous, pros'-pdr-xls, not prds'-prus. 
prot6g£, pro-ta-zha'. 

Protestant, prot'-es-tant, not prdd'-es-t&nt. 
psalm, sdm. 

Psalms (Book of), sdrnz, not s&mz. 
pseudonym, su'-do-nim. 
psychic, si'-kik. 
publicist, pub'-lis-ist. 

Puebla, pweb'-ld. 

pumpkin, pUmp'-kin, not pung'-kin. 
Pythagoras, pith-tig'-d-rtis, not px-thtig'-o-rtis. 
quarrel, kwdr'-U , not kwdr'-el. 
quash, kwtish, not kwtish. 


Queenstown, kwenz'-tun , not kwenz'-town. 
queue, kyu. 

Quito, ke'-to. 

qui vive, ke vev', not kwe vev'. 

quoit, kwoit or koit. 

quorum, kwo'-riXm , not kwdr'-um. 

raceme, rd-sem'. 

radish, rtid'-ish, not red'-ish. 

rajah, rci'-ja or ra'-jd. 

rancor, rting'-kdr, not rtin'-klr. 

ransack, rtin'-stik, not rtim'-stik. 

recipe, res'-ip-e. 

reconnoiter, rek-dn-ox'-ter, not re-kdn-oi'-tdr . 
referable, rZf'-er-d-bl, not re-fer'-d-bl. 
regalia, re-ga'-lx-d. 
regime, ra-zhem'. 
relict, rel'-ikt. 

renaissance, re-na'-stins; Fr. pron., ru-na-saws'. 

rendezvous, ren'-de-voo; Fr. pron., raw'-da-voo. 

reparable, rep'-d-rd-bl, not re-pdr'-a-bl. 

repertoire, rep-Zr-twar; Fr. pron., ra-pdr-twar'. 

reputable, rep'-yu-td-bl. 

requiem, re'-kwi-em. 

research, re-serch', not re'-serch. 

resource, re-sors', not re'-sors. 

resume, ra-zoo-ma'; Fr. pron., ra-zu-ma'. 

reverend, rev'-dr-end, not rev'-er-ent. 

revocable, rev'-o-kd-bl, not re-vo'-kd-bl. 

rheumatism, ru'-md-tizm, not room'-d-tizm. 

rinse, rins, not rdns. 

robust, ro-bust', not ro'-bust. 

Rochefort, rtish-for'. 

Roentgen, ront'-gen: 
roil, roil, not rxl. 
roof, roof, not roof. 

Roosevelt, ros'-velt, not roos'-velt. 
root, root, not root. 
rostrum, rds'-trum, not ro'-strum. 
rutabaga, ru-td-ba'-gd. 
sachem, sa'-chem, not stich'-em. 
sacrament, stik'-rd-ment, not sa'-kra-mdnt. 
sacrilegious, stik-ril-e'-jus, not stik-ril-ij'-us. 
sagacious, sd-ga'-shtis , not sd-gtish'-us. 
said, sed. 

salary, stil'-d-ri, not stil'-ri. 
salmon, stim'-un. 
salve, (ointment) sav. 
sanatorium, stin-d-to'-ri-tim. 
sanguine, sting'-gwin, not stin'-gwin. 

San Juan, san hod-tin'. 
sarcophagus, stir-ktif'-d-gus. 
sarsaparilla, stir-sd-pd-ril'-d, not stis-pa-ril'-d. 
satin, stit'-in, not stit'-n. 

Satsuma, stit-sod'-md. 
savage, stiv'-aj, not stiv'-ij. 
says, sez, not saz. 
scalene, skd-len', not ska'-leru 
scared, skdrd, not skArt. 

Schley, shit. 

seance, se'-tins; Fr. pron., sa-d’Ns'. 
seckel (pear), sek'-l, not sik'-l. 
secretary, sek'-re-ta-ri, not sek'-e-ta-rl. 

Seine (river), san. 
separable, sep'-d-rd-bl. 
sequin, se'-kwin, not sek'-win. 
sesame, sds'-d-me. 
several, sev'-dr-til, not sev'-rtil. 
shriek, shrek, not srek. 
signora, sen-yti'-rd. 
since, sins, not sens. 



274 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


singing, slng'-lng, not slng'-ln. 

Sistine (Chapel), sis'-tin or sis'-ten. 

sleek, slek, not silk. 

slept, sldpt, not slep. 

snout, snowt, not snoot. 

sofa, so'-fd, not so'-fti. 

soften, s6f'-n. 

solace, stil'-as, not so'-las. 

solarium, so-la'-rl-tim. 

solecism, sdl'-e-slzm, not so'-le-slzm. 

solemn, sdl'-em, not sol'-tim. 

sonata, so-na'-td. 

soprano, sd-pra'-no, not so-prtin'-o. 
souvenir, soo-vti-ner' or soov'-ner. 
species, spe'-shez, not spe'-shl-ez. 
spirit, splr'-lt, not splr'-tit. 
spoon, spoon, not spoon. 
spouse, spowz. 
stead, sted, not stld. 
steady, sted'-l, not stld'-l. 

St. Louis (Missouri), sant loo'-ls or stint loo’-l. 

stoicism, sto'-ls-lzm, not sto'-lk-lzm. 

stomach, sttim'-ak, not sttim'-lck. 

suede, swtid. 

suite, swet, not stit. 

sumach, su'-mtik or shu'-mtik. 

supple, stip'-l, not sod'-pl. 

suppose, stip-pdz' , not sptiz. 

surprise, stir-priz', not stip-priz'. 

Suwanee (River), su-wd'-ne. 
swept, swept', not swep. 
syringe, slr'-lnj, not slr-lnj'. 
syrup, sir'-up. 
table-d’hote, ta'-bl-dtit. 
tallyho, ttil'-ll-ho, not ttil-ll-hd'. 

Tannhauser, tdn'-hoi-zlr. 
taxidermist, tak'-sl-derm-lst. 
technique, tek-nek'. 
telegraphy, te-leg'-ra-fl. 

temperament, tem'-pZr-d-ment, not tem'-pra- 
ment. 

temperature, tem'-per-d-tur, not tem'-prd-tiir. 
temporarily, tem'-po-ra-rl-ll, not tem-po-ra'-rl-U. 
tenet, ten'-et, not te'-net. 
tepid, tep'-ld, not te'-pld. 

Terra del Fuego, ter'-ra del fu-e'-gd. 
tete-a-t§te, tat-d-tat'. 

Thames (river in England), temz. 
theater, the'-d-ter, not the-a'-tlr. 

Thoreau, tho'-ro. 

three-legged, thre'-legd, not thre'-leg-ed. 
thresh, thresh. 

Tolstoi, tdl'-stoi. 

to-morrow, too-mor'-rd, not too-mor'-ru. 
tongs, tdngz. 

tonsilitis, tdn-sll-l'-tls, not ton-sll-e'-tis. 
tortious, tor'-shus. 
tour, toor. 

tout-ensemble, toot aN-san'-bl. 

toward, to'-erd, not towdrd'. 

transmigrate, trtins'-ml-grat, not trtins-ml'-grat. 

traveler, trtiv'-el-er, not trtiv'-ler. 

treacle, tre'-kl, not trlk'-l. 

trichina, trlk-l'-nd. 

tricycle, trl'-slk-l, not trl'-sl-kl. 

trilobite, trl'-lo-blt, not trll'-o-blt. 

trousseau, trod'-so'. 

Trovatore, II, el trd-va-to'-ra. 
turnip, ttir'-nlp, not ttir'-ntip. 

Tuskeegee, ttis-ke'-ge. 


ultimatum, ul-Um-d!-turn, not ul-tlm-a'-turn. 

umbrella, tim-brel'd, not um-bdr-el'-d. 

uncivil, un-slv'-ll, not un-slv'-ul. 

unctuous, tingkt'-yu-tis. 

undersigned, un-der-sind', not un-der-zlnd'. 

uninterested, tin-ln'-ter-dst-ed. 

unlearned (adj.), un-ler'-ned, not un-lernd'. 

unlearned (part.), tin-Urnd', not un-ler'-ned. 

unprecedented, tin-pres'-e-dent-dd. 

untoward, un-to'-drd, not un-td-word'. 

Urquhart, ttr'-kwtirt. 

used, uzd, not ust. 

usually, yu'-zhu-til-l, not yu'-zhtil-l. 

usurp, yii-zurp', not yu-surp'. 

vagary, vd-ga'-rl, not va'-gd-rl. 

vagrant, vti'-grtint, not vtig'-rtint. 

Valkyrie, vtil-ku'-re-a. 

vanquish, vting'-kwlsh, not vtin'-kwlsh. 

vase, vas or vaz. 

vaudeville, vod'-vll; Fr. pron., vod-vel'. 

vehement, ve'-he-ment. 

veinous, va'-nus, not ve'-ntis. 

velvet, vel'-vet, not vel'-vut. 

venous, ve'-ntis, not va'-ntis. 

ventriloquist, ven-trlV-o-kwlst. 

version, ver'-shtin, not ver'-zhtin. 

vessel, ves'-sel, not ves'-l. 

veterinary, vet'-er-ln-a-rl, not vet'-rln-a-rl. 

vice versa, vl'-se ver'-sd, not vls'-ver-sd. 

victim, vlk'-tlm, not vlk'-ttim. 

Victor Hugo, vek-tdr' u-go'. 

Vienna, vl-en'-d, not vl-en'-d. 
vis-a-vis, vez-d-ve'. 
vitriol, vlt'-rl-til, not vlt'-rtil. 

Vladivostock, vla-de-vos-tok '. 

volatile, vol'-d-tll, not vdl'-d-tel, nor vtil'-d-tll. 

volume, vdl'-yum. 

voluntarily, vdl'-tin-tti-rll-l, not vol-tin-ta'-rll-l. 

waft, wdft, not waft. 

wainscot, wans'-kdt. 

was, woz, not wtiz. 

wasp, wdsp, not wosp. 

water, wd'-tdr, not wdt'-lr. 

Wednesday, wenz'-da, not wed'-ri&s-da. 
which, hwlch, not wlch. 
whisk, hwlsk, not wlsk. 
whole, hdl, not hoi. 

whooping (cough), hoop'-lng, not hoop'-lng. 
widow, wld'-o, not wld'-ti. 

Wilhelmina, vil-heb-me'-nd. 
window, wln'-do, not wln'-dti. 

Windsor, wln'-zdr, not wlnd'-zdr, 
wistaria, wls-ta'-rl-d, not wls-te'-rl-d. 
women, wlm'-en, not wlm'-ln. 
wondering, wtin'-der-lng, not wtin'-drlng. 
wont (custom), wtint. 
won’t (will not), wont. 

Worcester (Eng.), woos'-tdr. 

Worcester (U. S.), woos'-ter. 

Worcestershire, woos'-ter-shlr. 
wrath, rath, not rtith. 
wrestler, res'-Hr, not rdst'-ldr. 

Xenophon, zen'-o-fdn. 
yacht, ydt. 

yellow, yel'-lo, not yel'-lti. 
yew, yti. 

yolk, yolk or yok. 

Ypsilanti, Ip-sll-tin'-tl. 

Zeus, zus, not ze'-tis. 

zodiacal, zo-di'-tik-til, not zo'-dl-tik-til. 












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_ 































LITERATURE 


History and literature are kindred sciences; 
both are the written story of life which has been 
lived. History places before us the life of action, 
and the heroes of history are chiefly pioneers, 
statesmen, soldiers, merchants, inventors, leaders 
of industry. Literature presents the inner life 
of thought and emotion and ideals. Its pages 
are written for us by historians and novelists 
and poets and philosophers. Both through 
deed and word, history and literature reveal to 
us the life of a nation. 

But the life of a nation is not an individual 
thing. There is an intercourse of nations, as 
well as an interdependence. Literature, as 
well as history, reveals the influence of this 
universal contact. It is only by a survey of all 
literatures that any single literature can be 
appreciated or understood. The following tables 
and discussions present such a survey: 

COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
ANCIENT ORIENTAL 
LITERATURES 

2000 B. C. TO 1500 B. C. 

INDIA. Earliest Vedic hymns in Sanskrit. These 
Vedic hymns were probably sung or repeated for a thou¬ 
sand years before they were committed to writing. 

PERSIA. Earliest metrical hymns. 

CHINA. Development of ideo-phonetic writing. Odes, 
hymns, laws, historic documents preserved by imperial 
decree. 

HEBREW. Age of Abraham and the patriarchs. 
Book of Job. 

BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. Cuneiform in¬ 
scriptions on stone slabs, and on brick and clay tablets, 
delicate inscriptions on glass and metal. Chaldean 
account of the deluge compiled about 2000 B. C. 

Golden age of Babylonian literature and rise of Assy¬ 
rian literature. 

ARABIA. War-loving tribes roving over the table 
lands of Arabia produced an oral literature of pastorals, 
rude songs, and triumphal odes. 

EGYPT. Hieroglyphic inscriptions on monuments 
and papyri. Hermetic books (treatises on alchemy, 
magic, etc.). 

Book of the Dead, Ptah-Hotep’s moral treatise. 

1500 B. C. TO 1000 B. C. 

INDIA. Collection of Vedic hymns, embodying 
the system of philosophy; The Institutes of Manu, 
regulating moral and social life. 

PERSIA. Age of Zoroaster. Compilation of the 
Zend, the only existing monument of a once extensive 
literature. 

CHINA. The Five Great Classics of Antiquity; the 
most important of these is the Book of Changes. 

HEBREW. The Age of Moses and the Pentateuch. 
Hebrew anthems and elegies and wisdom literature, 
culminating in the psalms of David and proverbs of 
Solomon. 

BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. Preservation of 
records in royal libraries. 

Inscriptions elaborately wrought on stone and terra 
cotta. Chief cities made depositories of royal libraries. 
Babylonian literature rich in fiction, astrology, law, 
grammar, history, mathematics, etc. 

ARABIA. Inscriptions on walls, tombs, dikes, and 

hfArj 70 to nlpf Q 

EGYPT. Great library founded. Golden Age of 
Rameses. Literature rich in epic poetry, odes, ballads, 
hymns, romances, fables, history, science, etc. 

1000 B. C. TO 500 B. C. 

INDIA. Ancient Vedic translations contained in 
great epics and lyrics. The Ramayana and the Maha- 


bharata are called the Iliad and the Odyssey of the 
Sanskrit. Dramas, tales, fables, and epigrams abound. 

PERSIA. Preservation and enlargement of books 
of sacred literature. Compilation of the Zend-Avesta. 

CHINA. Age of Confucius. A period of great liter¬ 
ary activity. Compilation of the sacred learning of the 
Chinese by Confucius and the introduction of higher 
ethical ideals. 

HEBREW. Songs of lamentation and prophetic 
books of the period of the captivity. The Idylls of 
Ruth and Esther. 

ASSYRIA. Decline of Babylonia and revival of 
arts and sciences in Assyria. 

ARABIA. Increase of learning among the Arabs. 
Development of language and literature. Three poets, 
Amru-el-Kais, Tarafah, and Antar. 

EGYPT. Age of decline. Simplified form of 
writing introduced. 


LITERATURE OF INDIA 

The literature of India is vast beyond all com¬ 
prehension. The library of one of the kings is 
said to have contained so many books that a 
hundred Brahmans were employed in taking 
care of it, and a thousand dromedaries were 
required to convey it from place to place. 
Literary activity in India is as great to-day as 
in the past, and vast stores of learning are ac¬ 
cumulated there. 

The most ancient of Hindu literatures is the 
Sanskrit, a branch of the Indo-European group 
of languages, which includes the Persian, Greek, 
Latin, Teutonic, Slavonic, Celtic, and Scandi¬ 
navian. The Sanskrit is supposed to bear the 
closest resemblance to the primitive language, 
from which all this group of languages sprung. 
It is the sacred language of the Brahmans, and, 
although classed to-day among the dead lan¬ 
guages, it is kept alive in the conversation and 
writings of the priestly caste. It has furnished 
a rich storehouse for European scholars. 

Sanskrit appears in its most ancient form in 
the Vedas, which date, at least, one thousand 
years before Christ; these Vedic hymns were 
probably sung and recited many hundred 
years before they Were committed to writing. 
The history of Sanskrit literature divides into 
two periods, the Vedic and the classic. These 
periods partly overlap each other, but the later 
Vedic works are distinguished by the subjects 
with which they deal and by their archaic style. 

The word Veda means 11 knowledge,” books 
of knowledge. These sacred books of the Brah¬ 
mans are divided into four classes: (1) Rig- 
Veda, or lore of praise (hymns); (2) Yajur-Veda, 
lore of prayer (sacrificial rites); (3) Sama-Veda, 
or lore of tunes (chants); and (4) Atharva-Veda, 
devotional services (incantations), to be used 
in sacrifices and other religious offices. The 
last three Vedas are medley extracts from 
the Rig-Veda. Each Veda is divided into 
two parts, the first consisting of prayers, and 
the second of commandments. Six branches 
of Vedic science are included under the term 
Vedanga, namely, phonetics, music, grammar, 
etymology, astronomy, ceremonials. These 
books also contain legends and philosophical 









278 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and scientific discussions, as well as religious 
teachings, for the Sanskrit literature belongs 
to an imaginative and creative, as well as to a 
serious and thoughtful, people. 

An ancient Hindu work of great importance 
is the Code of Manu, dating at least one thou¬ 
sand years before the Christian era. The in¬ 
stitutes of Manu regulated the moral and social 
life of the people, and prescribed punishments. 
Purity of life was strictly enjoined. 

Two interesting epic poems belong to the 
classic period, the Mahabharata, a semi-his¬ 
torical poem, treating of ancient rivalries and 
wars, and the Ramayana, a .religious poem, 
describing the incarnation of Vishnu. The 
later Sanskrit, dating about one hundred before 
Christ, is varied in its theme; however, it 
lacks the dignity of thought which characterizes 
the early Sanskrit. 

Many speculative philosophies have had their 
birth in India, some of them in strict opposition 
to the teaching of the Vedas. Five centuries 
before the Christian era a newer and purer 
religion was taught by a monk of royal birth. 
He was afterwards known as Buddha, the 
Enlightened One. He taught his people to live 
in charity, one with another, to practice truth 
and morality, to overthrow caste, and to abolish 
Brahman sacrifices. The sacred books of 
Buddha are called the Tripitaka; one of them is 
metaphysical, one disciplinary, and one contains 
the discourses of Buddha. They are written 
in a dialect of the later Sanskrit, and are very 
voluminous, containing more than five times 
as much matter as in both the New and the Old 
Testament. The followers of Buddha are said 
to number over three hundred millions. Bud¬ 
dhism is not only one of the great religions of 
India, but it has millions of followers in Thibet, 
China, Japan, Corea, and all the countries of 
the far East. It would be impossible to ac¬ 
knowledge the full indebtedness of Western 
literatures to the literary thought of India. 
We have borrowed from every department, 
but nowhere have we found richer treasures 
than in romance and fairy tale. Stories written 
in far-away India have been the delight of our 
story-tellers; many of the fairy tales of our 
nurseries were first written for the joy of some 
Hindu child. India is rich in literary treasures, 
and we are richer because we have borrowed 
from these treasures. 

PERSIAN LITERATURE 

The earliest language of Persia is the Zend, 
which is closely allied to the Sanskrit. The 
Vedic Aryans and the Zend-speaking Aryans 
originally belonged to one community, and 
spoke one language. Both language and litera¬ 
ture reveal this unity of origin. We find simi¬ 
larities in their cuneiform inscriptions. Like 
the Sanskrit of India, the earliest literature of 
Persia is preserved for us in the sacred writings. 
These are known as the Zend-Avesta, or com¬ 
mentary and text. 

The Avesta is among the most important of 
the sacred writings found in the whole range of 
Indo-European literatures. These writings are 
attributed by the Persians to Zoroaster, who 
lived probably twelve or fifteen centuries before 


the Christian era. Little is known of Zoroaster, 
but it is said that like Buddha he was the great 
teacher who reformed the religious system of 
his country. The Parsees, or Fire-Worshipers 
of India and Persia, are to-day the followers of 
Zoroaster. 

The Avesta, though attributed to Zoroaster, 
is not the work of a single man, but, like the 
Vedas, is made up from fragments, which had 
been repeated orally, and thus brought down 
through generations. It is a collection of pro¬ 
fessed revelations, instructions concerning ways 
of living, prayers and confessions made to some 
Supreme Being and to inferior gods, simple 
hymns, some of which are grand, both in word 
and thought. The Avesta recognizes One 
Supreme Being, and exhorts to a pure way of 
living. “ Forsake the wrong,” says Zoroaster, 
“and choose one of the two spirits, Good or 
Base; you cannot serve both.” 

Besides the Zend-Avesta, there are two other 
sacred books, one a book of prayers and hymns, 
and the other prayers to the Genii of the days. 
The religion of Zoroaster prevailed for many 
years in Persia. The Greeks adopted some of 
the ideas into their philosophy, and through 
them its influence was extended over Europe. 

When the Greeks under Alexander (331 B. C.) 
conquered Persia and burned the capital at 
Persepolis, they destroyed many inscriptions 
and valuable records in the great library, which 
had been collected by the Persian kings. After 
the Greek conquest, the Persian language was 
forced to give place to the language of their 
conquerors, first the Greek, and then the Arabic 
speech of the Mohammedans. 

In the Ninth Century, A. D., native dynasties 
were restored, and from this time dates modern 
Persian literature, which flourished for nine 
centuries. But the literature of modern Persia 
is very unlike that of the ancient Empire. 
Greek thought, together with the arts and 
sciences of Arabia and the religion of Mohammed, 
had transformed the life and spirit of the people, 
and we find an entirely different literature in 
this later period. Satires, love ditties, songs, 
and religious hymns appeared; many names 
of minstrels who belonged to the Tenth Cen¬ 
tury are found. The first Persian poet who 
impressed his stamp upon every form of poetry 
was Rudagi. About 1000 A. D., Prince Cabus 
is quoted as the author of the “Perfection of 
Rhetoric” and also of poems. A generation 
later Anvari wrote much verse in honor of the 
king. To these same centuries belong Dakiki 
and Firdausi, court poets; Tabari, court his¬ 
torian; Sadi, the great moral teacher; Hafiz, 
the writer of love lyrics and pleasure songs; 
Omar Khayyam, well known from the excel¬ 
lent translations of his quatrains into English. 

CHINESE LITERATURE 

The literature of China leads us back to the 
remotest past in an almost unbroken line of 
writings. The prose writings of the Chinese 
philosophers, the plain, grave, and concise 
rendering of moral maxims, and the primeval 
poetry, including the oldest temperance ode 
in the world, were preserved in the Sacred 
Books, edited by Confucius. 



LITERATURE 


279 


The first published book on record in China is 
the “ Book of Changes,” dating originally about 
1150 B. C. Little is known of this mysterious 
book, but it was evidently a treatise on philos¬ 
ophy; centuries later it became the founda¬ 
tion for a book of divination. The “Book of 
History” is a compilation made by Confucius 
from old manuscripts, records of years between 
2400 B. C. and 700 B. C. The “Book of Rites,” 
the real guide of Chinese life, was also compiled 
from ancient sources and is said to be the work 
of a duke living sometime between 1200 B. C. 
and 1100 B. C. This “Book of Rites” is still 
the ceremonial which is the soul of the Chinese. 
These are the most important of the books 
known as the “Five Classics.” Following these 
are the “Four Books,” all by followers and 
pupils of Confucius. Together they form a 
body of records or annals, written in brief para¬ 
graphs with no literary form; they are simple 
statements of fact or doctrine. They might be 
considered mere curiosities of literature, but for 
their unbounded influence over a great nation. 
This influence is easily understood upon closer 
acquaintance for the recorded sayings, or con¬ 
versations, contain the essence of wisdom. The 
educated classes committed to memory pages 
from the Classical Books, while the wise maxims 
became as familiar to the people as nursery 
songs. The aim of all these writings was to 
build lofty principles of thought and action 
which should govern men in every relation of 
life. “The Great Learning,” based upon the 
older teachings, shows political knowledge and 
judgment in its suggestions. These great books 
directed the people with such words as: 

“The ancients, wishing to order the empire, 
first ordered well their own states. Wishing to 
order well their states, they first regulated their 
families. Wishing to regulate their families, 
they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to 
cultivate their persons, they first rectified the 
heart.” 

“What a man dislikes in his superiors, let 
him not display in the treatment of his inferiors.” 

“ Learn the past, and you will know the 
future.” 

Commentaries by the thousands have been 
written on these books, and form a great body 
in Chinese libraries. 

Mencius (372 B. C.), the last and greatest 
apostle of Confucius, has been called the Plato 
of his nation. He was the first to maintain 
the goodness of human nature unmolded by 
education. The spirit inherent in the Chinese 
classics was, “Walk in the trodden paths and 
seek wisdom from ancient teachings.” Mencius 
threw his influence into society about him, in¬ 
sisted upon changes in his degenerate age, and 
used humor and satire to sharpen his discussions. 

Printing was invented in China about 600 
A. D., and was then chiefly used in publication 
of chronicles of information or history. Each 
dynasty has its official chronicle, making a his¬ 
tory of the nation from the Third Century B. C. 
to the middle of the Seventeenth Century. 

The system of Chinese education has tended 
to compress the minds of the students into a 
narrowness of thought, but this helped obser¬ 
vation of detail and may account for the value 


of their topographical works, which are scarcely 
equaled in any other literature. Historical 
and literary encyclopedias are well arranged 
and have been closely studied by European 
authors, who speak highly in their praise. 

The first great thoughts of this seemingly 
prosaic and practical people were put in the 
form of poetry, and their songs and ballads date 
back beyond any knowledge of authors. In the 
time of Confucius (551-478 B. C.) there was 
an official collection of some 3,000 songs, which 
he arranged, and from which he made his “Book 
of Odes.” The subjects of these odes are from 
the everyday life and simple ways of antiquity. 
They are written in rhyme and give most pleasing 
pictures with delicate touches. Epic poetry, 
conspicuous in India, is wholly lacking in 
China, the historical romance taking its place. 
Dramas abound, but in very primitive form, 
while didactic poems are common, official docu¬ 
ments being sometimes issued in this form. 

In China is found the philosophy of Confucius, 
prominently ethical; the philosophy of Tao, 
almost purely material; and the philosophy 
of Buddha, preeminently metaphysical. These 
seem to hold a joint power over the people; 
effects of this mixture can be traced in their 
literature. Many discussions in moral philoso¬ 
phy are popular among Chinese scholars. The 
Chinese have, also, romances of all kinds, light 
poetry, and works on history, geography, and 
travel. They are a reading people. Trans¬ 
lators are bringing books out from their hoard 
of treasures, helped by a well-executed diction¬ 
ary of the Chinese language. 

The countries of Burmah, Siam, and Thibet 
are related to China by having the same mono¬ 
syllabic language. To each of these nations be¬ 
longs, also, a valuable literature, reaching back 
to antiquity. 

HEBREW LITERATURE 

Hebrew literature stands first among the 
literatures of antiquity. A universal significance 
has been given to it on account of the remarkable 
influence it has had in forming the thought of 
Christian and Mohammedan nations. From it 
we get our Bible, which gives us our revelation 
of God and our fundamental ideas of worship. 
Hebrew literature reaches back to remote an¬ 
tiquity. It is the story of a people who believed 
themselves selected by God to be the conserva¬ 
tors of His revelation. It is the marvelous story 
of a race, which for thousands of years endured 
captivity, dispersion, wars, and persecution of 
every kind, and yet preserved its nationality, 
its peculiarities of worship, its laws and language, 
traditions and literature. In its deep religious 
spirit, in its credibility, and in the vigor of its 
poetry, it far surpasses the literature of any 
other nation of antiquity. It constitutes a 
remarkable monument of the early history 
and spiritual development of the human race. 
Hebrew law has been studied and imitated by 
lawmakers of every nation and, like their litera¬ 
ture, is unsurpassed in originality and vigor of 
expression. 

Only a small part of the great mass of Hebrew 
writing has come down to us. Of this, the 
most important is that contained in the Hebrew 



280 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Scriptures. The composition of the books of 
the Old Testament Scriptures extends from the 
time of David to the Maccabees, a period of at 
least 900 years. Before this, like all ancient 
peoples, the Hebrews by oral tradition handed 
down their sagas, songs, fragments of history, 
inscriptions, laws, and priestly registers. 

The prevalent idea of Hebrew literature is 
Monotheism. The Hebrews believe they are 
a peculiar people, chosen of God, hence their 
passionate enthusiasm for independence and 
the preservation of their nationality. While 
other nations were creating their divinities 
marred by human passions, and were painting 
them in the glowing colors of their poetry, as 
engaged in wars and feasting, sensuous love or 
hate, revenge or revelry, the Hebrew poets 
pictured their God in the most sublime language, 
simple, just, severe. “God is a Spirit, and they 
that worship Him must worship Him in spirit 
and in truth.” Love and wisdom are His at¬ 
tributes; power and majesty are His, and yet 
paternal care and wisdom. In this contempla¬ 
tion of Jehovah the Hebrews reached the very 
source of enthusiasm, which caused their poets 
so fervently to utter the denunciations and 
promises of the Eternal in a tone suited to the 
inspired of God. Under whatever form they 
wrote, law, prophecy, history, lyric poetry, 
philosophy, or speculation, God and His provi¬ 
dences are their special theme. 

The simplest division of the literature of the 
Hebrews is into the four following periods: 

The first period extends from remote an¬ 
tiquity to the time of David. It includes all 
the records of patriarchal civilization trans¬ 
mitted by tradition previous to the age of Moses, 
and contained in the Pentateuch, with the book 
of Joshua added. The earliest literature be¬ 
longing to this period seems to have been lyrics 
and laws circulated from mouth to mouth with¬ 
out the aid of written copies, and thus handed 
down as oral tradition from generation to genera¬ 
tion. As early as the reign of David a scribe 
was attached to the royal court, and from that 
time on we have written records. 

The second period extends from the time of 
David to the death of Solomon. To this period 
we refer the Psalms of David, the Songs of Solo¬ 
mon, the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Joshua, Judges, 
Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. 

The third period extends from the death of 
Solomon to the return from the Babylonian 
captivity, and to this age belong the writings 
of the prophets of the captivity and the book 
of Esther. 

The fourth period extends from the return 
from the Babylonian captivity to the present 
time. To this time belong the writings of the 
New Testament, the writings of Josephus, of 
Philo of Alexandria, and the rabbinical literature. 

The epoch of the captivity marks the beginning 
of Jewish literature properly so called as distinct 
from the earlier Hebrew. It is founded on the 
earlier and more creative Hebrew. It retains 
the fundamental religious thought, but both 
language and imagination are modified by con¬ 
tact with Persian, Greek, and Roman civiliza¬ 
tion, and by the forms of Arabic poetry and 
scientific study as introduced from Europe. 


Since the return from exile, Jewish literature 
has contributed richly toward the cultivation 
of the human mind, and in the writings of the 
Jews, known as rabbinical literature, lie con¬ 
cealed the richest treasures of centuries. 

The most important of this later literature is 
the Talmud. The word Talmud signifies learn¬ 
ing; the work itself is a vast storehouse of 
learning and of speculation. It treats of every 
conceivable subject and depicts incidents in the 
life of the people, not only of the Jews, but of 
other nations as well. There are separate works 
on civil and criminal law, religious philosophy, 
psychology, education, mathematics, medicine, 
magic, gardening, music, astrology, zoology, 
geography, etc. It is enlivened by parables, 
jests, fairy tales, ethical sayings, and proverbs. 
It is a great wilderness of themes in the midst 
of which are precious treasures. 

The Talmud is divided into two great divisions, 
which are kept distinct, (1) the laws and regu¬ 
lations designated as Mishna, and (2) the dis¬ 
cussion of the laws designated as Gemara. The 
language of the Mishna is Hebrew; that of the 
Gemara, which is of later composition, is Ara¬ 
maic. The Aramaic, both in Palestine and 
Babylonia, drove out the Hebrew as the popular 
speech. 

A remarkable correspondence exists between 
parts of the Talmud and the gospel writings. 
The authority of the Talmud was long considered 
second only to the Bible. 

It was not until the second century A. D. that 
the writings contained in the Talmud were 
systematized into a code. In the Fifth Century, 
A. D., the Babylonian rabbis composed new 
commentaries known as the Babylonian Talmud. 

Sayings taken from the Talmud: 

“Even w T hen the gates of heaven are shut to 
prayer they are open to tears.” 

“Turn the Bible and turn it again for every¬ 
thing is in it.” 

“Teach thy tongue to say, ‘I do not know.’” 

“Thy friend has a friend, and thy friend's 
friend has a friend: be discreet.” 

“The soldiers fight, and the kings are heroes.” 

During the middle ages rabbinical learning 
flourished. Schools were established in Spain, 
Portugal, France, Italy, Germany, to which 
flocked the scholars of the world. In the Six¬ 
teenth Century there was a great revival of in¬ 
terest in the study of Hebrew language and 
literature, and again in the Nineteenth Century. 
At the present time there are several schools 
for the study of rabbinical literature. Among 
the most celebrated of these schools are the 
seminaries at Padua, Berlin, and Metz. 

BOOKS OF THE BIBLE ANALYZED 

BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 

PENTATEUCH 

Genesis. Account of creation, early history of the 
human race, and story of the patriarchs. 

Exodus. Account of the exodus and the giving of 
the moral law by Moses. 

Leviticus. - Development of the nation and insti¬ 
tution of priestly law. 

Numbers. Further development and institution of 
social and political law. 

Deuteronomy. Recapitulation of history and law. 

HISTORIC BOOKS 

Joshua. Conquest of Canaan, and separation of 
the tribes. 



LITERATURE 


281 


Judges. History of Israel under the administration 
of thirteen Judges. 

Ruth. An Idyll of Jewish life in the period of the 
judges. 

Samuel. Establishment of the kingdom under Saul 
and David. 

Kings. Political history of the kingdoms of Judah 
and Israel. 

Chronicles. Priestly history of the kingdoms of 
Judah and Israel. 

Ezra. Continuation of Chronicles. 7/\iesfcly restora¬ 
tion after the captivity. 

Nehemiah. Continuation of Ezra. The political 
restoration. 

Esther. A story of the Hebrew captivity. 

POETRY 

Job. A drama of the soul. 

Psalms. Book of hymns. 

Songs of Solomon. Hebrew pastoral poems. 

DIDACTIC POETRY OR BOOKS OF WISDOM 

Proverbs. Practical moral maxims. 

Ecclesiastes. Practical moral reflections. 

MAJOR PROPHETS 

Isaiah. The Messianic prophet. 

Jeremiah. The prophet of sorrow. 

Ezekiel. The priestly prophet. 

Daniel. The apocalyptic prophet. 


MINOR PROPHETS 


1. 

Hosea. 

7. 

Nahum. 

2. 

Joel. 

8. 

Habakkuk. 

3. 

Amos. 

9. 

Zephaniah. 

4. 

Obadiah. 

10. 

Haggai. 

5. 

Jonah. 

11. 

Zechariah. 

6. 

Micah. 

12. 

Malachi. 


BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Biography. Life of Christ as found in the four gos¬ 
pels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. 

Historical. History of the Apostolic Church as 
given in the Acts of the Apostles. 

Epistles. Continuation of the history of the Apos¬ 
tolic Church as given in the 

PAULINE EPISTLES 

Colossians, 

I and II, Thessalonians I and II, 

Timothy I and II, 
Titus, 

Philemon, 

Hebrews. 

GENERAL EPISTLES 

James, John I, II, III, 

Peter I, II, Jude. 

Prophetical. The Apocalypse or Book of Reve¬ 
lation. 

ASSYRK) — BABYLONIAN 

Cuneiform inscriptions which characterize 
early Persian tablets are found abundant in the 
Euphrates Valley, and point to a common Aryan 
origin. Very little is known of Assyrio-Baby- 
lonian literaturo, but abundant material awaits 
the faithful student in the inscriptions scattered 
all through the vallejL The Persians preferred 
to write on stone, but the people of the Euphrates 
region used the soft clay abundantly at hand. 

The golden age of early Babylonian or Chal¬ 
dean literature extends from 2000 to 1500 B. C. 
Before this period, however, important works 
had been written in Chaldea. r The oldest 
Chaldean book is a work on astrology. The 
oldest known specimen of Chaldean writing is 
a set of bricks thought to have been made about 
2000 B. C. A translation of the inscriptions 
on the face of one of these bricks reads in this 
way: “Beltis, his lady, has caused Urukh, the 
pious chief and king of Ur, king of the land of 
Accad, to build a temple to her.” From a vol¬ 
ume of Chaldean hymns, somewhat similar to 
the Rig-Veda, is found a hymn written in most 


exalted language to Istar, the Babylonian Venus. 
The Babylonian cities very early became the 
seats of learning. Oral traditions were written 
on clay tablets and these, collected, formed the 
famous tile libraries. These libraries were rich 
in works on ethics, astrology, law, mathematics, 
grammar, history, fiction. As in all the litera¬ 
ture of the East, fables abound. 

With the decline of Babylon (1500 B. C.), the 
Assyrian empire takes its rise. For six centuries 
the Assyrians confined their literary activity 
to the old archives and historical records, but 
in the reign of Shalmaneser II. (858-823 B. C.) 
there was a revival of learning, and Calah be¬ 
came the seat of letters. Later, the library 
begun at Calah was removed to Nineveh. 
There it reached vast proportions and under 
Sardanapalus II. (668-626 B. C.) it contained 
ten thousand engraved tablets. This wonder¬ 
ful library contained grammars, lexicons, law¬ 
books, astrology, mathematics, books of magic, 
omens, rituals, books of prayer and song. These 
books were all catalogued and put into the 
charge of librarians for the instruction of the 
people. With the fall of Nineveh (607? B. C.) 
the library was buried in the ruins of the palace. 

Later, Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar (604- 
561 B. C.) succeeded as the seat of power and a 
great revival of learning followed. Again a 
great royal library became the wonder of the 
world, and again it was overthrown and buried 
in the ruins of this later Babylon. 

Among the valuable records recovered from 
these buried libraries are tablets which relate the 
story of the Creation, the Fall of Man, and the 
Deluge. These tablets must have been copied 
from older records, which date earlier than the 
Pentateuch. 

ARABIAN LITERATURE 

The Arabs were a nomadic people, and among 
such a people literature and the arts of peace 
are of tardy development. Before the time 
of Mohammed, Seventh Century before Christ, 
these dwellers on the vast table-lands of Arabia 
had no prose composition, but they were essen¬ 
tially a poetic people. They gave vent to their 
fancies in rude war songs and pastorals and 
metrical tales. Fragments of their verse, com¬ 
posed at least one thousand years before Christ, 
have been preserved in their inscriptions. 

In the Fourth and Fifth Centuries, A. D., poetry 
had become to them a refined art, and metrical 
contests were yearly established at the festival 
of Okad. The most renowned poets crowned 
at these festivals were Antar, Amru-el-Kais, and 
Tarafah. Their poems were suspended in pub¬ 
lic places, where all might read, and the victors 
were awarded prizes at the public expense. 
Deep passion, fertile imagination, richness of 
imagery, and metrical skill are the chief char¬ 
acteristics of all Arabian poets. Their passion¬ 
ate tales of love, revenge, or war, rendered in 
musical cadences, have peculiar power over 
the listener. They have been repeated to us in 
the “Thousand and One Nights” and in other 
fanciful stories borrowed through translation. 

In the Seventh Century, A. D., dawned a new 
era in Arabian life. It was due to the teaching 


Romans, 

Corinthians 

Galatians, 

Ephesians. 

Phillipians, 






282 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of a prophet Mohammed or Mahomet. The 
doctrine taught by Mohammed is called “ Islam” 
or “Mohammedanism.” Its fundamental prin¬ 
ciples are contained in two articles of belief: 
“There is no God but God; and Mahomet is 
God’s apostle.” The Koran is the name of the 
volume containing the doctrines and precepts 
of Mohammed, in which his followers place im¬ 
plicit confidence. The aim of the Koran, as 
stated, is to bring all to the obedience of Mo¬ 
hammed as the prophet and ambassador of God, 
who was to establish the true religion on earth. 
With sword and pen Mohammed’s disciples went 
out to their task of conquering the world. The 
story of their wars has been written in history, 
but their intellectual conquests were as great. 
In every department of thought there was new 
life, and for centuries Arabian scholars became 
the teachers. They expounded the Koran and 
their schools became the centers of learning, 
where science and literature were encouraged. 

The Seventh and Eighth Centuries, during the 
reigns of Haroun Al-Raschid and Al-Mamun, 
are counted as the golden age of Arabian letters. 
During these centuries universities were estab¬ 
lished at Bagdad, Bokhara, Bussorah, and a little 
later in Spain and Italy. Great libraries were 
also established. These universities contributed 
greatly to the spread of knowledge. They en¬ 
couraged the literature of geography and travel, 
and developed a clear, direct, and concise style 
of writing history. They encouraged arts and 
sciences, and in medicine, astronomy, geometry, 
arithmetic, Arabic scholars became the teachers 
of the world. During the Tenth and Eleventh 
Centuries, sometimes known as the “dark ages” 
of European learning, the University of Cordova 
became a refuge for scholars. 

The influence of Arabian literature on modern 
thought is very great; we cannot estimate it. 
The study of Arabic is engaging the attention 
of scholars, not only for its historic value but 
for its literary worth. 

EGYPTIAN LITERATURE 

The literary remains of ancient Egypt relate 
chiefly to its history or its religion. Such re¬ 
mains consist of papyrus manuscripts, sculp¬ 
tures, inscriptions, and tablets found in the 
tombs temples, and in the ruins. The earliest 


characters used in writing are the hieroglyphic 
inscriptions. The earliest of these date as far 
back as twenty-five centuries B. C., and the 
latest as recent as 250 A. D. Two other simpler 
forms of writing, the hieratic and the demotic, 
succeeded the hieroglyphic. The difficulty of 
reading those ancient symbols made it impossible 
for modern scholars to study the literature of 
ancient Egypt, but the discovery of the Rosetta 
stone, in 1799, furnished a key for the unlocking 
of these treasures. 

Many inscriptions have been deciphered by 
aid of the Rosetta stone, but from a literary 
point of view they have disappointed expec¬ 
tations. The variations are meager and broken, 
and, with a few exceptions, there is very 
little beauty of language or color to the imagina¬ 
tion. There is no progressive development, 
but a sameness of style pervades all periods up 
to the age of Rameses II., af whose court Moses 
was brought up “in all the learning of the 
Egyptians.” 

The ancient Egyptians are spoken of by He¬ 
rodotus as “surpassing all others in the rever¬ 
ence they paid their gods.” The most important 
religious work is the funeral ritual or “Book of 
the Dead,” one of the many sacred books some¬ 
times called the “Hermetic Books.” The “Book 
of the Dead” contains a collection of prayers of 
a magical character and refers to the future con¬ 
dition of the disembodied soul. Similar to the 
“Book of the Dead” is the “Book of the Lower 
Hemisphere.” The “Book of the Breath of 
Life” treats of the resurrection and the sub¬ 
sequent existence of the soul. 

One of the most ancient inscriptions, Ptah- 
Hotep’s famous treatise on piety and filial obedi¬ 
ence, recalls the proverbs of Solomon. A few 
hymns to Egyptian deities have been preserved. 
These are inferior to the Arabic, but have some 
beauty. There are extant copies of an epic 
poem by Pentaur, a writer of the age of Rameses 
II., a papyrus on geometry dated about 1100 
B. C., and a few papyri containing medical trea¬ 
tises. “The Tale of Two Brothers,” by Enna, 
dates more than four thousand years ago. It is 
perhaps the oldest fairy story in the world. 
Legal documents, letters, histories, biographical 
sketches, travels, fables, parables, are all found 
in these fragments of ancient Egyptian literature. 


GREEK LITERATURE 


Time 


Lived sometime between ) 
1100 and 850 B. C. | 
Lived about 800 B. C. 
Lived about 700 B. C. 
Lived about 600 B. C. 


Homer, , 

Hesiod, 

Tyrtseus, 

Sappho, 


Author 


Representative Works 


Iliad, Odyssey. 

Works and Days, Theogony. 
Elegies. 

Lyrics. 


Dates B. C. 
640-546 
.620-564 
582-500 
563-478 
556-468 

525-456 

522-443 

500-428 

495-406 


Thales, . . 

•ASsop, . . 

Pythagoras, 
Anacreon, . 
Simonides, 

^Eschylus, . 

Pindar, . . 
Anaxagoras, 
Sophocles,. 


Astronomy, Geometry. 
Fables. 

Philosophy. 

Lyrics. 

Elegy, Epigrams, etc. 
Prometheus Bound. 
Seven Against Thebes. 
Agamemnon. 

Odes. 

Astronomy. 

Traeedv 1 Antigone, 
g y ’ 1 Electra, etc. 

























LITERATURE 


283 


GREEK LITERATURE —Continued 


Time 

Author 

Representative Works 

484-424 

Herodotus,. 

History. 

480-406 

Euripides. 

Trasedy, | Sfetc. 

471-400 

Thucydides. 

History, Peloponnesian War, etc. 

444-380 

Aristophanes,. 

J The Birds, 

Comedy, -j The Frogs 



1 Memorabilia, 

434-355 

Xenophon,. 

History, •< Cyropaedia, 


( Anabasis, etc. 

429-347 

Plato, . 

Dialogues, t0 . 

385-322 

Demosthenes. 

Orations, | On't^e Crown, etc. 

384-322 

Aristotle,. 

Philosophy, Organon. 

372-287 

Theophrastus. 

Philosophy. 

342-270 

Epicurus,. 

Philosophy. 

287-212 

Archimedes of Syracuse,. 

Science, Philosophy. 

Lived about 300 B. C. 

Theocritus,. 

T . j Death of Daphnis, 

Lynes, -j Festival of Adonis. 


The beginning of the literature of the Greeks 
is lost in a mass of fables, from their curious 
habit of personifying every feeling or experi¬ 
ence. 

Nothing definite is known of their poets be¬ 
fore Homer. The most ancient traditional 
poet was Olen, followed by Linus, Orpheus, and 
others, but the poems left under their names 
cannot be relied upon as genuine. 

In the poetical legends of the twelve labors 
of Hercules, the voyage of Theseus and the ex¬ 
pedition of the Argonauts are the first traces 
of historical facts, preserved, distorted, and 
obscured by fables. The story of Cadmus bring¬ 
ing the alphabet to Greece makes one of the 
early tales. These stories w r ere a part of Greek 
education, every one believed them, and they 
made up the national religion. All this has be¬ 
come a part of the literature of Europe. 

The Trojan War was the greatest event of the 
first, or heroic, age, and this was of more im¬ 
portance to art and poetry than to history. 
The poems of the first Grecian bards were written 
to celebrate the heroes of this war, and with 
these began the Epic age of Greek literature. 
From this time date the two great poems of 
Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which have 
come down to the present day with several 
hymns and epigrams of which he was author. 
Writing was unknown; these poems were first 
circulated orally, and parts of them were com¬ 
mitted to memory and recited by wandering 
singers. Even later, when they had been col¬ 
lected in writing, they were impressed upon 
the memory and used to excite patriotism, 
religious feeling, and love for the beautiful. 

The poems of Homer became the foundation 
of all Grecian literature, and after him a class 
of poets endeavored to connect their work with 
his, calling themselves the Cyclic poets, and in 
their works can be found the whole cycle of 
tradition and mythology. They recite the 
birth of the gods, the creation of the world, 
and all the adventures of ancient times. From 
these poems have come the tales of the Argo¬ 
nauts and of Hercules, the events of the Trojan 
War, and mythical legends telling the fate of 
the Greeks after the fall of Troy. 

Some authorities make Hesiod contemporary 
with Homer, others place him two or three 


generations later. His poetry has nothing of 
the fancy which lights up the lines of Homer; 
its object is to give knowledge. His poem, 
“Works and Days/’ relates the events of com¬ 
mon life in practical fashion, interspersed with 
moral maxims, and is, in fact, an agricultural 
poem. His “Theogony ” is of great importance, 
as it contains the religious faith of Greece. 
Through this poem the Greeks first found a 
religious code. 

Until the beginning of the Seventh Century 
epic poetry was the only form in use except the 
early songs or hymns, and noble families were 
charmed by the recital of the deeds of their 
heroes in these epics. When republican move¬ 
ments began, these families lost something of 
power and privilege, a development of individu¬ 
ality began, and a poet dared to put his own 
tnoughts or feelings into verse. These poems, 
at first, took the form of elegy or epigram. The 
elegies of Solon (638-559 B. C.) were pure 
expressions of his political feelings. 

To add to the pleasures and amusements 
sought after by the Greeks, lighter poems were 
written intended to be sung to accompany the 
lute, hence called lyrics. All lyrical poetry 
originally consisted in cheerful songs, praises of 
love and wine, and exhortations to enjoy life. 
In this style, Anacreon was the most celebrated. 
In her Odes, a form of lyrics, Sappho became an 
object of admiration and Aleman roused valor 
by his martial lines. The culmination of lyric 
poetry is marked by two great names, Simonides 
of Ceos and Pindar. Pindar was the greatest 
of the Greek lyric poets. 

.Esop’s name appears about 570 B. C., and 
among his well-known fables have been collected 
those from other sources. No metrical version 
of these fables is known to belong to early times. 

The philosophers of this time took up prac¬ 
tical affairs, and among them were the often 
quoted Seven Wise Men of Greece. Epimenides 
of Crete stands high on this list, closely followed 
by Solon and Thales, and their fame was earned 
by wise judgment and skill shown in their man¬ 
agement of the offices over which they ruled. 
Their sayings also form the body of many 
maxims applied to daily practical living. As 
the nation grew intellectually, a habit of specu¬ 
lative thought also grew, and this became the 
























284 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


eriod of scientific Greek literature. Thales 
eaded the school of Ionic philosophy which 
taught the material origin of the Universe. 
The best-known advocates of this philosophy 
were Pherecydes, Anaxagoras, and Diogenes 
of Apollonia. 

Pythagoras was the founder of another school 
known under his name, explaining another 
origin of all things and wandering far in specu¬ 
lative discussions. Xenophanes, the founder 
of the Eleatic school, adopted an ideal system 
in contrast to the principle of the Ionic school, 
founded on experience. Parmenides, also, be¬ 
longed to this school; by excluding the idea 
of creation he fell into pantheism. Zeno, a 
pupil of Parmenides, was the earliest prose 
writer among the Greek philosophers. 

Toward the end of the Age of Seven Sages, 
some writers of history appeared, telling of dis¬ 
tant times and events; the first Greek to collect 
a well-written narrative of facts was Herodotus 
(484-424 B. C.) His work comprehends a 
history of nearly all the nations of the world 
at that time. Thucydides, historian of the 
Peloponnesian W ar, was also a philosopher, con¬ 
sidering all events in a grave manner, and ex¬ 
pressing himself in strong condensed sentences. 
The charming narration of Xenophon stands 
in strong contrast to this energetic sternness, 
and in his simple, tranquil style is found the 
greatest beauty of Greek prose. Of these three 
historians, Herodotus has been called the first 
artist in historical writing and Thucydides the 
first thinker. Xenophon combined the literary 
with the practical, he wrote of men of the past, 
and of affairs of his own time. His Anabasis 
is a modest account of his own leadership of 
the Ten Thousand in their retreat after the battle 
of Cunaxa. 

Grecian drama was formed from popular 
festivals at which rustic worshipers, gathering 
around the altar of some god, sang a hymn in 
his honor, especially to Dionysius, the God of 
Wine. Those songs soon developed into dia¬ 
logue form, making the elements of the drama. 
iEschylus (525-456 B. C.) is known as the founder 
of dramatic art; he divided the song, brought 
skillful actors, and gave to each a part. The three 
greatest writers of Greek tragedy were HCschylus, 


Sophocles, and Euripides. Aristophanes holds 
the highest place as writer of comedy. 

In this same period the prose literature of 
Greece rose to its highest culture. Public speak¬ 
ing had been common in Greece, and, among 
the orators of Athens, Pericles, aided by the 
rhetorical studies of the Sophists, exerted great 
influence upon the Greek mind. Lysias gave 
the new form of plain style, Isocrates estab¬ 
lished a school of political oratory, and Demos¬ 
thenes excelled all, using the common language 
of his own age and country, and appealing to 
the feelings and sentiments of his listeners. 
iEschines was the rival of Demosthenes. 

When Socrates came into philosophy he gave 
it a new direction, taking the study of human 
nature, or psychology, in place of theories and 
speculations. He left no written record but 
his genius worked on his followers and among 
them Plato best expressed his principles. The 
writings of Plato still stand first in philosophical 
literature, showing beauty of diction as well 
as power in handling thought. Aristotle, a 
pupil of Plato's, holds a place equal to that of 
his teacher. His science of reasoning has been 
taught in all later schools. He put into form 
the thoughts of Plato and Socrates, and worked 
out a complete system of philosophy. Epicurus, 
bom about six years after the death of Plato, 
established what is known as the Epicurean 
School of Philosophy. He gathered about him 
a remarkable group of men and women and 
taught the practical art of living. His followers 
became rivals of the Stoic School. 

The practical mind of the Greeks found ex¬ 
pression in mathematics and engineering. In 
the Third Century B. C., Euclid laid the founda¬ 
tions for our modern geometry, and a genera¬ 
tion later Archimedes demonstrated the prin¬ 
ciples which underlie all engineering. 

In 146 B. C., Greece fell under the rule of her 
conquerors, and her living literature died, with 
her political independence. A few poets con¬ 
tinued to sing, and philosophers and historians 
continued to write, as Menander, Strabo, Plu¬ 
tarch, Epictetus, Lucian; but her glory is in 
the past, and it is of her early poets, dramatists, 
philosophers, we speak, when we recall Greek 
literature. 


LATIN LITERATURE 


Time 


B. C. 
254-184 


Plautus, 


239-169 

234-149 

220-130 


Ennius, . . 
Cato the Elder, 
Pacuvius, . . 


185-159 


Terence, 


148-103 
116- 27 
106- 43 
100- 44 
95- 55 
87- 54 


Lucilius, . . 
Varro. ... 
Cicero, . . . 
Caesar, Julius, 
Lucretius, 
Catullus, • . . 


86- 34 


Sallust, 


70- 19 
65- 8 

Lived in first century B. C. 


Virgil, 

Horace, 

Nepos, 


Author 


Representative Works 


(Aulularia, 
Comedy, •< Captivi, 

f Pseudolus, etc. 
Annales, Thyestes, etc. 

De Re Rustica, Origines. 
Tragedy. 


( Andria, 

Comedy, < Phormio, 

(Adelphi, etc. 

Satires. 

On Agriculture. 

Orations, Essays, Letters. 
Commentaries. 

De Rerum Natura. 

Lyrics. 

{ Conspiracy of Catiline, 
War with Jugurtha, 
Memoirs. 

Georgies, ^Eneid. 

Odes, Satires, Letters. 

History, Biographies. 


























LITERATURE 


285 


LATIN LITERATURE —Continued 


Time 

Author 

Representative Works 

B. C. A. D. 



59 17 

Livy. 

History of Rome. 

43 18 

Ovid. 

Heroides, Metamorphoses, etc. 

4 65 

Seneca, . 

Investigations, Moralistic Essays. 

A. D. 



23- 79 

Pliny the Elder,. 

Natural History. 

35- 95 

Quintilian,. 

Rhetoric, Criticisms. 

39- 65 

Lucan, . . .. 

Pharsalia. 

55-117 

Tacitus,. 

Germany, History, Annals, etc. 

60-140 

Juvenal,. 

Satire. 

61-115 

Pliny the Younger, . 

Epistles. 

70-140 

Suetonius. 

Lives of the Caesars. 

475-525 

Boethius,. 

De Consolatione Philosophise, Translations. 


The first name in Latin, commonly called 
Roman, literature is that of Livius Andronicus, 
date about 240 B. C. Some germs of poetry 
may be found in the traditional songs belonging 
to a more ancient time, but these had little 
influence on real literature. The Roman mind 
turned to practical living and study of science 
and law. In other nations the first literature 
has been put in the form of poetry; among the 
Romans the first literary effort was history. 
These original historical documents were a 
simple record of facts with no touch of opinions 
or sentiments. 

The greatest change in the intellectual con¬ 
dition of the Romans came through influence 
of the Greek captives, who were employed to 
teach their own language, which soon became 
a part of the education of a Roman noble. In 
the year 241 B. C., following the First Punic 
War, Livius Andronicus, one of the Greek 
slaves, substituted a drama in place of the med¬ 
ley of songs used in public amusements or games. 
He made the first Latin translation of Greek 
in these plays, which he himself wrote and 
acted. His words became text-books in Roman 
schools and were used until the time of Virgil. 
His immediate successor, Naevius, also adapted 
plays from the Greek, but the tastes of his au¬ 
dience and the condition of the language, de¬ 
veloped through business and action, made 
comedy his choice. After him, Plautus and 
Terence were the two great comic poets of Rome. 

Ennius (239-169 B. C.) is known as the 
“father of Latin song”; he gave a new di¬ 
rection to Roman literature, closely following 
Greek models, and, turning from the common¬ 
place to the heroic, he borrowed greatly from 
Homer. His Annals, a poetical history of Rome, 
was for two centuries the national poem. En¬ 
nius was the inventor of the name, satire, but 
the sharp, fierce satires of Lucilius, written at 
this time against the yices and follies of the 
Romans, were more noted; fragments of them 
still exist. Not one of these poets was born 
in Rome. 

The name of Cato belongs partly to this same 
generation, and he represented the pure, native 
element; prose belonged far more to the genius 
of Rome than poetry. Cato heads the list of 
Roman historians whose works belong to litera¬ 
ture; his greatest work, “Origines,” was a his¬ 
tory of all Italy from earliest times. His De Re 
Rustica was a commonplace book on agriculture 
and domestic economy, written in rude and 
unpolished style, but clear in statement and 


striking in illustration. He filled many high 
offices, and was known as an able pleader; he 
was the first to publish his speeches, ninety of 
which have come down to this day. 

The chief representatives of the next age are 
Cicero, Caesar, Sallust, Lucretius, and Catullus, 
whose names still rank among classical writers. 
Cicero gave a fixed character to the Latin lan¬ 
guage and through him oratory at Rome took 
on a new form; he was both orator and critic. 
To him philosophy also owes much, especially 
the philosophy adapted to practical applica¬ 
tion; in his letters he pictures Roman life of 
his day and with it Roman history. The most 
important work of Caesar is his commentaries, 
sketches made in the midst of action. The 
histories of Sallust are of more value in an 
artistic way than as trustworthy narrative, but 
they rank high as political studies. 

An entirely new spirit, arising from the new 
political life of the nation, entered into the litera¬ 
ture of Rome during the time known as the 
Augustan Age, the most remarkable period of 
Roman literature. The earliest and greatest 
poet of this age was Virgil, who idealizes national 
glory in his iEneid, and the simple, hardy life 
of Italy in his “Bucolics” and “Georgies.” 
Horace, the second poet of his time, shows the 
ways of living and of thinking in his “Epistles,” 
“Epodes,” and “Satires.” The great historical 
work of Livy is, however, the most systematic 
record of the national life. Phsedrus, in his 
fables, gave lessons suggested by those times; but 
with his observations he had little imagination. 

In the century following the Augustan Age 
the antagonisms between the government and 
the makers of literature gave rise to the satires 
of Juvenal and to the somber history of Tacitus. 
In this time we also find Quintilian, the great 
teacher of rhetoric, Seneca, the author of trea¬ 
tises on ethics, and Pliny the Elder, with his 
wonderful natural history. The doctrines of 
the Stoics suited the stern Romans: Seneca 
studied the Stoic philosophy; but his treatises 
are records of precepts rather than explanations 
of principles. To this age, Juvenal, the satirist, 
belongs. With these names the term classical, 
signifying pure literature, is lost. The Romans 
began again to write in Greek, and to this Greek 
influence was soon added that of foreign nations. 
Roman literature, as one of the great literatures 
of the world, ended. 

The Latin Fathers of the Church followed 
the philosophy of Plato, adapting it to Chris¬ 
tianity. Among these were Tertullian, St. 























286 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Ambrose, and Lactantius, best known by his 
work “ Divine Institutes.” St. Augustine (354- 
430 A. D.), left his record in his “City of God.” 
St. Jerome made a Latin version of the Old 
Testament. 

Legal writers were many, and from them 
came the “Digest,” “Code,” “Institutes,” etc., 
the foundation of what is now known as the 
Roman Law. 

SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE 

The scant allusions to Scandinavians found in 
classical literature refer to the people of Den¬ 
mark and the southern part of Sweden. The 
languages of the different countries comprising 
Scandinavia are closely allied, for the old Scandi¬ 
navian, or Icelandic, was the literary language 
of all these lands until about the year 1100. 

The northern sea rovers, in the Viking days, 
had settled along the coasts of the Western Is¬ 
lands; when Iceland was discovered, in the 
middle of the Ninth Century, these people, 
headed by a widow of a king of Dublin, became 
settlers in the new land. From these colonies 
came a poetry which in beauty and power was 
not equaled in any Teutonic language for cen¬ 
turies. This poetry took the form of lays, dirges, 
battle songs, and songs of praise. In the 
mass are also found genealogical and mytho¬ 
logical poems which seem to have been written 
in honor of one famous family. To a certain 
shrewdness, plain straightforwardness, and a 
stern way of looking at life was added a com¬ 
plex form and a regularity of rhythm, caught 
from the Latin and the Celtic poetry. Scarcely a 
name among the authors of this poetry is known; 
the exact dates of the writings cannot be found; 
but these poems were the result of the spirit of 
the old Vikings who led lives of wiM adventure, 
in war and storm, coming into contact with the 
cultivated imagination of the more civilized 
races. The Saga, or prose epic, was also a 
form of literary expression in those early days. 

It has been said that in Iceland the art of 
poetry took the place of music and that a mocking 
or a laudatory verse was common writing. The 
first generation of Icelandic poets has been 
likened to the troubadours of other lands; nearly 
all were of Celtic ancestry; they attached them¬ 
selves to the kings and earls of neighboring 
lands, shared their adventures, and made verse 
in which they praised their victories and re¬ 
corded their deaths. The Saga was the out- 
rowth of this verse and is the story of some 
ero. In its purest form it belongs to the days 
of the Eleventh Century when the descendants 
of heroes recited the exploits of their ancestors 
and of the great kings of Denmark and Norway. 
The later Sagas show Irish influence. When 
these had been transmitted orally through two 
or three generations they were written down 
and this became the form followed by all scholars. 
In the Thirteenth Century the Saga was lost in 
plain biography. A work known as the “Sagas 
of the Norwegian Kings” gives a connected 
series of biographies of the kings of Norway to 
the middle of the Twelfth Century. This was 
composed by the ^Icelandic historian Snorri 
Sturluson (1179—1241), the greatest author known 
in old Scandinavian literature. During this 


century the Norwegian kings employed Ice¬ 
landers in translating the French romances of 
Charlemagne and of Arthur which made the 
“Romantic Sagas.” 

Two remarkable collections in this old litera¬ 
ture are known under the title of “Edda,” the 
translation of the word, or title, being “great¬ 
grandmother.” The “Elder” or poetic “Edda” 
was collected in Iceland. The poems belong to 
the Eighth or Ninth Centuries, and treat of the 
earliest Scandinavian legends. From the “Ed- 
das” comes our knowledge of Scandinavian my¬ 
thology and ancient religious faith. In the 
one known as the “Prose or Younger Edda” is 
a strange sort of history of the gods or mythical 
kings. This was probably written during the 
last half of the Twelfth Century, and completed 
by Snorri Sturluson in the year 1222. 

“Annals” are the sole material for the early 
history of Iceland and these end with the year 
1430. Of many theological works the one most 
noted was “John’s Book,” written late in the 
Seventeenth Century, plain in style and much 
read. Proverbs and folk-tales were plentiful, 
and have come down to the present day. 

Among earlier languages we find no Swedish, 
and no literature of Sweden existed before the 
Thirteenth Century. The oldest form in which 
it is found as a written language is in a series of 
manuscripts known as the “Common Laws.” 
Another code, “On Conduct of Kings,” a hand¬ 
book of morals and politics, was collected. 
Both of these belong to the Thirteenth Century. 
The name of St. Bridget, or Birgitta, an inter¬ 
esting character in history, is found in connec¬ 
tion with religious works, the most important 
being a collection knowm as “Revelations,” a 
record of her visions and meditations to which 
her father-confessor added a version of the first 
five books of Moses. The translation of the 
Bible was continued by the monk Budde, who 
died in 1484. 

The earliest specimens of Swedish poetry are 
the folk-songs of uncertain date. The first book 
printed in the Swedish language appeared in the 
year 1495. Neither the Renaissance nor the 
Reformation much influenced literature in 
Scandinavia. The Carmelite monks, the two 
brothers Petri, studied theology under Luther 
and went back to Sweden to teach the new faith. 
They wrote psalms and plays; Olaus Petri 
found time to add an historical “Chronicle.” 

The last half of the Sixteenth Century was a 
blank save for the literature connected with 
the University of Upsala, which had been 
founded in the year 1477; but under the reign 
of Charles IX. (1604-1611) literature gained 
life with the general prosperity of the country. 
Burseus, the royal librarian, studied all known 
sciences and made a jumble of his own convic¬ 
tions, recording them in several unreadable 
volumes. Through his patient study, however, 
he roused interest in a knowledge of Scandi¬ 
navian language and mythology. The Swedish 
drama began during tnese years, the greatest 
dramatist being Messenius (1579-1636), whose 
lyrics have something of the charm of the old 
ballads. His first historical comedy was “Disa,” 
and his first tragedy “Signill.” He planned to 
write the history of his land in fifty plays, but 



LITERATURE 


287 


he finished only six. He later plotted against 
the government, was sentenced to prison for 
life, and wrote much while in prison, including 
a history of Sweden written in Latin. Contem¬ 
poraneous with Messenius was Stjernhjelm, 
who has borne the title of “ Father of Swedish 
Poetry.” He traveled over Europe, was made 
a noble by Gustavus Adolphus, and later at¬ 
tached to the court in Stockholm as a sort of 
poet-laureate. His writings had much influence 
on the language itself, molding it into smooth¬ 
ness. He left works on philology and wrote 
out the letter “A” in the first Swedish diction¬ 
ary. His work shows German influence, and 
his greatest poem, “Hercules,” is an allegory 
written in musical verse with Oriental phrasing 
and imagery. He was followed by poets who 
wrote after French models, but the majority 
took Stjernhjelm himself as guide and lost all 
independence. 

Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632) wrote pol¬ 
ished prose and his “Speeches” hold an impor¬ 
tant place in the literature of the Seventeenth 
Century. In the next age was Rudbeck (1630- 
1702), a genius in learning, who became famous 
through all Europe for his discoveries in physi¬ 
ology before he was twenty-five. He also did 
much toward the practical improvement of the 
University of Upsala, where he spent most of 
his life. The object of his great work, “ Atland,” 
written in Swedish and Latin, was to prove that 
the fabled Atlantis had been found in the Swed¬ 
ish nation. It has been said of these volumes 
that they make “a monstrous hoard or cairn 
of rough-hewn antiquarian learning, now often 
praised, sometimes quoted from, and never read.” 

The Eighteenth Century saw Swedish litera¬ 
ture take solid shape. The influence of France 
and England crowded out German and Italian 
tastes, and in Dalin, a leader of his time, the 
effect is plain. His “Swedish Argus” was 
modeled on Addison’s “Spectator,” and his 


“Thoughts About Critics” on the writings of 
Pope; his epic, “Swedish Freedom,” and his 
comedy, “The Envious Man,” show admiration 
of the French. His songs and shorter poems 
are specimens of skilled workmanship. The 
only poet who compared with Dalin at this time 
was Charlotta Nordenflycht, whose lyrics, col¬ 
lected in 1743 under the title, “The Sorrowing 
Turtledove,” became very popular. She set¬ 
tled in Stockholm, presided over a literary salon, 
and was called “The Swedish Sappho.” 

Among other poets are Bellman, a writer of 
odes, Franzen, who left some noted lyrics, and 
Wallin, archbishop ,of Upsala, publisher of the 
national hymn book. 

In the year 1786 the Swedish Academy was 
formed after the manner of the French Academy, 
but with eighteen members, instead of forty. 
In 1811 the younger men of Stockholm founded 
the Gothic Society, intended for improvement 
in literary work by means of the study of Scandi¬ 
navian antiquity. Two great lights in this new 
school were Tegner, the famous verse writer, 
and Geijer, more noted for his prose. Stagnelius 
has been compared to Shelley and his mysterious 
death in 1823 gave a romantic interest to his 
name. Runeberg (1804-1877) divides honors 
with Tegner, and King Oscar II. (born 1829) 
was a genuine poet. Fredrika Bremer, also a 
writer of verse, is better known through her 
stories which have been translated into many 
languages. 

As an historian of Swedish literature, Wieselgren 
is much quoted. Anders Fryxell (1795-1881) 
wrote the great history of the country which 
appeared in parts, taking nearly sixty years in 
the construction, and Schlyter, born 1795, 
was the legal historian. Rydberg, belonging 
a generation later, was author of historical tales. 
The general revival of letters, coming at the end 
of the great wars of the world, was slow in 
Sweden. 


SWEDISH LITERATURE 


Time 

Author 

Prose 

Poetry 

13027-1373 

St. Bridget,. 

Common Laws. 

On conduct of Kings. 

Her “revelations.”. 


1484 

Johannes Budde, . . . 

Translation of Bible. 


1497-1552 

Olaus Petri,. 

Chronicle of Swedish History, . 

Mystery Play. 

1499-1573 

Laurentius Petri, . . . 

Psalms. 

1579-1636 

Johannes Messenius, . . 

History of Sweden,. 

Poems, Lyrics. 

1594-1632 

Gustavus Adolphus, . . 

Speeches. 

1598-1672 

Georg Stjernhjelm, . . 

Philology,. 

Hercules, Masques. 

1630-1702 

Olof Rudbeck. 

Atland, Physiology. 

1688-1772 

Emanuel Swedenborg, . 

Philosophic. 


1707-1780 

Johan Ihre,. 

Dictionary (Swedish). 


1708-1763 

Olof Dalin,. 

History of Sweden. 

Swedish Freedom, Poems, Dramas. 

1714-1763 

Jakob Henrik Mork, . 

Novels. 

1718-1763 

Charlotta Nordenflycht, 

Lyrics. 

1740-1795 

Karl M. Bellman, . . . 


Odes. 

1754-1817 

Anna Maria Lenngren, . 


Household Poems. 

1759-1808 

Thomas Thorild, . . . 

Criticisms. 


1772-1847 

Frans Franz6n, . 


Lyrics. 

1779-1839 

Johan Olof Wallin, 


National Hymns. 

1779-1848 

Jons Berzelius, . . 

Chemistry. 

1782-1846 

Esaias Tegner. 

Poems (most noted). 

1783-1847 

Erik Gustaf Geijer, . . 

History, Philology. 

1789-1877 

Gustaf Gumselius, . . . 

Historical Novels. 


1793-1823 

Erik Johan Stagnelius, 


Dramas, Lyrics, Sonnets. 

1793-1866 

Karl J. L. Almqvist, . . 

Novels (Thorn Rose, etc.). . . . 

1795-1881 

Anders Fryxell, .... 

History. 


1800-1877 

Per Wieselgren, .... 

History of Swedish Literature. 


1801-1865 

Fredrika Bremer, . . . 

Novels. 


1804-1877 

Johan Ludvig Runeberg,' 


Poems. 

1829-1895 

Viktor Rydberg, . . . 

Historical Novels. 


1849-1912 

August Strindberg, . . 

The Swedish People,. 

Dramas. 


















































288 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

DANISH LITERATURE 


Time 

Author 

Prose 

1480-1554 

Neils of Sorro, .... 
Mikkel of St. Albans, . 
Christian Pedersen, . . 

Younger Edda,. 

Tales, Translation of Bible. . . 

1542-1616 

A. G. Vedel,. 

Saxon Grammar. 

1607 

Alfred Hoitfeld. 

Hieronymus Rauch, . . 

Chronicles of Denmark. 

1545-1623 

Peder Claussen. 

Description of Norway. 

1546-1601 

Tycho Brahe,. 

Astronomy. 

1587-1637 

Anders Arrebo, .... 

Danish Grammar. 

1616-1678 

Erik Pontoppidan, . . 

1634-1703 

Thomas Kingo, .... 

History of the World. 

1684-1754 

Ludwig Holdberg, . . . 

1694-1764 

Hans Adolphus Brorson, 

History. 

1728-1798 

Peter Frederik Suhm, . 

1736-1806 

Johan Clemens Tode, . 

Medical.. 

1742-1785 

Johan Herman Wessel, 

. . 

1743-1781 

Johannes Ewald, . . . 

Critical. 

1744-1812 

Werner Abrahamson, . 

1751-1833 

Neils Treschow, .... 

Philosophic. 

1760-1830 

Knud Lyne Rahbek,. . 

Novels, Essays. 

1764-1826 

Jens I. Baggeson, . . . 


1764-1827 

O. C. Olufsen. 

Geography, Political Economy. 

1769-1826 

Adolph Schack-Staffeld, 

Novels. 

1773-1856 

Countess Gyllembourg,. 

1775-1854 

Bishop Mynster, .... 

Theological. 

1777-1817 

Peter Thun Fcerson, . . 


1777-1851 

Hans Christian Oersted, 

Modern Science. 

1779-1850 

1782-1848 

Adam Gottlob Oehlen¬ 
schlager. 

Steen Steensen Bilcher, 

Romances. 

Novels,. 

1783-1872 

Nikolai F. S. Greendtvig, 

Theological, Political,. 

1783-1857 

Christian Molbeck, . . . 

Dictionary. 

1787-1832 

Rasmus E. Rask, . . . 

Grammars. 

1789-1852 

Joachim F. Schouw, . . 

Geography of Plants. 

1789-1862 

Bernhard S. Ingemann, 

Novels (Popular). 

1791-1860 

Johan Ludwig Heiberg, 


1791-1862 

Neils M. Petersen, . . . 

History, etc. 

1789-1870 

Henrik Hertz, .... 


1805-1875 

Hans Christian Andersen, 

Fairy Tales, Only a Player, etc. 

1809-1876 

Frederik P. Muller, . . 


1813-1842 

Solomon Drier, .... 

Zoology. 


Poetry 


Elder Edda. 

History of Denmark (rhyme) 
Sacred Poems. 


Tragedies (Biblical). 

World’s First Week. 
Psalms and Hymns. 
Hymns. 



Poems. 

King Christian, Lyrics, Tragedies. 


Dramas, Songs. 
Poems (humorous). 

Lyrics. 


Translation of Shakespere. 


Hakon, Jarl, Aladdin, Gods of the 
North, etc. 

Tour in Jutland. 

Poems. 


Lyrics, Dramas. 

Lyrics, Satire, Dramas. 
Dramas, Poems. 


By the oldest authorities the early Scandi¬ 
navian language is referred to as the “ Danish 
tongue,” and what has been noted as the most 
precious legacy of the Middle Ages, historical 
and poetical, is a collection of some 500 poems 
known as the Danish ballads. The language in 
which these poems were preserved is that of the 
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, but they 
are supposed to have been composed between 
the years 1300 and 1500. The University of 
Copenhagen was founded in 1479 and the print¬ 
ing press set up in the city in 1490. 

Referring back to the earliest days, the “Ed- 
das” are counted on lists of Danish literature, 
and the story of Iceland is part of the history 
of Denmark. The years between 1530 and 1680 
have been named as the fourth period in the 
development of the Danish language; here real 
Danish literature begins and it was the Reforma¬ 
tion that first gave to it the living spirit. In 
this connection was Christian Pendersen, who 
worked up into their present form some half 
mythical stories, including that of Ogier; the 
Dane, and made a translation of the Bible; this 
work was carried on later by Vedel. 

The first original dramatist was Rauch, who 
wrote some biblical tragedies; Peter Claussen, 
a Norwegian by birth, left the noted “ Descrip¬ 
tion of Norway,” and Alfred Hoitfield gave a 
start in history by his “Chronicles of Denmark,” 
printed in ten volumes between the years 1595 
and 1604. Anders Arebbo, writer of psalms 
and hymns, has been called the founder of Dan¬ 


ish poetry, and other hymns were written by 
Kingo, a Scotclnnan by descent, who applied 
Scotch vigor to his work, and his “ Winter Psal¬ 
ter” is considered a copy of fine lyrical writing. 
Another writer, Brorson, published a psalm¬ 
book in 1740, in which he added the best of 
Kingo’s to his own. With these names we reach 
the end of the Seventeenth Century. 

Holdberg, born in 1684, and Oehlenschlager, 
who dates nearly a century later, were the au¬ 
thors who had the strongest personal influence 
on Danish writings. Attention w T as first called 
to Holdberg by the marked style in his “His¬ 
tory of the World,” and he was soon made pro¬ 
fessor in the University of Copenhagen. He 
wrote comedies in prose and verse which still 
have freshness in matter as well as in style. Oeh¬ 
lenschlager created a new form in writing and 
roused in the people a sense of their nationality 
through his treatment of Scandinavian mythol¬ 
ogy. Between these authors are many noted 
names and among them Wessel and Ewald, both 
men of genius, and the German poet and dram¬ 
atist, Klopstock, who settled in Stockholm, and 
had great German influence on Danish letters. 

Early in the Nineteenth Century, the modern 
fabulist, Hans Christian Andersen, who seems 
to belong to the world, was born in Denmark. 
In the year 1835 appeared his first collection of 
“Fairy Tales” and from that time almost every 
year until his death, in 1875, he published one 
or more of these unique stories. He traveled 
much about Europe and in a series of memoirs 





























































LITERATURE 


289 


he recorded his interesting impressions. Dur- I 
ing this century Neils Petersen translated many 
of the sagas; Molbeck edited the first good Dan¬ 
ish dictionary; Schouw, an eminent botanist, 
Dreier and Japetus, well-known zoologists, 
wrote on these sciences; Kierkegaard left philo¬ 
sophical works, and Nikolia de Saint Aubain 
published some charming romances. Georg 
Brandes, belonging to the last half of the cen¬ 
tury, stands conspicuous in his country as an 
advocate for liberal culture and speculation. 

Norwegian and Danish literatures are con¬ 
nected in much the same way as the literatures 
of England and America; there was the same 
desire of a new nation to express local emo¬ 
tions and condition, though using the old lan¬ 
guage. The founding of the University in 
Christiana in the year 1811, and the separation 
of Norway from Denmark in 1814, led to intel¬ 
lectual as well as political independence. If all 
Norse writers were taken from Danish literature, 
the close connection between the two would be 
more plainly marked, for many of the noted 
names belong to Norway. 

The first book printed in Norway was an 
almanac brought out in 1643 by a wandering 
printer who carried types from Copenhagen. 
The earliest purely Norwegian writer who could 
claim originality was the wife of the pastor 
Bardenbeck (1634-1716), who wrote several 
volumes of religious poetry, morbidly devotional, 
which became very popular. A few real Nor¬ 
wegians were distinguished in science: Gunnerus, 
the botanist; Schoning, the historian; and 
Strom, the zoologist, but these authors also 
wrote in Latin and Danish. In the year 1772 
the Norwegian poets were so strong in Copen¬ 
hagen that they formed a Norwegian society, 
and there is no notice of anyone counted among 
Danish authors who was born in Norway since 
the year 1800. The first independent form taken 
in Norwegian literature seems to be what 
was called the poetry of the Seventeenth of 
May, the date on which Norway proclaimed her 
king. 

The acknowledged creator of this new litera¬ 
ture was the poet Wergeland (1808-1845), who 
urged the worth of individual liberty and national 
independence, but he was imaginative and lack¬ 
ing in knowledge, and his writings were coldly 


received by critics; a volume of his patriotic 
poems, however, attracted readers and resulted 
in making him a power in politics. A more 
wholesome influence was that of Welhaven 
(1807-1873), whose first publications were di¬ 
rected against Wergeland, and raised a contro¬ 
versy that became the topic of the day. Wel¬ 
haven preached conservatism in a collection of 
satirical sonnets called “The Dawn of Norway,” 
and his advice was soon appreciated and drew 
attention to a wider field. He did good work 
both as poet and critic. Contemporary with 
these poets, but taking no part in the feud, was 
Andreas Munch. Two of his historical dramas 
became quite popular. Another poet, Landstad, 
was employed by the government to prepare a 
national hymn-book which was published in the 
year 1861. 

The collection of old Norse folk-tales made by 
Abjornsen and Bishop Moe is prominent in Nor¬ 
wegian literature. They began by writing 
down the stories of the peasants, and publishing 
at first in form for children’s reading. The 
entire collection was gathered, during many 
years, from minstrels, boatmen, and wanderers 
of all sorts, and thus they preserved the ancient 
and historical legends. 

Old Norwegian laws, Runic inscriptions and 
documents dealing with the mediaeval history 
of the country have also been studied by other 
writers, who have published the results in differ¬ 
ent forms. 

Ibsen and Bjornson were the most prominent 
writers in their generation, confining their work 
almost entirely to the drama and the novel. 
The name of Bjornson was made famous by his 
“Symnove Solbakkan,” which appeared in 1857, 
and “ Arne ” following in the next year. These are 
romantic and yet realistic stories of life among 
mountain peasants written in singularly attract¬ 
ive style. He wrote other novels and several 
dramas, among them a little comedy, “The 
Newly Married Couple,” which gained immedi¬ 
ate success, the drama, “Sigurd Slembe,” also 
adding to his fame. Of Ibsen’s dramas “ Brand ” 
and “Peer Gynt,” studies of modern life, and 
“The Doll’s House,” “Ghosts,” and others are 
well known. Norway has also historians, theo¬ 
logians, and scientific men, who made their mark 
in the literary world of the Nineteenth Century. 


GERMAN LITERATURE 


Time 

Author 

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 

Prose 

Poetry 


Ulfilas,. 

Conrad, . 

Gothic Bible. 

Rolandslied. 


Wolfram von Esenbach, 


Parsifal. 


Unknown,. 


N ibelungenlied. 


Unknown,. 


Gudrun. 

1170-1235 

Hartmann von Aue, . . 


Der Anne Heinrich. 

1483-1546 

Martin Luther. 

German Bible. 


1488-1523 

Ulrich von Hutten, . . 


Satirical Verse. 

1494-1576 

Hans Sachs. 


Poems. 

1575-1624 

Jacob Boehm. 

Mysticism. 


1607-1676 

Paul Gerhart, .... 

Poems, Hymns. 

1609-1640 

Paul Fleming, .... 


Poems. 

1655-1728 

Christian Thomasius, . 

First German Periodical (Ed.) . 


1708-1777 

Albrecht Haller, . . . 

Scientific. 


1715-1769 

Christian Gellert, . . . 

Fables (moral). 

Poems. 

1717-1768 

Johann Winckelmann, 

History of Ancient Art. . . . 


1720-1797 

Hieronymus K. F. Baron 
von Munchhausen, . 

Fiction. 


































290 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

GERMAN LITERATURE 


REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 


Time 


Author 


Prose 


1724-1803 

1724-1804 

1729-1812 

1729-1781 

1733-1813 

1744-1803 

1747-1794 

1749-1832 

1751-1826 

1759-1805 


F. G. Klopstock, . . 
Immanuel Kant, . . 

C. G. Heyne, .... 

G. E. Lessing. 

Ch. M. Wieland, . . 
Johann G. von Herder, 
G. A. Burger, . . . 
Johann Wolfgang 

Goethe,. 

Johann Voss, . . . . 
Frederick von Schiller, 


Philosophy, Critique of Pure 

Reason. 

Critical and Archaeological. . . 

Laokoon, etc.,. 

Agathon,. 

Philosophic,. 


Wilhelm Meister. 

Elective Affinities, etc. 

Critical,. 

History of the Thirty Years’ War, 


1761 - 1819 

1762 - 1814 

1763 - 1825 

1767 - 1835 

1768 - 1834 

1769 - 1860 

1769 - 1859 

1770 - 1831 
1772-1829 
1776-1831 

1776 - 1861 

1777 - 1843 
1779-1859 
1781-1830 
1781-1838 

1785 - 1863 

1786 - 1859 

1786-1862 

1787 - 1862 

1788 - 1860 

1789 - 1850 
1791-1813 
1799-1856 
1799-1890 
1802-1884 

1805 - 1871 

1806 - 1884 

1812-1882 

1814-1873 

1814-1896 

1814-1908 

1816 - 1895 

1817 - 1881 
1817-1903 
1817-1895 
1819-1857 
1822-1890 
1830 

1837-1898 

1842-1906 

1848-1904 


August von Kotzebue, . 
Johann Gottlieb Fichte, 
Jean Paul Richter, . . 
Wilhelm von Humboldt, 
F. D. Schleiermacher, . 
Ernst M. Arndt, . . . 
Alexander von Humboldt, 
Georg W. F. Hegel, . . 
Friedrich von Schlegel, . 
Barthold Niebuhr, . . 
F. C. Schlosser, .... 
Karl de la Motte Fouqud, 

Karl Ritter. 

Johann R. Wyss (Swiss), 
Adelbert von Chamisso, 

Jacob Grimm. 

Wilhelm Grimm, . . . 


Philosophy. 

Hesperus, Titan, etc., .... 

Critical. 

Philosophy. 

History, Scientific,. 

Science, Kosmos, etc., Travels: 
Philosophy, Leben Jesu. . . . 
History of Literature, Lucinde. 

History of Rome, etc. 

Universal History. 

Undine, etc. .. 

Geography (noted). 

Swiss Family Robinson. . . . 

Peter Schlemihl,. 

German Mythology, etc. . . . 
Household Tales (with Jacob 
Grimm). 


A. J. Kerner,. 

Ludwig Uhland, . . . 
Arthur Schopenhauer, . 
Johann Neander, . . . 
Karl T. Korner, . . . 
Heinrich Heine, . . . 
Johann J. Dollinger, . . 
Johann P. Lange, . . . 
G. G. Gervinus, .... 
Heinrich Laube, . . . 

Berthold Auerbach, . . 
Luise Miihlbach, . . . 
Ernst Curtius, .... 
Eduard Zeller, .... 
Gustav Frey tag, . . . 
Rudolf H. Lotze, . . . 
Theodor Mommsen, . . 

Karl Vogt,. 

Albrecht Schwegler, . . 
Heinrich Schliemann, . 

Paul Heyse,. 

George M. Ebers, . . . 
Eduard von Hartmann, 
Karl E. Franzos, . . . 


Philosophy. 

History of the Church. 


Sketches,. 

Theology, History. 

Commentaries, Theology. . . 
Critical, Shakespere, etc. . . 
The German War, and other 

Novels, .. 

On the Heights, etc. 

Historical Fiction. 

History of Greece, etc. . . . 

Philosophy, History. 

Novels. 

Metaphysik, Logik. 

History. 

Scientific. 

History (Rome, etc.). 

Archaeology. 

Novels,. 

Orientalism, Novels. . . . . 

Philosophy. 

Novels, Travels. 


Poetry and Drama 


Dramas, Messiah, etc. 


Minna von Barnhelm, etc. 

Oberon. 

Voices of the People. 

Lenore, etc. 

Faust, Tasso, Lyrics, etc. 

Translation of Iliad, etc., Idyl Luise. 
The Robbers, William Tell, Wallen¬ 
stein. 

Comedies. 

Poems. 


Patriotic Songs, etc. 


Poems. 


Lyrics. 

Ballads. 


Lyre and Sword, etc. 
Poems. 


Dramas. 


Poems, Dramas. 


Poems. 


At the beginning of the First Century the Ger¬ 
mans had ancient poems relating to their gods 
and the forefathers of their race. It is also 
believed that the stories, “ Reynard, the Fox,” 
and “Isengrin, the Wolf,” may be traced back 
to those remote times, and were brought by the 
Teutons from Asia. 

When these tribes began to accept Christianity, 
the Church considered the native German tra¬ 
ditions as heathenish monstrosities, and tried 
to suppress them. Charles the Great was the 
first to check this movement by putting together 
the beginnings of a German grammar and by 
issuing orders for the collection and preservation 
of old German poetry. The only remnants of this 
poetry left to us are the Anglo-Saxon “ Beowulf,” 
with a fragment of the old high German “ Hilde- 
brandslied,” and the Icelandic “Edda.” 

During the reign of Charles the Great and 
his son, Louis the Pious, learning was zealously 
cultivated by the monks of Germany; schools 


were established among them, but the chief 
subject of their study was scholastic philos¬ 
ophy. One of the monks, who died in the year 
1022, wrote original philosophical books and 
translated works from Italy. As the clergy 
became the chief support of the government 
and connected with the daily life of the people, 
a different class of writings arose. Scenes of 
actual life were pictured, and the fiction, al¬ 
though it came from the cells of monks and the 
cloister school-rooms, was thoroughly realistic. 
An example is a work known as the first novel of 
Modern European literature, the “ Rolandslied,” 
written by an unknown monk about the year 
1130. In the form of a story of love and 
adventure is given a vivid picture of German 
life of that day. 

There are well-written Latin histories belong¬ 
ing to the Eleventh Century, but the best thought 
of that age was expressed in architecture rather 
than in writing. 





































































LITERATURE 


291 


About the year 1200, the order of knights 
took the place of the clergy, leading in literature. 
It was in poetry that Germany gained her high¬ 
est distinction, and her most important poets 
at this time were of the knightly class. The 
crusades had much influence and led to the 
poetical romances of the Twelfth and Thirteenth 
Centuries. Among the poets the names of Wol¬ 
fram von Eschenbach and Gottfried of Stras¬ 
bourg stand first, with Walter von der Vogel- 
weide perhaps the most popular of them all. 

A few poets of this age of chivalry took up 
the legends of their own land, and the most 
important of them was he who collected and 
put into shape the ancient ballads which make 
up the Nibelungen-lied. Gudrun is another 
epic which puts into form a collection of legends. 
Latin was the speech of scholars and poetry 
the passion of writers, leaving small chance for 
the growth of prose, but two great collections 
of local laws had influence in gaining respect 
of the Germans for their own language, and 
this was the first serious attempt to secure for 
German prose a place in literature. 

About the middle of the Thirteenth Century 
preaching became an agency of great power. 
The new preaching orders of the Franciscans 
and the Dominicans were given special privilege 
to speak on any day and in any place; thus they 
came in touch with the people and grew wider 
in thought. Most popular among these preachers 
was Brother Berthold, an orator and a writer 
of high rank. The next early writer of religious 
rose, Echart, became the founder of the Mystic 
chool. The most important writers of the 
Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries are the monks 
of this school, whose works form the link be¬ 
tween the great age of the Crusades and the 
reater age of the Reformation. The well- 
nown “Imitation of Christ,” by Thomas a 
Kempis (died 1471), belongs to this class. 

With the Sixteenth Century begins the modern 
history and modern literature of Germany. 
Luther (1483-1546) and the Reformers belonged 
to the people, and in literature, not less than in 
religion, Luther was the commanding spirit of 
his age. His greatest work was his translation 
of the Bible, simple and strong, and in a lan¬ 
guage that the nation could understand. Ger¬ 
mans instantly felt its charm. Up to this date 
each author had written in a dialect with which 
he was familiar. Luther’s Bible, for the first 
time, gave to the nation a literary language 
and a common speech. The hymns of Luther 
are noted for vigor of style and high devotional 
feeling. Melanchthon, Ulric von Hutten, and 
Zwingle, with other leaders of the movement, 
were distinguished scholars. Arnd and Jacob 
Boehm, theologians, Hans Sach, the leading 
poet, Paracelsus and Cornelius Agrippa, mystic 
philosophers, belong to this century, with Albert 
Durer, scholar and painter, and Gesner, the 
naturalist. 

Soon after the close of the Sixteenth Century 
Germany was desolated by the Thirty Years’ 
War (1618-1648). This desolation caused a 
whole generation to grow up in ignorance, and 
the religious lyric seemed the only class of litera¬ 
ture fitted to the conditions. Hymns took the 
place of the old ballads. Paul Gerhart (1606- 


1675) was the greatest hymn writer with many 
worthy associates both among the Protestants 
and the Jesuits. Prose writers of the Seven¬ 
teenth Century were generally either artificial 
or coarse. Among numberless romances, one, 
Simplicissimus, by Grimmelhausen, has qualities 
bordering on genius. In form of fiction it is a 
story of the Thirty Years’ War. 

Under the rule of Frederick the Great, be¬ 
ginning in the year 1740, literature shared in 
the general prosperity. Prose writers on the¬ 
ology and philosophy grew more liberal, and 
the poets, Klopstock and Lessing, changed the 
tone of German writing. The influence of Kant 
(1724-1804) brought a host of philosophical 
writers and critics with new thoughts. Kant’s 
new ideas embodied in his work, “Critique of 
Pure Reason,” and the doctrines he there taught, 
or explained, have since been known as the 
Critical Philosophy. Lessing and Herder were 
hilosophers as well as poets, and Lessing’s 
ook, “ Education of the Human Race,” enlarged 
the field of historic inquiry in Germany. Herder 
had a fine enthusiasm for human happiness which 
lights up both his prose and poetry. Fichte 
(1762-1814) carried the new doctrines to ex¬ 
tremes, teaching that the life of the mind was 
the only real life; while Schelling, writing a few 
years later, in his “Philosophy of Identity,” 
modifies this by supposing an intuition and 
making it superior to reason. The most pro¬ 
found philosophical study may be found in 
Hazel’s “Absolute Thought.” This habit of 
studying into the mysteries of being made the 
noted German philosophy that has affected 
literature in all countries. 

Herder roused and directed the young genius 
of Goethe (1749-1832), thus helping to give to 
Germany the writer who holds place equal to 
Shakespere in England, and Dante in Italy: 
Goethe belongs to the world rather than to one 
country. Late in the Eighteenth Century Goethe, 
Schiller, Herder, and Wieland, settled at Weimar, 
making it the center of intellectual life. Goethe’s 
drama, “Gotz von Berlichingen,” had given 
him place as poet, and his sentimental tale,“ The 
Sorrows of Werther,” made him known through¬ 
out Europe. During his friendship with Schiller 
they wrote many ballads and lyrics, but his 
longer poem, “Herman and Dorothea,” was 
more successful. “Tasso” and “Faust” are 
best known among his dramas, and “Wilhelm 
Meister ” as his philosophical prose work. 
Schiller’s tragedy, “The Robbers,” was received 
with enthusiasm, but its revolutionary ardor 
brought criticism. Among his poems, “Maid 
of Orleans,” “William Tell,” and the “Song 
of the Bell,” are the best known. His “Wallen¬ 
stein” is the greatest drama in the German 
language. Goethe’s narratives of travel, his 
autobiography, and his scientific works, are also 
much read. The principal prose works of Schiller 
are “History of the Netherlands” and “History 
of the Thirty Years’ War.” In this period be¬ 
long, also, Yoss, author of the poem “Louise,” 
and Burger, who wrote the well-known “Leo- 
nore” and “The Wild Huntsman.” Uhland, 
whose first volume of poems was published in 
1815, was one of the best writers of lyrics, and 
his epic of “Ludwig der Baier” ranks high. 



292 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Among other poets are Arndt, author of the 
national song, “German Fatherland,” Ruckert, 
an Oriental scholar, and Heinrich Heine, whose 
collection of lyrics, “Buch Der Lieder,” is known 
throughout the world of letters. 

First among the well-known scientists of 
Germany stands Humboldt, whose “Kosmos” 
presents in popular form the results of years 
of scientific work. Liebig in chemistry, Vir¬ 
chow in biology, Helmholtz in study of sight 
and sound, and Haeckel with his Darwinian 
investigations have made their subjects in¬ 
telligible and interesting to the ordinary reader. 

In the list of German historians are the names 
of Ranke, Niebuhr, and Dahlmann; Hausser, 
who wrote the elaborate “ History of Germany ”; 
Schlosser, author of a universal history; Ne- 
ander, whose “Life of Christ” holds place with 
his “History of the Church”; and Mommsen, 
whose works enrich all literature. Historical 


fiction closely follows history, for the novel 
holds an important place in Germany. Tieck, 
as a writer of romance, first attracted attention 
by “Bluebeard” and “Puss in Boots.” In 
later novels, he dealt with modern life, and, as¬ 
sociated with Schlegel, a literary critic, he fin¬ 
ished a German translation of Shakespere, 
which shows mastery of verse, form, and lan¬ 
guage. E. T. A. Hoffmann, another novelist, 
wrote grotesque, ghostly tales; the strange 
genius of Jean Paul Richter shone out in his 
prose idyll, “The Years of Wild Oats,” and 
“Selections from the Devil’s Papers.” “Hes¬ 
perus,” “Titan,” and “Flower, Fruit, and Thorn 
Pieces” are his best, and show striking effects 
with simplest subjects. Fouque is noted as 
author of the little master-piece “Undine”; 
in later days, Frey tag, Auerbach, and Paul 
Heyse claim attention. Modern Germany is 
rich in all departments of literature. 


FRENCH LITERATURE 


Time 

Author 

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 

Prose 

Poetry and Drama 




Chanson de Roland. 

1079-1142 

Pierre Abelard, .... 

Epistles, Philosophy. 



Lorris and Meung,. . . 


Roman de la Rose. 

1160-1213 

Villehardouin. 

Conquest of Constantinople. . . 


1224-1317 

Jean Sire de Joinville, . 

Chronicles. 


1337-1410 

Jean Froissart. 

Chronicles. 


1431-1484 

Francois Villon, . . . 


Ballads. 

1445-1509 

Philippe de Comines,. . 

Memoirs. 


1483-1553 

Francois Rabelais,. . . 

Philosophy, Satire. 


1509-1564 

John Calvin,. 

Institutes of Religion, etc.. . . 


1524-1585 

Pierre de Ron sard, . . 


Sonnets, Odes, etc. 

1533-1592 

Michel E. de Montaigne, 

Essays. 


1555-1628 

Francois de Malherbe, . 


Poems. 

1596-1650 

Rend Descartes, . . . 

Philosophy. 


1606-1684 

Pierre Corneille, . . . 


The Cid, Tragedy, Comedy. 

1610-1660 

Paul Scarron, .... 


Comic Plays, etc. 

1613-1680 

Francois de la Rochefou- 




cauld,. 

Maxims, Memoirs. 


1621-1695 

Jean de la Fontaine, 


Fables, Contes, etc. 

1622-1673 

Jean B. Poquelin (Mo- 




lidre). 


Comedies, Le Misanthrope, etc. 

1623-1662 

Blaise Pascal, .... 

Philosophy, Mathematics. . . . 


1626-1696 

Mme. de Sdvigne, . . . 

Letters. 


1627-1704 

Jacques Bossuet, . . . 

Sermons, etc. 


1632-1704 

Louis Bourdaloue, . . 

Sermons (Jesuit). 


1639-1699 

Jean Racine,. 


Tragedy. 

1651-1715 

Francois de ia Fdnelon, 

Tdldmaque, etc. .. 


1657-1757 

Bernard Fontenelle, . . 

Dialogues of the Dead, etc., . . 

Tragedies. 

1661-1741 

Charles Rollin, .... 

Histories. 


1663-1742 

Jean Massillon, .... 

Orations (religious). 


1668-1747 

Alain Rend le Sage, . . 

Gil Bias, etc. 

Translations. 

1694-1778 

Francois M. Arouet (Vol- 

_ 



taire), . 

Critical Essays,. 

Poems, Dramas. 

1707-1788 

Comte de Buff on, . . . 

Natural History. 


1712-1778 

Jean Jacques Rousseau, 

Fiction, Philosophy, Ethics. . . 

* 

1713-1784 

Denis Diderot, .... 

Fiction, Encyclopedic (Ed.) . . 

! 

1715-1780 

Etienne de Condillac, . 

Metaphysics. 


1719-1776 

Elie Frdron, ..... 

Biography. 


1723-1799 

Jean Francois Marmontel, 

Memoirs, etc. 


1732-1799 

A. de Beaumarchais,. . 


Comedies. 

1737-1814 

Henri B. de Saint-Pierre, 

Paul and Virginia. 


1746-1830 

Mme. de Genlis, . . . 

Novels. 


1749-1791 

Comte Mirabeau, . . . 

Orations, etc. 


1757-1820 

Constantin de Volney, . 

Ruins, or Meditations, etc., . . 


1760-1836 

Claude Rouget de Lisle, 


Marseillaise. 

1766-1817 

Mme. de Stael, .... 

Delphine, Corinne, etc. 


1767-1839 

Joseph Francois Michaud, 

History of the Crusades, etc. . . 


1768-1848 

Francois Chateau- J 

Rend, Genius of Christianity, . 



briand,. | 

Atala, etc. 


1769-1832 

Baron de Cuvier, . . . 

Natural History. 


1772-1837 

Francois Fourier, . . . 

Socialism (Fourierism). 


1780-1857 

Pierre de Bdranger, . . 


Lyrics 

1790-1869 

Alphonse de Lamartine, 

History of the Girondists, etc., . 

Poems. 

1792-1867 

Victor Cousin, .... 

Philosophy, Metaphysics. . . . 


1795-1856 

Jacques N. Thierry, . . 

History of France, etc. 


1797-1877 

Louis Adolphe Thiers, . 

French Revolution, History of 




the Empire, etc. 


1798-1857 

Auguste Comte. 

Positive Philosophy. 


































































LITERATURE 


293 


FRENCH LITERATURE —Continued 


Time 

Author 

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 

Prose 

Poetry 

1798-1865 

Joseph Xavier Boniface, 

Picciola, etc. 


1798-1874 

Jules Michelet. 

History of France. 


1799-1850 

Honors de Balzac,. . . 

Novels, Comedies of Human Life, 

etc. 

Cinq Mars, etc. 


1799-1863 

Alfred Victor Vigny, 


1802-1885 

Victor Hugo,. 

Novels (Les Miserables, etc). . . 

Lyrics. 

1803-1870 

Alexander Dumas, . . 

3 Count of Monte Christo, 
v 3 | Three Musketeers, etc. 

1803-1870 

Prosper Merimee, . . . 

Novels. 


1804-1857 

Eugene Sue,. 

Mysteries of Paris, Wandering 


1804-1869 

C. A. Sainte-Beuve, . . 

Jew. 

Criticisms, etc. 


1804- 1876 

1805- 1859 

Mme. Dudevant (George 

Sand),. 

Alexis de Tocqueville, . 

Lelia, Consuelo, etc. 

Political Science. 


1810-1857 

Alfred de Musset, . . . 

Novels. 

Poems, Dramas. 

1810-1883 

Louis Henri Martin, . . 

History of France. 

1811-1872 

Theophile Gautier, . . 

Criticisms, Novels,. 

Poems. 

1811-1883 

Leonard S. J. Sandeau,. 

Novels.. 


1821-1880 

Gustav Flaubert, . . . 

Novels. 


1821-1890 

Octave Feuillet, . . . 

Novels,. 

Dramas. 

1822-1899 

Emile Erckmann, . . . 

Novels (with Chartrain). . . . 


1823-1892 

J. Ernest Renan, . . . 

Life of Jesus, etc. 


1824-1895 

Alexander Dumas (fils), 

Novels, Biography. 


1826-1890 

Alexandre Chatrian, . . 

Novels (with Erckmann). . . . 


1827-1912 

Pere Hyacinth. 

Orations (Pulpit). 


1828-1893 

H. A. Taine. 

History of Literature, etc. . . . 


1828-1885 

Francois About,.... 

Novels. 


1828-1905 

Jules Verne, . ... i 

20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, 
Round the World in 80 Days, 


1831-1908 

l 

Victorien Sardou, . . . 

etc. 

Dramas. 

1835-1903 

Paul du Chaillu, . . . 

Travels, Natural History. . . . 


1840-1897 

Alphonse Daudet, . . . 

Novels. 


1840-1902 

Emil Zola,. 

Novels. 


1842-1908 

Francois Coppee, . . . 


Poems, Dramas. 

1850 

Louis Viaud (Pierre Loti), 

Novels, Travels. 

1850-1893 

H. R. Guy Maupassant, 

Novels, Short Stories. 



The most ancient documents in the French 
language date from the Ninth to the Eleventh 
Centuries, but real French literature began much 
later. There are a hundred of the “ Chansons 
de Gestes,” including the famous “Chanson de 
Roland.” Their origin is not known, but they 
date earlier than the songs of the troubadours. 
Following these were the epics, “Arthurian 
Romances,” written from the legends of the 
Round Table, and later the “Romances of An¬ 
tiquities,” also narrative forms, treating of the 
conquests of Alexander and other classical 
stories. A fourth form in prose and verse, in¬ 
cluded “Shorter Stories” which cannot be classi¬ 
fied. These four divisions make the literature 
of early France. 

In earliest days poetry was used for all literary 
purposes and French verse is the first in modern 
European speech. “The Romance of the Rose,” 
a long poem which is really prose, except for the 
measure of the verse, is an ancient work that 
gained the attention of the people of France, 
and no book was ever more popular. This was 
written by two authors, Guillaume de Lorris, 
who lived in the first half of the Thirteenth Cen¬ 
tury, commenced it, and it was continued and 
finished by Jean de Meung, who died in the year 
1320. It is both a love poem and a satire and 
put in form of allegory. In it are found the 
characteristics of the later Middle Age, its mys¬ 
ticism, its chivalry, its science, and its shrewd 
criticism. 

In the Tenth or Eleventh Centuries Indian 
tales were translated into Latin, probably by 
the monks, and these, with legends from Arabia, 


brought by the Moors into Spain, became com. 
mon to all literature. In France, during the 
Twelfth and the Thirteenth Centuries, tales writ¬ 
ten in verse, the collection known as “ Fabliaux,” 
appeared, and these simple, gay stories are 
treasures of invention from which other nations 
have often borrowed. Among these “Reynard 
the Fox,” a poem, or a series of poems, is well 
known and for two centuries, with its compan¬ 
ion, “Isengrin, the Wolf,” it formed the basis 
for an endless variety of songs, poems, and 
satires, moral applications and generalizings. 
One of the most interesting of the Fabliaux, 
“Aucassin and Nicolette,” gave the subject for 
the well-known opera. 

It has been claimed that Latin comedy was 
never lost and was handed on chiefly through 
the convents, but when the public had forgotten 
ancient drama an impulse was given to this 
form of writing in France by the pilgrims re¬ 
turning from the Crusades. At the end of the 
Fourteenth Century dramas were produced, called 
the “Fraternity of the Passion” and compre¬ 
hending the whole history of Christ. In these 
dramas dialogues of the devils were made to fill 
in the comic parts. Other dramatic writings 
followed, based on parables and historical parts 
of the Bible, or they became pure allegory min¬ 
gled with farces, and there is hardly an abstrac¬ 
tion, a virtue, or a vice which did not find place 
in these compositions. Early in the Fifteenth 
Century a comic company brought political and 
personal satire into their plays and dialogues, 
made from the fables, and thus began the Ro¬ 
mantic Drama of Europe. 















































294 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


In all literatures of which we have record, 
prose is later than verse. The document con¬ 
taining copy of the oaths exchanged between 
Charles the Bold and Louis the German, in the 
year 842, is probably the oldest French prose. 
In the Tenth Century some charters were written 
in French, and in the eleventh the Laws of Wil¬ 
liam the Conqueror. The Twelfth Century shows 
translation of the Bible and the Romances. 
History is the first subject in prose writing and 
is generally recorded in the form of chronicles. 
Each of these centuries has, in France, one gifted 
chronicler to describe it. Ville-Hardouin writes of 
the Twelfth Century, Joinville of the Thirteenth, 
and Froissart of the Fourteenth. “Froissart’s 
Chronicles,” though simple story, forms a history 
of the different states of Europe from the year 
1322 to the end of the century. Phillipe de 
Comines (1445-1509) has been noted as the last 
of the quartette of great French mediaeval his¬ 
torians. He was an annalist, like Froissart, but 
he was, also, a political philosopher and an un¬ 
scrupulous diplomat. He dwells on character 
rather than on scenes or events in his memoirs. 

Standing equal with the early histories in 
French are the short stories in comic form, and 
among these is the “Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles,” 
which is the first work of literary prose in the 
language. The authorship of this collection of 
tales is not fixed, the themes are the old fables, 
but this remarkable work, with its simple and 
straightforward style, had great influence on 
later writers and was the first of a long series of 
literary works, romances in miniature, in which 
French writers excel all others. 

The discovery of a new continent, the down¬ 
fall of Constantinople, and the end of feudalism 
were the great events of the Fifteenth Century 
that changed the literary world of France. The 
invention, or use, of printing made readers in 
place of listeners. French enthusiasm turned to 
the study and imitation of the ancient Pagan 
world and it was this revival of antique learning 
that took the name “Renaissance.” By the 
beginning of the Fifteenth Century the effect of 
the Renaissance was nearly lost in Italy, in 
Germany it had only opened the way to a nation¬ 
al literature with little influence in itself, but in 
France this century was filled with great writers 
in every line. 

Francis Rabelais (1483-1553) holds high rank 
in the world, as well as in his own country, as a 
learned philosopher and scholar. The work 
which brought to him popular fame, however, 
was the “Lives of Gargantua and Pantagruel,” 
a tale of the adventures of two gigantic heroes, 
father and son, with a drunken, fighting, swag¬ 
gering monk and a witty minstrel who played 
practical jokes. With all this it is a commen¬ 
tary on the thoughts, feelings, and acts of the 
nation put into attractive literary form, a mirror 
of the Sixteenth Century. It was the book of 
the day and went into many editions. 

By the side of Rabelais stands John Calvin 
(1509-1564), and his work, “Institutes of the 
Christian Religion,” has been called the text¬ 
book of the Reformation. This book, written 
first in Latin, then translated by the author, 
had great influence on future thought and was 
the beginning of an argumentative prose. Cal¬ 


vin was severe both in logic and doctrine, and 
turning from this severity, while not believing 
in the Church policy of that day, many drifted 
into skepticism. The literature of this skepti¬ 
cism, or doubt, is best represented by the “Es¬ 
says” of Montaigne (1533-1592). In these 
essays he undermined all the creeds of the day, 
but offered nothing in their places. Inquiry 
and protest had given way to placid content¬ 
ment in the belief that there was not much to be 
known on these subjects and that it did not 
much matter. 

The appearance of the “Cid,” founded on the 
Spanish romance, changed the form of dramatic 
writing and brought fame to the author, Cor¬ 
neille (1606-1684). The dramas of Racine soon 
followed and Moliere wrote his comedies, in 
which he assailed the follies of society. The 
best of these are “Le Misanthrope” and “Tar- 
tuffe.” To this time belongs the well-known 
La Fontaine, prince of fable writers, and Per- 
rault, who wrote prose tales. Richelieu, who 
founded the French Academy in 1635, Colbert 
and Louis XIV. were patrons of all learning, and 
the French language, distinguished for its clear¬ 
ness and flexibility, became the language of all 
literary Europe. In this age Fenelon wrote his 
famous “Telemaque,” which has served as an 
introduction to the study of French language 
and literature. Fenelon, with Bourdaloue, Bos- 
suet, and Massillon, were brilliant examples of a 
pulpit oratory which has never been surpassed 
in any age or country. 

Political and military disasters of the last 
years of the reign of Louis XIV. checked all 
literary development, and the beginning of the 
Eighteenth Century has been named as one of 
the dead seasons of French literature. Later, a 
kind of free-thinking optimism arose and showed 
itself most distinctly in the writings of Voltaire 
(1694-1778), whose genius gave light to his age. 
His universal faculty showed itself in both verse 
and prose, his plays and verse-tales were admir¬ 
able, and his epistles and satires, the best among 
their kind, were sufficiently good to bring ban¬ 
ishment to their author. After his long exile, 
spent in England and Germany, he returned to 
the writing of history and philosophy. 

Jean Jacques Rousseau, born early in the 
Eighteenth Century, had, also, great influence in 
his literary world. He began with dissertations 
on music, adding comedies, tragedies, and prose 
romance. His greatest work, the “ Confessions,” 
was finished not many years before his death 
(1778). In style, or manner of expression, his 
writings hold absolute fascination; he was a 
bold and independent thinker, but his sympathy 
with humanity saved him from the cynicism of 
Voltaire. 

Le Sage, the first great novelist of this cen¬ 
tury, went to Spain for the subject of his “Gil 
Bias,” and the Spanish inspiration and manner 
brought popularity. Marmontel, Louvet, and 
Bernardin de St. Pierre, author of “Paul and 
Virginia,” were also noted novel writers. The 
brilliant, sparkling letters of Madame de Sevigne 
gave what has been considered the most com¬ 
plete record of court and social life. Montes¬ 
quieu belongs to the first half of this century, 
and his “Spirit of Laws” has taken rank as a 



LITERATURE 


295 


standard work on jurisprudence. Beaumar¬ 
chais wrote the well-known “Barber of Seville.” 
Among the few lyric poets of the time Lebrun 
and Chenier stand worthy of mention. Rouget 
de Lisle, in the “Marseillaise,” gave the finest 
lyric known in the language. 

Chateaubriand filled many diplomatic places 
under the Bourbon rule, but was not free from 
exile. During his exile he published his first 
book (in 1797), the “ Essay on Revolutions.” He 
found the subject for his “Atala” while among 
the Indians in America. Madame de Stael spent 
the years of the French Revolution in England 
and Switzerland, and while there wrote essays, 
dramas, and political pamphlets. She is best 
known by her later romance, “Corinne,” and by 
her “De TAllemagne.” The last brought Ger¬ 
man literature to the notice of French readers. 
Beranger is named the first song-writer of France 
and his songs and ballads are known in all 
homes. These three writers seem to stand be¬ 
tween the days of Voltaire and Rousseau and 
the beginning of modern French literature. 

Volumes of ballads and romance in verse, 
written by Victor Hugo and Alphonse de Lamar¬ 
tine, belong to later poetry, and with these 
authors Alfred de Musset claims place. Among 
dramatists are Gozlan, Delavigne, and Sardou, 
with others who bear equally distinguished names. 


French historical and political writers influ¬ 
ence the world, and of these the best known 
may be Lamartine, Thiers, Michelet, Guizot, 
and De Tocqueville. Cousin and Comte have 
offered new views in philosophy; the name 
Renan is known to all interested in theo¬ 
logical questions. Many of these writers hold, 
also, a place in oratory which has risen to a 
high position in France. 

The influence of later French romance shows 
in the modern literature of all countries. 
Balzac (died, 1850) has been considered one of 
its pioneers. Eugene Sue delights in subjects 
that call for exciting adventure; his books, 
“Wandering Jew” and “Mysteries of Paris,” 
have been much read. Alexander Dumas, well 
known by his “Monte Cristo” and almost 
numberless semi-historical romances, such as 
“Three Musketeers,” was master in his line; 
Victor Hugo would stand as a brilliant writer 
on the merits of his wonderful “Les Miserables” 
alone. This and various other of his romances 
have been translated and widely read in different 
languages. Madame Dudevant, known by her 
readers as George Sand, was a strikingly original 
writer of fiction; her “Consuelo,” “Indiana,” 
and “Andre” show a harmony of treatment 
and simplicity of language that mark them as 
masterpieces. 


ENGLISH LITERATURE 




REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 

Time 

Author 



Prose 

Poetry and Drama 




Unknown,. 

. 1 

Traveller’s Song. 

Beowulf. 


Caedmon. 


Paraphase of Scripture. 

673- 735 

Bede. 

Ecclesiastical History, .... 

Poems. 

735- 804 

Alcuin,. 

Letters, Biographies. 

- 

750 

Cynewulf. 

Christ, Elene, Andreas, etc. 

849- 901 

Alfred the Great, . . . 

Translations. 

955-1020 

jElfric. 

Homilies, Grammar. 


1095-1143 

William of Malmesbury, 

History of Kings of England.. . 


1100-1154 

Geoffrey of Monmouth, 

Legendary History of English 




Kings. 


1100-1175 

Wace, Robert, .... 

. \ 

Romance of Rollo, 

Brut d’Angleterre. 

Lived in 12th j 

Layamon,. 


Chronicles of Britain. 

Century ( 

Ormin. 


Ormulum (paraphrase). 

1214-1294 

Bacon, Roger, .... 

Natural Science, Philosophy.. . 


1300-1372 

Mandeville, Sir John, . 

Travels. 


1324-1384 

Wycliffe, John. 

Translation of Bible. 

• 

1325-1408 

Gower, John,. 


Ballads, Lover’s Confession. 

1330-1400 

Langland, William, . . 


Piers, the Plowman. 

1340-1400 

Chaucer, Geoffrey,. . . 


Canterbury Tales, Short Poems. 

1422-1491 

Caxton, William, . . . j 

Game and Play of the Chesse, . 
Translation of History of Troy. 


1430 

Malory, Sir Thomas, . . 

Morte d’Arthur. 


1465-1530 

Dunbar, William, . . . 


Thistle and Rose, Golden Targe. 

1478-1535 

More, Sir Thomas,. . . 

Utopia. 

1484-1536 

Tyndale, William, . . . 

Translation of Bible. 


1503-1542 

Wyatt, Sir Thomas, . . 


Sonnets and Lyrics. 

1516-1587 

Foxe, John,. 

Book of Martyrs. 


1536-1608 

Sackville, Thomas, . . 

Mirror for Magistrates. 

1552-1599 

Spenser, Edmund,. . . 

\ 

Faerie Queene, 

Shepherd’s Calendar. 

1552-1618 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, . . 

History of the World. 

1553-1600 

Hooker, Richard, . . . 

Ecclesiastical Polity. 


1554-1586 

Sidney, Sir Phillip, . . 

Arcadia. 

Translation of Homer. 

1559-1634 

Chapman, George, . . . 


1561-1626 

Bacon, Francis, .... 

Essays, Novum Organum (phil.). 


1564-1593 

Marlowe, Christopher, . 

Dramas. 

1564-1616 

Shakespere, William, 


Dramas, Sonnets (37 plays). 

1573-1637 

Jonson, Ben, . 


The Alchemist, etc. 

1577-1640 

Burton, Robert,. , . . 

Anatomy of Melancholy. . . . 

( Philaster, 

Dramas, A Maid’s Tragedy, 

( Woman Hater, etc. 

1579-1625 

1584-1616 

Fletcher, John, . . . . ( 
Beaumont, Francis, . . f 


1591-1674 

Herrick, Robert, . . . 


Poems. 

1593-1633 

Herbert, George, . . . 


The Temple, etc. 




























































296 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ENGLISH LITERATURE —Continued 


Time 


Author 


1593-1683 

1608-1661 


Walton, Izaak, . 
Fuller, Thomas, . 


1608-1674 


Milton, John, 


1612-1680 

1613-1667 

1615-1691 

1628-1688 


Butler, Samuel, 
Taylor, Jeremy, . 
Baxter, Richard, 
Bunyan, John, . 


1631-1700 


Dryden, John, 


1632-1704 


Locke, John, . . 


1633-1703 

1642-1727 

1661-1731 

1667-1745 

1672-1729 

1672-1719 

1683-1765 

1685-1753 

1688-1744 


Pepys, Samuel, . . 
Newton, Sir Isaac, . 
Defoe, Daniel, . . 

Swift, Jonathan, . 
Steele, Sir Richard, 
Addison, Joseph, . 

Young, Edward, . 
Berkeley, Bishop, . 
Pope, Alexander, . 


REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 


Prose 


Poetry and Drama 


The Compleat Angler. 

Church History of England, etc. 

I 

I 

Areopagitica,.-j 


l 

Holy Living, etc. 

Saint’s Everlasting Rest. . . . 
Pilgrim’s Progress, Holy War. . 

J 

. I 


L’Allegro and II Penseroso, 
Comus, 

Paradise Lost, 

Paradise Regained, etc. 
Hudibras. 


Translation of Virgil, 
St. Cecilia’s Day, etc. 


Essay Concerning Human Un¬ 
derstanding, 

Thoughts on Education, etc. . . 

Diary. 

Principia, etc. 

Robinson Crusoe. 

Tale of a Tub. 

Gulliver’s Travels. 

Essays, (established The Tatler). 

TTcaoTro J The Tatler. 

Essays m -j The gpectatori . . . 


Philosophy. 


Night Thoughts. 
Essay on Man, etc. 


1689-1761 

1692-1752 

-1743 

1700-1748 

1707-1754 

1709-1784 

1711-1776 

1713-1768 

1716-1771 

1721-1771 

1721-1770 

1723-1790 

1723-1780 


Richardson, Samuel, 

Butler, Bishop, . . 
Carey, Henry, . . 
Thomson, James, . 


Clarissa Harlowe,. 

Pamela,. 

Sir Chas. Grandison. 

Natural and Revealed Religion. 


Fielding, Henry, . 

Johnson, Samuel, . 

Hume, David, . . 
Sterne, Laurence, . 


Tom Jones, Amelia, 
Jonathan Wild, etc. 
Dictionary, .... 

Rasselas,. 

Lives of the Poets, . 
History of England. 
Tristram Shandy, . 
Sentimental Journey. 


Gray, Thomas, 


Smollett, T. George, 


j Humphrey Clinker. 

| Roderick Random, etc. 


Akenside, Mark, 
Smith, Adam, . . . 
Blackstone, Sir Wm., 


Wealth of Nations. 

Commentaries on the Laws of 
England. 


Sally in our Alley, etc. 
The Seasons, etc. 


Vanity of Human Wishes. 


Elegy Written in a (Country Church¬ 
yard, etc. 


Pleasures of the Imagination. 


1728- 1774 

1729- 1797 
1731-1800 
1737-1794 

1740-1795 

1743-1805 

1745-1833 

1751-1816 

1759-1796 

1767-1849 

1770-1850 

1770- 1835 

1771- 1854 
1771-1832 

1771- 1845 

1772- 1834 

1774- 1843 

1775- 1834 
1775-1864 

1775- 1817 

1776- 1850 


Goldsmith, Oliver,. 
Burke, Edmund, . 


Vicar of Wakefield, Essays, . 
Essays, Orations. 


Cowper, William, . 
Gibbon, Edward, . 

Boswell, James, . . 
Paley, William, . . 

More, Hannah, . . 
Sheridan, Richard B 


Decline and Fall of the Roman 

Empire. 

Life of Samuel Johnson. 

j Evidences of Christianity, . . . 

j Natural Theology. 

Coelebs in Search of a Wife, . . 
Speeches. 


Burns, Robert, . . . . 
Edgeworth, Maria, . . 
Wordsworth, William, . 

Hogg, James,. 

Montgomery, James,. . 
Scott, Sir Walter, . . . 

Smith, Sydney. 

Coleridge, Samuel T., . 
Southey, Robert, . . . 

Lamb, Charles. 

Landor, Walter Savage, 

Austen, Jane,. 

Porter, Jane. 


Popular Tales, etc, 


Shepherd’s Calendar, 


Waverley Novels, etc., .... 

Sermons, Essays, etc. 

Essays, etc. 

Biogs. of Nelson, Wesley, etc., . 

Essays of Elia, etc. 

Imaginary Conversations, etc., 
Pride and Prejudice, Emma, etc. 
Scottish Chiefs, Thaddeus of 
Warsaw. 


She Stoops to Conquer, 
Deserted Village, etc. 

The Task, 

John Gilpin, etc. 


Sacred Dramas. 

The Rivals, School for Scandal, Lyrics, 
etc. 

Cotter’s Saturday Night, etc. 

The Excursion, Poems. 

Pastorals. 

Hymns, Poems. 

Lady of the Lake, etc. 

Rime of Ancient Mariner, etc. 

Poems. 

Count Julian, Heroic Idyls, etc. 


1777-1844 

1777-1859 


1778- 1830 

1779- 1852 

1784- 1859 

1785- 1859 

1785-1854 

1788-1824 


Campbell, Thomas, 
Hallam, Henry, . . 


Hazlitt, William, . . . 
Moore, Thomas, . . . 

Hunt, Leigh,. 

De Quincey, 'ihomas, . 

Wilson, John,. 

Lord Byron,. 


Europe during Middle Ages, In¬ 
troduction to Literature of 
Europe, Constitutional His¬ 
tory of England. 

Table Talk, English Poets, etc.. 

Biographies,. 

Essays, Sketches, Memoirs, . . 
Confessions of an English 
Opium Eater, etc. . . . . . 
Noctes Ambrosian®, etc., . . . 


Pleasures of Hope, Lyrics, etc. 


Lalla Rookh, Irish Melodies, etc. 
Poems. 


Poems. 

Poems. 










































































LITERATURE 


297 


ENGLISH LITERATURE — Continued 


Time 

Author 

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 

Prose 

Poetry 

1792-1822 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 


Queen Mab, etc. 

1792-1848 

Marryat, Capt. Fred., . 

Peter Simple, Jacob Faithful, etc. 

1793-1835 

Hemans, Felicia, . . . 

Lyrics. 

1794-1871 

Grote, George, .... 

History of Greece. 

1795-1842 

Arnold, Thomas, . . . 

Roman History, Sermons, Es- 


1795-1881 

Carlyle, Thomas, . . . 

French Revolution, Cromwell, 
etc. 


1795-1821 

Keats, John,. 

Endymion, Hyperion, etc. 

1797-1868 

Lover, Samuel, .... 

Handy Andy, Rory O’More, . . 

Songs, Ballads. 

1798-1827 

Pollock, Robert, .... 

Course of Time. 

1798-1845 

Hood, Thomas, .... 


Poems. 

1800-1859 

Macaulay, Thomas B., . 

Essays, History of England, . . 

Lays of Ancient Rome. 

1801-1G60 

James, G. P. R., . . . 

Novels (historical). 


1S02-1856 

Miller, Hugh. 

Old Red Sandstone, Schools and 


1802-1876 

Martineau, Harriet, . . 

Schoolmasters, etc. 

Political Economy, etc. . . . 


1803-1873 

Lytton, Sir Edward Bui- 

Last Days of Pompeii, Last of 


1804-1881 

wer,. 

Disraeli, Benjamin, . . 

the Barons, etc. 

Lothair, Vivian Grey, etc. . . . 


1806-1873 

Mill, John Stuart, . . . 

Political Economy. 


1806-1872 

Lever, Charles, .... 

Tom Burke, Charles O’Malley, 

etc. 

Origin of Species, Descent of 


1809-1882 

Darwin, Charles, . . . 


1806-1861 

Browning, Eliz. Barrett, 

Man. 

Aurora Leigh, Poems, 

1809-1892 

Tennyson, Alfred, . . . 


In Memoriam, Idyls of the King. 

1809-1890 

Kinglake, Alex, ffm., . 

Eothen. 

1811-1863 

Thackeray, Wm. M., . . 

Vanity Fair, the Newcomes. . . 


1812-1870 

Dickens, Charles, . . . 

David Copperfield, Oliver Twist, 
etc. 


1812-1889 

Browning, Robert, . . . 

Dramatic Lyrics, Poems, The Ring 

1814-1884 

Reade, Charles. 

Peg Woffington, Cloister and 

and the Book. 

1815-1902 

Rawlinson, George, . . 

Hearth, etc. 

Five Great Monarchies. 


1815-1882 

Trollope, Anthony, . . 

Barchester Towers, etc. 


1818-1894 

Froude, James Anthony, 

History of England. 


1819-1875 

Kingsley, Charles, . . . 

Hypatia, etc., . .. 

Stones of Venice,Modern Paint- 

Poems. 

1819-1900 

Ruskin, John, .... 


1816-1855 

Bronffi, Charlotte, . . . 

Jane Eyre, The Professor, etc. . 


1820-1903 

Spencer, Herbert, . . . 

First Principles, etc. 


1819-1880 

Eliot, George, .... 

Silas Marner, etc.,. 

Spanish Gypsy, Poems, 

1820-1893 

Tyndall, John. 

Scientific Papers. 

1822-1888 

Arnold, Matthew, . . . 

Essays and Criticisms, .... 

Sohrab and Rustum, etc. 

1823-1900 

Muller, Max,. 

Science of Language, etc. . . . 


1823-1892 

Freeman, Edward A., . 

Histories. 


1823-1896 

Hughes, Thomas, . . . 

Tom Brown at Oxford, etc. . . 


1824-1889 

Collins, Wilkie. 

Woman in White, etc. 


1824-1905 

Macdonald, George, . . 

Sir Gibbie, Alec Forbes, etc. . . 


1825-1895 

Huxley, Thomas Henrv, 

Man’s Place in Nature. 


1825-1900 

Blackmore, R. D., . . . 

Lorna Doone, etc. 


1826-1887 

Muloch, Dinah Maria, . 

John Halifax, etc. 

Poems. 

1828-1882 

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 

The Blessed Damozel, etc. 

1830-1912 

McCarthy, Justin, . . . 

History of Our Own Times, 
Novels. 

1820-1897 

Ingelow, Jean, .... 

Poems, High Tide on Coast of Lin- 

1831-1891 

Meredith, Owen, . . . 

Biography of Bulwer-Lytton, . 

colnshire. 

Lucile. 

1832-1904 

Arnold, Edwin, .... 

Light of Asia, Poems. 

1834-1895 

Seeley, John Robert, 

Ecce Homo, etc. 

1834-1896 

Morris, William, . . . 

Essays on Art, etc.,. 

Poems, Earthly Paradise. 

1834-1894 

Hamerton, Philip I.,. . 

Intellectual life. 


1837-1883 

Green, John Richard, . 

History of the English People. . 


1837-1909 

Swinburne, Algernon 
Chas.,. 

Poems. 

1838 

Bryce, James, .... 

American Commonwealth, My 


1838-1901 

Besant, Walter, .... 

Impressions of S. Africa, etc. 
East London, etc., Novels. . . 


1838 

Morley, John. 

English Men of Letters (Ed.) . 


1840 

Hardy, Thomas, . . . 

Tess of D’Urbervilles, etc., Novels. 


1841-1898 

Black, William, .... 

In Silk Attire, etc., Novels. . . 


1841-1901 

Buchanan, Robert W., . 

Alone in London. 

Poems. 

1850-1894 | 

Stevenson, Robert Louis, 

Essays, Novels,. 

Child’s Garden of Verses, etc. 


When our forefathers went to England in 
the Fifth and Sixth Centuries, they carried 
with them no written language but the love of 
song. Bards and gleemen accompanied them 
and they sang the tales of the Northland. The 
oldest of the old, old songs which has been pre¬ 
served for us is “ The Far-traveler.” “ Beowulf ” 
is their epic song. When the heathen invaders 


after two long centuries of struggle had become 
possessed of the land they, in their turn, came 
under the softening influence of Christianity. 
Monasteries were built and in these safe shelters 
literature had a beginning. The glory of this 
beginning belongs to Northumbria in the Seventh 
Century. For nearly two centuries this was the 
seat of learning. 



























































298 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


The poem “Beowulf” has Teutonic power 
but it is not native to English soil. Caedmon’s 
“Paraphrase of the Scriptures” is the first great 
native British poem. With Christianity a new 
spirit entered into English poetry. 

Old English prose also began in the monastery 
of Northumbria ■with Bede. His learning was 
famed over the whole of Europe. It is said that 
forty-five works written in Latin prove his in¬ 
dustry. His last work was a “Translation of 
the Gospel of St. John.” 

During the Ninth Century the greater part 
of England was wasted by the Danes, and litera- 
ure almost perished. The long battle against 
these invaders was lost in Northumbria, but 
was gained for a time by Alfred the Great in 
Wessex. Learning changed its seat from the 
north to the south, and as Whitby was the cradle 
of English poetry in the North, so Winchester 
became the seat of English prose in the South. 
Alfred gathered scholars about him and trans¬ 
lated the Latin works of Bede, the Chronicles 
of Orosius, and added an account of the voyages 
of Othere and Wulfstan. Many other works 
were added to the English language in Alfred’s 
time. “At Winchester the king took the Eng¬ 
lish tongue and made it the tongue in which 
history, philosophy, law, and religion spoke to 
the English people.” He also established schools 
and wrote text-books for these schools, so that 
every free-born youth might attend to his books 
till he “ could read English writing perfectly.” 

The next great name in literature after King 
Alfred is Alfric. He wrote numerous ecclesias¬ 
tical works and was the first translator of any 
considerable portion of the Bible. His trans¬ 
lation of the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, and 
part of Job, form the best model we possess of 
the language at the beginning of the Eleventh 
Century. A long line of Saxon Chronicles con- 
■ tinues an unbroken history of the language and 
literature from Alfred to the death of Stephen 
in 1154. 

The overthrow of Saxon rule in England by 
William the Conqueror is an event of vast im¬ 
portance in literature as well as in history. For 
a hundred years after the conquest literature 
was inert. A foreign king and an aristocracy 
of a foreign people ruled the land; an alien lan¬ 
guage and literature had been introduced. A 
few generations of such domination and then 
there were signs of returning life. The language 
could not die while the bulk of the people re¬ 
mained Saxon, but it underwent a great change. 
England was still to remain the land of the Saxon 
tongue, but it was to be a language greatly modi¬ 
fied by its contact with the Latin of the clergy 
and the French of the Norman conquerors. For 
three hundred years after the conquest these 
languages contended with the Saxon English 
for supremacy in England. In Edward the 
Third’s reign it had been fully demonstrated 
that the English were to be the ruling people 
and parliament enacted important laws making 
the English the required language in the law 
courts and in schools. 

But the English of King Edward’s time was 
quite unlike the rude Saxon speech of “ Beowulf ” 
and “Caedmon,” or the later Chronicles. Pure 
Anglo-Saxon was an energetic language, able 


to express with vigor the practical common 
thoughts of every day; but it lacked delicacy 
and flexibility of expression. The Saxon mind, 
too, was lacking in_quickness of thought and in 
the creative play of the imagination. It has 
been well said that in this blending of languages 
the Saxon furnished the dough and the Norman 
French the yeast. Out of the combined product 
we get a strength and flexibility of language that 
belonged to neither. 

The literature of England during the Twelfth 
Century was almost entirely Latin and French, 
but we go back to it as a rich source of our story 
telling. Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote twelve 
short books in Latin which he called “History 
of the Kings of Briton.” It is a clever putting 
together of Welsh legends, a source to which 
we go for some of our King Arthur stories. 
These stories were afterward translated into 
French and later brought back into English 
verse by Laymon in his “Brut d’Engleterre.” 
Later many other stories were added and other 
cycles of romance were introduced into English 
literature. There were four of these great ro¬ 
mantic cycles: The first, already mentioned, 
are the King Arthur legends, to which later 
stories were added, as “Quest of the Graal,” 
“Morte d’Arthur,” “Romance of Sir Tristam,” 
etc.; the second, Charlemagne and his twelve 
peers, containing the stories of “Roland,” 
“Charlemagne,” “Otwell,” “Siege of Milan,” 
etc.; the third, the “Life of Alexander,” ro¬ 
mantic wonder stories from the east; fourth, 
“Siege of Troy,” derived from Latin sources. 
Popular ballads, such as “Robin Hood” and 
“Robert of Gloucester’s Rhyming Chronicles,” 
and lyrics sung among the people, kept the 
love of poetry alive until the greater burst of 
song in the Fourteenth Century. 

From the Conquest there is very little prose 
writing in England for the next three centuries, 
but in the Fourteenth Century there were two 
prose writers of preeminence, Sir John Mande- 
ville and John Wyclif. Mandeville wrote a most 
popular book of stories which he styled “The 
Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Mandeville.” 
This book established the love of story telling. 
John Wyclif, next to Chaucer, is the greatest 
literary name of the century. He is the first 
to give a complete copy of the Scriptures to the 
English people in their own tongue. The 
influence of such a translation read by all the 
people is to raise a dialect to the dignity of a 
national language. Besides this great work, 
Wyclif is the author of a large number of ser¬ 
mons and polemical writings. Contemporan¬ 
eous with these religious tracts which Wyclif 
distributed so freely was “ Piers Plowman ” by 
William Langland. It was a satire in verse 
upon the evils which had gained a foothold with¬ 
in the Church. 

The one name which stands first in the litera¬ 
ture of the Fourteenth Century is that of Geoffrey 
Chaucer. Some critics claim that before him 
there was no permanent English verse. He is 
therefore often called the “Father of English 
poetry.” Chaucer’s earlier poems are “Ro- 
maunt of the Rose,” “The Boke of the Duchess,” 
and “ Parlement of Briddes.” His greatest work 
is “Canterbury Tales,” the plan of which was 



LITERATURE 


299 


suggested by Boccacio’s “Decameron.” The 
“Prologue” to the “Canterbury Tales” is one 
of the finest pieces of description in our language. 
Before Chaucer’s time English was a language 
of dialects. He wrote in the Midland dialect 
and made that the language of the nation. 
Chaucer died in fourteen hundred, just three 
hundred and thirty-four years after the Norman 
Conquest. To sum up the most important liter¬ 
ary events of these years we note the develop¬ 
ment of the English language, the translation 
of the Bible, and the creation in English of one 
of the world’s great masterpieces, the “Canter¬ 
bury Tales.” 

There is to be noted a comparative lack of 
literary progress in the century following Chau¬ 
cer. There were changing social conditions and 
intellectual and political unrest. The struggle 
between the houses of York and Lancaster ab¬ 
sorbed men’s minds. These are the reasons as¬ 
signed for the dearth of literature. To them must 
be added the lack of a literary genius. There 
was no one great enough to succeed Chaucer. 

The greatest prose work of the Fifteenth Cen¬ 
tury was Malory’s “Morte d’Arthur.” This 
is a great prose epic of the deeds of King Arthur 
and his Knights of the Round Table. Fortu¬ 
nately for the Fifteenth Century it also estab¬ 
lished the printing press. In 1477, Caxtonprinted 
the first book in England. A second complete 
translation of the Scriptures was made by William 
Tyndale, early in the Sixteenth Century, and 
the work of the reformation was furthered. In 
1535, Miles Coverdale published the first printed 
copy of the whole Bible. Certain Italian in¬ 
fluences were at work that were changing the 
form of our poetry. Wyatt and Surrey intro¬ 
duced the Italian sonnet and made use of the 
Italian blank verse. 

The Elizabethan age is marked by features 
so distinct and so superior that it has been called 
the “Golden Age in English literature.” Two 
great forces combined to make this the greatest 
intellectual age, the Renaissance and the Refor¬ 
mation. Men’s minds were stimulated and a 
language completely formed was ready at their 
hand. There was freedom for thought to ex¬ 
press itself and there was variety in life and 
freshness of experience for the mind to feed upon. 
The printing press and travel and social inter¬ 
course all stimulated intellectual activity. Life 
was worth enjoying and there was leisure for 
letters. It was an age of imagination and en¬ 
thusiasm, and in the midst of it all geniuses 
were born. What age ever produced two such 
poets as Shakespere and Spenser, unless it 
might be the “Golden Age” of Greek splen¬ 
dor? 

The non-dramatic poets of the Elizabethan 
age are Thomas Sackville, Sir Philip Sidney, 
and Sir Walter Raleigh, who also wrote a most 
ambitious work in prose, the “History of the 
World.” 

Spenser, the only great non-dramatic poet of 
Elizabeth’s reign, has been called the successor 
of Chaucer. His first great work is the “Shep¬ 
ard’s Calendar,” divided into twelve eclogues, 
one for each month. His greatest work, the 
“Faery Queen,” was also divided into twelve 
books, but only six books and the fragment of 


the seventh were ever written. Spenser has been 
justly called “the poet’s poet.” He may be 
wearisome to the general reader who undertakes 
to study him to-day, but the purity of his imagi¬ 
nation, the beauty of his verse, and the music 
of his rhythm, have furnished models for our 
later poets. 

The dawn of the drama in England is found 
in “Miracle Plays and Mysteries” which were 
introduced soon after the Norman Conquest. 
Following these were the later dramatic recitals, 
the “Moralities,” “Interludes,” “Masks,” and 
“ Pageants.” 

As early as the Eleventh Century miracle 
plays were performed in the monasteries by 
monks and choristers. Later, companies of pro¬ 
fessional players traveled about the country 
and enacted their plays in the yards of inns. 
In 1575, the Puritans expelled the players from 
the city and theaters were built outside the 
limits. Shakespere was born in 1564, and 
twenty-two or three years later made his way 
to London where he was attracted by one of 
these forbidden theaters. Already the English 
drama had taken form in the great plays of 
Christopher Marlowe, “Tamburlaine the Great,” 
“Faustus,” “The Jew of Malta.” The greatest 
of these plays is “Faustus.” Marlowe estab¬ 
lished the use of blank verse in the English 
drama, a form of verse which Shakespere 
adopted. 

That Shakespere quickly rose to prominence 
in his art we may judge from the fact that in 
1592, when he had been in London not more 
than five or six years, he was already writing 
plays and was the object of a jealous attack by 
one of his rival playwriters. At the age of 
forty-nine he was able to leave London with a 
competence and return to his home at Stratford- 
on-Avon. This also argues for his success as a 
dramatist. In 1598, Francis Mere writes of the 
growing fame of Shakespere and prints the titles 
of a number of his plays. Ben Jonson, the sec¬ 
ond dramatist of the age, was his intimate 
friend. These are facts worth knowing about 
the personality of the man who is the greatest 
figure in English literature, perhaps in all litera¬ 
ture. 

Taking the number from the globe edition of 
Shakespere’s dramas, he wrote thirty-four dif¬ 
ferent plays, counting as one play those which 
are written in two parts. His dramas may be 
divided into three classes: comedies, histories, 
tragedies. The following are a few of the best 
in each class. Everyone well-read should be 
familiar with them: 

Comedies: “Midsummer Night’s Dream,” 
“As You Like It,” “Merchant of Venice,” 
“Winter’s Tale,” “Twelfth Night,” “The Tem¬ 
pest.” 

Histories: “Richard III.,” “Henry IV.,” 
“Henry V.,” “Henry VIII.,” “King John,” 
“Julius Caesar.” 

Tragedies: “Hamlet,” “Macbeth,” “Lear,” 
“ Othello,” “ Romeo and Juliet.” 

In addition to his dramas, Shakespere also 
wrote two long narrative poems, and one hun¬ 
dred and fifty-four sonnets. It is said that the 
measure of Shakespere’s greatness is his univer¬ 
sality, “not of an age, but for all time.” Other 



300 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


writers have equaled Shakespere in some one 
quality, but he excels them all in the combina¬ 
tion of great qualities. 

Ben Jonson wrote three great dramas which 
will repay reading, “ Volpone,” “The Alchemist/' 
and “The Silent Woman," and to these three 
some would add a fourth, “Every Man in His 
Humor." Jonson failed in his delineation of 
character. He was a critic of men's follies and 
he gave a distorted and incomplete picture of 
life. In his delineation of women, where 
Shakespere was strongest, Jonson utterly failed. 

The decay of the drama began while Shake¬ 
spere was yet alive. The drama in his hands 
had been the painting of the whole of human 
nature, the painting of characters as they were 
built up by their natural bent, and by the play 
of circumstance upon them. The drama, in 
Ben Jonson's hands, was the painting of that 
particular human nature which he saw in his 
own age; and his characters are not men and 
women as they are, but as they may become 
when they are mastered by a special bias of the 
mind. In Beaumont and Fletcher, the women 
are overdrawn and the men are base in thought. 
Shakespere's men and women are of the types 
of the noblest characters his age produced. 

One of the most remarkable men who adorned 
the court of Queen Elizabeth was Sir Francis 
Bacon, the .greatest prose writer of the age. 
As courtier and scholar he adorned both this and 
the succeeding reign of James I. His political 
success and his political disgrace are familiar 
stories in history. His enduring work is in 
literature. He was both poet and philosopher. 
His great work in philosophy is magnificent in 
scope, as may be inferred from the title “In- 
stauratio Magna," or “The Great Institution of 
True Philosophy." It is a great work designed 
to be written in six parts, but never finished. 
The second part, “Novum Organum," the “new 
instrument," is described as “the science of a 
better and more perfect use of reason in the 
investigation of things, and of the true aids of 
the understanding." It sets forth the methods 
to be adopted in searching after truth, points 
out sources of error, and suggests the means of 
avoiding errors in the future. His entire phi¬ 
losophy is built upon the idea of inductive inves¬ 
tigation. Bacon had so little respect for the 
English language that he wrote his great phi¬ 
losophy in Latin. His “New Atlantis," like Sir 
Thomas More’s “Utopia," pictures in romance 
an ideal commonwealth, some features of which 
have been realized in our own republic. The 
most important among his English works is his 
volume of essays, clear, concise, practical in 
observation, of profound wisdom. Sir Walter 
Raleigh contributed to prose his ambitious 
“History of the World," and to poetry a few 
beautiful lyrics. 

With the death of Bacon, in 1626, we pass 
from the glory of the Elizabethan age into the 
Puritan age. There are some characteristics 
which sharply separate this age from the pre¬ 
ceding. Intense patriotism, peace within the 
realm, general prosperity, and much worldliness 
characterized the reign of Elizabeth. The Stuart 
reign was characterized by controversy in relig¬ 
ion and politics, open rupture between king and 


parliament protracted into the Great Civil War. 
Puritan standards became triumphant during 
this period. Literature, which always reflects 
life, presented the somber tone of the age and 
was in large part religious. The “ King James 
Version of the Bible" was printed in 1611. It 
is impossible to overestimate the influence of 
this translation upon the lives of the people and 
the language of every day. The study of the 
Bible became so universal that it colored the 
imagination and the speech of the common 
people. Even those who were irreligious in 
their lives spoke in the language of the Scrip¬ 
tures. 

The great literature of the Elizabethan age 
was in poetry. With one exception, John Mil- 
ton, the great literature of the Puritan age was 
in prose. But the prose writers of the Puritan 
age were not without imagination and delicacy 
of humor. Bunyan's “ Pilgrim’s Progress,” by 
some thought to be the crowning work of the 
imagination, is a product of this age, and during 
the same period Thomas Fuller brightens his 
“History of the Worthies of England" by irre¬ 
sistible touches of humor, and Isaak Walton 
adds delight in nature and rustic pastime in his 
“Complete Angler"; but for the most part the 
world was looked upon seriously. 

John Milton has been awarded the second 
place among the great names in English litera¬ 
ture. He was born eight years before the death 
of Shakespere. It may be that Shakespere saw 
the boy Milton. One likes to think so. Milton’s 
childhood was very happy. His parents trusted 
him because they realized that he was a boy of 
high ideals. He had every advantage of a lib¬ 
eral education and of long quiet years of study 
at his father’s home in Horton. This was well 
for the years of struggle that followed. Milton’s 
literary career may be divided into three periods: 
that of his youth, his manhood, and his old age. 
It has been called “a drama in three acts." 
The first may be stated in years as extending 
from 1623 to 1640; the second, from 1640 to 
1660; and the third, from 1660 to 1674. 

The first period, that of his youth, was spent 
at school and among his family at Horton. 
During this period he wrote the “Hymn on the 
Morning of Christ’s Nativity," the “Masque of 
Comus," “Lycidas," “L’Allegro," “II Pense- 
roso," and a number of his sonnets. Some 
critics consider “Comus" Milton’s finest poem. 
It is perfect in lyric qualities and as an apothe¬ 
osis to virtue is lofty in conception. “If virtue 
feeble were, Heaven itself would stoop to her." 

“Lycidas," an elegy on Milton’s class-mate, 
Edward King, ranks as one of the great elegies 
in our language. “L’Allegro" and “II Pense- 
roso" are companion poems; one describes the 
delights of social life, the other the deep enjoy¬ 
ment of the scholar in seclusion. These poems 
will always remain favorites for their beautiful 
imagery and their truthful study of the emo¬ 
tions. Milton’s sonnets have for their theme 
such subjects as religion, patriotism, domestic 
affection; whereas the older poets, Shakespere, 
Spenser, Sidney, Raleigh, and their imitators, 
preferred to write sonnets on love. The most 
remarkable of Milton’s minor poems is the 
“Hymn on the Nativity," written when the 



LITERATURE 


301 


author was only twenty-one, yet nowhere does 
he excel it in beauty of verse nor in dignity of 
language. 

The second period of Milton’s life may be 
called the time of “storm and stress.” Thick 
darkness was upon him. For twenty years, 
from 1640 to 1660, his life was filled with relig¬ 
ious and political controversy. He was forced 
to turn from poetry to prose, and lamenting it 
he says: “I have the use, as I may account it, 
but of my left hand.” His prose works are 
voluminous. They are upon varied subjects 
but upon one theme, liberty. He struck heavy 
blows for liberty in church and state and in all 
the relations of life. He pled for more freedom 
of speech and for more liberal ideas in educa¬ 
tion. His greatest prose work is the “Areopa- 
gitica: A Speech for the Liberty of the Press.” 
In 1652, at the age of forty-three, Milton be¬ 
came totally blind; but even in his blindness 
he served the Commonwealth as Secretary for 
Foreign Tongues under Oliver Cromwell, the 
Lord Protector, and continued to write his 
burning pamphlets against the royalists who 
were struggling to regain power. 

The third period is that which succeeds the 
Restoration, in 1660. With the return of 
Charles II., the leaders of the Commonwealth 
had to flee for their lives. Milton’s life was at 
first endangered and he was concealed by 
friends. Later, he preferred retirement where 
he might have leisure to do the great work of 
his life. Here he wrote “ Paradise Lost,” 
“Paradise Regained,” and “Samson Agonistes.” 

The beauty of “Paradise Lost” has been 
compared to that of a stately temple, the style 
the loftiest in the whole range of English poetry. 
Its scenes are laid in Heaven and Earth and 
Hell, its characters are God and the holy angels, 
Satan and his legions, and the newly created 
race of man. It is almost inconceivable how 
any human mind could have attempted it. 
“Paradise Regained” and “Samson Agonistes” 
show a decline of power, though standing alone 
they would be great. In “Paradise Regained” 
Christ is tempted in the wilderness and resists 
Satan. In “Samson Agonistes” we have a 
choral drama modeled upon the form of the 
Greek. In the greatness of his work, Milton 
can be compared only to the great classic writers, 
Homer and Virgil. 

The second great name in the Puritan age is 
John Bunyan, the prince of prose writers for his 
time and the prince of story tellers for all 
times. “Pilgrim’s Progress” has been pro¬ 
nounced the greatest of all allegories. Bunyan’s 
preeminence is undoubted. It is not an ex¬ 
aggeration to repeat this estimate of him: 
“What Shakespere is to English dramatists, 
what Milton is to English epic poets, that John 
Bunyan is to writers of English allegory.” 
From extreme poverty and ignorance and years 
of imprisonment in Bedford jail, he rose to the 
respected position of pastor over a large church. 
His biographer says of him, “The fame of his 
sufferings, his genius as a writer, his power as a 
speaker, gave him unbounded influence among 
the Baptists; while the beauty of his character 
and the. catholic liberality of his views secured 
him universal esteem. His ministrations ex¬ 


tended over the whole region between Bedford 
and London.” 

Historically, one of the greatest prose works 
of the century is Samuel Pepys’ “Diary.” It 
is a gossipy record of nine years and gives a life¬ 
like picture of the gay and profligate portion of 
society which fell under his observation. The 
reaction from Puritanism led to an extraordinary 
state of society among the aristocracy, which 
we would not like to picture to-day. The great 
historical work of the age is the “History of the 
Great Rebellion,” by Edward Hyde, the first 
Earl of Clarendon. A curious coincidence marks 
the birth and death of Clarendon. Born in 
1608 and died in 1674, his life is exactly co¬ 
extensive with John Milton, his great opponent 
in the great civil strife. Clarendon has been 
called the “Cavalier-prince of historic portrait- 
painters,” and Milton the “Puritan-prince of 
epic poets.” 

Chaucer, Shakespere, Spenser, Milton, royal 
names in English literature, are succeeded by a 
meager school of artificial poets. Dryden and 
Pope are the representatives of this school. 
Dryden died in 1700, just three hundred years 
after the death of Chaucer. The sweetness and 
gay and kindly humor and tender sympathies 
which so illumine Chaucer’s poetry, is gone 
from Dryden’s didactic verse. His greatest 
satire is “Absalom and Achitophel,” a bitter 
arraignment of those who opposed the succes¬ 
sion of James, the brother of Charles II., to the 
English throne. “MacFlecknoe,” another satire, 
is directed against a Whig poet. “ All for Love,” 
a drama, is in this same cold, critical vein. He 
wrote long criticisms in argumentative verse 
which are utterly lacking in the true spirit of 
poetry. His “Hind and the Panther” and 
“ Religio Laici ” are known to-day only as names. 
The greatness of poetry cannot be expressed by 
the critical spirit. Dryden’s one really admir¬ 
able poem, “Ode to St. Cecilia’s Day or Alex¬ 
ander’s Feast,” will be remembered for its 
lyric qualities. His prose writings are numer¬ 
ous, and the English in which he wrote them 
has become a standard of good style to all later 
writers. 

The English Revolution of 1688 secured peace 
for the realm and an opportunity for the devel¬ 
opment of arts and sciences. The investiga¬ 
tions of Newton and the development of phi¬ 
losophy under Locke mark this period. 

Alexander Pope is the literary successor of 
John Dryden, and the representative poet of 
his time. He was a precocious boy whose body 
was “one long disease.” Before he was twelve 
years of age he had written an “Ode to Solitude,” 
and reading was his passion. To understand 
Pope one must remember his deformity and the 
spirit of the time in which he lived. The first 
half of the Eighteenth Century is marked by a 
low standard of morals. Political unrest and 
political double dealing, coarse social life, dull, 
unimaginative, brutal, these are the common 
terms by which it is described. Drunkenness 
was common and morality laughed at. Out of 
such conditions Pope and Swift and Steele gath¬ 
ered the material for their satires. Addison 
alone of this distinguished group of writers kept 
his genial nature and wrote what was gentle 



302 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and mirthful with such grace that satire lost 
its severity. 

The literary faults of this age are lack of moral 
earnestness and enthusiasm. Form was pre¬ 
ferred to matter. The age was molded by 
classical rules. It delighted in studied regu¬ 
larities. Pope is the great exponent of the 
classic school. So deficient is he in warmth of 
feeling for man or nature, so fixed and formal 
are his lines, that it is often questioned whether 
Pope was entitled to the name of poet. But 
whether poet or not, Pope has enriched our 
language by his epigrammatic couplets which 
are familiar in our common speech. Pope and 
Dryden have done much for our English in 
raising the standard of good speech. Poems of 
satire the world will forget, but a good laugh 
is worth preserving. “Gulliver’s Travels,” by 
Jonathan Swift, are even more enjoyed to-day 
than when they were written, for the sharpness 
of their first intent is forgotten. 

The first half of the Eighteenth Century is 
far more remarkable for its prose than for its 
poetry. A new and excellent field for essayists 
was found in the “Tatler,” planned by Richard 
Steele. Periodical papers containing news had 
existed in England from the time of the Civil 
War, but this was the first periodical designed 
to have literary merit and to discuss questions 
of common, every-day interest, containing 
lively sketches, anecdotes, humorous discus¬ 
sions. It was succeeded by the “Spectator,” 
which appeared every week-day morning in the 
shape of a single leaf from March 1, 1711, to 
December, 1712; after a suspension it reap¬ 
peared three times a week in 1714, and extended 
to 635 numbers. The “Guardian” was begun 
in 1713, but ceased after the 176th number. 
Steele was the principal contributor to the 
“Tatler” and “Guardian,” and Addison to the 
“Spectator,” but papers were also furnished by 
Swift, Pope, Berkeley, and Hughes. The essays, 
especially those of Addison, were often models of 
grace and delicacy, and were highly influential 
in correcting and refining the tone of society. 

Prose fiction is another development of the 
Eighteenth Century. Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) 
first gave to English fiction a simple, direct, 
matter-of-fact, and human interest, and the 
narrative of “Robinson Crusoe” has never been 
excelled. The “ Tale of a Tub ” and “ Gulliver’s 
Travels,” by Swift, “The History of John Bull,” 
by Arbuthnot, are satires in the form of fic¬ 
titious narratives. The writings of Swift are 
admirable for their vigor and humor. Under 
his successors the novel became more complex 
and artistic, embraced greater varieties of char¬ 
acter and diversities of treatment, and pictured 
the artificial refinements and distinctions of so¬ 
ciety. “Joseph Andrews,” “Tom Jones,” and 
“Amelia,” by Fielding, and “Pamela,” “Cla¬ 
rissa Harlowe,” and “Sir Charles Grandison,” by 
Richardson, were published near the middle of 
the century. “Peregrine Pickle,” “Humphrey 
Clinker,” and other novels by Smollett are dis¬ 
tinguished for coarse, comic incidents and broad 
humor. “Tristram Shandy” and “Sentimental 
Journey,” by Sterne, contain passages sparkling 
with wit and humor, also much sentimentality. 
The “ Vicar of Wakefield,” by Oliver Goldsmith, 


is without doubt the most delightful romantic 
novel of the century. It is not a book without 
grave faults, but it combines delicate humor 
with sweet human emotions. Goldsmith was a 
writer in every field of invention, but he will be 
longest remembered because of the Vicar and 
his family. His “Deserted Village” and his 
“Traveler” contain passages that cannot be 
forgotten. So also Gray’s “Elegy Written in a 
Country Churchyard” and Collins’ “Odes” and 
Cowper’s hymns belong to immortal verse. 

The Eighteenth Century, which gave us the 
modern essay and the novel, also produced 
writers of carefully elaborated and finished his¬ 
tory: “History of England,” by David Hume; 
“History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire,” by Gibbon; and Robertson’s histories 
of Scotland, Germany, and America. There 
was also noted oratory, Burke, Fox, Pitt, and 
the philosophy of Berkeley, Paley, and Hume, 
and the great prose works of Adam Smith and 
William Blackstone. 

In striking personality and in power to make 
others think, Dr. Samuel Johnson was, without 
doubt, the foremost man of literary London. 
He was the central figure around whom all the 
literary men and women gathered, the Nestor 
of his age. Dr. Johnson founded and carried 
on as sole editor two periodicals, the “Rambler” 
and the “Idler,” in the style of the “Spectator” 
which Addison had made so popular. His most 
famous work was a “Dictionary of the English 
Language.” His critical estimate of poetry 
cannot be highly valued and his criticisms are 
often stilted and overstrained in language. His 
best prose is his romance, “Rasselas, the Prince 
of Abyssinia.” Johnson is better known because 
of his biographer, Boswell, than for what he wrote. 

The close of the century, so remarkable for 
its development in prose, adds one great name 
to the poets already mentioned, Robert Burns, 
the Scottish prince of lyric verse. Love of 
nature, feeling for humanity, he has written for 
us as no other poet ever wrote. The poetic 
ideal of Gray and Collins and Cowper and Blake 
and Burns reacted against cold formalities in 
verse. The joys and sorrows of life they would 
put into poetry, and as it came from the heart 
they would have it touch the heart. Man and 
nature are the chosen themes, and man is always 
in the foreground with Burns. The songs of 
Burns minister to every common feeling of the 
human heart. That he has won his audience 
is proven by the fact that since the day of his 
death his audiences have continually grown larger. 
Those who read and those who do not read are 
familiar with these songs: “Scots wha hae wi’ 
Wallace Bled,” “Auld Lang Syne,” “Cornin’ 
Through the Rye,” “Ye Banks and Braes.” 

Poetry, at the close of the Eighteenth Century, 
was simpler than in the preceding generations. 
There were songs of joy and laughter and tender 
sympathies. Imagination was given free play 
and it touched with beauty the familiar scenes 
of every day. 

The opening years of the Nineteenth Century 
ushered in a brilliant company of nature poets: 
Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Byron, 
Shelley, Keats, together with Cowper and Burns, 
who died in the closing years of the last century, 



LITERATURE 


303 


belong practically to this group. There was to 
be noted a change of ideals. The reign of the 
epic and the drama was past. Classic models 
gave place to freer expression, more individuality, 
a deeper appreciation of the beauties of nature, 
and more value set upon the commonplace. 
Imagination and a larger sympathy found 
beauty in that which had been counted low and 
mean. This was illustrated in the poems of 
Burns and Cowper. Sir Walter Scott showed 
this tendency in his romances. His romance 
poems combine the refinements of modern poetry 
with the spirit and material of the neglected 
border minstrelsy. Wordsworth aimed to re¬ 
new nature by bringing back poetry to truth 
and nature. His verse is often weak, but his 
best poems, as “Ode on Immortality” and 
many of his shorter poems, are exquisite in 
their simplicity of feeling and truthfulness of 
delineation. Coleridge’s finest poems are “Cris- 
tabel” and “Ancient Mariner.” They are un¬ 
surpassed in their strong, wild music and their 
splendid imagination. Southey contributed both 
to prose and verse and displayed extensive 
learning. Byron was remarkable for strength 
and passion. Keats and Shelley were instinct 
with love and intellectual sense of ideal beauty. 
“The Skylark”and “The Cloud,” by Shelley, are 
perfect in their music and their imagery. Thomas 
Moore, sometimes called the “Irish melodist,” 
besides his shorter poems, wrote “ Lalla Rookh,” 
a volume containing four Oriental stories told 
with rich imagery and diction. Thomas Camp¬ 
bell wrote “Pleasures of Hope.” Humor and 
pathos are combined in the poems of Thomas 
Hood: “Song of the Shirt,” “Bridge of Sighs,” 
“The Last Man.” 

The prose of this first half of the century also 
takes high rank. Scott will always be remem¬ 
bered as the creator of the historical novel, 
Charles Lamb for his delicate humor and rare 
use of language. His “Essays of Elia” have 
been called the finest of their kind in literature. 
Macaulay’s essays give us fine examples of Eng¬ 
lish prose. De Quincey’s opium dreams and 
his “English Mail Coach” are also brilliant 
specimens of English. Mill, Bentham, Malthus, 
are the chief contributors to philosophical prose. 

In 1837, Queen Victoria ascended the throne. 
From this date until the present time may be 
called the Victorian age. This age is not re¬ 
markable for the development of any new type 
of literature but for the quantity and general 
excellence of literature in every department. 
Representative names of the Victorian age are 
Browning, Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, the 
Rossettis, in poetry; Thackeray, Dickens, 
George Eliot, Bulwer, in prose fiction; Carlyle, 
Macaulay, Ruskin, Matthew Arnold, Swinburne, 
Leslie Stephen, in essay writing; Spencer, New¬ 
man, Hamilton, Darwin, Tyndall, Huxley, Fara¬ 
day, Mill, in philosophy and science; Milman, 
Grote, Froude, Freeman, Buckle, Green, and 
Leckey, in history. 

Problems of life occupy the minds of the Vic¬ 
torian writers. It is an age of scientific thought 
and of practical reform. There is a struggle of 
the masses upward, a striving for better govern¬ 
ment, for higher moral ideals. Prose and poetry 
alike are imbued with an ethical purpose. 


Dickens desired to bring out what he called 
“the romantic aspect of familiar things,” and 
he began with the study of “vicious poverty.” 
Most of Dickens’ novels were inspired by a 
firm purpose to accomplish some reform. His 
social creed has been formulated in these words: 
“Banish from earth some few monsters of selfish¬ 
ness, malignity, and hypocrisy, set to rights a 
few obvious imperfections in the machinery of 
society, inspire all men with a cheery benevo¬ 
lence, and everything will go well with this 
excellent world of ours.” While Dickens with 
inimitable humor and rare optimism was pre¬ 
senting the cause of the submerged poor, Thack¬ 
eray wrote of the follies of the upper classes of 
society, and George Eliot pictured the English 
middle class. These great novelists with their 
deep human sympathies pictured the inter¬ 
dependence of human beings, the relation that 
every man bears to his surroundings. Thus 
fiction has kept in close touch with the social 
ideas of the time, reflecting not only its mood, 
but also its important changes, showing thereby 
that it has life and does not exist as a mere 
literary form. 

The vigor and idealism of the age has been 
splendidly expressed by Browning and Tenny¬ 
son. Carlyle was the mouthpiece of the strongly- 
felt need of heroism. He was by far the greatest 
of the Englishmen of his time who taught the 
value of sincerity. Another author who had a 
great influence upon his contemporaries was 
John Ruskin. Each generation has its message 
to deliver. Carlyle and Ruskin in their criti¬ 
cisms, one on life, and one on art, caught the 
message of their time. They would have men 
be true and live up to the best that is in them. 
They spoke as the poets Tennyson and Brown¬ 
ing spoke of the larger and truer meaning in life. 
They believed in growth through evolution and 
in the possibilites of the individual. 

It is impossible in so short an article to select 
and discuss the individual writers of the Vic¬ 
torian age. They must be characterized, if at 
all, in groups. Such a book as this affords little 
space for library lists and selected works of the 
best authors both in English and American 
literature and the best known works in foreign 
literatures, so that the student who wishes to 
continue his studies or the general reader who 
wishes the delight of well-selected reading should 
consult a good outline of English literature. 
Such names as the following, which belong to 
every appreciative study of English literature, 
but an extended notice of which has necessarily 
been omitted here, will be found well worthy of 
the careful student of his mother tongue: in 
poetry — Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Edward 
Fitzgerald, Arthur Hugh Clough, Jean Ingelow, 
William Morris, Algernon Charles Swinburne, 
William Watson, Rudyard Kipling; fiction — 
Charles Lever, Elizabeth Gaskell, Charles Reade, 
Anthony Trollope, Charlotte Bronte, Charles 
Kingsley, Wilkie Collins, Richard D. Blackmore, 
Dinah Maria Craike, George Meredith, Thomas 
Hardy, William Black, Robert Louis Stevenson, 
Mrs. Humphrey Ward, Hall Caine, Rudyard 
Kipling, George Macdonald; essay and criti¬ 
cism — Leslie Stephens, Algernon Charles Swin¬ 
burne, Walter Pater, John Addington Symonds. 



1586- 

1588- 

1612 

1663 

^OS- 

HOe- 

1737- 

1743 

1752- 

1754 

1757- 

1758- 

1766- 

1770- 

1771- 

1773- 

1775- 

1779- 

1779- 

1779- 

1780- 

1780- 

1780- 

1782- 

1782- 

1783- 

1784- 

1784- 

1785- 

1787- 

1788- 

1789- 

1789- 

1789- 

1789- 

1790- 

1791- 

1791- 

1791- 

1792- 

1793- 

1793- 

1793- 

1793- 

1794- 

1795- 

1795- 

1795- 

1796- 

1796- 

1796- 

1796- 

1796- 

1797- 

1798- 

1800- 

1802- 

1802- 

1802- 

1802- 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

AMERICAN LITERATURE 


Author 


REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 


Prose 


Poetry 


Hooker, Thomas, . . 
Winthrop, John, . . 

Bradstreet, Anne, . . 
Mather, Cotton, . . . 
Edwards, Jonathan, . 

Franklin, Benjamin, . 


Sermons, Survey of Church, etc. 
History of New England (1630— 
1649).. . . . 


Magnalia (history). 

Freedom of the Will, Original 

Sin, etc. 

J Poor Richard’s Almanac, . . . 
"/ Autobiography, Essays, etc. . . 


Poems. 


Hopkinson, Francis, . . 
Jefferson, Thomas, . . . 
Freneau, Philip, . . . 

Barlow, Joel,. 

Hamilton, Alexander, . 
Webster, Noah, .... 
Wilson, Alexander, . . 
Hopkinson, Joseph, . . 
Brown, Charles Brockden, 
Paine, Robert Treat, . . 
Beecher, Lyman, . . . 
Allston, Washington, . 
Story, Joseph, .... 
Paulding, James Kirke, 
Channing, William E., . 
Key, Francis Scott, . . 


Notes on Virginia. 


State Papers. 

Spelling Book, Dictionary.. . 
Ornithology. 


Wieland, Clara Howard, etc. 


Sermons, Political Addresses. 

Lectures on Art,. 

Commentaries on Cons, of U. 

Novels,. 

Essays, Addresses. 


S. 


Battle of the Kegs. 

Poems (humorous). 

The Columbiad, etc. 

Hail Columbia. 

Adams and Liberty, Poems, 
Poems. 

Poems. 

Star Spangled Banner, Poems. 


Audubon, John James, . -j 

Webster, Daniel, . . . 
Benton, Thomas Hart, . 
Irving, Washington, . . 

Worcester, Joseph E., . 
Allen, William. 

Pierpont, John, .... 
Dana, Richard H., . . 

Campbell, Alexander, . 
Hillhouse, James A., . . 
Sedgwick, Catherine M., 
Cooper, James Fenimore, 

Sparks, Jared, .... 
Halleck, Fitz-Greene, . 
Sigourney, Lydia H., . 

Ticknor, George, . . . 
Sprague, Charles, , . . 
Payne, John Howard, . 
Goodrich, Samuel G., . 

Hall, James,. 

Carey, Henry Chas., . . 
Thompson, Daniel P., . 


Birds of America. 

Quadrupeds of America. . . . 

Orations, etc. 

Thirty Years’ View (U. S. Senate). 
Knickerbocker’s History of New 
York, Sketch Book, etc. . . 
Dictionary of Eng. Language. . 
American Biographical and His¬ 
torical Dictionary. 

School Readers. 

Lectures on Shakespere,.... 
Religious Debates. 


A New England Tale, etc. . . . 
The Spy, Leather Stocking Tales, 

etc. . . . 

American Biographies. 


History of Spanish Literature. . 


Peter Parley Books, etc. . . . 
History of the Indian Tribes. . 
Principles of Political Economy. 
Green Mountain Boys, Histori¬ 
cal Novels.. . . 


Bryant, William Cullen, 
Drake, Joseph Rodman, 


Kennedy, John P., 


Swallow Barn, Rob of the Bowl, 
Horse-Shoe Robinson, etc., Mem¬ 
oirs. 


Percival, James G., 


Lyrics. 

The Buccaneer. 

Percy’s Masque, Hadad. 


Marco Bozzaris, Poems. 
Poems. 

The P'amily Meeting, Poems. 
Home, Sweet Home, etc. 


Poems (Thanatopsis), etc. 
The Culprit Fay. 


Prometheus, etc. 


Wayland, Francis,. . . 


Prescott, William H., .-j 

Brainard, John G. C., . 
Haliburton, Thomas C., 
Palfrey, John G., . . . 

Parsons, Theophilus,. . 
Barnes, Albert, .... 
Bancroft, George, . . . 
Morris, Geo. P., . . . . 
Child, Lydia M., .... 

Bushnell, Horace, . . . -J 
Prentice, George D., . . 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 
Abbott, Jacob, .... 

r 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, -j 

Abbott, John S. C., . . 
Simms, William Gilmore, 
Willis, Nathaniel P., . . 


Moral Science, Political Econ¬ 
omy, . 

Intellectual Philosophy. 

Ferdinand and Isabella, Con¬ 
quest of Peru, Conquest of 
Mexico, etc.. 


Sam Slick. 

History of New England. . . . 
Relig. and Phil, of Swedenborg. 
“Barnes’s Notes” (Bible).. . . 
History of U. S. to 1789. . . . 


Poems. 


Mother’s Book, Biographies. . . 
Nature and the Supernatural, . 
Moral Uses of Dark Things. . . 
Louisville Journal (Ed.), . . . 

Conduct of Life,. 

Essays, Representative Men, etc. 

Rollo Books, etc.' 

Twice Told Tales, Blithedale Ro¬ 
mance, . 

Scarlet Letter, Wonder Book, . 

Marble Faun, etc. 

Histories, Biographies, etc. . . 

Novels, Biography, etc. 

Sketches. 


Lyrics. 


Poems. 


Poems. 

Scriptural Poems, etc. 
















































































- 
















































. 


















"i 















. 


































LONGFELLOW’S STUDY 

















































1811- 

1813- 

1814- 

1815- 

1816- 

1816- 

1817- 

1817- 

1817- 

1819- 

1819- 

1819- 

1819- 

1819- 

1821- 

1822- 

1822- 

1822- 

1822- 

1822- 

1823- 

1823- 

1823- 

1824- 

1824- 

1824- 

1825- 

1825- 

1826- 

1827; 

1829- 

1831 

1831 

1832- 

1833 

1833 

1834- 

1835- 

1835 

1835 

1836- 

1837 

1837- 

1837 

1838- 

1838- 


LITERATURE 


305 


AMERICAN EITERATIJRE — Continued 


Author 


Longfellow, H. W., 
Hildreth, Richard, , 
Whittier, John G., . 


Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 

Poe, Edgar Allan, . . , 
McCosh, James, .... 
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 
Lossing, Benson J., . . 

Motley, John Lothrop, . j 
Dana,Richard Henry, Jr., 
Saxe, John G., .... 

Allibone, Samuel A., . .-j 

Thoreau, H. D., .... 
Fields, James T., . . . 
Bigelow, John, . ... 

Holland, J. G., . . . . \ 


Howe, Julia Ward, . . 
Lowell, James Russell, . 
Whipple, Edwin P., . . 
Whitman, Walt, 


White, Richard Grant, . j 
Adams, William Taylor, 
Hale, Edward Everett, j 

Parton, James, . . . 
Mitchell, Donald G., . 

Read, Thomas Buchanan 
Parkman, Francis, . .j 
Boker, George H., . . 


Higginson, Thomas 
Wentworth, . . . 

Whitney, Adeline D., 

Shea, John D. G., . . 
Curtis, George W., 


Taylor, Bayard, . . . 
Stoddard, Richard H., 
Foster, Stephen Collins 

Wallace, Lew, . . . 
Warner, Charles Dud¬ 
ley, . 

Hayne, Paul Hamilton 

Terhune, Mary V., . 

Alcott, Louisa May, . 
Stedman, Edmund C., 
Mulford, Elisha,. . . 
Stockton, Frank R., . 
Tyler, Moses Coit, . . 
Clemens, Samuel L., . 

Abbott, Lyman, . . 
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 

Howells, William Dean, 

Eggleston, Edward, . 
Burroughs, John, . . 
Dodge, Mary Mapes, . 
Roe, Edward Payson, 
Tourg^e, Albion W., . 


REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 


Prose 


Outre Mer, etc.,.j 

History of U. S. to 1821. . 


( 

.1 

Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, 

etc.,. 

Novels,. 

The Gold Bug,. 

Intuitions of the Mind, etc. . . 

Uncle Tom’s Cabin, etc. 

Pictorial Histories, etc. 

Rise of the Dutch Republic, His¬ 
tory of the United Netherlands. 
Two Years before the Mast. . . 


Critical Dictionary of English, 
Literature and Authors.. . . 
Walden, Excursions, etc. . . 
Yesterdays with Authors. . . 
Life of Benjamin Franklin. . 
Timothy Titcomb’s Letters, . 
Arthur Bonnicastle, etc., . . 
Social and Philosophical j 

Papers.| 

Among My Books, My Study j 

Windows, . ..) 

Essays and Reviews, American 
Literature. . . .'. 


Words and their Uses, .... 
Every Day English, etc. . . . 
Juveniles (Oliver Optic). . . . 
The Man Without a Country, . 

His Level Best, etc. 

Biographies. 

Dream Life, Reveries of a Bach¬ 
elor. 


Oregon Trail, Pioneers of France, 
Montcalm and Wolfe, etc. . . . 


Outdoor Papers,. 

Short Studies of American Au¬ 
thors, etc. 

The Gayworthys, Faith Gartney, 

The Catholic Church in the U. S. 
Potiphar Papers, Life of W. C. 

Bryant, Prue and I, etc. . . 
Northern Travel, Greece and 

Russia, etc.,. 

Hannah Thurston, etc. 

Loves and Heroines of the Poets, 


Poetry 


The Fair God, Prince of India, 

Ben Hur.. . 

My Summer in a Garden, . . . 
Little Journey in the World, etc. 


Alone, Hidden Path, etc. 

Common Sense in the Household. 
Little Women, etc. 


The Nation, Republic of God. . 
Rudder Grange, Squirrel Inn, . 

The Lady or the Tiger, etc. . 
History of American Literature. 

Innocents Abroad,. 

Huckleberry Finn. 

Life and Letters of St. Paul, . . 

Sermons, etc. 

Marjorie Daw, Novels, .... 
Venetian Life, Their Wedding 

Journey, . 

The Rise of Silas Lapham, etc. 
Hoosier Schoolmaster, Roxy, etc. 
WakeRobin,Winter Sunshine,etc. 

Hans Brinker,. 

Barriers Burned Away, etc. . . 
A Fool’s Errand, etc. 


Hiawatha, etc., 
Household Poems. 

Household Poems, 
Maud Muller, etc. 


Poems. 

The Raven, etc. 


New Rape of the Lock, 
The Money King, etc. 


Kathrina. 

Battle Hymn of the Republic, 
Later Lyrics. 

Vision of Sir Launfal, 

Biglow Papers. 


Leaves of Grass. 


The New Pastoral, etc. 
Poems of the War. 


Poems of the Orient. 

Book of the East, Poems. 
Old Uncle Ned, 

Old Folks at Home, 

Old Dog Tray, etc. 


Sonnets and Other Poems, 
Legends and Lyrics. 


The Diamond Wedding, 
Alice of Monmouth, etc. 


Poems. 


Along the Way. 


























































306 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


AMERICAN LITERATURE —Continued 




REPRESENTATIVE WORKS 

A 1ME 

Author 

Prose 

Poetry 

1838- 1896 

1839- 1902 

1839 

1841- 1913 

1842- 1901 

1842-1881 

1843 

1844 

1844-1911 

1854-1909 

1847 

Dodge, Mary Abigail, . 
Harte, Bret,.j 

Schouler, James, . . . 
Miller, Joaquin, .... 

Fiske, John,.-j 

Lanier, Sidney. 

James, Henry, .... 

Cable, George W. 

Ward, Eliz. S. Phelps, . 
Crawford, F. Marion, . 
Hardy, Arthur S., . . . 

Country Living, Stumbling 

Blocks. 

Luck of Roaring Camp, .... 

Gabriel Conroy, etc.,. 

History of the U. S. 

Myths and Myth Makers. . . . 

Histories. 

The Boy’s Froissart,. 

Daisy Miller, Portrait of a Lady, 

etc. 

Old Creole Days, etc. 

Gates Ajar, etc. 

Saracinesca, etc.,. 

Passe Rose, etc.. 

The Heathen Chinee and other 
poems. 

Songs of the Sierras, etc. 

Poems. 

Ballads. 


American history and American literature are 
not contemporaneous terms. American history 
began with the European settlement of the 
American continent, but the literature not until 
generations later, when the life of the new world 
had created distinctively different ideals and 
different currents of thought and emotion. 
American literature was in its origin simply a 
branch of English literature set in new earth. 
Our intellectual dependence on England has 
gradually lessened, and as we have gained inde- 
endence in national affairs, national ideals 
ave grown clearer and our character more 
definitely defined. This gradual change in 
national character has been reflected period by 
period in our literature, but American literature 
remains to-day, and it is desirable that it shall 
ever remain, a branch of the great literature of 
England which binds together the great body of 
the English speaking people. 

Periods of American Literature 

I. The Colonial Period, 1607-1765. 

II. The Revolutionary Period, 1765-1789. 

III. The Period of the Republic, 1789-1908. 
Colonial Period, 1607-1765. It is 

important to remember that the group of Eng¬ 
lish colonies scattered along the Atlantic coast 
represented entirely separate communities. There 
was no national life. The literature of the 
colonial period had its beginnings in no one 
center. Colonial literature is a literature of sec¬ 
tions, each reflecting the character of the set¬ 
tlers. 

In Virginia education was despised. All were 
in eager search for ease of life or gold. The 
earliest writings in this colony were news letters 
and various descriptions of the new and strange 
country or the story of mishaps and prosperity, 
written by the settlers to their friends in Eng¬ 
land. Very little attempt was made at beauty 
of style. Captain John Smith had printed when 
he returned to London “A True Relation of 
Virginia,?’ published in 1608. “We doubt not,” 
he writes, “but by God’s gracious assistance, 
and the adventurous, willing minds and speedy 
furtherance to so honorable an action in after 
times, to see our nation enjoy a country, not 
only exceedingly pleasant for habitation, but 
also very profitable for commerce in general, no 
doubt pleasing to Almighty God, honorable to 
our gracious sovereign, and commodious gener¬ 


ally to the whole kingdom.” This and other 
writings of the early Virginia colonists form 
very valuable historic documents. Certain few 
attempts at scholarly work were made, such as 
the translation of Ovid’s “Metamorphoses,” by 
George Sandys, treasurer of the Virginian colony 
and son of the archbishop of York. 

Among the narratives and descriptions of the 
country were “Good News from Virginia,” by 
Alexander Whitaker, published in London in 
1613; and “Leah and Rachel,” by John Ham¬ 
mond, published in 1656. But books of this 
character cannot be said to belong to the new 
continent. They were written by Englishmen 
and printed in England to be read by their 
countrymen. 

Great importance was attached to education 
in the New England colonies. Schools, colleges, 
the printing press, were soon established. Books 
and pamphlets were published. The first book 
printed was the “Bay Psalm Book.” Before 
1630 public instruction was compulsory in New 
England. 

Among the earliest writings were diaries, his¬ 
tories, and descriptions. The events of the first 
year of the Plymouth Colony were recorded in 
the “Journal of William Bradford and Edward 
Winslow,” vivid and full of interesting incidents. 
The “History of Plymouth,” by William Brad¬ 
ford, for thirty years governor of the colony, 
comes down to 1646. 

The literature of New England was, through¬ 
out the Colonial period, of a religious character. 
The only questions of general interest were ques¬ 
tions of theology. The writers of books and 
pamphlets were men who had fought for their 
religious opinions. They had exiled themselves 
that they might be free to worship God accord¬ 
ing to the dictates of their own conscience. 
Naturally, the first publications were in defense 
of their creed. Their only literary object was 
to explain divine truth as they perceived 
it. Religious books and pamphlets, therefore, 
form the great bulk of the publications of the 
period. 

Most prominent among the clergy were Roger 
Williams, the author of many writings, in which 
he boldly stood for liberty of conscience; John 
Eliot, the “Apostle to the Indians” and a writer 
of books; the Mathers, father, son, and grand¬ 
son, who were men of great mental power and 
voluminous sermons. 

























LITERATURE 


307 


The three greatest names during the Colonial 
period were: Cotton Mather (1663-1728), Jona¬ 
than Edwards (1703-1758), Benjamin Franklin 
(1706-1790). The most celebrated book by Cot¬ 
ton Mather was the “ Magnalia Christi Ameri¬ 
cana,” or “great things done by Christ for the 
American people.” Jonathan Edwards’ princi¬ 
pal work is entitled “ Inquiry into the Freedom 
of the Will.” The best known of Franklin’s 
works are his “Autobiography,” “Father Abra¬ 
ham’s Speech,” and “ Poor Richard’s Almanac.” 
The early writings of Benjamin Franklin fall 
within the Colonial period, but his state papers 
and his later works belong to the Revolutionary 
period. The first newspaper published in Amer¬ 
ica was “Public Occurrences,” in 1690. “The 
Boston News Letter” was published in 1704; 
“The Boston Gazette” in 1719. 

Revolutionary Period. By the middle 
of the Eighteenth Century great changes were 
manifested in the character of the colonies. 
They had become closer neighbors and they 
had discovered that they had much in common. 
The old isolation was broken down, and with 
united voice they protested against foreign 
injustice. The character of the writings of the 
Colonial period was theological, the character 
of the writings of the Revolutionary period was 
political. The writers of the day denounced 
tyranny and proclaimed for liberty and self- 
reliance, and thus laid the foundations for our 
national literature. Already, for half a century, 
the weekly newspapers, as well as a few monthly 
magazines for a decade or more, had been pub¬ 
lishing and discussing political news, so that the 
people of the colonies had been educated to 
think and write upon such subjects. The Amer¬ 
ican colleges had contributed their share to the 
spirit of independence, and educated men were 
ready to act as leaders. It is not strange, there¬ 
fore, that the state papers of the Revolutionary 
period form a body of exceedingly able docu¬ 
ments. “When your lordship looks at the 
papers transmitted to us from America,” said 
Chatham, in 1775, “when you consider their 
decency, firmness, and wisdom, you cannot but 
respect their cause.” 

The greatest orator of Massachusetts was 
James Otis; the greatest orator of Virginia, 
Patrick Henry. Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 
John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, all were able 
writers. There were some attempts at general 
literature, history, essay, biography, fiction, and 
there were a few poets of an inferior sort. The bal¬ 
lad literature of Revolutionary days is said to have 
attracted the attention of Lord Chatham. The 
6ongs current in America during this era are his¬ 
torically interesting and artistically monotonous. 
They celebrate in rude verse the achievements 
of native heroes, like “Bold Hawthorne”; or 
ridicule, like “Jack Brag,” the British Lion; or, 
like the “Fate of Burgoyne,” the overthrow of 
vaulting ambition; or, as in “Wyoming Mas¬ 
sacre,” bewail the fate of the fallen; or, as in 
“Free America,” celebrate the triumph of the 
good cause. Among the very rude national an¬ 
thems of the West, “ Yankee "Doodle ” is remark¬ 
able as having been an old Dutch catch adapted 
into an English satirical chant, and adopted, 
with conscious or unconscious irony, by the 


American troops. “Hail Columbia” was a 
somewhat later production, by Joseph Hopkin- 
son; and the “Star-Spangled Banner,” by Fran¬ 
cis S. Key, is associated with the traditions of 
the second British War. As inspired with the 
spirit of the Eighteenth, though belonging in 
date to the early years of the Nineteenth Cen¬ 
tury, we may mention the “Pilgrim Fathers” 
of J. Pierpont; Woodworth’s “Old Oaken 
Bucket”; “Home, Sweet Home,” by J. H. 
Payne; the humorous burlesque of J. G. Saxe, 
“Miss MacBride”: and the verses of the great 
painter and romancer, Washington Allston, 
with the refrain, “We are One.” Francis 
Hopkinson’s “Battle of the Kegs”; Joel 
Barlow’s “Hasty Pudding”; the humorous 
“Wants of Man,” by Quincy Adams; the 
“Conquest of Canaan,” and “Columbia,” also 
by Quincy Adams, are the best verses of their 
time. 

Period of the Republic, The best en¬ 
ergies of the American people have been concen¬ 
trated on the development of vast material re¬ 
sources and the building of a great nation. It 
is not to be expected that a century of such 
activity would produce a literature equal to 
that of the Mother Country with her centuries 
of assimilation and development. American 
literature has no name that can rank with the 
highest. She has never produced a Shakespere 
or a Milton, but her long roll of honorable names 
who have written prose and verse give promise 
of the literature that may be produced in Amer¬ 
ica when time has ripened this nation and when 
the great genius shall be born. 

The center of literary production during the 
last century shifted from place to place along 
the Atlantic coast. It was first in New York 
and began with the writers who formed the 
Knickerbocker school. From 1830 to 1835 the 
literary center shifted to Cambridge and Con¬ 
cord, where it remained for more than half a 
century. Since the deaths of Hawthorne, Long¬ 
fellow, Emerson, Lowell, Holmes, the leaders of 
the Concord-Cambridge school, there has been 
no one center of literary preeminence. New 
writers have arisen in many parts of the country 
and a general interest in letters has been 
diffused. 

With the first decade of the Nineteenth Cen¬ 
tury the stress of war and politics was relaxed 
and the time was favorable for the beginnings 
of our national literature. 

The principal writers during the pioneer pe¬ 
riod of American literature were Washington 
Irving, James Kirk Paulding, James Fenimore 
Cooper, Joseph Rodman Drake, Fitz-Greene 
Halleck, William Cullen Bryant, Edgar Allen 
Poe. It was Washington Irving who, by his 
“Knickerbocker History” and “Sketch Book,” 
removed from us the taunt, “Who reads an 
American Book?” Cooper invented a new type 
of novel in his “Leather Stocking Tales,” and 
Bryant gave us poetry of the new world. Edgar 
Allen Poe created the music of poetry such as 
had never been sung. 

The literary history of New England divides 
into three periods, represented by three groups 
of writers. First, the political group, including 
the great orators; second, the poets, and theo- 



308 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


logians; third, poets, novelists, essayists, critics. 
Among the orators and statesmen of the first 
group are Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, 
Rufus Choate, Wendell Phillips, Charles Sum¬ 
ner, all orators of the anti-slavery days. Con¬ 
temporaneous with these were the great orators 
of the South: Henry Clay, Robert Hayne, John 
C. Calhoun. To the great orators of the nation 
must be added the name of Abraham Lincoln, 
who won an enduring place by his Gettysburg 
speech. 

The second New England group includes 
minor poets as well as the great theologian, 
William Ellery Channing; the poet and painter, 
Washington Allston, and Richard Henry Dana, 
for many years editor-in-chief of the “ North 
American Review.” The third group of New 
England writers includes Emerson, Hawthorne, 
Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Holmes, and to 
these may be added Bronson Alcott and Louisa 
M. Alcott, Henry Thoreau, William Ellery Chan¬ 
ning, Theodore Parker, George William Curtis, 
George Ripley, and Margaret Fuller. Notable 
among historical writers during this half of the 
century are Richard Hildreth, George Bancroft, 
Francis Parkman, John Lothrop Motley, William 
Hickling Prescott, John Fiske, and John Bach 
MacMaster. 

The period since the close of the Civil War 
has been one of great productiveness in literary 
fields, and continues to show an increasing 
rather than a diminishing tendency. To record 
even the name of every writer who has been 
thought worthy of favorable notice by competent 
critics would be impossible in a short review. 
The importance of the monthly and other mag¬ 
azines and reviews as vehicles for the first pub¬ 
lication of all varieties of writing, has wonder¬ 
fully developed and the success of those periodi¬ 
cals which employ the art of illustration is 
especially notable. While the greater part of 
magazine writing has been of a quality to en¬ 
gage chiefly the attention of desultory and 
uncritical readers, there is now apparent a 
decided development in the direction of greater 
thoroughness, sounder scientific method, and 
a more acute and delicate art. This is es¬ 
pecially the case in historical and biographical 
studies. 

With the dawn of the Twentieth Century we 
have no promise of literature equal in quality to 
the best that was produced in the middle of the 
Nineteenth Century, but the number of those 
who can write well is exceedingly large. Ameri¬ 
can fiction of to-day is realistic and it has 
utilized freely the large resources of this country. 
The number of writers of realistic fiction can¬ 
not be computed, for among them must be 
included the writers of short stories with local 
coloring. Two acknowledged leaders in this 
field are William Dean Howells and Henry 
James, Jr. Mr. Howells is a keen observer of 
social life in our principal cities and has described 
it in several novels with depressing accuracy. 
Mr. James has given us a study of the American 
abroad in what has been called the “ international 
novel.” Contemporaneous with these are Thomas 
Bailey Aldrich and Edmund Clarence Stedman, 
both of them writers of poetry as well as prose. 
With the death of Aldrich in 1907 and Sted¬ 


man in 1908, the last of the old school of Ameri¬ 
can critics may be said to have passed away. 
Mr. Aldrich and Mr. Stedman were not great 
literary geniuses, they did not assume to be, 
but they had fine literary tastes and as editors 
and essayists they educated the reading public. 
Other writers of attractive stories are Edward 
Everett Hale, Frank R. Stockton, Elizabeth 
Phelps Ward, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Sarah 
Orne Jewett. Among the essayists are Charles 
Dudley Warner, John Burroughs, Richard 
Henry Stoddard, Henry Van Dyke, Donald G. 
Mitchell, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Rich¬ 
ard Grant White, Moses Coit Tyler. Prominent 
among literary journalists and critics are Bar¬ 
rett Wendell, Parke Godwin, Richard Watson 
Gilder. 

Western writers have added to our literature 
an original vein of realism and humor; the 
poems of Riley and the novels of Edward Eggle¬ 
ston with their Hoosier dialect, Maurice Thomp¬ 
son, Eugene Field, Lew Wallace, Helen Hunt 
Jackson, Cincinnatus Miller (“Joaquin Miller”), 
Francis Bret Harte, and greatest of all, Samuel 
L. Clemens (“Mark Twain”), with his inimitable 
humor, have not only given us a literature of 
the West but a fund of laughter which is 
international. 

' The South, since the close of the Civil 
War, has awakened to greater intellectual ac¬ 
tivity. She has a right to be proud of the 
writers she has already produced and to be 
hopeful of her future. In these years, when 
poetry has been so rare and prose essay and 
the novel have so multiplied, the South has 
given us two poets with unusual poetic 
power, Sidney Lanier and Paul Laurence 
Dunbar. Sidney Lanier was both poet and 
musician and had the rare power of interpreta¬ 
tion. In his “Marshes of Glynn,” as he saw 
and felt them, he has made us see and feel 
them too. Paul Laurence Dunbar, the poet 
of the colored race, had the lyric charm that 
belongs to true poetry. Some of his exquisite 
poems will be accounted among the best 
that America has produced. Nowhere is 
there a finer dialect poem than Dunbar’s 
“When Malindy Sings,” a poem written as 
a delicate tribute to his own mother who 
was a negro slave. Fiction has been every¬ 
where the favorite form of writing during 
the last few decades, and the South may 
well take satisfaction in the fine literary 
work of such writers as George W. Cable, 
James Lane Allen, Thomas Nelson Page, 
Richard M. Johnston, Mary N. Murfree (“Charles 
Egbert Craddock”), F. Hopkinson Smith, Joel 
Chandler Harris (“Uncle Remus”), Winston 
Churchill. 

Three stages in American literature have 
been considered, the Colonial period, lasting 
two hundred years and more, when literary 
efforts were confined to feeble imitation of 
European models; the second, the period 
of the Revolution, when there was great un¬ 
rest and no creative literary genius; the third 
period, that of the Republic, in the midst of 
which we are to-day working out our ideals, 
which will appear in future American litera¬ 
ture. 



LITERATURE 


309 


TABLE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE 


Time 

Author 

Prose 

Poetry 

13th Century 

Ristoro d’Arezzo, . . . 

Treatise on Astronomy and Ge¬ 
ography. 

Latin Chronicle. 


13th Century 

Fra Poliano,. 


13th Century 

Fra Guittone d’Arezzo, 

Letters. 

Poems. 

1265-1321 

Alighieri Dante, .... 

Divina Commedia. 

1270-1336 

Cino de Pistoia. 


Poems. 

1300-1348 

Giovanni Villani, . . . 

Chronicles. 

1304-1374 

Francesco Petrarch, . . 

Letters,. 

Sonnets. 

1313-1375 

Giovanni Boccaccio, . . 

Decameron. 

1432-1487 

Luigi Pulci,. 


Morgante Maggiore. 

1449-1492 

Lorenzo de Medici, . . 


Poems. 

1452-1498 

Girolamo Savonarola, . 

Sermons,. 

Poems. 

1458-1530 

Jacopo Sannazzaro, . . 


Arcadia. 

1469-1527 

Niccolo Machiavelli, . . 

History, Art of War, The Prince. 


1474-1533 

Ludovico Ariosto, . . . 

Orlando Furioso. 

1483-1540 

Francesco Guicciardini, 

History, Politics. 

1480-1562 

Matteo Bandello, . . . 

Novels. . .. 


1490-1536 

Francesco Berni, . . . 


Satire (comic). 

1490-1547 

Vittoria Colonna, . . . 


Poems. 

1496-1556 

Jacopo Nardi, .... 

History of Florence. 


1500-1571 

Benvenuto Cellini,. . . 

Autobiography. 

Lives of Celebrated Artists. . . 


1512-1574 

Georgio Vasari, .... 


1544-1595 

Torquato Tasso, . . . 


Rinaldo, Aminta, Jerusalem Deliv¬ 
ered, etc. 

1550-1600 

Giordano Bruno, . . . 

Metaphysics. 

1564-1642 

Galileo Galilei, .... 

Scientific. 


1568-1639 

Tommaso Campanella, . 

Philosophy. 


1552-1623 

Pietro Sarpi,. 

History of Council of Trent, etc. 


1598-1647 

Bonaventura Cavalieri, 

Geometry. 

“Scienza Nuova. ”. 


1670-1744 

G. Battista Vico, . . . 


1698-1782 

Pietro Metastasio, . . . 


Musical Dramas. 

1707-1793 

Carlo Goldoni, .... 


Comedies. 

1672-1750 

Ludovico Antonio Mura- 
tori,. 

Annals of Italy, Italian An¬ 
tiquities. 


1745-1827 

Alexandra Volta, . . . 

Scientific. 


1731-1794 

Girolamo Tiraboschi, . 

Literary History. 


1749-1803 

Vittorio Alfieri. 

Poems. 

1766-1837 

Carlo G. Botta. 

Historical, Story of Italy. . . . 


1773-1842 

Jean Charles Sismondi,. 

Historical, Political. 


1778-1827 

Ugo Foscolo,. 

Miscellaneous. 

Poems. 

1785-1873 

Alessandro Manzoni, . . 

Novels,. 

Dramas. 

1789-1853 

Cesare Balbo,. 

Hopes of Italy, etc. (political). . 


1798-1837 

Giacomo Leopardi, . . 

Poems. 

1805-1895 

Cesare Cantu. 

History of Italians, Historical 
Novels. 



The oldest existing libraries have been found 
in Italy and in that country have been preserved 
the oldest and most valuable Greek and Latin 
MSS. Among these are the palimpsest, “De 
Republica,” of Cicero, believed to date as far 
back as the Third Century, the famous “ Codex 
Vaticanus” of the Fourth Century, and the 
equally ancient “ Virgil ” and “Terence.” Italy 
of the Middle Ages clung to classical traditions 
and when at the end of the Fifth Century the 
fighting bands from the North conquered the 
Roman world Latin thought held its power while 
political Rome was lost. During years that 
followed the Italians treasured memories of 
Rome and fought against the encroaching 
Hohenstaufen Empire, and from this absorbing 
interest in political questions they were attracted 
by positive and practical subjects, especially 
the study of Roman law. Those who turned 
toward theology generally went to Paris for 
study, while in Italy the schools for laymen edu¬ 
cated scholars and writers who were masters in 
grammar and rhetoric, and such poets as For- 
tunatus. All this kept alive a certain culture 
in that barbarous age and had great influence 
on future Italian literature. 

When legends, poems, and tales, appeared in 
other countries and among other Latin peoples, 
Italian writers and students, still interested in 
history and law, copied these from the French 
and German, but made the romance of the 


Troubadors into serious history, written in the 
Latin language. Even the religious legend, 
so popular in that age, was little known, or ap¬ 
preciated in Italy. Prosaic lives of the saints, 
historical chronicles, and translations from 
Aristotle’s philosophy and Marco Polo’s travels 
were gathered into long series of facts. This 
hindered the literary growth of the new language 
and there was no real Italian writing before the 
Thirteenth Century. Especially in the last half 
of that century the new literature grew, in the 
north of Italy chiefly, in the form of religious 
poems intended to be recited to the people, and 
in the south in love poems of ideality, feeling, 
and sentiment. The stirring religious move¬ 
ment of that age, when the two great orders of 
Saint Francis and Saint Dominic arose, influ¬ 
enced all Italian life and letters. Many poems 
or hymns have been attributed to Francis of 
Assisi and others to the poet, Jacopone, who 
was a mystic and a most original writer. 

At this time, too, the religious drama began 
with an old hermit, Fasani, who had come out 
from his cavern in the year 1258, and suddenly 
appeared in Perugia. Life was hard in Italy 
during these years, the never-ceasing quarrels 
between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the 
frequent interdicts and excommunications from 
the popes and the tyrannous cruelty of the nobles 
added to famines and plagues, kept the people 
in constant fear. Fasani added to this un- 

























































310 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


happy turbulence in Perugia by announcing 
himself as sent by God to warn the people of 
terrible visitations shown to him in visions. 
From these influences many joined together 
and formed themselves into a society to do 
penances and their songs, connected with the 
church liturgy and chanted in dialogue form, 
grew into the first dramas in the Italian tongue. 

The people of Tuscany spoke a dialect closely 
resembling the Latin and it became the lan¬ 
guage of literature. Under its democratic gov¬ 
ernment Tuscany was the first province of Italy, 
politically, and philosophy and science gained 
a hold in the cities, but prose was scanty during 
the Thirteenth Century, while poetry in various 
forms was abundant. The first real prose writ¬ 
ing in Italian was a scientific book, a treatise 
on astronomy and geography by Ristoro. A 
collection of tales called the “Cento Novelle 
Antiche ” belongs to that time, containing short 
stories from history, ancient tradition, the 
Bible, and legends. A number of novels were 
also written, but they are of little note compared 
with the rich legendary lore of other countries. 

Guittone d’Arezzo is a name that attracts 
attention in this period; he wrote many poems 
and some prose, mostly in the form of letters. 
His love for antiquity, Roman tradition, and 
the old language was strong; in his researches 
he went back more than a thousand years and 
took Seneca for his model, trying to write Italian 
in the old Latin style. His subjects were moral 
or religious and his mixed style most extrava¬ 
gant and involved. All this belongs to the age 
of beginnings. 

During this Thirteenth Century the Re¬ 
formers gained greatly in numbers and about 
the middle of the century one sect, the Paterini, 
was nearly destroyed by the Guelphs, led by a 
Dominican friar. Two columns in the city of 
Florence still mark the place of the fearful mas¬ 
sacre. Not many years later the banished Ghi- 
bellines gathered their forces, became con¬ 
querors in their turn and would have burned 
the city but for the determined opposition of 
Farenato degli Ubertia, whose name Dante 
afterward made immortal. In the year 1282 
the most wealthy guilds of the rich city drew 
away from all rule and established a government 
of their own, and this year may be considered 
the data at which a new period of Italian litera¬ 
ture began, the period of development. This 
period saw, also, the beginning of Italian art in 
Tuscan lyric poetry. 

The poet and philosopher, Cavalcanti, became 
head of the Ghibellines; and when never-ending 
brawls wearied the people who sought peace, by 
banishing the leaders of the rival parties, he was 
cast out among the rest and died in the year 
1300. He wrote in prose on oratory and philos¬ 
ophy, but his poems, especially the love sonnets 
and short songs, were most noted and were 
raised by Dante, who was his great friend, 
ome of these songs were simple and graceful, 
others were heavy with metaphysical ideas bor¬ 
rowed from the Christian Fathers and ancient 
philosophers. His “Canzone d’Amore” be¬ 
came popular and was frequently published. 
In the most noted songs or ballads, probably 
written during banishment, his melancholy 


longing for home and his solemn love for the 
lady of his heart crowded out all subtle philos¬ 
ophy. More than two centuries later his com¬ 
plete poetical works were placed in the libraries 
of Florence and Venice. 

The works of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), 
stand as the center of all literature of his time. 
In his little book of poetry and prose, the “ Vita 
Nuova,” are found lyrics, the form and style of 
which mark all lyrical poetry of that day. In 
this he idealizes love, making everything heav¬ 
enly through it as he tells the story of his own 
love for Beatrice, whom he makes almost di¬ 
vine. The “In Memoriam” of Tennyson has 
been likened to this work. Dante was the most 
illustrious of Florentine citizens as well as poets, 
and was chosen prior of the republic in the year 
1300. In his immortal poem, the “Divine Com¬ 
edy,” he has preserved the names and deeds of 
the great men who made Florence renowned. 
The parties contending for power took new 
names at the beginning of the Fourteenth Cen¬ 
tury, the Bianchi representing the remnant of 
the old Ghibelline faction while the Guelphs, 
the nobles or aristocracy, took the name of the 
Neri. Dante, as one of the Bianchi, was, at last, 
among the proscribed and his life became a per¬ 
petual pilgrimage from one Italian town to 
another. 

The “Convito” or “Banquet” was the work 
of Dante’s manhood as the “Vita Nuova” was 
the work of his youth. It is made up of three 
treatises, each forming a commentary, and he 
lanned to compose eleven more, which would 
ave made it a book of universal knowledge. 
Another work, “De Monarchia,” written in 
Latin in scholastic form, was meant to show 
that a universal monarchy is necessary to the 
well-being of the world; this monarchy was to 
be centered in the Romans. This has been 
called the creed of Dante’s Ghibellinism. Be¬ 
sides his “ Divina Commedia ” there are numbers 
of sonnets, ballads, and short songs bearing the 
poet’s name, some of them undoubtedly spu¬ 
rious. The letters of Dante have been counted 
among the most important material for his 
biography. He wrote to the government of 
Florence to complain of his undeserved exile, 
to Henry VII. urging to some definite plans and 
to the Italian cardinals pleading for the election 
of an Italian pope. There are other letters 
to friends and to people connected with his 
work. 

The contents and scope of the wonderful 
poem, the ‘ ‘ Divine Comedy, ” are beyond the space 
of a short notice. From different authorities 
we may conclude that it was begun about the 
year 1300, the “ Inferno ” was finished in 1314, 
the “ Purgatorio ” completed in 1318, and the last 
cantos of the “Paradiso” were probably finished 
not long before the death of the poet. Dante 
said of this poem that he called it a comedy be¬ 
cause it had a sad beginning and a cheerful end¬ 
ing. He hides an allegorical meaning under the 
literal one and in this it is connected with mediae¬ 
val literature, but the merit of the poem lies in 
the individual art. He took his materials from 
theology, philosophy, history, and mythology, 
mingled this with hatred and love, and under 
his genius the dead became again alive. This 




LITERATURE 


311 


great poem fixed the destiny of Italian literature 
and began the age of the Renaissance. 

Cino da Pistoia (1270—1336), son of a noble 
family, was also a friend and correspondent of 
Dante. In literature he continued in some sort 
the tradition of Dante during the interval be¬ 
tween him and his successor, Petrarch. His 
name is found on all lists of early Italian poets 
and his love poems are musical and full of sweet¬ 
ness and quoted by critics as being surpassed 
only by Dante himself. It has been said that 
in the writings of Cavalcanto, Dante, and Cino 
da Pistoia “the psychology of love and of sor¬ 
row nearly reaches perfection.” 

In histories of literature Petrarch (1304-1374), 
is classed as one of the four classical poets of 
Italy, but he is as well known from his interest 
in the old Latin writers and his influence in the 
revival of learning in mediaeval Europe. His 
father was included in the same edict of life¬ 
long banishment that sent Dante out of Florence 
and the boyhood of Petrarch was spent in a 
little village of Tuscany where he acquired the 
pure Tuscan idiom that he afterward used with 
so much skill in odes and sonnets. He lived for 
many years at Avignon, denouncing the life of 
the papal court; he traveled much in Europe 
and in the year 1341 he received the poet’s 
crown in Rome. He wrote works in Latin, the 
most important being in the form of letters, 
known as the “Epistolae,” important as a his¬ 
tory of his own times as well as an index to his 
own life and mind. Another work in Latin was 
a poem, “Africa,” in which he recited the wars 
of Scipio. In the year 1327 he is said to have 
first met Laura, the object of his life-long de¬ 
votion and heroine of his poetic writings. That 
Laura really lived has come to be a belief, but 
who Laura was cannot be definitely proved; 
she undoubtedly lived at Avignon. His “Can- 
zoniere ” contains poems written during the 
life-time of Laura, poems written after her 
death, and a third part which seems to have 
been planned after the manner of Dante. While 
these poems show Petrarch to have been a 
psychologist, he did not, like the poets before 
him, go into transcendentalism, but kept within 
human limits. Petrarch had no decided politi¬ 
cal idea, but he was a most patriotic Italian, 
and in his mind connected the Italy of his day 
with the great Rome of the days of Cicero. 

Boccaccio (1313-1375) lacked nothing of Pe¬ 
trarch’s love for antiquity or his interest in the 
new Italian literature. Great classical learning 
shows in his “Genealogia Deorum,” where he 
writes of the Pagan deities, making an encyclo¬ 
pedia of mythological knowledge. He com¬ 
piled, or perfected, works on geography, he 
touched upon history and wrote some minor 
things in Latin, besides his Italian lyrics and 
longer poems. His famous Italian work was 
the “Decameron,” a collection of a hundred 
novels related by men and women who had left 
Florence during a year of plague (1384). In 
this the rude form used in fable-writing gave 
place to careful work on classic models and was 
the beginning of an artistic style in romance. 
Among authors who wrote collections of tales 
in imitation of Boccaccio were Fiorentino, Sac- 
chetti, and Sercambi. 


A chronicle of events dating between the 
years 1280 and 1312 was written by Compagni, 
which is still consulted as important authority 
for that period of Florentine history. It shows 
strong feeling and discusses the reasons of the 
events which evidently came under his own 
notice. Villani, another chronicler, relates 
events up to 1347. He traveled in France as 
well as Italy, and his chronicle includes much 
valuable knowledge concerning both countries. 
This was afterwards versified by Antonio Pucci 
and other versified history was written during 
this century when every subject was treated 
under the form of verse. Many minor poets 
also left political works. In connection with this 
versification comic poetry was also developed 
and carried on by Pucci, Orgagna, and their fol¬ 
lowers. These poems, comical as well as his¬ 
torical, were meant to be recited to the people 
and in them were the beginnings of the romantic 
epics of the Sixteenth Century, Ariosto’s “Or¬ 
lando Furioso,” Bojardo’s “Innamorato,” and 
others. 

Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449-1492), remembered 
chiefly as a statesman, was a man of letters, and 
left poems written in the spirit of Dante and 
older poets, while he was a man of his own time. 
As a classical scholar he shows the influence 'of 
the Renaissance in Italy. During the Fifteenth 
Century a kind of literature started in Florence, 
attached to popular festivals held in honor of 
St. John, the patron saint of the city. Al¬ 
though this was in the form of popular poetry 
the names of some of the most important authors 
are found in connection with it and it became 
the foundation of the Italian drama. Against 
this literary and social movement the friar, 
Savonarola, appeared, arriving in Florence in 
the year 1489. He took the line of a prophet 
and preached against much of the reading of the 
day and against the classical studies. In his 
struggle with Lorenzo de’ Medici he directed his 
attack against him as a patron of pagan litera¬ 
ture rather than against a political tyrant. 
Savonarola has sometimes been considered as 
a forerunner of the Reformation, but his prepa¬ 
ration ol the way for that great German and 
English religious movement was no part of his 
plan. He desired a reform of manners, not of 
doctrine, and had no great merit as a thinker 
or writer. He left Italian sermons, hymns, 
and ascetic and political treatises. 

Machiavelli (1469-1527) and Guicciardini 
were leaders in history as a science founded on 
observation. Machiavelli noted facts, studied 
other histories and sought out reasons, and his 
principal works are political rather than histori¬ 
cal. His “Principe,” the “Prince,” called out 
severe accusations against him, and has since 
associated his name with unscrupulous politics, 
but the book seems to have been the result of 
the civil and moral condition of Italy at that 
time. His history of Florence is still consulted 
as standard authority. The “Story of Italy,” 
by Guicciardini, a history of the time from the 
death of Lorenzo de’ Medici to the year 1534, is 
full of political wisdom, and treats of characters 
as well as events. Following these were Nardi, 
Varchi, and Segni, Tuscan historians; Porzio, 
who wrote histories covering short periods; 



312 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Bembo, Paruto, and others, who arranged 
chronicles or annals of other nations. 

The romances of chivalry versified by Pulci 
and Bojardo became the foundation of the 
romantic epic formed by the genius of Ariosto 
(1474-1533). His “Orlando Furioso” made 
wonders and prodigies appear as truths and 
facts and his descriptions were marked by 
grace and beauty. The historical epic was the 
work of Tasso (1544-1595), who became famous 
through his poem, “Jerusalem Delivered,” the 
story of the liberation of the Sepulchre by 
Godfrey of Bouillon in the Eleventh Century. 
This poem ranks now as the best heroic poem 
that Italy can show. 

Tasso seems to stand between the high de¬ 
velopment of the Renaissance and the period of 
decadence in Italian literature, that began with 
the Spanish rule in the middle of the Sixteenth 
Century. The people of Italy were oppressed, 
every high aspiration was checked, no freedom 
of word or thought was allowed, and this con¬ 
tinued until the war of the Spanish succession. 
This one hundred and forty years is known in the 
history of Italian literature as the Secentismo. 
During this time, however, some independent 
thinkers, such as Bruno, Campanella, and Va- 
nani, opened the way for the scientific triumphs 
of Galileo (1564-1642). He was conspicuous 
in literature as well as in science, a student of 
Ariosto, and in his prose is found the poet’s 
ease, clearness, and elegance. The prose of 
Galileo has been called the best prose ever writ¬ 
ten in the Italian language. 

When freed from Spanish dominion in the 
Eighteenth Century, civil reforms, resulting 
from ideas quietly working in many parts of 
Europe, improved the conditions of life in Italy. 
The first sign in the literature was in historical 
and scientific prose. In history Muratori col¬ 
lected the chronicles for the years 500 to 1500, 
and wrote his Annali d’ltalia, and Mazzuchelli 
turned to literary history preparing for a biog¬ 
raphy of Italian writers. Everything tended 
toward improvement and the influence was 
soon seen in the drama. Metastasio (1689- 
1782) was one of the most pleasing poets of his 
day, writing plays, operas and ballets. Gol¬ 
doni revived comedy and Alfieri (1749-1803) 
raised tragedy to a high standard. “Saul” is 
regarded as his masterpiece. Monti and Foscolo 
were followers, both inspired by patriotism. 
Silvio Pellico (1789-1854) also wrote tragedies 
which were good specimens of modern art, but 
he is most popular as author of “Lie Mie Pri- 
gioni,” “My Prisons,” the story of his ten years’ 
life in the fortress of Spielberg. Manzoni (1784- 


1873) and Niccolini were also popular writers. 
Giordani, born in 1774, was the last of the 
writers known as the classicists. 

Scholars in Italy were influenced by the ideas 
embodied in the movement known as Romanti¬ 
cism, especially strong in Germany at the begin¬ 
ning of the Nineteenth Century. Silvio Pellico, 
Breme, Berchet, and Manzoni were prominent 
among them, but the literary reform opposing 
the classical studies of the past took more the 
way of realism in Italy. Manzoni was distin¬ 
guished in this and from his “Promessi Sposi” 
the new form is dated. In this the historical 
novel grew into a work of art, and the 
genius that created it was first recognized by 
Goethe, and placed the author, Manzoni, at the 
head of Italian literature of the century. Leo¬ 
pardi (1798-1837) shared this honor by putting 
into his poems most realistic pictures of what 
he saw and felt. Circumstances had given him 
a dreary life and his poetry has been quoted as 
the poetry of despair in which he surpassed 
even Shelley and Byron. He has also been 
honored by critics as the first poet since Dante 
and a most perfect writer of prose. Among his 
poems are “Passero Solitario,” “Sabato del 
Villaggio,” and “Genestra.” “Operette Mo- 
rali,” a volume of discourses and dialogues, was 
his greatest prose. 

Botta (1766-1837) and Colletta (1775-1831) 
wrote noted histories of their own country and 
to these Botta added a history of the American 
Revolution. These were followed by “Vespri 
Siciliani,” a history by Amari, “Storia d’ltalia,” 
by Troya, and the “Archivio Storico Italiano,” 
established by Vieusseux, all in the renewed 
spirit of research. Interest in history was in¬ 
spired by the noted Italian love of country and 
patriotism led to literary expression. Among 
authors connected with the political revolution 
of 1848 were Guisti with his popular satires, 
Guerrazzi, writing historical novels, Gioberti 
in polemics, and Balbo making an epitome of 
history. 

Political geniuses of this century were Aleardi 
Prati, Cardueci, and Zanella. Arnaboldi, also 
a poet, has been criticised for writing utilitarian 
verse. Fiction lists carry the names of Barili, 
Farina, Giovagnoli, and Berse’zio, and biography 
and history have been made richer by the work 
of Zini, Capponi, Bartoli, Villari, and Berti, 
with Fiorentino, Trezza, Ferrari, and Cossa in 
general literature. 

Italian fiction has a wide field, description in 
travels is well done as De Amicis’s almost un¬ 
equaled works show, and through translations 
Italy holds a place in the reading world. 


SPANISH LITERATURE 


Time 

Author 

Prose 

Poetry 

1176-1250 

Juan Lorenzo Segara, . 


Poem (on Alexander the Great). 

1198-1268 

Gonzalo de Berceo, . . 

Unknown. 

Unknown,. 


Religious Poems. 

Early ballads. 

Poems of the Cid. 

1282-1349 

Don Juan Manuel,. . . 

Count Lucanor (tales). 

Poems. 

1300-1360 

Juan Ruiz de Hita, . . 

Poems. 

1332-1407 

Pedro Lopez de Ayala,. 


Court Rhymes, Poems. 

1384-1434 

Marquis of Villena, . . 

Labors of Hercules. . . . 

14th Century 

Rodrigo Yanez. 

Chronicles of Alfonso XI. 


























LITERATURE 


313 


SPANISH LITERATURE —Continued 


Time 

Author 

Prose 

Poetry 

1398-1458 

Lopez de Mendoza, . . 


Sonnets. 

1411-1456 

Juan de Mena, .... 


Labirinto. 

1474-1566 

Las Casas,. 

Historical. 


1478-1577 

Oviedo,. 

Natural and General History of 


1493-1543 

Juan Boscan,. 

Indies. 

Poems. 

1503-1536 

Garcilasso de la Vega, . 

History of Florida,. 

Poems. 

1503-1575 

Diego de Mendoza, . . 

History, Fiction. 


1512-1581 

Zurita,. 

Annals of Aragon. 

1 

1528-1591 

Luis de Leon,. 

Fernando Herrera, . . 

Lyrics (religious). 

1534-1597 


Lyrics. 

1533-1595 

Ercilla,. 


Araucana. 

1536-1623 

Juan de Mariana, . . . 

History of Spain. 


1547-1616 

Miguel de Cervantes 
Saavedra. 

Don Quixote, etc. 

Galatea. 

1562-1635 

Lope de Vega, .... 

Dramas, Lyrics, etc. 

1569-1631 

Guillen de Castro, . . . 


Dramas. 

1580-1645 

Gomez de Quevedo, . . 

Theology, Satires,. 

Poems. 

1596-1669 

Manuel de Villegas, . . 

Lyrics. 

1600-1681 

Calderon de la Barca, . 


Dramas. 

1610-1686 

Antonio de Solis, . . . 

Conquest of Mexico. 


1676-1764 

Feyjov y Montenegro, . 

Scientific Essays, Criticisms. . . 


1702-1754 

Don Ignacio Luzan, . . 

Art of Poetry,. 

Poems. 

1750-1791 

Tomas de Yriarte,. . . 

Proverbs. 


1760-1828 

Leandro F. Moratin, . . 


Dramas, Poems, 

1775-1848 

Alberto Lista, .... 

Criticism. 

1731-1799 

Ramon de la Cruz, . . 


Dramas. 

1807-1878 

Don Patricio de la Es- 
cosura. 

Fiction,. 

Poems. 


There is no record of the literature of Spain 
earlier than the Twelfth Century. The oldest 
manuscript is a fragment of a play written for 
the Church of Toledo, the earliest important 
work the “ Chronicle of the Cid.” Allusions in 
later literature suggest that heroic poetry may 
have been quite rich, but no poems are preserved. 

With the heroic poetry, taking subjects from 
history and legends, there grew up in the Thir¬ 
teenth Century a religious poetry, written mostly 
by monks. Among these Gonzalo de Berceo 
wrote poetical lives of the saints, devotional 
poems, and religious hymns. To this century 
also belongs a “Life of St. Mary the Egyptian,” 
translated from the French. 

King Alfonso X., who reigned until 1284, was 
author of the poem, “The Philosopher’s Stone,” 
besides several prose works. Under his patron¬ 
age scientific compilations were made and he 
was the founder of history written in Spanish. 
The “Cronica General,” composed under his 
direction, tells of universal history from the 
creation of the world, in one part, and of na¬ 
tional history in another. This last was called 
“Historia De Espana.” The source of the first 
part was Spanish chroniclers, who wrote in 
Latin, but whose works were soon translated. 
In the “Historia De Espana” many legends 
are found, also the story of the Cid. 

King Alfonso’s example was followed by other 
writers on his models. About 1390 a “ Chronicle 
of the Conqueridores ” was compiled by com¬ 
mand of the grand-master of the Order of St. 
John of Jerusalem. Special chronicles of each 
king were also written. Among the writers of 
these comes Pedro Lopez de Ayala, a man who 
shows literary culture and knowledge of ancient 
history, and with him the style of writing is 
much improved. Besides these chronicles are 
some biographies of important persons and a 
very curious book of travels, the story of an 
embassy sent by Henry III. to Tamur, in 1403, 
evidently written by one who led the mission. 


Other writings in prose in the Thirteenth and 
Fourteenth Centuries are generally filled with 
maxims and short moral tales, a few of Eastern 
origin. The best among these Oriental tales is 
a collection by Juan Manuel, nephew of Alfonso 
X. Juan Manuel also wrote graver works on 
education, domestic economy, and politics. 

The principal French romances of the Round 
Table were translated and imitated in Spain in 
the first half of the Fourteenth Century, and 
notice of the “Book of Chivalry,” in Spanish 
literature, shows that Spaniards have long 
known this romance from France, perhaps 
through Great Britain. 

In the reign of John II. of Castile (1407-1454) 
there appeared a court poetry, now known as 
the “Arte de Trobat.” This poetry was written 
in short pieces and in complicated verse form. 
It was made up of love ditties, debates, repartees, 
burlesques, and satirical songs. To understand 
or appreciate these poems they must be read in 
connection with the history of the time. Men¬ 
doza, Marquis of Santillana, stands first among 
these courtiers and poets, and some of his lighter 
poems are very graceful and full of melody. 
Juan de Mena belongs, also, to those days, and 
his principal works, “The Coronation” and 
“The Labyrinth,” show the effect of Italian 
influence. They also show progress of the lan¬ 
guage in Spain. 

As the beginning of Spanish drama during 
these centuries, dramatic representations had 
been given at church festivals, with the object 
of explaining the ritual to the ignorant. Gradu¬ 
ally changing, dialogue was added, and about 
the year 1492 a book appeared, “ La Celestina,” 
written by Fernando de Rojas, and this most 
astonishing novel exhibited, for the first time, 
persons of all classes, particularly the lowest, 
talking in harmony with their natural surround¬ 
ings. This could not have been represented 
on the stage, but it left its mark on the drama 
of the nation. It was translated into various 















































314 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


languages, and, with its liberty of thought and 
expression, was a great success. 

Two most noted among dramatic writers, 
Cervantes and Lope de Vega, were contempora¬ 
ries. Cervantes, born in 1547, began writing 
comedies and tragedies; the first, “Galatea,” 
was published in 1584. His great work, “Don 
Quixote/’ published in 1605, was immediately 
translated into all the languages of Europe. 
“Don Quixote” has been defined as the social 
romance of Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century 
Spain. Lope de Vega was a prodigy of learning 
and imagination. He wrote numberless dramas 
and detached verses, many of which.are collected 
under the name “Obras Sueltas.” 

The “Golden Age” of Spanish literature 
dates from the union of Aragon and Castile and 
the connection of the House of Austria, which 
gave unity to the literature of Spain, as well as 
to Spanish politics. During this age Calderon 
de la Barca (1600-1681) was the head of the 
Spanish drama. His plays are of four kinds: 
sacred dramas from Scriptural sources, historical 
dramas, classic dramas, and pictures of society 
and manners. The most celebrated are “The 
Constant Prince,” and “El Magico Prodigioso.” 
Calderon was attached to the court for the pur¬ 
pose of furnishing dramas for the royal theater, 
and in making his story to hold interest through¬ 
out, facts were no obstacles. 

With the celebrated Juan de Mariana (1536- 
1623) a new manner of writing history appeared. 
In place of the tagging on of one fact after an¬ 
other, with no apparent connection, he wrote 
a general survey of the history of Spain. Vari¬ 
ous accounts of more or less important episodes 
in the history of the country were written by 
different authors with reports of trans-Atlantic 
conquests. Gracilasso de Vega, a descendant 
of the Incas, wrote a history of Florida, based 
upon the adventures of De Soto. To another 
historian, Solis, belongs “Conquest of Mexico,” 
a flattering picture, and very successful. Go- 
mana, Oviedo, and Las Casas left records of 
their adventures in the new world, and on these 
records all history of early Spanish settlements 
in America is founded. Letter writers are nu¬ 
merous in Spanish literature, and from collections 
of letters may be gathered history of the times 
and secrets of Spanish policy. Among these is 
Antonio Perez (died 1611), whose letters give 
much information in a gallant and sprightly 
fashion. 

Philosophy was poorly represented in these 
centuries, the few thinkers writing in Latin, 
and the very existence of mathematical science 
was unknown. 

Luis de Leon and Herrera led in lyric poetry 
during the Sixteenth Century and much of their 
inspiration came from the Hebrew Scriptures. 
\fter these writers ballads grew to be a delight 
among the people, and no poetry of modern 
times has been more widely known or influenced 
so thoroughly all national life. Many of these 
ballads were by authors who wrote little else; 
but ballads are also found in the works of all 
writers who wished for fame, or to become of 
interest among the Spanish people. The relig¬ 
ious poems of Quevedo show beauty, but he is 
best known by his prose satires. 


At the end of the reign of Charles II., in 1700, 
France had great place in Spanish thought; 
French customs crept into use and French be¬ 
came the language of the society of the court. 
Translations from the French took the place of 
native work and little advance was made. 

Charles III. (1759-1788) gave new life by 
abridging the power of the Inquisition and al¬ 
lowing books to stand by defense of author or 
publisher. In these years the poems of Moratin, 
the literary fables of Yriarte, and the “Life of 
Friar Gerund,” by Salazar, were added to the 
literature. 

The return of the Bourbons in 1814, however, 
made this of small account. During fierce po¬ 
litical changes and long civil war the political 
pamphlet was the only book to attract great 
attention. Jos6 de Larra (1809-1837) was a 
prose writer of talent, who gained reputation 
by his “letters” on political subjects. He was 
better known by the pseudonym of “ Figaro.” 

Among later writers Antonio de Trueba is 
known by his popular songs and short stories, 
Lista and Duran as literary critics, and Cam- 
poamor and Bequer, poets. In the novel we 
find the best contemporary Spanish literature. 
Perez Galdos, a writer of fiction, touches modern 
thought in the conflicting interests of Spanish 
life. Juan Valera is the author of “Pepita 
Jimenez,” a famous novel, and the stories of 
Caballero, though not of equal merit, find trans¬ 
lators. 

RUSSIAN LITERATURE 

Going to the foundations of Russian litera¬ 
ture we find, as in most literatures, the oral 
tradition in the form of poetry. This poetry is 
not rhyme but poetic in figures, and has a sort 
of cadence appreciated by the scholar of the 
language. These tales of old time, known as 
bilini, are full of interest, many in number, and 
have been carried by wandering minstrels all 
through the land, as minstrels have chanted the 
songs and sagas of so many peoples. Thus we 
find in Russian literature the division of the 
oral and the written. 

The oral literature of song or tale has been 
marked by scholars into periods, beginning with 
that of the old heroes. Songs in this period 
reach to the bounds of mythology, for the oldest 
heroes are represented as monstrous beings and 
might be personifications of the powers of nature. 
In all these there is also the imagery of popular 
poetry, the terms “brightest sun” used to des¬ 
ignate the hero, “damp earth” in connection 
with a being of evil propensities, and others like. 
Giants of the mountains and serpents of the 
caves are made the subjects, or heroes, of the 
songs, and are shown guarding their surround¬ 
ings. The animal natures are prominent, as in 
the well-known legendary characters, Idolistche 
Poganskoe, the great glutton, and Solovei Raz- 
boinik, the nightingale robber, with his nest in 
six oaks, who is the terror of travelers. 

Fabulous tales or legends centering around 
the cruel tyrant, their celebrated Prince Vladi¬ 
mir and his introduction of Christianity in con¬ 
nection with the Greek Church, seem to mark 
the second literary period. The chief hero of 
these is known as Ilya Murometz, a giant in 



LITERATURE 


315 


form and strength and performing gigantic 
deeds. Vladimir introduced the forms of Chris¬ 
tianity after his connection with the Church at 
Constantinople, during the last half of the Sev¬ 
enth Century, but no note of its spirit is promi¬ 
nent in the recital of his valorous performances 
as given in these tales. 

The great commercial success of Novgorod, 
and its influence on the country, seems to mark 
a period in the history of Russia and a third 
cycle in the literature. In this are found the 
stories of Sadko, the great merchant, and of 
Versilii Buslaevich, of daring ventures and 
grand results. 

The period following belongs to Moscow, 
which became the capital of the future empire 
in 1300 A. D., and during these years the litera¬ 
ture busied itself with the autocracy and its 
doings. The destruction of Kazan by Ivan the 
Terrible, the conquest of Siberia, the iron rule 
of Ivan, himself, with its cruelty and supersti¬ 
tion, are the foundations of the popular tradi¬ 
tions which, strangely, show no hatred or call 
for revenge. Mingling with these in the later 
years are stories of the Cossacks, which almost 
make a literature in themselves. The Cossack 
songs laud the glories of the day, while they 
also record the sufferings of the people during 
Turkish invasion, the devastation carried by the 
Mongols, and the final overthrow of the Cossack 
republic. 

The arrival of Peter the Great on the scene is 
marked as plainly in literature as it is in history. 
The spirited poem on the death of Ivan the 
Terrible, the pathetic story of Xenia, the tale 
of Yermak, the conqueror of Siberia, were fol¬ 
lowed by songs in abundance celebrating the 
wonderful Czar. The religious poems of Russia 
are numerous, and in them may be found many 
curious legends with beliefs of the Middle Ages. 
Many of these poems, with a large department 
of folk-lore, belong to antiquity and offer a fine 
field for the student of comparative mythology. 
Belonging to the more modem period some of 
these songs rehearse the death of Peter the 
Great and the deeds of Napoleon. The greater 
amount of all this poetry was not written, but 
belonged to oral tradition until an Oxford stu¬ 
dent, sent as chaplain with an embassy, early 
in the Seventeenth Century, collected a few old 
songs and tales and put them into writing. 

According to authorities, the earliest specimen 
of the written literature of Russia is a Codex 
based on the Slavonic gospels. This was written 
by order of the Governor of Novgorod, and dates 
1056 A. D. About twenty years later is a sort 
of Russian encyclopedia compiled from the 
Greek. This bears the name of Prince Sviato- 
slaff, son of Olga, the first Christian sovereign, 
and the work was done for him by his diak, or 
deacon. The style is said to be simple and 
clear. What seems a strange mixture is found 
in a work considered one of the best written in 
the language at that time, known as a “Dis¬ 
course Concerning the Old and New Testaments ” 
and containing a panegyric on Prince Vladimir. 
That he was the hero of so much of the popular 
poetry of Russia in that century, may explain 
the connection. The noted monk, Theodosius, 
wrote his “Instructions,” discussions concerning 


the faith of the Church and exhortations to 
better living. Most of the writing of those 
years seems to have been done by monks and 
churchmen, and this confirms the statement so 
often met, that the “beginnings of Russian liter¬ 
ature are contemporaneous with the introduc¬ 
tion of Christianity.” In this connection are 
mentioned the missionaries, Cyril and Method. 

The earliest Russian code of laws, the “ Russ- 
kai Pravada,” is found in the Chronicle of Nov¬ 
gorod, and was first published during the reign 
of the son of Vladimir, Yaroslaff, who died in 
the year 1054. Both form and subject-matter 
of this code show that Russia then stood on a 
level in civilization with other European coun¬ 
tries. Nestor, who is known as the patriarch of 
Russian literature, wrote his “Chronicle” dur¬ 
ing this century, and it proved to be the first of 
a long series of Russian annals recorded of many 
towns and written by many authors, mostly by 
the cloistered monks. These would be as dry 
reading as the Anglo-Saxon chronicles but for 
the romantic stories and sagas bountifully in¬ 
cluded in them. Travelers who visited the 
Holy Land and India left records of their adven¬ 
tures, and the sermons of Cyril and other bish¬ 
ops, written in allegorical style, are also pre¬ 
served with many lives of the saints and the 
Fathers. Some of these have been edited in 
later years. 

At the end of the four dreary centuries, the 
period of the appanages followed by the yoke 
of the Mongols, the literature of the country 
began a slow revival. The “Story of Igor,” 
the manuscript of which was carefully preserved 
until the burning of Moscow in 1812, has been 
of much note. It is the story of the early part 
of the Tenth Century, but it has poetic spirit 
and holds interest for the general reader. To 
the time of the terrible Ivan (1530-1584) be¬ 
longs the curious “ Domostroi, the Book of 
Household Management,” which became popu¬ 
lar. It is said to be the work of a monk, and 
it faithfully pictures the ignorance and barbar¬ 
isms of the time. At this date we also find the 
“Chetii Minei,” which is said to have taken 
twelve years in compiling from the Greek. It 
was made up of extracts from writings of the 
Fathers, arranged for every day of the year. 

The printing-press was set up in Moscow in 
the year 1553, and ten years later the first book 
was printed. This was called the “Apostel,” 
and contained the Acts of the Apostles and the 
Epistles of the New Testament. Prince Kurb- 
ski was a fluent writer of this time who died in 
exile. Early in the Seventeenth Century ap¬ 
peared the “Chronograph” of Sergius Kubasoff, 
a history from the creation of the world to the 
day of Michael Romanoff (1617 A. D.). But 
the most important writing of that period was 
the “Account of Russia” by Gregory Kotoshik- 
hin, who fled to Poland about the year 1664. 
He wrote his work in Sweden, the manuscript 
was preserved until 1840 and then printed. 
These books are considered an important record 
of Russian life before the time of Peter the 
Great. Works on philology and other educa¬ 
tional subjects were written and the authors 
generally banished. The patriarch Nikon is 
well-known through his struggles with the Czar 



316 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


as well as his remodeling of the sacred books 
which led to the great religious schism of Russia, 
a matter of history. The whole of the Seven¬ 
teenth Century shows influence of Poland, and 
with these men the old Russian literature seems 
to have ended. Knowledge of the literature of 
the West made a new or modern literature for 
Russia. 

Simeon Polotzki (1628-1680) was a sort of 
connecting link between the old and the modem 
period. He was tutor to Feoder, son of the 
Czar Alexis, had been educated at Kieff, then a 
Polish district, but seems to have known some¬ 
thing of French literature. He wrote religious 
works, dramas, and doggerels. During his time 
Alexis made additions to the “Code of Laws” 
and burned the “Books of Pedigrees,” which 
held histories of the different branches of past 
royal families. Peter the Great, beginning his 
reign in the year 1689, met the Polish element 
that had been so great in its influence and made 
native Russian the language of communication 
in all business. He found help toward intro¬ 
duction of new literary forms in Propocovich, a 
scientific scholar, who endeavored to put aside 
the numberless superstitions of the time by 
teaching material facts of science. Yavorski, 
who wrote the “Rock of Faith,” opposing Luth¬ 
erans and Calvinists, and Pososhkoff with his 
valuable treatise on political economy, under 
the title “Poverty and Riches,” were also of 
note. The indefatigable writer, Michael Lom- 
onosoff, did much to aid education in Russia 
by his personal influence as well as by his odes, 
tragedies, essays, and slight histories. 

The plan of Peter the Great to civilize Russia 
on the model of the nations of the West reached 
its climax under the ten years’ rule of Anna 
(died, 1740). The influence of her German ad¬ 
visers headed by Biren, was strong in all de¬ 
partments, but the annals of the time show little 
literary progress. 

From the beginning of the reign of her suc¬ 
cessor, Elizabeth, Russians date a notable ad¬ 
vance in letters, the work mainly following 
French models. Through the influence of Ivan 
Shuvaloff the University of Moscow, the oldest 
in the country, was founded in the year 1755, 
and in the following year the first theater at 
St. Petersburg was opened with Sumarokoff as 
director. He was noted for his rhymed come¬ 
dies and tragedies written in French style. Up 
to this time only religious plays had been al¬ 
lowed in the country. 

Catherine II. (reigned 1762-1796) gathered 
about her a generation of court poets, most of 
them poor writers but urged to emulate Horace, 
Virgil, and Homer. Few of them are now re¬ 
membered even by name. Kherasoff was author 
of two lengthy epic poems which are no longer 
read, and Denis von Visin, evidently of German 
blood, wrote national comedy. The greatest 
oet was Gabriel Derzhavin (1743-1816), who 
as been called Catherine’s poet laureate. Of 
his poems the “ Ode to God,” “ The Nobleman,” 
and “The Taking of Warsaw” are best known. 
Alexander Radistcheff appeared as writer of “A 
Journey to Moscow,” in which he noted the sad 
condition of the serfs and for which he was sent 
to Siberia. The censorship of the press became 


severe, many foreign- books were excluded and 
for readers, as well as authors, times grew 
troublous. 

The form of allegorical writing, so common in 
countries under absolute rule, was popular in 
Russia and a long list of fabulists was headed by 
Ivan Khemnitzer (1744-1784), who began with 
translating and afterward wrote original tales. 
A later author, Ivan Kriloff (1768-1844), proved 
to be the most popular fable-writer of the nation. 
He resembled the French La Fontaine in char¬ 
acter and in work. Among the earliest of real 
romances or novel writers in Russia were Zago¬ 
skin and Lazhechnikoff, whose books are still 
read, long narratives of life in their own times. 
Among them is “Yari Miloslaviski,” a tale of 
the days when the Poles were driven from Rus¬ 
sia. Nicholas Gogol (1809-1852), a native of 
Little Russia, was the first novelist of talent and 
he described the people and the scenery of his 
own district in his “ Old Fashioned Home ” and 
“Taras Bulba,” a story of war between Cossacks 
and Poles. In a curious tale, “The Demon,” he 
pictured Kieff in the old days. Novels grew 
popular, and we find the names of Hersen, the 
exile, Goncharoff, Bulgarin, and Dostoievski. 
Count Tolstoi, noted for many other works, was 
also a novelist and the English translation of his 
“Anna Karenina” has been said to be the long¬ 
est novel in our language. Most eminent was 
Ivan Turgenieff, in his own time the author best 
known outside his own country. 

Turgenieff first attracted notice by his interest 
in the Russian peasant and his best poems and 
tales find subjects among the serfs. These have 
been translated and made for the author his 
reputation in Europe. “DvorianskoeGnezedo,” 
or “A Nest of Gentle People,” has been noted as 
one of the most pathetic tales found in any litera¬ 
ture. “Nov” (Virgin Soil), and “Mumu,” with 
other minor stories, have been often translated 
and greatly praised. 

While Count Tolstoi has written much and on 
many subjects, including religion and morals, 
and become known throughout the reading 
world, critics have named as the best of his work, 
early sketches relating to Sebastopol and his 
great prose epic, “War and Peace.” The first 
Russian play made on the model of Shake- 
spere’s dramas was “Boris Godunoff,” written 
by Pushkin, but many have appeared since his 
time. The impulse that came from abroad, 
especially through acquaintance with the poetry 
of Goethe, Schiller, Shakespere, and later, that 
of Byron, pushed aside the French models that 
were so often copied. Besides writing after the 
models found in other languages, Russian poets 
have translated much, and the literature of their 
country js rich in these reproductions. 

Both in number and genius the novelists of 
Russia compare well with other countries. 
Gogol, the first real novelist, has been followed 
by a series that continues to the present day. 
Dostcevskii is quoted in connection with Tolstoi 
and Turganieff; near them are Goncharov, Pisem- 
skii, and Garshin, called a disciple of Tolstoi; 
and Korolenko, leader of the optimistic school. 

Russia has, also, historians worthy to be known 
as successors of Karamzin, and who have given 
more accurate record of fact if not in his brilliant 




LITERATURE 


317 


style. It has been said that Russian historians 
have been generally satisfied to write the story 
of their own country; this they seem to have 
thoroughly investigated. They meet strict 
censorship whenever they deal with history of 
recent times. Among these, Kostomaroff (1817- 
1885) wrote much of note, became obnoxious 
to the government, and was banished for several 
years and forbidden to publish anything. After 
his return in the year 1854 he wrote several 
works and contributed to leading Russian re¬ 
views. Ustrailoff published a good and full 
history of his own country but it was not as 
popular as his “Reign of Peter the Great,” in 
which he brought out several documents until 
then unknown and with them facts of interest. 
He has been called the ablest Russian historian 
of his time. 

Solovieff (1820-1879) left an unfinished his¬ 
tory of great length, which has proved a mine 
of information for writers and scholars. Others 
have written up particular periods or subjects. 
An account of the Polish Rebellion of 1863, 
which first appeared in a Russian magazine and 
was afterward published in book form, gave 
some startling disclosures that caused its circu¬ 
lation to be forbidden. Excavations in many 
arts of the country, within the last century, 
ave also given light to the p re-historic period. 

Good histories of Russian literature have been 
written; these often include philology and go 
back to older Slavonic literature. A valuable 
“Explanatory Dictionary of the Great Russian 
Language” was published many years ago. 
Works on ethnology and publications on natural 
history have attracted attention, but moral and 
mental philosophy found few interested authors. 
Scientific subjects, law, and medicine have their 
share of students; works on these subjects 
have been translated from foreign languages. 

We hear of the literature of White Russia 
and of Little Russia, which are really Russian 
dialects. Little Russian literature had no 
separate existence until the annexation of Po¬ 
land. It developed in a mass of song and legend 
with some theological writings, educational 
works, and annals. In the year 1876, the Im¬ 
perial Government forbade the publishing of any¬ 
thing in Little Russian; both Poland and Russia 
had long shown hostility toward this dialect. Its 
popular poetry is exceedingly rich and interest¬ 
ing. The poet, Shevchenko, gathered the old 
songs of his land as Burns gathered the lays of 
Scotland and, like Burns, he was one of the great 
poets. In his youth he rejoiced in the traditions 
of his native village as he heard them from 
the priests; in his poetry he faithfully repro¬ 
duced the life of the old days. The story of 
those times is lightened by the charming lyrics 
that he mixed with his recital. He was ban¬ 
ished to Siberia for ten years (1847-1857), and 
died soon after his return. The great cairn that 
marks his grave has been called the Mecca of 
South Russia. The folk tales of Little Russia 
are still recited by wandering peddlers and by 
peasants. 

In the literature of White Russia is found 
little besides a few songs, parts of Scripture, and 
some law papers. The country of this literature 
is the dreariest in the empire. 


JAPANESE LITERATURE 

In the Fifth Century letters and the Confucian 
classics were carried into Japan through Corea, 
and about the year 550 A. D. Buddhist mis¬ 
sionaries settled in the islands. In the Eighth 
Century Japan copied the Chinese form of cen¬ 
tralized government in place of the ancient 
feudalism; Japanese literature, both prose 
and poetry, dates from this time. Compilations 
of historical facts are supposed to have existed 
at least 100 years earlier; two distinct works 
are quoted, but neither has been preserved. 

The earliest known Japanese writing is the 
“Kojiki” or “Record of Ancient Matters,” 
dating from the year 711 A. D. The most an¬ 
cient poetry is the “Manyoshiu” or “Collection 
of a Myriad Leaves,” belonging also to the early 
part of the Eighth Century. In the preface to 
the “Kojiki” it is said that the emperor who 
reigned during the last half of the Seventh Cen¬ 
tury, trying to preserve all traditions, had all 
the records then existing carefully examined, 
corrected, and arranged, but this work was never 
completely written, and the memory of a mem¬ 
ber of the imperial household, one Are, became 
the only authority for future references. About 
twenty years later one of the ministers of the 
government compiled the work, mostly from the 
words of Are, and this, completed, became the 
“ Kojiki.” In the year 720 another work, entitled 
the “Nihongi” or “Japanese Record,” was put 
into shape. The earlier record is largely pure 
Japanese, preserving the form and the spirit 
of Japanese antiquity; the other shows Chinese 
ideas. Both are really ancient histories, going 
back to the “divine age,” and are completely 
mixed with mythological legend. In them the 
country itself is named “land of the gods,” and 
the pedigree of the sovereign is traced back to 
a Sun goddess. These works formed the basis 
for many later writings and numerous com¬ 
mentaries. A noted edition of the “Kojiki,” 
with an elaborate commentary, was published 
between the years 1789 and 1822. Many old 
manuscripts have been published in modern style. 

Among later Japanese histories is the “Dai 
Nihonshi” or “History of Great Japan” in 240 
books. This was composed by the second lord 
of Mito (1622-1700), a noted patron of literature, 
who collected a large library of old books from 
temples and shrines, and from among the people. 
It is said that the lord of Mito had aid from 
Chinese scholars who had fled to Japan to escape 
their Manchu conquerors. A doubt of the origin 
of the imperial dynasty might endanger the 
very foundations of the throne, and for this 
reason the national annals of Japan have been 
most carefully guarded. The purpose of the 
“Dai Nihonshi” was to call attention to his¬ 
torical facts and thus give new strength to his 
rightful authority, which was being usurped 
by the Shogun. The writing of this history had 
much to do with the revolution that came more 
than a century later. Following this, an author, 
Rai Sanyo (1780-1832), wrote the “Guaishi,” 
or “External History of Japan,” which was 
widely read by Japanese scholars. There are 
many other historical works adapted for popular 
reading and for scholars. 




318 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Works on local geography make a large show¬ 
ing in this literature. As early as the Eighth 
Century the government ordered careful de¬ 
scriptions of every province and village to be 
compiled. These are much like the county his¬ 
tories of England and the books growing from 
them are numberless. They include facts of 
topography, natural history, origin of names, 
local legends and traditions, records of indus¬ 
tries and commerce, and descriptions of temples, 
shrines, and monuments; all these, written 
with minute detail, make works of great length 
and of much historic interest. Every province 
in Japan has places noted in history; namely, 
monuments, castle-towns, temples, and other 
memorials of past ages. The guide books 
included in this geographical section of the 
literature give the traveler a perfect knowledge 
of his route. Probably no other country is so 
minutely known by its inhabitants. 

Japanese classical poetry has always been a 
favorite study; there are many volumes writ¬ 
ten or collected by the old nobles. The “ Hiaku- 
nin-is-shiu ,, or “Collection of One Hundred 
Poems” contains verse written by the emperors 
themselves. It had long been a custom for schol¬ 
arly people to gather for the purpose of passing 
away time in the making of verse. These verses 
or poems were kept in the original manuscripts, 
or printed and made up into numberless books 
of minor poems. Loyalty to country and love 
of its beauty make many subjects in this verse; 
most of the short poems are simple, almost 
explanatory in form, and very difficult of trans¬ 
lation into what we would call poetry. Some 
of the lyrics, however, show quaint ways of 
thought and happy modes of expression. The 
editors of “Sunrise Stories” have very cleverly 
succeeded in translating the peculiar flavor of 
Japanese verse and in keeping something of 
Japanese form. There are no .great epics or 
didactic poems in the Japanese language, and 
the drama does not hold large place. Popular 
plays, however, are common; they are often 
stilted in style, often without plot. 

Religion and philosophy make a large section 
in the literature of most countries, but no Jap¬ 
anese book yet read or translated by a foreigner 
takes the place held by the religious books in 
European languages. Nothing has thus far 
undone the work of the early ages, for loyalty, 
family pride, patriotism, and religion are all 
one in Japan. The national, or Shinto, faith 
accounts for its lack of a moral code by teaching 
that loyal subjects of the emperor need no 
other moral guidance. The journey to the land 
of perpetual youth is one of the expressions in 
their literature on the philosophy of death. 
The great body of imported literature, the 
Confucian learning, and Buddhist Books have 
long been held in high honor by native students. 

The “Story of My Hat,” probably written 
seven hundred years ago, is a Japanese classic, 
which has its great charm from its simplicity 
of language and its picture of a most simple life. 
It is full of allusions to nature, telling of the 
bright moon, the floating cloud, the fireflies, 
the notes of the wild-bird, etc.; it gives minute 
descriptions of natural surroundings. Another 
book, “Tosa Nikki,” describing in simplest 


language the ordinary life of a traveler in the 
Tenth Century, is also classical. It gives no 
adventure or romance and no wise maxims. 
It is simple narration, and is said to have been 
written by a woman. In the Tenth Century the 
learned men of Japan wrote only for the well- 
read and educated class and were deep in the 
study of Chinese. The women of the court kept 
up their own language; a large part of the 
best writings in their literature was the work 
of women. 

Romances and novels are by no means un¬ 
known in Japan; their heroes and heroines 
have thrilling adventures, which are graphically 
presented. Much of this fiction is mixed with 
history and the tales date back to one of the 
numerous wars. Fairy tales abound and are 
very artistically told, and short-story books 
are common. These and the books for children 
often take for their subject some hero of ancient 
times. 

The mental equipment of this nation has 
been forming for centuries; when the Em¬ 
pire shut its ports and drew away from the rest 
of the world, it had, within itself, resources of 
food for its intellectual life. By the opening of 
these ports Japan was introduced into the affairs 
of the modern world, taking a stand among 
the nations. Through the researches of scholars 
the literature of the West is being enriched by 
the imagination of the East, and to this litera¬ 
ture Japan is giving a generous share, though 
only a fraction of the books of this modem 
Oriental nation are yet reached by Western 
readers. The “Wakan Sansai Dzuye,” known 
to the world as the “Great Japanese Encyclo¬ 
pedia,” is noted as a necessary help to all who 
seek knowledge of Japanese letters. The fact 
that such a large work has been compiled and 
that it is considered an essential part of a stu¬ 
dent’s equipment shows something of the value 
of Japanese literature. 

THE FAMILY LIBRARY 

Selecting books for a family library is re¬ 
markably like selecting food for a family table,— 
a very nice art, indeed. The cook must know 
food values, their preparation and their economic 
selection, so as to balance one kind of food 
against another and furnish complete nourish¬ 
ment. Within a narrow range of choice, allow¬ 
ance must be made for individual tastes, and 
enough provided to satisfy every rational ap¬ 
petite. So it is in the selection of books. What 
is a good book for one may not be a good book 
for another. A family library, like a family 
table, should cater somewhat to individual 
tastes; but there are common tastes as well, 
and the well-selected library of even a few books 
may furnish joy for the whole family. 

No one list of books can ever be the best list. 
It can only be suggestive of the kind of books 
that belong to every good list. A short list of 
books for a family library is appended here. 

A SMALL HOME LIBRARY 

Title Publisher or Author 

A Standard Dictionary. 

A Good Encyclopedia. 

Imperial Atlas of the World, . Rand-McNally. 



LITERATURE 


319 


Title Publisher or Author 

History of the United States, . John B. McMaster. 

The United States in Our Own 

Times.E. B. Andrews. 

History of Our Own Times 

(English).Justin McCarthy. 

English Lands, Letters, and 

Kings (4 vols.),.Donald G. Mitchell. 

American Lands and Letters 

(2 vols.),.Donald G. Mitchell. 

Outlines of Universal History 

(2 vols.),.Geo. P. Fisher. 

Romance of Discovery, . . . . W. E. Griffis. 

Romance of Conquest.W. E. Griffis. 

Critical Period of American 

History.John Fiske. 

History of the English People, Green. 

Struggle for a Continent, . . . Francis Parkman. 

A Talk About Books, . . . . J. N. Lamed. 

Natural Resources of the United 

States,.Jacob H. Patton. 

Holland and Its People, . . . Edmondo de Amicis. 
Spain and the Spaniards, . . . Edmondo de Amicis. 

The Alhambra,.Washington Irving. 

Wayfarers in Italy,.Catharine Hooker. 

French By-ways,.Clifton Johnson. 

Fresh Fields (English).John Burroughs. 

A Corner of Cathay.A. M. Fielde. 

Across Asia on a Bicycle, . . . Allen and Sachtleben. 

At the Rainbow’s End (The 

Klondike),.Alice Henderson. 

The Desert (American), . . . John Van Dyke. 

Hawaiian America,.Caspar Whitney. 

Thirty Years in Australia, . . Ada Jambridge. 

Java, the Pearl of the East, . Mrs. S. J. Higginson. 
Japan, Its History and Folklore, W. E. Griffis. 

Japanese Girls and Women, . . Alice M. Bacon. 

Great World’s Farm, .... Selina Gaye. 

Romance of Industry and In¬ 
vention.Robt. Cochrane. 

Men Who Made the Nation. . . E. E. Sparks. 

Literary Friends and Acquaint¬ 
ances, .W. D. Howells. 

Yesterdays with Authors, . . . Jas. T. Fields. 

My Summer in a Garden, . . . Chas. Dudley Warner. 

Indoor Studies,.John Burroughs. 

Outlines of English Literature, Henry S. Pancoast. 
Outlines of American Literature, Henry S. Pancoast. 

Life of Abraham Lincoln, . . John G. Nicolay. 
Lincoln, Master of Men, . . . Alonzo Rothschild. 

Life of William Penn, .... Augustus Buell. 

The Mother of Washington and 

Her Times, ....... Mrs. Roger Pryor. 

The Making of an American. . Jacob A. Riis. 

Practical Garden Book.L. H. Bailey. 

A Woman’s Hardy Garden, . . Helen R. Ely. 

Earth’s Bounty,.Kate V. St. Maur. 

Sesame and Lilies.John Ruskin. 

The Development of the Child, Nathan Oppenheim. 
Mental Growth and Control, . Nathan Oppenheim. 
Two Children of the Foot Hills, Elizabeth Harrison. 

Fisherman’s Luck.Henry Van Dyke. 

Bits of Talk on Home Matters, Helen Hunt Jackson. 

Village Sermons,.Charles Kingsley. 

Children’s Rights.Kate Douglas Wiggin. 

Heredity and Christian Prob¬ 
lems, *.Amory Bradford. 

Prue and I,.George W. Curtis. 

The Brook Book, ...... Mary Rogers Miller. 

Three Acres and Liberty, . . . Bolton Hall. 

The Life of the Spirit.Hamilton Mabie. 

The Blue Flower,.Henry Van Dyke. 

Marsh Island,.S. O. Jewett. 

Adventures of Tom Sawyer,. . Mark Twain. 

Fishin’ Jimmy.Annie Trumbull Slosson. 

Story-tell Lib.Annie Trumbull Slosson. 

How to Tell Stories to Children, Sarah Bryant. 

Point of Contact.Patterson Du Bois. 

Solomon Crow’s Christmas 

Pockets.Ruth McEnery Stuart. 

Uncle William.Jennette Lee. 

Captain of the Gray-horse Troop, Hamlin Garland. 

Ramona.Helen Hunt Jackson. 

The Crisis,.Winston Churchill. 

Aliens.Mary Tappan Wright. 

Wonders of the Colorado 

Desert (2 vols.).G. W. James. 

In and Out of the Old Missions 

of California,.. . G. W. James. 

Certain Delightful English 

Towns.W. D. Howells. 

Prophet of the Great Smoky 

Mountains.Chas. Egbert Craddock. 


Title Publisher or Author 

The Scarlet Letter,.Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

Marble Faun.Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

Vesty of the Basins.Sarah P. M. Greene. 

John Halifax,.Dinah Mulock Craik. 

Rudder Grange,.Frank Stockton. 

The Widow O’Callaghan’s Boys, Gulielma Zollinger. 

The Sky Pilot.Ralph Connor. 

The Blazed Trail,.Stewart Edward White. 

Old-town Folks, .Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

Alice of Old Vincennes, . . . Maurice Thompson. 

The Virginian,.Owen Wister. 

Princess of Thule,.William Black. 

Adam Bede,.George Eliot. 

Old Curiosity Shop.Charles Dickens. 

Annals of a Quiet Neighbor¬ 
hood, .George Macdonald. 

Margaret Ogilvy.James Barrie. 

Beside the Bonnie Brier-Bush, Ian Maclaren. 

Put Yourself in His Place, . . Charles Reade. 

Ben Hur,.Lew Wallace. 

Cambridge Book of Poetry and 

Song.Charlotte Fiske Bates. 

Songs of Nature.John Burroughs. 

Shakespere’s Plays: Hamlet, Merchant of Venice, Mac¬ 
beth, As You Like It, Julius Caesar, King Lear, and 
others, as preferred. 

Selected volumes of Household Poetry. 


BOOKS FOR THE CHILDREN’S LIBRARY 

“A wise mother and good books enabled me to suc¬ 
ceed in life.”— Henry Clay. 


Note.— These books have been carefully 
selected from children’s lists, issued by public 
libraries, and from lists prepared by school de¬ 
partments. They are all of them good books 
and children like them, but they are only a few 
of the many equally good ones which can be 
found from the same sources. 


PICTURE BOOKS AND RHYME BOOKS FOR 
THE VERY LITTLE ONES 


(Children under six 

Title 


years of age.) 

Publisher or Author 


Babyhood Days,. 

Little Sunshine,. 

Cherry-tree Farm. 

Children’s Pets, .. 

Little Black Sambo,. 

Five Minute Stories. 

Book of Nursery Rhymes, . . 

Baby Days,. 

Child Stories and Rhymes, . . 
Mother Goose: Old Nursery 

Rhymes,. 

Rhymes and Jingles,. 

Caldicott Picture Books, . . . 
Songs for Little Children, . . . 

Sunbonnet Babies,. 

Lullaby Land. 


Dutton. 

De Wolf. 
Stokes. 

Dutton. 

Doubleday. 

Richards. 

Welsh. 

Dodge. 

Poulsson. 

Warne. 

Norton. 

Warne. 

Smith. 

Rand-McNally. 
Eugene Field. 


FOR CHILDREN OF THE FIRST AND SECOND 
PRIMARY GRADES 
(From six to eight years of age.) 

Title Publisher or Author 

Five Mice in a Mouse Trap, . . Richards. 

Six Nursery Classics, .... Welsh. 

Happy Heart Family, .... Gerson. 

Asgard Stories,.Foster and Cummings. 

Stories of the Red Children, . . Brooks. 

Book of Fables,.Scudder. 

St. Nicholas Christmas Book, . Century. 

Docas, the Indian Boy, . . . Snedden. 

Grimm’s Fairy Tales (2 vols.),. Wiltse. 

Stories of Great Americans for 

Little Americans,.Eggleston. 

Book of Fables and Folk Stories, Scudder. 


Fairy Stories and Fables, . . . Baldwin. 
Andersen’s Fairy Tales, . . . Baldwin. 
Little Folks of Many Lands, . Chance. 

Mother Goose,.Greenaway. 

First Jungle Book,.Kipling. 

Brownies, their Book, .... Cox. 
Treasury of Stories, Jingles, and 

Rhymes,.Humphrey. 

Child’s Garden of Verses, . . . Stevenson. 

In Sunshine Land,.Thomas. 

Rhymes of Childhood.Riley. 











































































320 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


FOR CHILDREN OF THE THIRD AND 
FOURTH GRADES 
(From eight to ten years of age.) 


Title 

Joyous Story of Toto. 

Toto’s Merry Winter, .... 

Jackanapes. 

Children’s Book,. 

Seven Little Sisters. 

Our Little Brown Cousin, . . 
Our Little Indian Cousin, . . 
Our Little Japanese Cousin, 

Our Little Russian Cousin, . . 
Old Greek Stories, ...... 

Adventures of a Brownie, . . 

Little Jarvis,. 

Stories of American Life and 

Adventure,.. 

Four Great Americans, .... 
Mischief’s Thanksgiving, . . . 
World and Its People (our own 

country),. 

Just So Stories,. 

Golden Windows,. 

Uncle Remus and His Friends, 
Boys of Other Countries, . . . 
Book of Knight and Barbara, . 
Children’s Life of Lincoln, . . 
Court of King Arthur, .... 

Water Babies,. 

Little Folks’ Lyrics, ..... 
Songs Every Child Should Know, 
Poems Every Child Should 
Know. 


Publisher or Author 
Richards. 

Richards. 

Ewing. 

Scudder. 

Andrews. 

Wade. 

Wade. 

Wade. 

Wade. 

Baldwin. 

Mulock. 

Seawell. 

Eggleston. 

Baldwin. 

Coolidge. 

Dun ton. 

Kipling. 

Richards. 

Harris. 

Taylor. 

Jordan. 

Putnam. 

Green. 

Kingsley. 

Sherman. 

Bacon. 

Burt. 


FOR CHILDREN OF THE FIFTH AND SIXTH 
GRADES 


(Frbm ten to twelve years of age.) 


Title 

Century Book of Famous Amer¬ 
icans. 

True Story of Christopher Co¬ 
lumbus, . 

True Story of George Wash¬ 
ington, .......... 

True Story of Benjamin Frank¬ 
lin. 

True Story of Ulysses S. Grant, 
Pioneer Stories (3 vols.), . . . 
Travels Through North Amer¬ 
ica with the Children, . . . 
Boys of ’76 and Boys of ’61, . 

Story of the Greeks,. 

Story of the Romans, .... 

Paul Jones,. 

Robinson Crusoe,. 

Hans Brinker,. 

Land of Pluck. 

The Land We Live In (3 vols.), 

Nelly’s Silver Mine. 

Tales of King Arthur, .... 
Zig-Zag Journeys (series),. . . 
Little Cousin Series (Italy, Ger¬ 
many, Holland, etc.), . . . 
Fifty Famous Stories Retold, 

Story of a Bad Boy,. 

Myths Every Child Should 

Know,. 

Legends Every Child Should 

Know. 

Wonder-Book and Tangle-wood 

Tales,. 

Lobo, Rag and Vixen, .... 
Squirrels and Other Fur-bearers, 

Little Smoke. 

Juan and Juanita,. 

Heidi (Home life in Switzer¬ 
land), . 

Little Women,. 

Little Men,. 

Spinning Wheel Stories, . . . 

Jack Hall, .. 

Betty Leicester,. 

Some Merry Adventures of 

Robin Hood. 

King of the Golden River, . . 
Swiss Family Robinson, . . . 
Arctic Alaska and Siberia, . . 
Poems of American Patriotism, 
Golden Numbers (Poems), . . 


Publisher or Author 

Brooks. 

Brooks. 

Brooks. 

Brooks. 

Brooks. 

McMurry. 

Carpenter. 

Coffin. 

Guerber. 

Guerber. 

Seawell. 

Defoe. 

Dodge. 

Dodge. 

King. 

Jackson. 

Farrington. 

Butterworth. 

Pub. by Page & Co. 
Baldwin. 

Aldrich. 

Mabie. 

Mabie. 

Hawthorne. 

Thompson-Seton. 

Burroughs. 

Stoddard. 

Baylor. 

Spyri. 

Alcott. 

Alcott. 

Alcott. 

Grant. 

Jewett. 

Pyle. 

Ruskin. 

Wyss. 

Aldrich. 

Matthews. 

Wiggin and Smith. 


FOR SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 
(From twelve to fourteen.) 

Title Publisher or Author 


Boys’ Handy Book and Girls’ 

Handy Book.. . 

Cyclopedia of Common Things, 
Colonial Days and Ways, . . . 

Twelve Americans,. 

The Story of Washington, . . 

Ulysses S. Grant,. 

Abraham Lincoln,. 

Osceola, Chief of the Seminoles, 
Tecumseh, Chief of the Shawa- 
nees, 

Paul Jones,.. 

One Hundred Famous Ameri¬ 
cans, . 

Heroes of the Golden Age, . . 
Cruise of the Cachalot, .... 

Captains Courageous. 

Personally Conducted, .... 
Tour of the World in Eighty 

Days,. 

We Girls. 

Land of the Long Night, . . . 
World of the Great Forest, . . 
Historical Tales from Shakes- 

pere. 

Stories from Shakespere, . . . 

Oakleigh, . 

From Cattleranch to College, . 

Story of Sonny Sahib. 

Micah Clarke,. 

Treasure Island, . 

Two Young Homesteaders, . . 

Four Macnicols,. 

Flamingo Feather, . 

Polly Oliver’s Problem, . . . 
For the Honor of the School, . 
Sharp Eyes and Other Papers, 
Birds Through an Opera Glass, 

Prince and Pauper,. 

Christmas Stories,. 

Story of King Arthur, .... 
The Spy and the Leather Stock¬ 
ing Tales (5 vols.), .... 
Twenty Thousand Leagues Un¬ 
der the Sea,. 

Poems of American Patriotism, 
Treasure Book of Verse, . . . 


Beard. 

Champlin. 

Smith. 

Carroll. 

Seelye. 

Wister. 

Noah Brooks. 

Gordon. 

Gordon. 

Seawell. 

Smith. 

Baldwin. 

Bullen. 

Kipling. 

Stockton. 

Verne. 

Whitney. 

Du Chaillu. 

Du Chaillu. 

Couch. 

Chas. and Mary Lamb. 
Deland. 

Doubleday. 

Cotes. 

Doyle. 

Stevenson. 

Jenness. 

Black. 

Munroe. 

Wiggin. 

Barbour. 

Burroughs. 

Merriam. 

Mark Twain. 

Dickens. 

Pyle. 

Cooper. 

Verne. 

Matthews. 

Brackett and Eliot. 


FOR THE OLDER BOYS AND GIRLS 


Title Publisher or Author 

Reader’s Handbook of Famous Names, Brewer. 
Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, . . . Brewer. 

Young Folks’ Cyclopedia of Literature 

and Art,.Champlin. . 

Young Folks’ Cyclopedia of Persons 

and Places,.Champlin. 

Age of Fable,.Bulfinch. 

Helps for Ambitious Boys.Drysdale. 

Boys’ Book of Inventions,.Baker. 

Electricity for Everybody, .Atkinson. 

Discovery of America.Fiske. 

War of Independence,.Fiske. 

Advance Guard of Western Civilization, Gilmore. 

Tramp Across the Continent, . . . . Lummis. 

Story of Our Continent.Shaler. 

Successful Men of To-day,.Craft. 

Abraham Lincoln,.Nicolay. 

Story of Music and Musicians, .... Lillie. 

Story of the English,.Guerber. 

Life of Robert Fulton.Knox. 

La Salle and the Discovery of the Great 

West,.Parkman. 

Fighting Phil (Sheridan),.Headley. 

Rough Riders,.. Roosevelt. 

The Raiders, .Crockett. 

Christmas in Four Quarters of the 

Globe, ..Barber. 

Twelve Christmas Sermons,.Spurgeon. 

Pepacton,.Burroughs. 

A Social Departure, .Duncan. 

Explorers and Travelers,.Greeley. 

How the Other Half Lives,.Riis. 

Nineteenth Century.Mackenzie. 

Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, . . Church. 

John Brent,.Winthrop. 

Our Old Home,.Hawthorne. 

The Roman and the Teuton,.Kingsley. 

Nicholas Nickleby.Dickens. 

Being a Boy.Warner. 

Cuore, ..D’Amicis. 





















































































LITERATURE 


321 


Title Publisher or Author 

John Halifax,.Mulock. 

Shakespere, the Boy, . ..Rolfe. 

Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail, . . Roosevelt. 

A Roundabout Journey,.Warner. 

Along the Florida Reef,.Holder. 

Astronomy with an Opera Glass, . . . Serviss. 

How I Found Livingstone,.Stanley. 

Story of My Life,.Helen Keller. 

Standish of Standish,.Jane G. Austin. 

Dr. Le Baron and His Daughters,. . . Jane G. Austin. 

Judith Shakespere,.Black. 

A Summer in Leslie Goldthwaite’s Life, Whitney. 
Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Kenilworth, Waver- 

ley,.Scott. 

Heart of the Ancient Wood.Roberts. 

The Land of Evangeline,.Roberts. 

Kidnapped,.Stevenson. 

David Balfour,.Stevenson. 

Huckleberry Finn.Mark Twain. 

David Copperfield, Little Dorrit, . . . Dickens. 

A Noble Life,.Mulock. 

Silas Marner, ..Eliot. 

The House of the Seven Gables, . . . Hawthorne. 

Window in Thrums,.Barrie. 

Idylls of the King,.Tennyson. 

Book of Golden Deeds,.Yonge. 


Selected Volumes of Household Poetry, Longfellow, 
Whittier, Scott, and other favorites. 


PEN NAMES OF NOTED 
WRITERS 

Pen Name Real Name 


Abbott, Madeline Vaughan, 

Ackworth, John,. 

Adam, Madame (Edmond), 

Adams, Moses,. 

Adams, Stephen, .... 

Adeler, Max. 

Agate,. 

A. K. H. B.,. 

Akers, Elizabeth, .... 
A. L. O. E. (A Lady of 

England), .. 

Alexander, Mrs., .... 

Allen, F. M.,. 

Americus,. 

Ames, Lucia True, . . . 

Amyand, Arthur. 

Andrews, Annulet, . . . 

Anstey, F.,. 

Archibald, Mrs. G., ... 

Armstrong, Regina, . . . 

Arnold, Birch. 

Arp, Bill. 

“ Ashmont,”. 

Atlas,. 

“ Aunt Elmina,” .... 

Ayres, Alfred, . 

Bab,. 

Ballin, Ada S.,. 

Baba, Ali, . .. 

Barnaval, Louis. 

Barnes, Catharine Weed, . 
Bates, Charlotte Fiske, . . 
Baylor, Frances Courtenay, 

Beard, Frank,. 

Beaumont, Averil, .... 

Bede, Cuthbert. 

Bell, Acton,. 

Bell, Currer. 

Bell, Ellis, 

Bell, Lilian,. 

Bell, Lura,. 

Bell, Nancy,. 

Belloc, Marie Adelaide, 

Bentzon, Thdr^se. 

Berkeley, Thusnelda, . . 
Bevans, Neile,. 

Bibliophile,. 

Bickerdyke, John, .... 
Bickerstaff, Isaac, .... 

Biglow, Hosea,. 

Billings, Josh, . 

Bisland, Elizabeth, . . . 
Blanchan, Neltje, . ... 

Boldrewood, Rolf, .... 
Bonehill, Capt. Ralph, . . 

Boz.. . . . 

Braddon, Miss M. E., . . 


Mrs. Charles E. Bushnell. 
Rev. F. R. Smith. 

Juliette Lamber. 

Geo. Wm. Bagby. 

Michael Maybrick. 

Charles Heber Clark. 
Whitelaw Reid. 

Rev. A. K. H. Boyd. 

Mrs. E. M. Allen. 

Charlotte M. Tucker. 

Mrs. Annie French Hector. 
Edmund Downey. 

Francis Lieber. 

Mrs. Lucia Ames Mead. 

Capt. E. A. Haggard. 

Mrs. J. Kingsley Ohl. 

F. Anstey Guthrie. 

Mrs. George A. Palmer. 

Mrs. C. H. Niehaus. 

Mrs. J. M. D. Bartlett. 
Charles H. Smith. 

J. Frank Perry. 

Edmund Yates. 

Mrs. Isaac Slenker. 

Thomas E. Osmun. 

W. S. Gilbert. 

Mrs. Oscar G. D. Berry. 
Alberigh Mackay. 

Charles De Kay. 

Mrs. Henry Snowden Ward. 
Mme. Adolphe Rog£. 

Mrs. Geo. S. Barnum. 

Thos. Francis Beard. 

Mrs. Hunt. 

Rev. Edward Bradley. 

Anne Bronte. 

Charlotte Bronte. 

Emily Bronte. 

Mrs. Arthur Hoyt Bogue. 
Julia May Williamson. 

Mrs. A. Geo. Bell. 

Mrs. Frederick S. Lowndes. 
Marie Th^rfese Blanc. 

Mrs. Mary L. Metcalfe. 

Nellie Bingham Van Slinger- 
land. 

S. A. Allibone. 

Charles H. Cook. 

Swift and Steele. 

J. R. Lowell. 

Henry W. Shaw. 

Mrs. Elizabeth Wetmore. 
Mrs. F. N. Doubleday. 

Thos. Alex. Browne. 

Edwd. Stratemeyer. 

Charles Dickens. 

Mrs. John Maxwell. 


Pen Name 

Brannigan, Calvin, . . . 

Breitmann, Hans. 

Briscoe, Margaret Sutton,. 
Brooke, Magdalen, . . . 

Brooks, Esta. 

“ Brooksby,”. 

Brydges, Harold, .... 

“ Bunny,”. 

Burnett, Frances Hodgson, 
Butt, Beatrice May, . . . 

“C.”.. . 

Calderwood, M. 

Cambridge, Ada. 

Carroll, Lewis,. 

Carter, Nick,. 

Carton, R. C.,. 

Cartwright, Julia. 

Caryll, Ivan,. 

Caskoden, Edw., .... 
Castlemon, Harry, .... 

“Champ,”. 

Chester, Eliza. 

Chester, Morley. 

“Chicot,”. 

Clark, Henry Scott, . . . 

Cleeve, Lucas,. 

Clement, Clara Erskine, . 

Coe, Captain. 

Collingwood, Harry, . . . 

Collins, Mabel,. 

Collins, Percy. 

Colmore, G. 

Connor, Marie,. 

Connor, Ralph,. 

Conway, Hugh,. 

“ Coo-ee,”. 

Coolidge, Susan. 

Corelli, Marie, . 

Cornwall, Barry. 

Craddock, Charles Egbert, 

Craik, Georgiana M. 

Crayon, Geoffrey, .... 

Crinkle, Nym,. 

Cromarty, Deas,. 

Crowfield, Christopher, . . 

Cusack, George. 

Cushing, Paul,. 

D’Ache, Caran,. 

Dacre, J. Colne,. 

“ Dagonet,”. 

Dale, Alan. 

Dale, Darley,. 

Daly, Frederic,. 

Danbury Newsman, . . . 

Danby, Frank. 

D’Anvers, N.,. 

Dean, Mrs. Andrew, . . . 

De Burgh, A.,. 

Deland, Margaret, . . . . 

Devoore, Ann,. 

Dix, Dorothy,. 

Dobson, Austin. 

Donovan, Dick,. 

Dooley, Martin,. 

Douglas, George. 

Douglas, Marian, . . . . 

Doyle, Conan, ...... 

Drinkwater, Jennie Maria, 

“Droch,” . 

Duncan, Sara Jeannette, . 
Dunning, Charlotte, . . . 
" Duchess, The,” . . . . 
Egerton, George, . . . . 

Eichberg, Annie. 

Elia,. 

Eliot, George,. 

Eliot, Max,. 

Emery, Clay,. 

Ettrick Shepherd, . . . . 
Falconer, Lanoe, . . . . 

Fane, Violet,. 

Farnam, Ella, . 

Farquharson, Martha, . . 

Fern, Fanny,. 

Field, Michael,. 

Fielding, Howard, . . . . 

Finn, Mickey,. 

“ Fitznoodle,”. 


Real Name 
Jas. Jeffrey Roche. 

Leland, Charles Godfrey. 
Mrs. A. J. Hopkins. 

M. H. M. Capes. 

Mrs. E. P. Evans. 

Capt. Pennell Elmhirst. 
James Howard Bridge. 

Carl E. Schultze. 

Mrs. Stephen Townsend. 

Mrs. W. H. Alhusen. 

Mrs. J. Farley Cox. 

William F. Robertson, M. D, 
Mrs. Geo. F. Cross. 

Rev. C. L. Dodgson. 

J. Russell Coryell. 

R. C. Critchett. 

Mrs. Henry Ady. 

John Carl. 

Charles Major. 

Charles A. Fosdick. 

Jas. W. Champney. 

Harriet Eliza Paine. 

Emily Underwood. 

Epes Winthrop Sargent. 
Millard F. Cox. 

Mrs. Howard Kingscote. 
Mrs. James Forbes Waters. 

E. Card Mitchell. 

W. J. C. Lancaster. 

Mrs. Keningale Cook. 

Price Collier. 

Mrs. Gertrude Colmore 
Dunn. 

Marie Connor Leighton. 

Rev. C. W. Gordon. 

F. J. Fargus. 

W. S. Walker. 

Sarah C. Woolsey, 

Eva Mary Mackay. 

B. W. Procter. 

Mary N. Murfree. 

Mrs. May. 

Washington Irving. 

Andrew C. Wheeler. 

Mrs. Watson. 

Harriet Beecher Stowe. 
Grace Carter-Smith. 

Roland Alexander Wood- 

Sey. 

Emmanuel Poire. 

Mrs. A. S. Boyd. 

George R. Sims. 

Alfred J. Cohen. 

Francesca Maria Steele. 
Lewis Frederic Austin. 

J. M. Bailey. 

Mrs. Julia Frankau. 

Mrs. A. Geo. Bell. 

Mrs. Cecily Sidgwick. 

E. M. Alborough. 

Mrs. Lorin F. Deland. 

Mrs. R. P. Walden. 
Elizabeth M. Gilmer. 

Henry A. Dobson. 

Joyce Emerson Muddock. 
Finley Peter Dunne. 

George D. Brown. 

Annie Douglas Greene R obin- 
son. 

Sir Arthur C. Doyle. 

Jennie Conklin, M. D. 
Robert Bridges. 

Mrs. Everard Cotes. 
Charlotte D. Morse. 

Mrs. Hungerford. 

Mrs. R. Golding Bright. 

Mrs. John Lane. 

Charles Lamb. 

Marian Evans. 

Mrs. Granville Alden Ellis. 
Clayton Mayo. 

James Hogg. 

Mary Elizabeth Hawkes. 
Lady Currie. 

Ella F. Pratt. 

Martha F. Finley. 

Sara P. Parton. 

Miss Bradley and Miss 
Cooper. 

Charles W. Hooke. 

Ernest Jarrold. 

B. B. Vallentine. 






































































































322 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Pen Name 

Fleming, George. 

Flynt, Josiah. 

Fontenoy, Marquise de, 

Forbes, Athol. 

Forrester, Francis, . . . 

Forrester, Frank. 

Forrester, Isola. 

“ Fra Elbertus,”. 

France, Anatole,. 

Francis, M. E.,. 

Frank, Dr. 

“G. G.,”. 

Garrett, Edward. 

Gates, Eleanor. 

“Gath,”. 

George, G. M.,. 

Gerard, Dorothea. 

Gerard, Emily. 

Gerard, Morice,. 

Gibbons, Lucy,. 

Gift, Theo. 

Gilman, Winona, . . . . 

Gissing, George. 

Glyn, Elinor. 

Glyndon, Howard, . . . 

Godfrey, Hal,. 

Going, Maud,. 

Gooch, Fanny C., . . . . 
Goodman, Maude, . . . . 
Gordon, A. M. R., .... 
Gordon, Julien, . . . . . 
Gorki, Maxime. 


Graduate of Oxford, . . 
Graham, John, .... 
Grand, Mme. Sarah, . . 
Gray, Maxwell, .... 
Green, Anna Katharine, 
Greenwood, Grace, . . 
Greville, Henri, .... 

Grey, Barton,. 

Grier, Sydney C., ... 

Grile, Dod,. 

Gubbins, Nathaniel, . . 

“Gyp,”. 

“H. H.”. 

Haliburton, Hugh, . . 

Hall, Owen. 

Hamilton, Gail, .... 

“ Hard Pan,”. 

Harland, Marion, . . . 
Harrod, Frances, . . . 
Hawthorne, Alice, . . . 
Hayes, Henry, .... 
Hegan, Alice Caldwell, . 

Henry, John,. 

Herbert, Morgan . . . 
Heron, E. and H. 


Hickson, Mrs. Murray, . . 

Hill, Headon. 

“ Historicus,”. 

Hobbes, John Oliver,. . . 

Hoffman, Prof. 

Hogan, Ernest,. 

Holdsworth, Annie E., . . 

“Holland,”. 

Holloway, Laura, . . . . 
Holm, Saxe,. 


Hope, Anthony,. 

Hope, Ascot R.,. 

Hope, Graham,. 

Hopper, Nora,. 

Huntington, Faye, . . . 
Hutchinson, Ellen M., . . 

“Innominato,”. 

“Iota,”. 

“Ironquill,”. 

Irons, Ralph,. 

“Ivory Black,”. 

“ J. S. of Dale,”. 

Jay, W. L. M. 

Jean, Paul. 

Johnson, Benjamin F., . . 

Johnson, Effie,. 

“Josiah Allen’s Wife,” . . 

“June, Jenny,”. 

Keith, Leslie,. 

Kendall, B.,. 

Kerr, Orpheus C., . . . . 
King, Katherine Douglas,. 


Real Name 

Julia Constance Fletcher. 
Josiah Flynt Willard. 
Margaret Owen Cunliffe. 
Forbes Alexander Phillips. 
Daniel Wise. 

Henry Wm. Herbert. 

Mrs. Reuben Merrifield. 
Elbert Hubbard. 

Jacques Anatole Thibault. 
Mrs. Frank Blundell. 

J. Frank Perry, M. D. 

Henry George Harper. 

Mrs. John R. Mayo. 

Mrs. Richard Walton Tully. 
George Alfred Townsend. 
Mrs. Spurrell. 

Mme. Longard de Longarde. 
Mme. de Laszowski. 

Rev. J. Jessop Teague. 

Lucy G. Morse. 

Mrs. G. S. Boulger. 

Mrs. F. Schceffel. 

J. Storer Glouston. 

Mrs. Clayton Glyn. 

Mrs. Laura C. R. Searing. 
Charlotte O’Conor-Eccles. 

E. M. Harding. 

Fanny C. G. Iglehard. 

Mrs. A. E. Scanes. 

Alexander Macgregor Roe. 
Mrs. Van Rensselaer Cruger. 
Alexei Maximovitch Pesh- 

kov. 

John Ruskin. 

David Graham Phillips. 

Mrs. McFall. 

Miss M. G. Tuttiett. 

Mrs. Charles Rohlfs. 

Sara Jane Lippincott. 

Mme. Durand. 

George Herbert Sass. 

Miss Gregg. 

Ambrose Bierce. 

Edward Spencer Mott. 
Countess de Martel. 

Helen Hunt Jackson. 

James Logie Robertson. 
James Davis. 

Mary Abigail Dodge. 
Geraldine Bonner. 

Mrs. Mary V. Terhune. 
Frances Forbes-Robertson. 
Septimus Winner. 

Ellen Olney Kirk. 

Mrs. Cale Young Rice. 

Hugh McHugh. 

Margaret M. H. Mather. 

Mrs. Kenneth and Mr. Hes- 
keth Prichard. 

Mrs. S. A. P. Kitcat. 

F. Grainger. 

Sir W. Vernon Harcourt. 
Mrs. Pearl Craigie. 

Angelo Lewis. 

Reuben Crowdus. 

Mrs. Lee-Hamilton. 

E. J. Edwards. 

Laura C. H. Langford. 
Probably Helen Hunt Jack- 
son. 

Anthony Hope Hawkins. 

R. Hope Moncreiff. 

Jessie Hope. 

Mrs. Wilfred H. Chesson. 
Theodosia T. Foster. 

Ellen M. H. Cortissoz. 

Mgr. Eugene Boeglin. 

Mrs. Mannington Caffyn. 
Eugene F. Ware. 

Mrs. S. C. Cronwright. 
Thomas A. Janvier. 
Frederick J. Stimson. 

Julia L. M. Woodruff. 

J. P. F. Richter. 

James Whitcomb Riley. 

Mrs. Orson Richmond. 
Marietta Holley. 

Mrs. David G. Croly. 

Grace L. K. Johnston. 
Baroness Kurt von Kendall. 
Robert C. Newell. 

Mrs. Burr. 


Pen Name 

Kirk, Eleanor,. 

Kirke, Edmund,. 

Klingle, George. 

Knickerbocker, Cholly, . . 
Knickerbocker, Diedrich, . 

“ Kron, Karl,”. 

Kvelve. 

Laurie, Annie,. 

Le Baron, Grace, . . . . 

Lee, Home,. 

Lee, Vernon,. 

L. E. L. 

Leslie, Amy,. 

Leslie, Mrs. Frank. 

Logan, Celia,. 

Logan, Olive. 

Lothrop, Amy. 

Loti, Pierre. 

Ludlow, Johnny, . . . . 

Luska, Sidney,. 

Lyall, Edna. 

Lys, Christian,. 

"M. E. W. S.,”. 

Maartens, Maarten, . . . 

Maitland, Thomas, . . . 
McManus, Blanche, . . . 
MacDermott, B., . . . . 

Mackenzie, Fergus, . . . 

Mackie, Pauline B. 

MacLaren, Ian. 

Maclean, Mona. 

MacNab, Frances. 

Malet, Lucas. 

“Maori,”. 

Marchant, Bessie. 

Marlitt, E. 

Marlowe, Charles, . . . . 
“Marshes, A Son of the,” . 

Martin, Ellis,. 

Martin, George Madden, . 

Marvel, Ik. 

Marvel, Matthew. 

Mathers, Helen,. 

Maxwell, Ellen Blackmer,. 

May, Sophie,. 

Meade, L. T.,. 

Meredith, Owen, . . . . 
Merriam, Florence A., . . 
Merriman, Henry Seton, . 

Mignon, August. 

Miller, Joaquin,. 

Miller, Olive Thorne, . . . 

Millman, Helen,. 

Miln, Louise Jordan, . . . 

“Miss Teerius,”. 

Montbard, Georges, . . . 
Moore, Mollie E., . . . . 

Mortimer, Geoffrey, . . . 

Morton, Hugh. 

Mowbray, J. P. 

Mulholland, Rosa, . . . . 

Mulock, Miss,. 

Nasby, Petroleum V., . . 

Nesbit, E.,. 

Newton, Aubrey. 

Nox, Owen,. 

Nordau, Max,. 

North, Christopher, . . . 

North, Barclay,. 

O’Dowd, Cornelius, . . . 

“O. K.,” .. 

Ogden, Ruth,. 

Ogilvy, Gavin,. 

Oldcastle, John. 

“Old Sleuth,”. 

O’Neill, Rose Cecil, . . . 

Optic, Oliver,. 

O’Reilly, Miles,. 

O’Rell, Max,. 

Otis, James,. 

“Ouida,”.. . 

Owen, Jean A. 

Oxenham, John, . . . . 

Palmer, Lynde,. 

“Pansy,”. 

Parley, Peter,. 

Partington, Mrs., . . . . 

Paston, George. 

Patton, J. B. 

Paul, John,. 


Real Name 
Eleanor K. Ames. 

James R. Gilmore. 

Mrs. Holmes. 

John W. Kellar. 

Washington Irving. 

Lyman Hotchkiss Bagg. 
Rasmus B. Anderson. 
Winifred Black. 

Mrs. Henry Macy Upham. 
Harriet Parr. 

Violet Paget. 

Letitia E. Landon. 

Lillie West Brown. 

Mrs. Miriam F. F. Wilde. 
Mrs. J. B. Connelly. 

Mrs. W. Wirt Sikes. 

Anna Bartlett Warner. 

L. M. Julien Viaud. 

Mrs. Henry Wood. 

Henry Harland. 

Ada Ellen Bayly. 

Percy Jas. Brebner. 

Mrs. Jno. Sherwood. 

J. N. W. van der Poorten 
Schwartz. 

R. Buchanan. 

Mrs. M. F. Mansfield. 

Robert M. Sillard. 

James Anderson. 

Mrs. Herbert M. Hopkins. 
Rev. John MacLaren Wat¬ 
son. 

Miss Todd. 

Agnes Fraser. 

Mrs. William Harrison. 
James Inglis. 

Mrs. J. A. Comfort. 
Henriette Eugenie John. 
Harriet Jay. 

Mrs. Owen Visger. 

Marah Ellis Ryan. 

Mrs. Atwood R. Martin. 
Donald G. Mitchell. 

E. P. Ackerman. 

Mrs. Henry Reeves. 

Ellen B. Barker. 

Rebecca Sophia Clarke. 

Mrs. F. Toulmin Smith. 

Earl of Lytton. 

Mrs. Florence M. Bailey. 
Hugh Stowell Scott. 

John A. Darling. 

Cincinnatus Heine Miller. 
Harriet Mann Miller. 

Mrs. Caldwell Crofton. 

Mrs. George Crichton Miln. 
Mrs. Fred Horner. 

Charles Auguste Loyes. 

Mary Evelyn Moore Davis. 
Walter M. Gallichan. 

Charles M. S. McLellan. 
Andrew C. Wheeler. 

Lady Gilbert. 

Mrs. G. L. Craig. 

David Locke. 

Mrs. Hubert Bland. 

Ambrose Winterton. 

Charles B. Cory. 

Simon Sudfeld. 

Prof. John Wilson. 

William C. Hudson. * 

Charles Lever. 

Mme. Ulga Kireef Novikoff. 
Frances Otis Ide. 

J. M. Barrie. 

Wilfred Meynell. 

Harlan P. Halsey. 

Mrs. Harry Leon Wilson. 
Rev. Wm. T. Adams. 

Charles G. Halpin. 

Paul Blouet. 

James Otis Kaler. 

Louise de la Ramee. 

Mrs. Owen Visger. 

Mr. Dunkerley. 

Mrs. A. A. Peebles. 

Isabella Macdonald Alden. 
Sam. G. Goodrich. 

Benj. P. Shillaber. 

Miss E. M. Symonds. 
Edmund White. 

Chas. Henry Webb. 







































































































LITERATURE 


323 


Pen Name 

Perkins, Eli,. 

Phiz,. 

Phoenix, John,. 

Pindar, Peter,. 

Plymley, Peter,. 

“Porte Crayon,”. 

Powell, Richard Stillman, . 
Prescott, Dorothy, . . . 
Prescott, E. Livingston, . 
Prevost, Francis, .... 
Prout, Father, ..... 

"Q.” . 

Quad, M.,. 

Quinn, Dan,. 

Quirinus,. 

Raimond, C. E.,. 

Raine, Allen,. 

Raleigh, Cecil,. 

Ranger, Robin, . . . . . 
Redden, Laura Catherine, 

Reid, Christian,. 

Rheinhardt, Rudolph H., . 

Riddell, Mrs. J. H. 

“Rita,”.. . 

Rives, Amalie. 

Roy, Rob,. 

Robertson, Muirhead, . . 
Robinson, A. Mary F., . . 

Rosny, J. H.,. 

Ross, Adrian,. 

Ross, Albert, ...... 

Ross, Martin. 

“Rover,”. 

Rowe, Bolton. 

Rowe, Saville,. 

“Rusticus,”. 

Rutherford, Mark, . . . . 
St. Aubyn, Alan, . . . . 
St. Clair, Victor, . . . . 

St. Laurence,. 

Saint Remy,. 

“Saladin,”. 

Sand, George. 

Sanghamita, Sister, . . . 

Saunders, Marshall, . . . 

Schreiner, Olive. 

Seeley, Charles Sumner, . 

Setoun, Gabriel. 

“Sevenoaks,”. 

Sharp, Luke. 

Shaw, Flora,. 

Sidney, Margaret, .... 

Siegerson, Dora. 

Siegvolk, Paul,. 


Real Name 
Melville D. Landon. 

H. K. Browne. 

George H. Derby. 

John Wolcott. 

Sydney Smith. 

David H. Strother. 

Ralph Henry Barbour. 

Agnes Blake Poor. 

Edith K. Spicer-Jay. 

Harry F. P. Battersby. 
Francis S. Mahony. 

Arthur T. Quiller-Couch. 

C. B. Lewis. 

Alfred Henry Lewis. 

Dr. Dollinger. 

Elizabeth Robins. 

Mrs. Beynon Puddicombe. 
Mr. Rowlands. 

James M. Freeman. 

Laura C. Searing. 

Frances F. Tiernan. 

George Hempl. 

Mrs. C. E. L. Riddell. 

Mrs. E. M. J. von Booth. 
Princess Troubetskoi. 

John Macgregor. 

Henry Johnson. 

Mme. Emile Duclaux. 

The Brothers Boex. 

Arthur Reed Ropes. 

Linn Boyd Porter. 

Violet Martin. 

Alfred Gibson. 

Benj. C. Stephenson. 
Clement Scott. 

J. K. Fowler. 

Wm. Hale White. 

Frances Marshall. 

G. Waldo Browne. 

Alfred Laurence Felkin. 

The Due de Morny. 

William Stewart Ross. 

Mme. Dudevant. 

Countess M. A. de S. Cana- 
varro. 

Margaret M. Saunders. 

Mrs. S. C. Cronwright. 

John William Munday. 
Thomas Nicoll Hepburn. 
Alfred S. Edwards. 

Robert Barr. 

Lady Flora Lugard. 

Harriett Mulford Lothrop. 
Mrs. Clement Shorter. 

Albert Mathews. 


Pen Name Real Name 

Sinjohn, John,.John Galsworthy. 

Slick, Sam,.T. C. Haliburton. 

Smith, T. Carlyle, .... John Kendrick Bangs. 

Spinner, Alice,.Mrs. Augusta Zelia Fraser. 

“Spy,”.Leslie Ward. 

Stanlaw, Penrhyn.Penrhyn Stanley Adamson. 

Stepniak.S. Kartcheffsky. 

Sterne, Stuart.Gertrude Bloede. 

Stewart, Philip,.Philip Robinson. 

“Stonehenge,”.J. H. Walsh. 

Stretton, Hesba,.Hannah Smith. 

Stuart, Cosmo,.Cosmo Chas. Gordon-Lennox. 

Stuart, Esme,.Miss Leroy, 

Stuart, Leslie,.T. A. Barrett. 

Sturgis, Dinah,.Mrs. Belle A. Whitney. 

“Surfaceman,”.Alex. Anderson. 

Swan, Annie S.,.Mrs. Burnett Smith. 

Swift, Benjamin, .... William Romaine Paterson. 

Sylva Carmen,.Elizabeth, Queen of Rou- 

mania. 

Symington, Maggie, . . . Mrs. Sarah M. Blathwayt. 

Syntax, Dr.Wm. Coombe. 

Temple, Hope,.Mme. Andre Messager. 

Thanet, Octave,.Alice French. 

Theuriet, Andre,.Claude Adhemar. 

“The Widow,”.Teresa Dean. 

Thomas, Annie,.Mrs. Pender Cudlip. 

Thompson, Wolf, .... Ernest Thompson Seton. 
Thorn, Margaret, .... Ethel S. Cann. 

Thorpe, Kampa.Elizabeth Whitfield Bellamy. 

Titcomb, Timothy, . . . J. G. Holland. 

Titmarsh,.W. M. Thackeray. 

“Tivoli,”.Horace W. Bleackley. 

“Toby, M. P.,”.Henry W. Lucy. 

Tottenham, Blanche L., . Mrs. Arthur Ram. 

Tower, Martello, .... Commander F. M. Norman. 

Trask, Katrina,.Mrs. Spencer Trask. 

Travers, Graham.Dr. Margaret Todd. 

“Trois-Etoiles,”.E. C. Grenville-Murray. 

Turner, Ethel,.Mrs. H. R. Curlewis. 

Twain, Mark,.Samuel L. Clemens. 

Tyler, G. Vere,.Mrs. Lachlan Tyler. 

Tynan, Katherine, .... Mrs. H. A. Hinkson. 

Tytler, Sarah.Henrietta Keddie. 

“Uncle Charlie,”.Charles Welsh. 

“Uncle Remus,”.Joel Chandler Harris. 

Vandegrift, Margaret, . . Margaret T. Janvier. 

Varley, John Philip, . . . Langdon E. Mitchell. 

Verne, Jules,.M. Olchewitz. 

Voltaire,.Francois Marie Arouet. 

Ward, Artemus,.Charles F. Browne. 

Warden, Florence, .... Mrs. G. James. 

Wetherell, Elizabeth,. . ^ Susan Warner. 

Winter, John Strange, . . Mrs. H. E. V. Stannard. 
Zadkiel,.Capt. R. J. Morrison, R. N. 


MYTHOLOGY 

The term mythology is now used appropriately for that branch of knowledge which considers the notions and 
stories, particularly among the Greeks and Romans, respecting gods and demigods, their pretended origin, their 
actions, names, attributes, worship, images, and symbolical representations. 

Gods of the Greeks and Romans. The principal deities of each were common to both, and we can include 
them all in one system of classification. 

“The ancient Greeks believed their gods to be of the same shape and form as themselves, but of far greater beauty, 
strength, and dignity. They also regarded them as being of much larger size than men; for in those times great 
size was esteemed a perfection, supposed to be an attribute of divinities, to whom they ascribed all perfections. A 
fluid named Ichor supplied the place of blood in the veins of the gods. They were immortal, but they might 
be wounded or otherwise injured. They could make themselves visible or invisible to men, and assume the forms 
of men or of animals. Like men, they stood in daily need of food and sleep. The meat of the gods was called Am¬ 
brosia, their drink Nectar. The gods, when they came among men, often partook of their food and hospitality. 

“Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and goddesses. They married and had chil¬ 
dren. Often a god became enamored of a mortal woman, or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome 
youth; these love-tales form a large portion of Grecian mythology. 

“To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to their de ties all human 
passions, both good and evil. They were capable of love, friendship, gratitude, and all affections; on the other hand, 
they were frequently envious, jealous, and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and 
attention from mankind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, splendid pro¬ 
cessions, and rich gifts; and they severely punished insult or neglect.” 

(1) Superior Gods. —Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan, Janus, Saturn, Pluto. Bacchus, Juno, 
Minerva, Diana, Venus, Vesta, Ceres, Rhea. (2) Inferior Gods. — Ccelus, Sol, ^Eolus, Plutus, iEsculapius, Pan, 
Luna, Aurora, Nox, Iris, Latona, Themis, Nemesis, Fortuna, Fama. Several gods peculiar to the Greeks: Enyo, 
Ergane, Cotytto, etc. Several gods peculiar to the Romans: Priapus, Terminus, Vertumnus, Pomona, Flora, 
Feronia, Pales, etc. (3) Mythical Beings. — Titans, Giants, Pygmies, Tritons, Sirens, Nymphs, Muses, Graces, 
Hours, Seasons, Fates, Furies, Harpies, Winds, Genii, Somnus, Mors, Manes. Lares, Penates, Satyrs, Fauns, Gorgons, 
Amazons, Centaurs, Minotaur, Chimsera, Geryon, Hydra, Pegasus, Scylla, Charybdis, Sphinx, Typhon. 

Mo^t of the heroes were at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter himself. The veneration for the heroes 
was, however, less sacred and less universal than the worship of the gods. The heroes received only an annual com¬ 
memoration at their tombs, or in the vicinity, when offerings and libations were presented to them. Sometimes 
the respect paid them exceeded these limits, and they were exalted to the rank and honors of the gods. The intro¬ 
duction of solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to Cadmus. 

(4) Deified Heroes. — Inachus, Phoroneus, Ogyges, Cecrops, Deucalion, Amphictyon, Cadmus, Danaus, Pelops, 
Minos, Perseus, Hercules, Theseus, Jason, Castor, Pollux, and heroes of the Theban and the Trojan Wars, etc. 





































































324 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS 


Ach'eron. Acheron, Styx, Cocytus, and Phlegethon, 
are known as rivers of hell. These regions below the earth 
were considered as the residence of departed souls, where 
after death they received rewards or punishments accord¬ 
ing to their conduct upon earth. 

Achil'les. The son of Peleus and Thetis. In the 
Trojan War he was the most distinguished for his strength 
and bravery. When Achilles was born, Thetis plunged 
him in the river Styx, which made him invulnerable in 
every part except the heel, by which she held him. And 
in this heel he received a fatal wound. 

A'cis. The nymph, Galatea, loved Acis, the hand¬ 
some shepherd, and the monstrous Cyclop, Polyphemus, 
sued in vain for her favor. 

Acris'ius. Son of Abas, King of Argos, grand¬ 
son of Lynceus, and great-grandson of Danaus. An 
oracle had declared that Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, 
would give birth to a son who would kill his grand¬ 
father. For this reason he kept Danae shut up in a 
subterranean apartment, or in a brazen tower. But 
here she became the mother of Perseus, by Zeus, who 
visited her in a shower of gold. 

Actae'on. Actseon was the son of Aristaeus and 
Autonoe, daughter of Cadmos. He was reared by 
Chiron, and becoming passionately fond of the chase, 
assed his days chiefly in pursuit of wild beasts that 
aunted Mount Cithseron. 

Adis'sechen. In Indian mythology the serpent of a 
thousand heads which hold the universe in place. 

Adme'tus. A king of Thessaly, and husband of 
Alcestis, famous for his misfortunes and his piety. 
Apollo tended the flocks of Admetus for nine years, when 
he was obliged to serve a mortal for having slain 
the Cyclops. 

Ado'nis. A beautiful youth, loved by Venus, and 
slain by a wild boar which he was hunting. Venus was 
inconsolable at his loss, and at last obtained from Pro¬ 
serpine that Adonis should spend six months on earth 
with her and six months among the shades. Adonis is 
also the name given to a Syrian god, who was supposed 
to be slain by a wild boar in Lebanon, and to revive every 
ear. He is identified with the Greek Adonis, beloved 
y Venus. 

Adram'melech. God of the people of Sepharva'im, 
to whom infants were burned in sacrifice (Kings xvii, 31). 
Probably the sun. 

Adras'tus. A king of Argos, and the institutor 
of the Nemean games. 

iEa'cus. Son of Jupiter and grandson of the river- 
god Asopus. Abacus was renowned in all Greece for his 
justice and piety, and after his death became one of the 
judges in hades. 

AEge'on. One of three brothers, huge monsters, 
with fifty heads and a hundred arms. According to 
the most ancient tradition, ASgeon and his brothers 
conquered the Titans when they made war upon the 
gods, and secured the victory to Zeus, who thrust the 
Titans into Tartarus, and placed iEgeon and his brothers 
to guard them. 

.Silge'us. King of Athens, and father of Theseus. 

AEgir'. God of the ocean, whose wife is Rana. They 
had nine daughters, who wore white robes and veils. 
These daughters are the billows, etc. 

AE'gis. The shield of Jupiter made by Vulcan was 
so called, and symbolized “Divine protection.” The 
shield of Minerva was called an aegis also. 

AE'gle. The mother of the graces. Also the name 
of one of the sisters of Phaeton. 

AElu'rus. The cat. An Egyptian deity held in the 
greatest veneration. Herodotus tells us that Diana, to 
avoid being molested by the giants, changed herself into 
a cat. The deity used to be represented with a cat’s 
head on a human body. 

ASne'as. A Trojan prince, son of Anchises and the 
goddess Venus. When Troy fell, he quitted the city 
with his followers, accompanied by his father and son, 
visited various countries, settled in Latium, and married 
Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. To him tradition 
ascribes the commencement of the Roman Empire. 

AS'olus. Under the name of iEolus both Greeks and 
Romans worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. 
He was called the son of Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, 
and by others, of Hippotes, an ancient lord of the Lipari 
Isles. From Jupiter he received his authority over the 
winds, which had previously been formed into mythical 

S ersons, and were known by the names Zephyrus, Boreas, 
otus, and Eurus, and were afterwards considered the 
servants of AEolus. He held them imprisoned in a cave 
of an island in the Mediterranean Sea, and let them 
loose only to further his own designs or those of others, 
in awakening storms, hurricanes, and floods. He is 
usually described by the poets as virtuous, upright, and 
friendly to strangers. He is represented as a vigorous 


man supporting himself in the air by wings, and blowing 
into a shell trumpet like a Triton, while his short mantle 
is waving in the wind. 

AEs'acus. A son of Priam, who was enamored of 
the nymph Hesperia, and, on her death, threw himself 
into the sea, and was changed by Thetis into a cormorant. 

AEs'cula'pius. The son of Apollo and Coronis, the 
daughter of a Thessalian King. By his father he was 
committed to the care of the wise Centaur, Chiron, who 
taught him botany, together with the secret efficacy of 
plants. By means of this information, Aesculapius be¬ 
came the benefactor of mankind. In tradition he is noted 
as having awakened the dead. 

AEsir, plural of As or Asa, the celestial gods of Scan¬ 
dinavia, who lived in Asgard (god’s ward), situate on the 
heavenly hills between earth and the rainbow. The 
chief was Odin. 

AS son. The father of Jason and brother of Pelias 

who seized the kingdom rightfully belonging to Aispn. 

AEs'tas. The god of summer ; he is crowned with 
corn and generally holds a sickle in his hand. By poets 
and artists the seasons are all personified. They are 
frequently seen together on relievi, medals, and gems. 
The artists have also followed the poets in representing 
the four ages of life by depicting Ver (spring), as infantile 
and tender; A£stas (summer), as young and sprightly; 
Autumnus (autum), mature and manly; and Hyems 
(winter), as old and decrepit. 

AEta. A king of Colchis, was father of Medea. 

Agamem'Hon. King of Argos, in Greece, and com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the allied Greeks who went to the 
siege of Troy. Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, the 
daughter of Tyndareus, by whom he became the father of 
Iphianassa (Iphigenia). When Helen, the wife of Mene- 
laus, was carried off by Paris, and the Greek chiefs re¬ 
solved to recover her by force of arms, Agamemnon was 
chosen their commander-in-chief. 

Ag'anip'pe. A fountain at the foot of Mount Helicon, 
in Boeotia, consecrated to Apollo and the Muses, and 
believed to have the power of inspiring those who drank 
of it. 

Ah'ri'man. A deity of the ancient Persians, being a 
personification of the principle of evil. To his agency 
were ascribed all the evils existing in the world. Ormuzd 
the principle of good, is eternal, but Ahriman is created, 
and will one day perish. 

A'jax. The son of Telamon, and one of the Greek 
heroes in Homer’s “Iliad.” He was of great stature, 
strength, and courage, but dull in mind. He killed him¬ 
self out of vexation because the armor of Hector was 
awarded to Ulysses. 

Ak'uman, The most malevolent of all the Persian gods. 

Alas'tor. A surname of Jupiter. Among the lesser, 
gods the name Alastor is given to the unforgetting, 
revengeful spirit, who, in consequence of some crime 
perpetrated, persecutes a family from generation to 
generation. 

Alces'tis, or Alces'te. A daughter of Pelias, and 
the wife of Admetus. To save her husband’s life, she 
died in his stead. By request of Apollo, the gods had 
granted eternal life to Admetus but on the condition, 
that when the appointed time came for the good king’s 
death, some one should be found willing to die in his 
stead. This decree was reported to Alcestis, Admetus’ 
beautiful young wife, who offered herself as substitute, 
and cheerfully gave her life for her husband. But 
immortality was too dearly bought at such a price; and 
Admetus mourned until Hercules, pitying his grief, 
descended into hades, and brought her back. 

Alec'to. One of the Furies. She is represented with 
her head covered with serpents, and breathing ven¬ 
geance, war, and pestilence. 

Alec'tryon. A servant of Mars, who was changed by 
him into a cock because he did not warn his master of the 
rising of the sun. 

Al'fadur. In Scandinavian Mythology the Supreme 
Being — Father of all. 

Alphe'os and Arethu'sa. The Greek fable says 
that Alphe'os, the river-god, fell in love with the nymph 
Arethu'sa, who fled from him in affright. Diana came 
to her rescue. 

A1 Si-rat'. A narrow bridge extending from this 
world to the next over the abyss of hell, which must be 
passed by every one who would enter paradise. 

Althae'a. Sister to Atalanta, and mother of Meleager. 
She caused the death of her son and killed herself in 
remorse. 0 

Am'azons. A nation of women-soldiers who lived in 
Scythia. Hercules defeated them, and gave Hippolyte, 
their queen,_ to Theseus for a wife. 

Ambro'sia. The food of the gods; so called because 
it made them not mortal, i. e., it made them immortal. 

Amaci'tia. The goddess of friendship. In Greek 




LITERATURE 


325 


mythology she was represented with her head bare, her 
dress open near the heart, holding in her left hand an 
elm, around which a vine clung, filled with clusters 
of grapes. 

Am'mon. One of the names bestowed on Jupiter. 
As Jupiter Ammon, he was represented as having the 
horns of a ram. 

Amphi'on. Son of Jupiter and Antiope, and brother 
of Zethus. They were born on Mount Cithaeron, and 
grew up among the shepherds. When they had learned 
their origin they marched against Thebes, where Lycus 
reigned, the husband of their mother Antiope, who had 
married Dirce in her stead. They took the city, and 
killed Lycus and Dirce, because they had treated Antiope 
with great cruelty. After they had obtained possession 
of Thebes, they fortified it by a wall. Amphion had 
received a lyre from Mercury, on which he played with 
such magic skill that the stones moved of their own 
accord and formed the wall. 

Ancae'us. A son of Neptune who, having left a cup 
of wine untasted to pursue a wild boar, was killed by 
it, which gave rise to the proverb, “There’s many a slip 
between the cup and the lip.’’ 

Anchi'ses. King of Dardanus and father of iEneas. 
On the capture of Troy by the Greeks, iEneas carried his 
father on his shoulders from the burning city. 

Andro in'ache. Daughter of one of the kings of 
Thebes, and wife of Hector. 

Androm'eda. Andromeda, to atone for a crime of 
which she was guiltless, was to have become the victim 
of divine anger. The whole country was laid waste 
with plagues, which, according to the oracle of Jupiter 
Ammon, were not to cease until Andromeda, swallowed 
up by a sea-monster, should, by her death, expiate 
the crime of her mother. Perseus beheld the maiden 
fastened with chains to a rock, and a monster rising 
out of the sea ready to devour her; while her parents 
stood on the shore in despair. Perseus rushed down 
upon the monster, struck the deadly blow, delivered 
the fair maiden and obtained her as his wife. After her 
death she was placed among the stars. 

Angurva'del. Frithiof’s sword, inscribed with Runic 
letters, which blazed in time of war, but gleamed with 
a dim light in time of peace. 

Antae'us. One of the giant sons of Neptune whose 
home was in Libya. His strength was invincible so long 
as he remained in contact with his mother earth. Once 
lifted from the earth and allowed again to touch it 
his strength increased. One of the exploits ascribed to 
Hercules was the exhibition of his strength in over¬ 
coming Antaeus. 

Antig'one. In the story of Oedipus, Antigone ap¬ 
pears as a noble maiden, with a truly heroic attachment 
to her father and brothers. When Oedipus had put out 
his eyes, and was obliged to quit Thebes, he was accom¬ 
panied by Antigone, who remained with him till he died 
at Colonus, and then returned to Thebes. After her 
two brothers had killed each other in battle, and Creon, 
the King of Thebes, would not allow Polynices to be buried, 
Antigone buried him by night, against the orders of 
Creon, for which offense he ordered her to be buried alive. 
She, however, killed herself on hearing of the sentence. 
The death of Antigone is the subject of a tragedy written 
by Sophocles. (See Eteocles.) 

Aph'rodite. One of the names under which Venus 
was worshiped. She was said to be the daughter of 
Zeus, but later poets frequently relate that she was 
sprung from the foam of the sea, whence they derive her 
name. 

A'pis. One of the Egyptian gods worshiped under 
the form of an ox. 

Apol'lo. According to both Greeks and Romans, 
Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, born on the 
island Delos. He was regarded as the god of the sciences 
and the arts, especially poetry, music, and medicine. 
They ascribed to him the greatest skill in the use of the 
bow and arrow, which he proved in killing the serpent 
Pytho, the sons of Niobe, and the Cyclops. The last 
achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was banished from 
Olympus. During his exile Apollo abode as a shepherd 
with Admetus, King of Thessaly. All sudden deaths 
were believed to be the effect of his arrows; and with 
them he sent the plague into the camp of the Greeks 
before Troy. As he had the power of punishing men, 
so he was also able to deliver men, if duly propitiated. 
From his being the god who afforded help, he is the 
father of ACsculapius, the god of the healing. As a god 
of inspiration and prophecy he gave oracles and com¬ 
municated this gift to other gods and to men. The stories 
of Apollo in Greek mythology are much the same as the 
stories concerning Crishna in Hindoo "mythology. 

Arach'ne. A Maeonian maid, named Arachne, proud 
of her skill in weaving and embroidery, in which arts 


I the goddess of wisdom had instructed her, ventured to 
deny her obligation, and challenged her patroness to a 
trial of skill. Minerva accepted the challenge and they 
met to try their skill. Arachne produced a piece of cloth 
in which the amours of the gods were woven, and as the 
goddess could find no fault with it, she tore the work to 
pieces. Arachne, in despair, hung herself. Athena 
loosened the rope and saved her life, but the rope was 
changed into a cobweb, and Arachne herself into a spider. 

Ares. The Greek god of war, known as Mars by 
the Romans. 

Arethu'sa. A wood nymph of Elis, in Greece, who, 
pursued by the River Alpheus, was changed into a 
fountain and ran under the sea. The waters of the 
fountain, mingled with the river, rose again in the foun¬ 
tain of Arethusa in the island of Ortygia, near Syra¬ 
cuse. According to another version of the same legend, 
it was Diana herself, and not the nymph Arethusa, 
whom the river-god of the Alpheus pursued; and when 
this pursuit ended in the island of Ortygia, then arose 
the fountain Arethusa. 

Ar'gonauts. One of the most celebrated enterprises 
of the heroic ages, one which forms a memorable epoch 
in Grecian history, a sort of separation-point between 
the fabulous and the authentic, was the Argonautic 
expedition. This was a voyage from Greece to Colchis 
in order to obtain the golden fleece, conducted by Jason, 
the son of ZEson, King of Thessaly. The undertaking 
was imposed upon him by his uncle Pelias. He in¬ 
vited the most illustrious heros of Greece to unite in the 
expedition, and among those who joined him were Her¬ 
cules, Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Pirithous, and The¬ 
seus. The vessel built for the purpose was named Argos, 
which after various adverse events arrived at ACa, the 
capital of Colchis. 

Ar'gos. A fifty-oared ship in which Jason and his 
companions made their voyage to Colchis in search of 
the golden fleece. This ship was built of pines cut from 
Mount Pelion, which, although larger than any other 
previously constructed, moved lightly and easily, and 
was therefore called the Argos (swift-sailing). From her 
name, those who embarked in her were called Argonauts. 
The mast of the Argos was taken from the forest of 
Dodona, where the oaks were endowed with the power 
of making predictions; therefore, the ship was regarded 
as an animated being, in accord with Fate, to which a 
man might commit himself with confidence. 

Ar'gus. A fabulous being of enormous strength, 
who had a hundred eyes, of which only two were asleep 
at once, whence he was named Panoptes, or the All-seeing. 

Ari'adne. Daughter of Minos, second king of Crete, 
and Pa^iphse, fell in love with Theseus, who was shut up 
in the labyrinth to be devoured by the Minotaur. She 
gave Theseus a clew of thread by which he extricated 
himself from the windings of the labyrinth. 

Ar'ion. A Greek bard, who having thrown himself 
into the sea to escape from pirates, was taken up by 
dolphins, and carried on their backs safe to land. 

Ar'temis. Artemis, the daughter of Zeus and Leto, 
or Latona, and twin sister of Apollo, was the goddess of 
chastity, of the chase and the woods. 

As'gard. In Scandinavian mythology Asgard repre¬ 
sents the city of the gods, situated at the center of the 
universe, and accessible only by the bridge Bifrost, i. e., 
the rainbow. 

A'sir. In Northern mythology the most powerful, 
though not the oldest, of the deities; usually reckoned as 
twelve gods and twelve goddesses. The gods are — Odin, 
Thor, Baldur, Niord, Frey, Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall, Vidar, 
Yali, Ullur, and Forseti; the best-known of the goddesses 
— Frigga, Freyja, Iduna, and Saga. 

Astar'te. Noticed in the Old Testament under the 
name Ashteroth, an ancient Syrian deity, who was 
adored as the goddess of the moon; hence Jeremiah 
calls her “ the queen of heaven.” Solomon built her a 
temple on the Mount of Olives. 

Atalan' ta. A maid of Arcadia who was forsaken by her 
parents and reared.in the hills. Found by some hunters 
she afterward joined in the Calydonian hunt, and at the 
funeral games of Pelias, she won the prize in wrestling. 

Atlan'tis. A mythical island in the west, mentioned 
by Plato, Pliny and other ancient writers, and said to 
have sunk beneath the ocean. 

At'las. One of the Titans, son of Iapetus and Cly- 
mene. Being conquered by Jupiter, he was condemned 
to the labor of bearing on his head and hands the heaven 
he had attempted to destroy. 

At'ropos. One of the three Parcse, or Fates; .the 
one that cut the thread of life. As wife of Pluto, and 
queen of hell, Proserpine presided over the death of 
mankind; and according to the opinion of the ancients, 
no one could die if the goddess herself, or Atropos, the 
minister, did not cut off one of the hairs from the head. 



326 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Aujje'an Stables. The stables of Augeas, King of 
Elis, in Greece. In these stables he had kept 3,000 
oxen, and the stalls had not been cleansed for thirty 
years. When Hercules was appointed to cleanse these 
stables, he caused two rivers to run through them. 

Augurs. Men whose principal business was to observe 
the flight and cry of birds from which they predicted 
future events. They also explained other omens and 
signs. 

Au'rae. Sylphs, Nymphs of the air, a species of 
sportive, happy beings, and well-wishers to mankind. 
They were winged and represented as flying. 

Auro'ra. The goddess of the morning, or of the 
dawn. She is sometimes described as the goddess of 
day. She is represented as standing in a, magnificent 
chariot, which is sometimes drawn by winged steeds. 
A brilliant star sparkles upon her forehead; while with 
one hand she grasps the reins, she holds in the other a 
lighted torch. 

Av'atar. The incarnation or descent of the deity 
Vishnu, of which nine are believed to be past. The 
tenth is yet to come when Vishnu will descend from 
heaven on a white-winged horse, and will introduce on 
earth a golden age of virtue and peace. 

Aver'nus. Properly, a small, deep lake in Campania, 
occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and almost 
completely shut in by steep and wooded heights. The 
entrance to the infernal regions, called Avernus, is 
described as having around it a host of dreadful forms: 
Disease, Old Age, Terror, Hunger, Death, War, Discord, 
and the Furies, the avengers of guilt. 

Aza'zel. According to Ewald, a demon belonging 
to the pre-Mosaic religion. Another opinion identifies 
him with Satan, or the devil. Milton makes him Satan’s 
standard bearer. 

Az'rael. In the Jewish and the Mohammedan my¬ 
thology, the name of an angel who watches over the 
dying, and separates the soul from the body. It means 
in Hebrew “help of God.” 

Ba'al. In Hindu mythology, god of the sun. He 
was worshiped by the Phenicians. 

Bac'chus. The god of wine. 

Baim'wawa. In American Indian folk-lore, the 
sound of thunder. 

Bal'der. The god of peace, son of Odin and Frigga. 
He was killed by the blind war-god, but was restored to 
life at the general request of the gods. 

Ba'lios. A famous horse given by Neptune to Peleus 
as a wedding present, and afterwards given to Achilles. 

Bal'mung. In Norse mythology, the sword of Sieg¬ 
fried forged by Vulcan. 

Ban'shee. The domestic spirit of certain Irish or 
Scottish families. It was supposed to wail at the death 
of one of the family. The Banshee is allowed only to 
families of pure stock. 

Bar'guest. A frightful goblin among fairies. It was 
armed with teeth and claws, and was an object of terror 
in the north of England. 

Bay-tree. The tree of Apollo, hence a shield against 
lightning. A wreath of bay-leaves was worn as pro¬ 
tection during thunder-storms. The withering of a 
bay-tree was dreaded as an omen of death. 

Beel'zebub. A heathen god of evil at the head of 
nine ranks of demons and second only to Satan. He 
was also the god of flies. 

Befa'na. The fairy of Italian children, who is sup¬ 
posed to fill their stockings with toys on Twelfth Night. 

Beller'ophon. A prince who rode the winged horse, 
Pegasus, controlling him with a golden bridle, the gift 
of Minerva. By aid of Pegasus, he killed the lion¬ 
headed monster, the Chimsera. 

Bello'na. Goddess of war. She prepared the char¬ 
iot of Mars when he was going to war, and appeared in 
battles armed with a whip and holding a torch. 

Bel'phegor. A god of evil, worshiped by the 
Moabites. He was an archfiend who had been an arch¬ 
angel. 

Be'lus. The Chaldean name of the sun. 

Bereni'ce. Princess who vowed to sacrifice her hair 
to the gods, if her husband returned in safety. She 
suspended her hair in the temple of the war-god, but 
the winds wafted it to heaven, where it still forms the 
seven stars near the constellation Leo. 

Berg Folk. Pagan spirits doomed to live on the 
Scandinavian hills till the day of redemption. 

Ber'tha. The white lady who guards good German 
children, but is the terror of the bad, who fear her iron 
nose and big feet. She corresponds to the Italian Befana. 

Bheem. One of the five brotherhoods of Indian 
demi-gods, famous for his strength. 

Bi'frost. In Norse mythology, a bridge between 
earth and heaven, over which none but the gods could 
travel. It leads to the palace of the Fates. 


Bil'skimir. A wonderful palace built by Thor for 

the use of peasants after death. 

Bladud. A mythical king of England, who built 
the city of Bath, and dedicated the medicinal springs 
to Minerva. 

Bo'reas. The name of the north wind blowing from 
the Hyperborean mountains. He was son of Astraeus 
and Aurora. 

Bra'gi. The son of Odin and Frigga and the god of 
poetry and eloquence. He is represented as an old man 
with flowing white beard. 

Brah'ma. The supreme god of the Hindus, repre¬ 
sented with four heads and four arms. He is regarded 
as the creator of the universe, and forms, with Vishnu, 
the preserver, and Siva, the destroyer, the divine triad. 

Briareus. A giant with fifty heads and a hundred 
hands. He hurled a hundred rocks at Jupiter in a 
single throw and Jupiter bound him under Mount ^Etna 
with a hundred chains. 

Bubas'tis. Name applied to the cat as worshiped 
among Egyptian gods. 

Bukada'win. The god of famine among American 
Indians. 

Caa'ba. Shrine of Mecca, said by the Arabs to have 
been built by Ishmael, assisted by his father Abraham. 

Caco'dae'mon. An evil spirit consulted by the 
Greeks. 

Ca'cus. A famous robber, son of Vulcan and Me¬ 
dusa. He is represented as a three-headed monster. 

Cad'mus. The hero who, having slain the dragon 
which guarded the fountain of Dirce, in Bceotia, sowed 
the teeth of the monster. Then a number of armed 
men sprang up and surrounded Cadmus with intent to 
kill him. By the counsel of Minerva, he threw a precious 
stone among the armed men, who, striving for it, killed 
one another. According to tradition, Cadmus intro¬ 
duced the use of letters into Greece — the alphabet, as 
introduced by him, consisting of sixteen letters. 

Cadu'ceus. A white wand carried by Roman officers 
when they went to treat for peace. It had two winged 
serpents entwined round the top. 

Cal'chas. The son of Thestor. He was the wisest 
of the soothsayers among the Greeks at Troy. He died 
from grief on meeting with a soothsayer who proved 
wiser than he. 

Caili'ope. The Muse who presided over epic poetry 
and rhetoric. She is generally depicted using a stylus 
and wax tablets, the ancient writing materials. 

Callis'to. A nymph of Arcadia, the mother of 
Areas, who was changed into a bear and placed in the 
heavens as a constellation. 

CaFpe. One of the two pillars of Hercules. The 
other was named Abyla. These two were originally 
only one mountain, which Hercules tore asunder; he 
then poured the sea between them. 

Calyp'so. One of the daughters of Atlas. When 
Ulysses was shipwrecked on her coasts she received him 
with hospitality, and offered him immortality if he 
would remain with her, which he refused to do. After 
seven years’ delay he was permitted to depart from 
the island. 

Cama. The god of love and marriage in Indian 
mythology. 

Cam'deo. The Hindu god of love. 

Came'nae. Nymphs who prophesied. Roman poets 
sometimes gave the name to the Muses. 

Camil'la. Virgin queen of the Volscians. She was 
so swift that she could run over a field of corn without 
bending a blade, or make her way over the sea without 
wetting her feet. 

Cano'pus. The Egyptian god of water. The Chal¬ 
deans worshiped fire, and sent all the other gods a 
challenge, which was accepted by a priest of Cano'pus. 
The Chaldeans lighted a vast fire. Then the Egyptian 
deity spouted out torrents of water and quenched it. 

Cassan'dra. Daughter of Priam and Hecuba. She 
was passionately loved by Apollo 

Cassiope'ia. The chief stars of this constellation 
form the outline of a chair. Cassiopeia boasted that 
the beauty of her daughter Andromeda surpassed that 
of the sea-nymphs. The sea-nymphs complained to the 
sea-god of this affront, and Andromeda was chained to 
a rock to be devoured by sea-monsters. Perseus deliv¬ 
ered her and made her his wife. The mother was taken 
to heaven and placed among the stars. 

Cas'taly. A fountain on Mount Parnassus. Whoever 
drank of its waters was endowed with the gift of poetry. 

Castor and Pollux. Brothers, sons of Leda. Mer¬ 
cury carried them to Pallena, where they were educated. 
As soon as they arrived at manhood they embarked 
with Jason in quest of the Golden Fleece. Pollux 
was the son of Jupiter, and Castor of Tyndarus. Hence 



LITERATURE 


327 


Pollux was immortal, while Castor was subject to old 
age and death, like other men. 

Cau'ther. In Mohammedan mythology, the lake of 
paradise, whose waters are as sweet as honey, as cold as 
snow, and as clear as crystal; and any believer who 
tastes thereof is said to thirst no more. 

Ce'crops. In mythology is represented with upper 
part of his body human, the lower part that of a dragon. 
Cecrops is said to have founded Athens, and to have 
divided Attica into twelve communities, and to have 
introduced the first elements of civilized life; he insti¬ 
tuted marriage, abolished bloody sacrifices, and taught 
his subjects how to worship the gods. 

Cen'taurs. Monsters, half horse, half human. They 
are especially celebrated for their contest with the giants 
in the mountains of Thessaly. 

Cer'berus. The three-headed dog that keeps the 
entrance of the infernal regions. He prevents the liv¬ 
ing from entering and the shades from escaping. Or-' 
pheus lulled Cerberus to sleep with his lyre; and the 
Sibyl who conducted iEneas through the Inferno, also 
threw the dog into a sleep with cake seasoned with 
poppies. 

Ce'res. The daughter of Saturn, sister of Jupiter 
and Neptune. She was the goddess of corn, flowers, 
and harvest. She is represented as riding in a chariot 
drawn by dragons and crowned with poppies. She was 
the mother of Proserpine, who was seized by Pluto 
while she was gathering flowers. Ceres was the Roman 
name for mother-earth. 

Cha'os. The vacant space which existed before the 
creation of the world, and out of which the gods, men, 
and all things arose. Chaos was called the mother of 
Erebus and Night. 

Cha'ron. A god of the infernal regions, son of Nox 
and Erebus, who conducted the souls of the dead in a 
boat over the rivers Styx and Acheron. 

Charyb'dis. A woman who robbed travelers and 
was turned by Jupiter into a dangerous gulf on the 
coast of Sicily, opposite Scylla. Scylla and Charybdis 
are generally mentioned together to represent alterna¬ 
tive dangers. 

Che'mos. The god of war among the Moabites. 

Chibia'bos. A musician, ruler in the land of spirits, 
and friend of Hiawatha. Personification of harmony 
in nature. 

Chimae'ra. A celebrated monster goat, lion, and 
dragon, which continually vomited flames. It was 
destroyed by Bellerophon. 

Chi'ron. A centaur, son of Philyra and Saturn. He 
was famous for his knowledge of medicine, and taught 
mankind the use of plants and herbs. He was placed 
among the stars and is known as Saggitarius. 

Chlo'ris. The goddess of flowers, known as Flora 
in Greek mythology. 

Chou. An Egyptian god corresponding to the Roman 
Hercules. 

Cimme'rians. People living in a land of perpetual 
darkness. 

Cir'ce. A sorceress. Daughter of Sol and Perseis, 
celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venomous 
herbs. Ulysses, on his return from the Trojan war, 
visited her coasts, and his companions were changed by 
her potions into swine. 

Clio. The muse who presided over history. 

Clo'tho. The youngest of the three daughters of 
Jupiter and Themis, was supposed to preside over the 
moment of birth. She held the distaff and spun the 
thread of life. 

Clu'ricaune. An Irish elf, who guards a hidden 
treasure. He has an evil disposition and appears as a 
wrinkled old man. 

Clyt'emnestra. A daughter of King of Sparta; 
married Agamemnon. 

Clyde. A water-nymph who loved the sun-god, 
Apollo, and was changed into a sunflower. In this 
form, she turns always toward the sun. 

Cocy'tus. A river of the infernal regions. The un¬ 
buried dead wander on its banks for 100 years, and it 
is known as the river of lamentation. 

Col'chis or Colchos. A country of Asia famous for 
the expedition of the Argonauts, and the birthplace of 
Medea. 

Colli'na. The goddess of the hills. 

Co'mus. The god of revelry, presiding over feasts. 

Concor'dia. The goddess of peace and concord, one 
of the oldest at Rome. She is represented holding a 
sceptre budding with fruit, and a horn of plenty. Camil- 
lus raised a temple to this goddess, in the capitol. 

Consen'tes Dii. The twelve Etruscan gods who 
formed the council of Jupiter, consisting of six male 
and six female divinities. Juno, Minerva, Vulcan, Sat¬ 
urn, and Mars were among them. 


Con'sus. The god of counsel, a name given to Nep¬ 
tune. 

Co'ra. The goddess of vegetation. 

Coro'nls. A king’s daughter who was transformed 
into a crow by Minerva when asking for protection 
from Neptune. Another Coronis was the consort of 
Apollo. 

Cor'ybantes. Priests who served at the worship of 
the mother- of the gods. The name came from their 
habit of striking themselves in their religious dances. 

Cress'ida. Daughter of Calchas, the Greek, beloved 
by Troilus, son of Priam. They vowed eternal fidelity, 
and as pledges Troilus gave the maiden a sleeve, and 
Cressida gave the Trojan prince a glove. 

Creu'sa. Daughter of Priam and wife of ^Eneas. 
She was lost in the city of Troy when her husband 
escaped from its flames. 

Cro'nos. The youngest of the Titans. Cronos also 
known as the father of Jupiter. 

Cu'pid. God of love, son of Jupiter and Venus, is 
represented as a winged boy, naked, armed with a bow 
and arrows, and often with a bandage covering his 
eyes. He shot his arrows into the hearts of both 
gods and men. Like all the gods, he put on different 
forms to suit his plans. He became the husband of 
Psyche. 

Cyb'ele. A goddess, daughter of Coelus and Terra, 
and wife of Saturn. She is supposed to be the same as 
Ceres, Vesta, etc. On her birth she was exposed on a 
mountain, where she was tended and fed by wild beasts, 
receiving the name of Cybele from the mountain. She 
is represented on a throne with lions at her side. 

Cy'clops. One-eyed giants who forged the thunder¬ 
bolts of Jove. Homer describes them as wild, insolent, 
lawless shepherds, who devoured human beings. A 
later tradition represents them as Vulcan’s assistants. 

Cyp'aris'sus. A beautiful youth, beloved by Apollo, 
whose favorite stag he inadvertently killed, and who was 
metamorphosed into a cypress because of his grief. 

Cyre'ne. A water-nymph, the mother of Aristseus. 
Her residence and the visit of her son are described in 
the fourth book of Virgil’s “Georgies.” 

Daed'alus. A great architect and sculptor. He in¬ 
vented the wedge, the axe, the level, and the gimlet, 
and was the first to use sails. He made himself wings 
with feathers and wax, and fitted them to his body 
and to his son Icarus. They sailed in the air, but the 
heat of the sun melted the wax on the wings of Icarus, 
and he fell into the ocean, which after him has been 
called the Icarian Sea. 

Dag. In mythology of the North this name is given 
to the “radiant son of night.” The name is also applied 
to the last of a treacherous race, the Hundings. 

Da'gon. A Syrian divinity, who, according to the 
Bible, had richly adorned temples in several of the Philis¬ 
tine cities. He was a national god of the Philistines, 
formed in human shape upwards from the waist, and 
resembling a fish downwards, with a finny tail. 

Da'gun. In Indian mythology a god who recon¬ 
structed the world when it had been destroyed after 
creation. 

Da'hak. In mythology of Persia the ages of the 
world are divided into periods of 1,000 years. When the 
cycle is complete, the reign of Ormuzd will begin, and 
men will be good and happy; but this event will be pre¬ 
ceded by the loosing of Dahak, who will break his chain 
and fall upon the world, and bring on man the most 
dreadful calamities. 

Dai'koku. A mythical god invoked by Japanese 
workers. He is represented as holding a full sack which 
he beats to bring from it all useful articles, and the sack 
never becomes empty. 

Dai'tyas. Among Hindu gods these are powerful to 
work evil. 

Dan'ae. The daughter of Ancrisuis, King of Argos, 
who became the mother of Perseus. An Italian legend 
related that Danae came to Italy, built the town 
of Ardea, and married Pilumnus, by whom she became 
the mother of Daunus, the ancestor of Turnus. 

Dana'ides. The fifty daughters of Danaus, King of 
Argos, who married the fifty sons of their uncle, ^Egyp- 
tus. 

Daph'ne. The goddess of the earth. Apollo courted 
her, but she fled from him, and was, at her own request, 
turned into a laurel tree. 

Daph'nis. A Sicilian shepherd, son of Hermes (Mer¬ 
cury), by a nymph, was taught by Pan to play on the 
flute, and was regarded as the inventor of bucolic poetry. 
A Naiad to whom he proved faithless punished him with 
blindness, whereupon his father, Hermes, translated him 
to heaven. 

Deiph'obus. A son of Priam and Hecuba. After 
the death of Paris, he married Helen, but was betrayed 



328 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


by her to the Greeks. N ext to Hector, he was the bravest 
among the Trojans. On the capture of Troy by the 
Greeks he was slain and fearfully mangled by Menelaus. 

DeTius. A name of Apollo, from the island in which 
he was born. The name Delia has been traced to this 
origin. 

Del'phi. A town on Mount Parnassus, famous for its 
oracle, and for a temple of Apollo. 

Del'phos. The place where the temple was built 
from which the oracle of Apollo was given. 

Deme'ter. The mother of Persephone, who was 
evidently a goddess of the earth, whom some ancient 
system married to Zeus, the god of the heavens. 

De'mogor'gon. The tyrant genius of the soil or 
earth, the life and support of plants. He was depicted 
as an old man covered with moss, and was said to live 
underground. 

Deo. A name sometimes applied to Ceres. 

Derce'tis. A Syrian goddess who corresponds to 
Dagon of the Philistines. 

Diafi'a. An ancient Italian divinity, whom the Ro¬ 
mans identified with the Greek Artemis. Her worship 
is said to have been introduced at Rome by Servius 
Tullius, who dedicated a temple to her on the Aventine. 
At Rome Diana was the goddess of light. She was a 
daughter of Jupiter, and was born of Latona, or Leto, 
on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As in 
Apollo the sun was deified and adored; so was the.moon 
in Diana. 

Dictyn'na. A Greek name of Diana. The name is 
connected with a Greek word meaning hunting-net, and 
refers to Diana as huntress. 

Di'do. She was daughter of the Tyrian King Belus, 
and sister of Pygmalion, who succeeded to the crown 
after the death of his father. Dido was married to her 
wealthy uncle Acerbas, who was murdered by Pyg¬ 
malion. Dido had vowed eternal fidelity to her late 
husband, and under pretense of soothing the manes of 
Acerbas by sacrifices, she erected a funeral pile, on which 
she stabbed herself in presence of her people. After her 
death she was worshiped by the Carthaginians as a divinity. 

Dike. One of the three guardians of life appointed 
by Themis, whose names are Eunomia (order), Dike 
(punishment), Irene (peace). Their office was to pro¬ 
mote unanimity by the exercise of equity and justice. 
They likewise stand around the throne of Zeus, and their 
regular occupation is to open and shut the gates of 
heaven, and yoke the steeds to the chariot of the Sun. 

Dind'ymus. A mountain in Phrygia, on the frontiers 
of Galatia, near the town Pessinus, sacred to Cybele, 
the mother of the gods, who is hence called Dindymene. 

Di'omed. A Greek hero of the Trojan War, was a 
son of Tydeus, and became King of Argos. He was a 
favorite of Minerva, who, according to Homer, encour¬ 
aged him to attack and wound both Mars and Venus, 
who were engaged on the side of the Trojans. 

Diome'des. The cruel tyrant of Thrace, who fed his 
mares on the flesh of his guests, was overcome by Hercules, 
and was given to the same horses as food. 

Dio'ne. The youngest of the Titan sisters and re¬ 
puted mother of Venus. The name has also been poeti¬ 
cally applied to Venus, herself. 

Diony'sus. Son of Jupiter and Semele, the daughter 
of Cadmus. He was the god of wine, and is generally 
represented crowned with vine leaves. 

DP rae. The avenging goddesses of Furies. 

Dis. Contracted from Dives, a name sometimes given 
to Pluto, and hence also to the lower world. 

Discor'dia. A malevolent deity corresponding with 
the Greek “Eris,” the goddess of contention. She was 
driven from Heaven by Jupiter because she sowed dis¬ 
sensions among the gods. At the nuptials of Peleus and 
Thetis she threw an apple among the gods, which was 
the primary cause of the ruin of Troy, and of infinite 
misfortunes to the Greeks. 

Dives. Demons of Persian mythology. According 
to the Koran, they are ferocious and gigantic spirits 
under the sovereignty of Eblis. 

Dodo'na. The most ancient oracle was that of Jupi¬ 
ter at Dodona, a city of the Molossi, said to have been 
built by Deucalion. 

Do'nar. A name given, sometimes, to Thor, the 
thunder-god, in Norse mythology. 

Door'ga. A goddess worshiped among the Hindoos. 

Do'ris. Daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, wife of her 
brother Nereus, and mother of the Nereides. 

Dra'co. One of the hounds of Acteon. 

Draup'nir. The marvelous ring belonging to Odin, 
with which he worked magic. It was burned on the 
funeral pyre of his son Balder. 

Dro'ma. The chain forged for the purpose of bind¬ 
ing the Fenris wolf, but which he broke. Hence the 
proverb, “to dash out of Droma.” 


Dry'ads. Wood nymphs, believed to be sent from 
heaven. The Dryads were distinguished from the 
Hamadryads in this, that the latter were supposed to be 
attached to some particular tree, with which they came 
into being, lived and died; while the former had the 
care of the woods and trees in general. 

Duer'gar. Dwarfs who dwell in rocks and hills; 
noted for their strength, subtilty, magical powers, and 
skill in metallurgy. They are the personification of the 
subterranean powers of nature. 

Dur'ga. In Hindu mythology, the wife of Siva, repre¬ 
sented as having ten arms. _ • 

E'acus. Son of Jupiter and Egina, one of the judges 
of the infernal regions, who was appointed to judge the 
Europeans. 

Eb'lis. Among Mohammedans, name given to the 
prince of fallen angels who refused to worship the man, 
Adam. 

Echno'bas. One of Actseon’s hounds, whose bark 
rose above all other sounds. 

Ech'o. A nymph who engaged the attention of Juno 
by her never-ceasing talk, allowing Jupiter his freedom, 
meanwhile. Juno found out her trick and accordingly 
punished her. Echo loved Narcissus; as her love was 
not returned, she pined away until nothing remained 
but her beautiful voice. In Northern mythology, Echo 
is the sound of the dwarf’s talk. 

Eck'hardt. In German legends, Eckhardt appears 
on the evening of Maundy Thursday to warn all persons 
to go home, that they may not be injured by the head¬ 
less bodies and two-legged horses which traverse the 
streets on that night. 

Ee'tion. Wife of Hector and mother of Andromeche. 

Egeon. A giant sea-god, who assisted the Titans 
against Jupiter. 

Ege'ria. A nymph from whom King Numa Pompilius 
was fabled to have received his instructions respecting 
the forms of public worship which he established in 
Rome. 

E'gia. One of the nine beautiful giantesses seen by 
Odin along the sea shore, known as wave-maidens. 
Her son became guardian of Bi-frost, the rainbow 
bridge. 

E'giJ. The Vulcan of Northern mythology, one of 
the three brothers who married the swan-maidens. He 
was a great archer and killed his brother, Volund, by 
command of the king, and himself later became a peasant. 

Egip'ans. Rural deities who inhabited the forests 
and mountains, the upper half of the body being like 
that of a man, and the lower half like that of a goat. 

E'gis. Part of the armor of Jupiter used by Minerva 
as a shield. 

Ei'ra. An attendant of the goddess, Frigga, and a 
skillful nurse. She gathered herbs and plants for the 
cure of both sickness and wounds and taught the science 
to women. 

El'atus. A prominent warrior among the mythical 
people of Thessaly and the father of Caneus, whom Nep¬ 
tune changed into the form of a man. 

El'begast. One of the dwarfs of Scandinavian myth¬ 
ology who dwelt in a magnificent palace under ground, 
and drew their servants from the bosom of the earth. 

El'ber-ich. In the German hero legends a dwarf 
who aided the Lombard Emperor Otnit to win the 
daughter of the Soldan of Syria. He is identical with 
the Oberon of French and English fairy mythology. 

Elec'tra. The bright or brilliant one. A daughter 
of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and the sister of 
Iphigenia. She became the accomplice of Orestes in 
the murder of their mother. 

Elf. The water sprite, known also as Elb, from 
which the name of the River Elbe is said to be derived. 
Elves are more properly known as mountain fairies or 
those airy creatures that dance on the grass or sit in 
the leaves of trees and delight in the full moon. 

Eliva'gar. In Norse mythology, the name of a 
great stream in Chaos, flowing from a fountain in the 
land of mist. This stream was much frequented by 
the elves at their creation. 

Ely'sium. The Paradise of the Greeks, known also 
as the Happyland. Departed mortals were adjudged to 
Elysium or to Tartarus by the sentence of Minos and 
his fellow judges in the “Field of Truth.” Elysium is 
described as adorned with beautiful gardens, meadows, 
and groves; where birds ever warble; where the River 
Eridanus winds between banks fringed with laurel, and 
“divine Lethe” glides in a quiet valley; where the air 
is always pure, and the day serene; where the blessed 
have their delightful abode. 

Em'bla. An elm tree found in human form, by the 
gods, according to Northern mythology. 

Empyre'an. A term used by the ancients to ex¬ 
press the highest heaven, where the blessed enjoy the 



LITERATURE 


329 


beatific vision. Its name is derived from its having 
been supposed to be the region of fire. 

Encel'adus. A Tit- an > son of Terra, and the most 
powerful of all the giants who conspired against Jupiter, 
and attempted to scale heaven. He was struck by Jupi¬ 
ter’s thunderbolts, and chained beneath Mount iEtna. 

Endym'ion, in Greek mythology, is the setting sun 
with which the moon is in love. One of the many 
renderings of his story is that Endymion was a beautiful 
youth who fed his flock on Mount Latmos. One clear 
night, Diana, the moon, looked down and saw him 
sleeping. The cold heart of the goddess was warmed 
by his beauty, and she came down to him, kissed him, 
and watched over him while he slept. Another story 
was that Jupiter bestowed on him the gift of perpetual 
youth united with perpetual sleep. One version of this 
myth made sleep a reward for piety, while another 
version made it a punishment for presuming to fall in 
love with Hera. 

Eni'peus. A fabled river in Thessaly. Poseidon 
assumed the form of the god of this river in order to 
obtain possession of Tyro, who was in love with Enipeus. 
She became the mother of Pelias and Neleus. 

En'yo. One of the gray-maidens who became the 
goddess of war, who delights in bloodshed and the 
destruction of towns, and accompanies Ares in battles. 

Eolus. Known in Roman mythology as the god of 
the winds. 

Eos. Th'e Roman name for Aurora. 

Ep'aphus. The son of Zeus and Io, born on the 
river Nile, after the long wanderings of his mother. 
He became king of Egypt, and built Memphis. 

Ep'eus. Noted as builder of the Trojan horse. 

Er'ebus. A name applied to the dark and gloomy 
space under the earth through which the souls of the 
dead were obliged to pass on their way to Hades. The 
name also means Tartarus, the prison house into which 
Jupiter cast the Titans, the adherents of his father, 
Saturn. 

Erga'tis. A name given to Minerva. It means the 
work-woman, and was given to the goddess because she 
was credited with having invented spinning and weaving. 

E'ris. The goddess of discord; a sister of Mars, 
and a daughter of Night; the same as the Roman 
“.Discordia.” 

Erl-king. Name given to the king of the elves, or 
a spirit of the air. According to tradition, its home is 
in the Black Forest of Germany and it appears as a 
goblin, working harm and ruin, especially among children. 

E'ros. The Greek name of the deity called “ Cupido,” 
or Cupid, by the Romans. He is said to have come 
forth from the egg of Night, floated on Chaos, and to 
have inherited arrows with which he pierced all things, 
thereby giving new life and a torch with which he lighted 
the world. (See Cupid.) 

Erythe'ia. One of the daughters of Night appointed 
to guard the golden apples in the gardens of the Hes- 
perides. 

Erythre'os. The Grecian name of one of the horses 
of Sol’s chariot. 

E'thon. One of the horses which drew the chariot 
of Sol, the sun. The word is Greek and signifies hot. 

Eumae'us. The faithful swine-herd of Ulysses, 
whom Telemachus consulted upon his return to Minerva. 

Eumen'ides. A euphemistic name given by the 
Greeks to the Furies, whose true name of Erinnyes they 
were afraid to utter. They are represented as the 
daughters of Earth or of Night, and as fearful winged 
maidens, with serpents twined in their hair, and with 
blood dripping from their eyes. They dwelt in the 
depths of Tartarus, dreaded by gods and men. 

Euphor'bus. The son of Panthous, one of the 
bravest of the Trojans, slain by Menelaus, who dedi¬ 
cated his shield in the temple of Hera (Juno), near 
Mycenae. Pythagoras asserted that he had once been 
Euphorbus, and in proof of his assertion took down at 
first sight the shield from the temple of Hera. 

Euphros'yne. One of the three Graces. She speci¬ 
ally represented joy, as her sisters stood for splendor 
and pleasure. 

Euro'pa. Daughter of the Phenician King Agenor, 
or, according to the Iliad, daughter of Phoenix. 

Euryd'ice. The wife of Orpheus, who died from 
the bite of a serpent. Orpheus, disconsolate at her loss, 
determined to descend to the lower world, and obtain 
permission for his beloved Eurydice to return to the 
regions of light. Armed only with his lyre, he entered 
the realms of Hades, and gained an easy admittance to 
the palace of Pluto. Orpheus was promised she should 
return on condition that he looked not back till she 
had reached the upper world. When the poet got to 
the confines of his journey, he turned his head to see if 


Eurydice were following, and she was instantly caught 
back again into Hades. 

Euryl'ochus. One of the companions of Ulysses 
in his wanderings, and the only one of them who was 
not changed by Circe into a hog. 

Eurys'theus. The King of Argos who appointed 
the twelve labors of Hercules. 

Eury'tos. The god made tutor to Hercules, by Mer¬ 
cury, who taught him the use of the bow and arrows. 

Evad'ne. Wife of Capaneus, and mother of Sthen- 
elus. Her husband having been killed at the siege of 
Thebes, she threw herself upon the funeral pile, and 
was consumed with him. 

Excal'ibar. (Written also Excalibur, Excaliber.) 
The name of King Arthur’s sword. When about to 
die, he sent an attendant to throw the weapon into a 
lake near by. Twice eluding the request, the knight 
at last complied. A hand rose from the water, clutched 
the sword, and after waving it three times both sank. 

Fada. A fde or kobold of the south of France, some¬ 
times called “Hada.” These house-spirits, of which, 
strictly speaking, there are but three, bring good luck 
in their right hand and ill luck in their left. 

Faf'nir. In Northern mythology the eldest son of 
the dwarf king, Hreidmar. The slaying of Fafnir is the 
destruction of the demon of cold or darkness who had 
stolen the golden light of the sun. 

Fah'fah. Name given to one of the rivers of Para¬ 
dise in mythology of the East. 

Fa'ids. Name sometimes applied to Druids. 

Fane'sii. A mythical Scandinavian tribe far north, 
whose ears were so long that they would cover their 
whole body. 

Fates. In Greek and Roman mythology the Fates 
are identical with the Parcse. They were three sisters, 
daughters of Night, whom Jupiter permitted to decide 
the fortune and especially the duration of mortal life. 
One of them “Clotho,” attached the thread; the second, 
“Lachesis,” spun it; and the third, “Atropos,” cut it 
off, when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as 
inexorable, and ranked among the inferior divinities of 
the lower world. Their worship was not very general. 
The Parcse were generally represented as three old wo¬ 
men, with chaplets made of wool and interwoven with 
the flowers of the Narcissus, wearing long robes, arid 
employed in their works: Clotho with a distaff; Lachesis 
having near her sometimes several spindles; and Atropos 
holding a pair of scissors. 

Fauni. Rural deities represented as having the legs, 
feet, and ears of goats, and the rest of the body human. 
Name of Italian origin. 

Fauns. Among the Romans, a class of rural deities 
corresponding with the Greek “Pan.” They were the 
demi-gods of woods and forests, and hence called “syl¬ 
van deities,” and are represented with horned heads, 
sharp-pointed ears, and with their bodies below the waist 
resembling those of goats. Their festival was celebrated 
at Rome on the 5th of December. 

Fay. A diminutive name applied to a fairy or an 
elf. 

Felie'itas. A symbolical, moral deity of the Greeks 
and Romans. She was the goddess of happiness and 
prosperity, and is frequently seen on Roman medals, 
in the form of a matron, with the staff of Mercury and a 
cornucopia. 

Feng. The name taken by Odin in the capacity of 
wave-stiller. Under this name he teaches mortals to 
distinguish between good and bad omens and to know 
the moods of the winds. 

Fenrir or Fenris. In Scandinavian mythology, the 
wolf of sin, meaning the goading of a guilty conscience. 
The “.wolf” was the brother of Hel. When he gapes, 
one jaw touches earth and the other heaven. 

Fero'hers. The guardian angels of Persian mythol¬ 
ogy. They are countless in number, and their chief 
tasks are for the well-being of man. 

Fero'nia. A goddess of fruits, nurseries, and groves 
among the Romans. She had a very rich temple and 
grove specially sacred to her. She was honored as the 
patroness of enfranchised slaves, who ordinarily received 
their liberty in her temple. 

Fi'des. The personification of faithfulness, wor¬ 
shiped as a goddess at Rome. 

Flora. The Romans had a particular goddess of 
blossoms and flowers, whom they worshiped under the 
name of “Flora.” She is said to have been the same as 
the Grecian nymph “Chloris.” 

Fortitu'do. A deification of courage and bravery, 
was one of the moral deities of the Romans. 

Fortu'na. Known also as Fortune and sometimes 
as the goddess of Chance, to whom was ascribed the dis¬ 
tribution and the superintendence of prosperity and ad¬ 
versity in general. 





330 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Fortuna'tae. Known also as “the Islands of the 
Blessed.” The early Greeks, as we learn from Homer, 
placed the Elysian fields, into which favored heroes passed 
without dying, at the extremity of the earth, near the 
River Oceanus. In poems later than Homer, an island is 
spoken of as their abode; hence when certain islands were 
discovered in the ocean, off the western coast of Africa, 
the name of Fortunatse Insulae was applied to them. 
They are now called the Canary and Madeira Islands. 

Freki and Geri. The two wolves of Odin. When 
Odin, seated on his throne, overlooks heaven and earth, 
his two wolves lie at his feet. 

Frey. (Scandinavian mythology.) The god of the sun 
and of rain, and hence of fertility and peace. He was 
one of the most popular of the Northern divinities. 
No weapons were ever allowed in Frey’s temple, although 
oxen and horses were sacrificed to him. His name was 
connected with the taking of any solemn oath, a heavy 
gold ring was dipped in the blood of the sacrifice and 
the oath sworn upon the ring. One of the most celebrated 
of the temples built to Frey was at Therva in Iceland. 

Frey'ja. She was the sister of Frey, and the wife 
of Odur, who abandoned her on her loss of youth and 
beauty, and was changed into a statue by Odin, as a 
punishment. She is known as the Northern goddess 
of beauty and love; plants were called Freya’s hair, 
and the butterfly, Freya’s hen. 

Frig'ga. In Scandinavian mythology the wife of 
Odin, the queen of the gods, and the mother of Baldur, 
Thor, etc. She sometimes typifies the earth, as Odin 
does the heavens. The Anglo-Saxons worshiped her 
as “Frea.” The name survives in “Friday.” 

Fro'di. The son of Frey, a god of peace. Under his 
direction two giantesses turned a pair of magic mill¬ 
stones which ground out gold according to his wish and 
filled his coffers. Excited by greed he forced them to 
labor, allowing rest only long enough for the singing of 
one verse. When Frodi, himself, slept, the giantesses 
changed their song and proceeded to grind out an army 
of troops to invade the land. These troops represent 
the Vikings. 

Furies. Among the divinities of the lower world 
were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto 
and Proserpine, whose office it was to torment the guilty 
in Tartarus, and often to inflict vengeance upon the liv¬ 
ing. The Greeks called them “Furies.” They are also 
known as Erinnyes and Eumenides. 

Fylgie. Guardian spirits treated of in Norse my¬ 
thology. Besides the Noras or Dises.who were regarded 
as protective deities, the Norsemen ascribed to each 
human being a guardian spirit named Fylgie, which 
attended him through life. 

Gaea. Same as Tellus and Terra, a personification 
of earth. Sometimes written Ge. 

Galar. One of the dwarfs who, with his fellow dwarf, 
Fialar, slew the giant, Kvasir, and drained every drop 
of his blood. 

Ganga. One of the three Indian River goddesses. 

Gang'ler. The gate-keeper in Odin’s palace who 
gave the explanation of the Northern mythology that 
it might be recorded. 

Gany'mede. A son of Troas, King of Troy, accord¬ 
ing to Homer, was the most beautiful of all mortals, 
and was carried off by the gods that he might fill the cup 
of Zeus (Jupiter), and live among the immortal gods. 
Later writers state that Zeus himself carried him off, 
in the form of an eagle, or by means of his eagle, from 
Mount Ida. 

Garm. A fierce dog that kept guard at the entrance 
of Hel’s kingdom, the realm of the dead. He could be 
appeased by the offering of a Hel-cake which always 
appeared in the hand of one who, on earth, had given 
bread to the needy. 

Gauta'ma. The chief deity of Burmah. 

Gem'ini. One of the names given to the twins, 
Castor and Pollux, under which they were transported 
to dwell among the stars. 

Ge'nii. Protecting spirits or gods. 

Gerda. Wife of Frey, and daughter of the frost 
giant, Gymer. She is so beautiful that the brightness 
of her naked arms illuminates both air and sea. 

Ger'yon was a monster, said to be the offspring of 
Chrysaor and Callirhoe, and to have three bodies and 
three heads. His residence was in the island of Gades, 
where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman, 
Eurythion, and guarded by a two-headed dog, called 
Orthos. The destruction of this monster formed one 
of the twelve labors of Hercules. 

Giall. The infernal river of Scandinavian mythology. 

Giallar Bridge. The bridge of death, over which 
all must pass. 

Giallar Horn, The. Heimdall’s horn, which went 
Out into all worlds whenever he chose to blow it. 


According to Northern mythology, he blew a long- 
expected blast as a rallying call to the battle which 
ended the reign of the gods, Odin, Frey, and Tyr. 

Gian ben Gian. King of the Ginns or Genii, and 
founder of the Pyramids. He was overthrown by Aza'- 
zil or Lucifer. (Arab superstitions.) 

Giants. Earth united with Heaven produced Oceanos 
and the giants with fifty heads and a hundred hands — 
by which is meant, the personification of the great powers 
of nature — as their names signify: Cottos (eruption), 
Briareos (hurricane), and Gyes (earthquake). In fables 
the giants are beings of monstrous size, with dragons’ 
tails and fearful countenances. They attempted to 
storm heaven, being armed with huge rocks and the 
trunks of trees, but were killed by the gods with the 
assistance of Hercules, and were buried under Mount 
iEtna and other volcanoes. In Scandinavian mythology 
they are described as evil genii of various forms and races, 
enemies of the gods. They dwelt in a territory of their 
own, called Giant-land. They had the power of assum¬ 
ing divers shapes, and of increasing or diminishing their 
stature at will. 

Ginun'ga-gap. In Norse mythology, the vast 
chaotic gulf of perpetual twilight, which existed before 
the present world and separated the region of fog from 
the region of heat. Giants were the first beings who 
came to life among the icebergs and filled this vast 
abyss. 

Glads'-lieim. A great hall in the palace of Odin, 
in which were the twelve seats occupied by the gods 
when holding council. 

Gla'sir. A marvelous grove in the land of Asgard, 
in which the leaves were all of shimmering red gold. 

Glendoveer'. In Hindu mythology, is a kind of sylph, 
the most lovely of the good spirits. 

Gnome. One of a class of spirits or imaginary beings 
which were supposed to tenant the interior parts of the 
earth, and in whose charge mines, quarries, etc., were 
left. Rubezahl, of the German legends, is often cited as 
a representative of the class. 

Golden Apples, The. A great treasure which was 
thought to be altogether unattainable, was the golden 
apples in the gardens of the Hesperides. These gardens 
were watched by a monstrous dragon, and to bring the 
golden fruit to Eurystheus, was one of the tasks which 
Hercules was to accomplish. 

Golden Fleece. Ino persuaded her husband, Ath- 
amas, that his son Phryxos was the cause of a famine 
which desolated the land, and he ordered him to be 
sacrificed to the angry gods. Phryxos made his escape 
over sea on a “ram which had a golden fleece.” When 
he arrived at Colchis, he sacrificed the ram to Zeus, and 
gave the fleece to King ASe'tes, who hung it on a sacred 
oak. It was afterwards stolen by Jason in his celebrated 
Argonautic expedition. 

Gor'gons. The three Gorgons were hideous monsters 
whose faces were so fearful that whoever looked on 
them became “congealed stone.” One of these crea¬ 
tures, Medusa, was slain by Perseus, and her head was 
presented to Minerva, who placed it in her shield, where 
the face continued to retain its petrifying power. 

Graces. To the retinue of Venus belonged the 
Graces, servants and companions of the goddess. They 
were said to be daughters of Jupiter and Eurynome, or 
according to others, of Bacchus and Venus herself, and 
were three in number: Splendor, Pleasure, and Joy. 
They were honored, especially in Greece, and had tem¬ 
ples in the principal cities. Altars were often erected 
to them in the temples of other gods, especially Mercury, 
Venus, and the Muses. 

Grid. Wife of Odin and mother of Vidar. She lent 
Thor her girdle, staff, and glove, warning him to beware 
of treachery. 

Gripir. A horse-trainer, servant of Odin, who could 
foretell events of the future. He could teach a young 
hero all that he might need to know. He is compared 
to Chiron the Centaur. 

Groves. The Romans were accustomed, like other 
ancient nations, to consecrate groves and woods to the 
gods. As many as 230 sacred groves are enumerated, 
chiefly within the city of Rome. In Greece, the particu¬ 
lar tract of land, situated between Athens and Megara, 
was consecrated to Ceres and Proserpine, and trees were 
also set apart and with ceremony consecrated to some 
god. 

Gyes. One of the hundred-handed giants. (Also 
written Gyges.) 

Ha'des. The Greek god of the nether world, the son 
of Saturn and Rhea, and the brother of Jupiter and Nep¬ 
tune. He is the same as Pluto. In ordinary life he 
was usually called Pluto (the giver of wealth), because 
people did not like to pronounce the dreaded name of 
Hades. His wife was Persephone (Proserpine), the 



Literature 


331 


daughter of Demeter, whom he carried from the upper 
world. In the division of the world among the three 
brothers, Hades obtained the abode of the shades, over 
which he ruled. Of all the gods he was most hated by 
mortals. The ensign of his power was a staff, with which, 
like Hermes, he drove the shades into the lower world. 
He possessed a helmet which rendered the wearer in¬ 
visible, and which he sometimes lent to both gods and 
men. The Furies are called his daughters; the nymph 
Mintho, whom he loved, was metamorphosed by Perse¬ 
phone into the plant called mint; and the nymph 
Leuce, whom he likewise loved, was changed by him 
after death into a white poplar. Being the king of the 
lower world, Pluto is the giver of all the blessings that 
come from the earth; hence he gives the metals con¬ 
tained in the earth. 

Ham'adryads. Nymphs of the woods who were 
born and died with particular trees. They possessed the 
power to reward and punish those who prolonged or 
abridged the existence of their special tree. 

Harmo'nia. A daughter of Mars and Venus, and 
wife of Cadmus. Harmonia received a present of a neck¬ 
lace, which afterwards became fatal to all who possessed 
it. 

Haroe'ris. The Egyptian god, whose eyes are the 
sun and moon. 

Harpies. Robbers or Spoilers, described by Homer 
as carrying off persons, who had utterly disappeared. 
Hesiod represents them as fair-locked and winged maid¬ 
ens; but subsequent writers describe them as disgusting 
monsters, birds with the heads of maidens, with long 
claws, and faces pale with hunger. 

He'be. The goddess of youth, was daughter of Zeus 
and Hera. She was employed by her mother to pre¬ 
pare her chariot, and harness her peacocks, and was 
cupbearer to all the gods. 

Hec'ate. A mysterious divinity known as the god¬ 
dess that troubles the reason of men; the goddess that 
presides over nocturnal ceremonies, and consequently 
over magic; hence her identity with Diana in Grecian 
mythology, and with Isis in Egyptian. 

Hec'tor. The prominent hero of the Trojans in 
their war with the Greeks, was the eldest son of Priam 
and Hecuba, and the husband of Andromache. He fought 
with the bravest of the Greeks, and slew Patroclus, the 
friend of Achilles. The death of his friend roused 
Achilles to the fight. The other Trojans fled before 
him into the city. Hector alone remained without the 
walls, but when he saw Achilles, his heart failed him, 
and he took to flight. Thrice he ran round the city, 
pursued by Achilles, and fell, pierced by Achilles’ spear. 
Achilles tied Hector’s body to his chariot, and thus 
dragged him into the camp of the Greeks. At the com¬ 
mand of Zeus, Achilles surrendered the body to the 
prayers of Priam, who buried it at Troy with great 
pomp. Hector is one of the noblest conceptions of the 
poet of the “.Iliad.” 

Hec'uba. The second wife of Priam, King of Troy, 
and the mother of Paris and Hector. After the fall of 
Troy, she fell into the hands of the Greeks as a slave, 
and, according to one account, threw herself in despair 
into the sea. 

Heim'dal. In Northern tales a god, who lived in 
the celestial fort Himinsbiorg, under the farther extrem¬ 
ity of the bridge Bifrost, and kept the keys of heaven. 
He is the watchman or sentinel of Asgard, sees even in 
sleep, can hear the grass grow, and even the wool on a 
lamb’s back. Heim'dall, at the end of the world, will 
wake the gods with his trumpet. 

Helen. A daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and the 
wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta. She was the most 
beautiful woman of her age, and chose Menelaus among 
many suitors. She afterward eloped with Paris, her 
husband’s Trojan guest, and thus brought on the war 
between the Greeks and Trojans. After the fall of Troy 
she was restored to Menelaus. 

Hel'enus. Son of Priam and Hecuba, celebrated 
for his prophetic powers. 

Hel'ice. A maid beloved of Jupiter, and by jeal¬ 
ousy of Hera changed into a she-bear. 

Hel'icon. A mountain in Bceotia sacred to the 
Muses, from which place the fountain Hippocrene flowed. 
It is also known as the Muses’ Mount. It is part of the 
Parnassus, a mountain range in Greece. 

HeTios. The Greek sun-god, who rode to his palace 
in Colchis every night in a golden boat furnished with 
wings. This god gives light both to gods and men. 
He sees and hears everything, and discovers all that is 
kept secret. 

Hel'le. Daughter of Athamas and Nephgle, and 
sister of Phrixus. When Phrixus was to be sacrificed, 
Nephele resclied her two children, who rode away 


through the air upon the ram with the golden fleece, 
the gift of Hermes; but IJelle fell into the sea. The 
episode gave the name of the Hellespont to the part of 
the sea where Helle was drowned. It is now called the 
Dardanelles. 

Hel'len. The son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, and 
father of ^Eolus, Dorus, and Xuthus. He was King of 
Phthia in Thessaly, and was succeeded by his son iEolus. 
He was the mythical ancestor of all the Hellenes. 

Hell Shoon. In Icelandic mythology indispensable 
for the journey to Valhalla as the obolus for crossing 
the Styx. 

Helmet of Hades. A helmet worn by Perseus, 
rendering him invisible and which, with the winged 
sandals and magic wallet, he took from certain nymphs, 
who held them in possession. After he had slain Medusa 
he restored them again, and presented the Gorgon’s 
head to Minerva, who placed it in the middle of her 
shield. 

He'ra. Greek name for the wife of Jupiter, known 
among Romans as Juno. Hera was worshiped in many 
parts of Greece, but more especially at Argos, in the 
neighborhood of which she had a splendid temple, on 
the road to Mycense. She had also a temple in Samos. 
Hera was usually represented as a majestic woman of 
mature age. 

Heracli'dae. Name given to the descendants of 
Hercules, who, in conjunction with the Dorians, con¬ 
quered the Peloponnesus eighty years after the destruc¬ 
tion of Troy, or B. C. 1104, according to mythical 
chronology. This legend represents the conquest of 
the Achaean population by Dorian invaders, who hence¬ 
forward appear as the ruling race in the Peloponnesus. 

Her'cules. Of all the Grecian heroes, no other ob¬ 
tained such celebrity as Hercules, son of Jupiter and 
Alcmene. Wonderful strength was ascribed to him 
even in his infantile years. Eurystheus imposed upon 
him many difficult enterprises, which he carried through 
with success; particularly those which are called the 
“twelve labors” of Hercules. These were: to kill the 
Nemaean lion; to destroy the Lernsean hydra; to catch 
alive the stag with golden horns; to catch the Eryman- 
thean boar; to cleanse the stables of Augeas; to exter¬ 
minate the birds of Lake Stymphalus; to bring alive 
the wild bull of Crete; to seize the horses of Diomedes; 
to obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Ama¬ 
zons; to destroy the monster Geryon; to plunder the 
garden of Hesperides, guarded by a sleepless dragon: 
and to bring from the infernal world the three-headed 
dog, Cerberus. Many other exploits were ascribed to 
him, by which he gave proof of his extraordinary strength 
and exhibited himself as an avenger and deliverer of 
the oppressed. Such were: his slaying the robber, 
Cacus; the deliverance of Prometheus, bound to a rock; 
the killing of Busiris, and the rescue of Alceste from the 
infernal world. His last achievement was the destruc¬ 
tion of the centaur, Nessus. Nessus, dying, gave his 
poisoned tunic to Deianira; Hercules afterwards re¬ 
ceiving it from her, and putting it on, became so dis¬ 
eased that he cast himself in despair upon a funeral 
pile on Mount iEta. The worship of Hercules became 
universal, and temples were erected to his honor. 

Hercu'lean Knot. A snaky complication on the 
rod or caduceus of Mercury, adopted by the Grecian 
brides as the fastening of their woolen girdles, which 
only the bridegroom was allowed to untie. 

Her'la. A mythical king, the supposed leader of 
The Wild Hunt of Scandinavian mythology. This was 
known as the Raging Host in Germany and as Herla- 
thing in England, from the name, Herla. 

Her'mes. A Greek name of the god Mercury. 

Hermi'one. The beautiful daughter of Menelaus 
and Helen. She had been promised in marriage to 
Orestes before the Trojan War, but Menelaus, after his 
return home, married her to Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus). 

Hesper'ides. The Hesperides are called daughters 
of Night, because their origin and existence are veiled 
in darkness. Their names were iEgle, Erytheia, and 
Arethusa;—and they were appointed to guard the 
golden apples, which were the gift of Earth to Juno on 
her wedding day. The celebrated gardens of the Hes¬ 
perides abounded with fruits and were carefully guarded 
by a dragon, which never slept. 

Hes'perus. A supposed son or brother of Atlas 
enrolled among the deities after death, and made 
identical with the Evening Star. 

Hes'tia. The Greek name for Vesta. She was the 
goddess of the domestic hearth. 

Hippocre'ne. The Muses were entertaining them¬ 
selves in the mountain with song and lyre, in so gay a 
manner that all could hear them. Poseidon sent up 
Pegasus, charging him to limit the mirth and noisy 
merriment. On arriving at the top of the mount, 



332 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Pegasus had only to paw the ground to bring all quiet; 
and from beneath his foot arose that well-known foun¬ 
tain which, from its origin, is called Hippocrene. 

Hippol'yta. Queen of the Amazons, and daughter 
of Mars. In classic fable, her sister Antiope married 
Theseus. Hippolyta was famous for a girdle given her 
by her father, and it was one of the twelve labors of 
Hercules to possess himself of this prize. 

Hippoly'tus. Son of Theseus and Hippolyte; he 
was killed by a fall from a chariot, but was raised to life 
again by Diana, or by iEsculapius. 

Hippom'enes. Son of Megareus, and great-grand¬ 
son of Poseidon (Neptune), conquered Atalanta in a 
foot-race. He had three golden apples, which he 
dropped one by one, and which she stopped to pick 
up. By this delay she lost the race. 

Hofvarp'nir. The fleet steed of Ina, in Scandi¬ 
navian legend, which traveled through fire and air and 
enabled this messenger of the gods to see all that was 
happening on the earth. 

Hobomok'o. An evil spirit known among American 
Indians. 

Ho'de-ken. A famous German kobold, or domestic 
fairy servant; so called from wearing a little felt hat 
pulled down over his face. 

Ho'dur. In Norse mythology, a blind god who 
destroyed his brother, Baldur, at'the instigation of Loki, 
without meaning to do so. He is the type of night and 
darkness, as Baldur is of light and day. 

Ho'nir. In Asgard tales, name given to the god of 
mind or thought. 

Ho'rae. Daughters of Zeus and Themis, the god¬ 
desses of the order of nature and of the seasons, who 
guarded the doors of Olympus, and promoted the fer¬ 
tility of the earth. 

Ho'rus. The Egyptian god of the sun, who was 
also worshiped in Greece and at Rome. 

Hu'gin. One of Odin’s two ravens, who carried him 
news from earth, and who, when not thus employed, 
perched upon his shoulders. The personification of 
thought or intellect. 

Hu'go'. A kind of evil spirit in the popular super¬ 
stition of France — a sort of ogre made use of to frighten 
children. 

Hundred-eyed. Argus, in Greek and Latin fable. 
Juno appointed him guardian of Io, but Jupiter caused 
him to be put to death; whereupon Juno transplanted 
his eyes into the tail of her peacock. 

Hy'acinthus. A youth beloved by Apollo, and acci¬ 
dentally slain by him while playing at quoits. From 
his blood sprang the flower which bears his name. 

Hy'ades. A class of nymphs commonly said to be 
seven in number. 

Hy'dra. Name of a monstrous serpent in the Lake 
Lerna, with numerous heads. When one of these heads 
was cut off, another or two others immediately grew in 
its place, unless the blood of the wound was stopped 
by fire. The destruction of the Hydra was a labor as¬ 
signed to Hercules, which he accomplished by the aid 
of Iolaus, who applied lighted brands or a heated iron 
as each head was removed. The arrows of Hercules, 
being dipped in the Hydra’s blood, caused incurable 
wounds. 

Hygei'a. The goddess of health, and a daughter of 
JEsculapius, though some traditions make her the wife 
of the latter. In works of art she is represented in a 
long robe, feeding a serpent from a cup. 

Hy'men or Hymense'us. One of the imaginary 
companions of Venus. He presided over marriage. 

Hy'mir. In mythology of Northern lands, the frost- 
giant who owned the great kettle called “Mile-deep.” 

Hyperbo'reans. A fabulous people, supposed to 
live in a state of perfect happiness, in a land of perpetual 
sunshine. 

Hype'rion. Son of Coelus and Terra. The model 
of manly beauty, synonymous with Apollo. The per¬ 
sonification of the sun. Hyperion was the father of 
the Sun, Moon, and Dawn. He is, therefore, the origi¬ 
nal sun-god, and is painted with splendor and beauty. 

Iac'ehus. The solemn name of Bacchus in the 
Eleusinian mysteries, whose name was derived from 
the boisterous song called “Iacchus.” In these mys¬ 
teries Iacchus was regarded as the son of Zeus and 
Ceres, and was distinguished from the Theban Bacchus 
(Dionysus), the son of Zeus and Semele. 

Iap'etos. The father of Atlas and ancestor of the 
human race, called the progeny of Iapetos. By many 
considered the same as Japheth, one of the sons of 
Noah. 

Ic'arius. An Athenian, who hospitably received 
Dionysus in Attica, and was taught the cultivation of 
the vine. 


Ic'aros. Son of Dse'dalos, who flew with his father 
from Crete; but the sun melted the wax with which 
his wings were fastened on, and he fell into the sea, 
hence called the Ica'rian. 

Ida. A mountain range of Mysia, in Asia Minor, 
celebrated in mythology as the scene of the rape of 
Ganymede and of the judgment of Paris. In Homer 
the summit of Ida is the place from which the gods 
watch the battles in the plain of Troy. It is an ancient 
seat of the worship of Cybele. A mountain in Crete, 
known as Mount Ida, was closely connected with the 
worship of Jupiter. 

Idae'an Mother. Cyb'ele, who had a temple on 
Mount Ida, in Asia Minor. 

Idom'eneus. He led the Cretans against Troy, and 
was one of the bravest heroes in the Trojan War He 
vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon whatever he should first 
meet on his landing, if the god would grant him a safe 
return. This was his own son, whom he accordingly 
sacrificed. As Crete was thereupon visited by a plague, 
the Cretans expelled Idomeneus, who went to Italy. 

Idun'a or Idlin'. Daughter of the dwarf Svald, and 
wife of Bragi. She kept in a box the golden apples 
which the gods tasted as often as they wished to renew 
their youth. Loki on one occasion stole the box, but 
the gods compelled him to restore it. Iduna seems to 
personify that part of the year when the sun is north of 
the equator. Her apples indicate fruits generally. Loki 
carries her off to Giant-Land, when the Sun descends 
below the equator, and he steals her apples. In time, 
Iduna makes her escape, in the form of a sparrow, 
when the Sun again rises above the equator; and both 
gods and men rejoice in her return. 

I'fing. In Scandinavian mythology the great stream 
between the earth and the sacred lands, whose waters 
never froze. 

In'achus. One of the river-gods, a son of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and father of Phoroneus and Io, was the 
first King of Argos, and said to have given His name to 
the river Inachus. 

In'dra. In Hindu mythology, the ever youthful 
god of the firmament, and the omnipotent ruler of the 
elements. He is a most important personage in Indian 
fable. In the Vedic period of the Hindu religion, he 
occupied a foremost rank, and, though degraded to an 
inferior position in the Epic, he long enjoyed a great 
legendary popularity. In works of art, he is repre¬ 
sented as riding on an elephant. 

I'o. The daughter of Inachus, first King of Argos, 
beloved by Zeus, and metamorphosed, through fear of 
Hera, into a heifer. 

Iola'us. The son of Iphicles and Automedusa. 
Iphicles was the half-brother of Hercules, and Iolaus 
was the faithful companion and charioteer of the hero. 

I'ole. The daughter of Eurytus of Oechalia, beloved 
by Hercules, who tried to gain her in marriage for him¬ 
self. Eurytus promised his daughter to the man who 
should conquer him and his sons in shooting with the 
bow. Hercules defeated them; but Eurytus and his 
sons, with the exception of Iphitus, refused to give Iole 
to him, because he had murdered his own children. 

I'on. The fabulous ancestor of the Ionians, son of 
Xuthus and Creusa, or of Apollo and Creusa, grandson 
of Helen. According to some traditions he reigned in 
Attica. 

Iphigeni'a. A daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra, and sister to Orestes. Iphigeneia was to 
have been sacrificed on entering upon the expedition 
against Troy; but was rescued by Diana, who carried 
her to Tauris, where she became a priestess in her 
temple. She was afterwards recognized by her brother, 
Orestes, and enabled to save him with his friend, Pylades. 

Ire'ne. The Roman goddess of peace, and daughter 
of Zeus and Themis, and one of the Horae. 

I'ris. Name given among the Greeks to the rainbow, 
as personified and imagined a goddess. Her father was 
said to be Tliaumas, and her mother Electra, one of the 
daughters of Oceanus. Her residence was near the 
throne of Juno, whose commands she bore as messenger 
to the rest of the gods and to mortals. Sometimes, but 
rarely, she was Jupiter’s messenger, and was employed 
even by other deities. 

I ms. The beggar of gigantic stature, who kept 
watch over the suitors of Penel'ope. His real name 
was Ar'neos, but the suitors nicknamed him Irus because 
he carried their messages for them. Ulysses, on his 
return, felled him to the ground. 

I'sis. In Egyptian mythology, the sister-wife of 
Osiris. She was originally the goddess of the earth, 
and afterwards of the moon. 

Isme'ne. Daughter of CE'dipus and Jocasta. Antig'- 
one was buried alive by the order of King Creon, for 
burying her brother Polynices. Ismene declared that 



LITERATURE 


333 


she had aided her sister, and requested to be allowed to 
flhare the .same punishment. Denied of this, she is said 
to have died from grief. The story is told by Sopho¬ 
cles, and the modern artist, Teschendorf, has made a 
noted picture of the two sisters. 

Is'rafil. Known among Arabians as the angel of 
music, who possessed the most melodious voice of all 
God’s creatures. This is the angel who is to sound the 
Resurrection Trump, and make music for the saints in 
Paradise. Israfil, Gabriel, and Michael were the three 
angels that warned Abraham of Sodom’s destruction. 

Ith'aca. In mythology, the island-kingdom of 
Ulysses. The city of Ithaca, the residence of Ulysses, 
was situated on a precipitous, conical hill, now called 
‘‘eagle’s cliff,” occupying the whole breadth of the 
isthmus. Ithaca was also the home of Penelope. 

Ithu'riel. One of the angels commissioned by 
Gabriel to search for Satan, who had effected his en¬ 
trance into Paradise. 

lxi'on. A fabled king of Thessaly, who became 
father of the Centaurs. The story by which he is most 
noted runs: When De'ioneus demanded of Ixion certain 
gifts he had promised, Ixion treacherously invited him 
to a banquet, and contrived to make him fall into a pit 
filled with fire. Ixion, as a punishment, was chained 
by Hermes with his hands and feet to a wheel, which 
is described as winged or fiery, and said to have rolled 
perpetually. 

Jamshid'. King of the Genii, famous for a golden 
cup full of the elixir of life. This cup, hidden by the 
genii, was discovered while digging the foundations of 
Persep'olis. 

Ja'nus. One of the superior gods of the Romans. 
The myths represent him as reigning over the earliest 
inhabitants of Italy, in the time of Saturn. It was to 
Janus that Saturn fled, and under them was the “golden 
age,” a period of peace. To Janus, Romulus dedicated 
that celebrated temple, which was always open in time 
of war, and was closed with much solemnity, whenever 
there was general peace in the Roman Empire; a thing 
which happened but three times during 700 years. From 
this deity the month of January was named, and the first 
day of the month was sacred to him. 

Ja'son. He was a shoot of the heroic stem of HColus, 
but not the son of a god; and Juno, while she persecuted 
the sons of Jupiter, took him under her especial protec¬ 
tion. His father, iEson, who reigned at Iolcus, was de¬ 
prived of the kingdom by his half-brother Pelias, who 
attempted to take the life of the infant Jason. He was 
saved by his friends, and intrusted to the care of the 
Centaur Chiron. When he had grown up he came to 
Iolcus, and demanded the kingdom, which Pelias prom¬ 
ised to surrender to him, provided he brought the golden 
fleece, which was in the possession of King iEetes in 
Colchis, and was guarded by an ever-watchful dragon. 
The greatest feat recorded of him is his voyage in the 
Argo to Colchis to obtain the golden fleece, which, aided 
by Juno, he succeeded in doing. He married Medea, 
daughter of the King of Colchis, who was a magician, 
and on Jason having vowed eternal fidelity to her, she 
gave him charms to protect him from danger. 

Jinn. A sort of fairies in Arabian mythology, the off¬ 
spring of fire. They are governed by a race of kings 
named Suleyman, one of whom “built the pyramids.” 
Their chief abode is the mountain Kaf, and they appear 
to men under the forms of serpents, dogs, cats, monsters, 
or even human beings, and become invisible at pleasure. 
The evil jinn are ugly, but the good are beautiful. Ac¬ 
cording to fable, they were created from fire two thou¬ 
sand years before Adam was made of earth. 

Jord. Daughter of Night and mother of Thor. In 
Scandinavian mythology the name given to primitive 
earth. 

Jove. Known in classical mythology as the god of 
thunder. The name Jove is but another appellation, 
rarely given to Zeus or Jupiter. 

Juggernaut or Jaggernaut. A Hindu god. The 
temple of this god is in a town of the same name in Orissa. 

Ju'no. The wife and sister of Jupiter, daughter of 
Saturn and Rhea, and as wife of Jupiter mistress of gods 
and men. Her birthplace was assigned by the Greeks 
to Argos, or the Island Samos, and to other spots in 
Greece, although her story and her worship were rather 
of Phenician origin. The chief peculiarities of her char¬ 
acter were love of power and jealousy.. The worship of 
Juno was far spread, and the number of her temples 
and festivals was very great. The same goddess was 
worshiped among the Greeks under the name of Hera. 

Ju'piter. The highest and most powerful among the 
gods. By this god was originally represented nature 
in general; and finally the supreme existence. The 
worship of Jupiter was universal, and numerous tem¬ 
ples were erected to his honor. The largest and the 


most celebrated in Greece was that in Olympia, remark¬ 
able for its own magnificence, and for its statue of Jupiter 
wrought by Phidias, and for the Olympic games held in 
its vicinity. His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona 
was renowned, and considered the most ancient in Greece. 
In Rome the capitol was specially dedicated to him, and 
he had in that city many temples. Among the Greeks 
he was known as Zeus. 

Kama. The Hindu god of love. His wife is Rati 
(voluptuousness), and he is represented as riding on a 
sparrow, holding in his hand a bow of flowers and five 
arrows, each tipped with the bloom of a flower supposed 
to conquer one of the senses. His power is so much 
exalted that even the god Brahma is said to succumb 
to it. 

Ka'mi. The gods of ancient Japan. The name, in 
modern times, designates any spiritual saint and may 
also be applied to a prince. 

Kaswa. The camel admitted into Moslem paradise, 
the favorite camel of Mahomet which fell on its knees 
in adoration when “the prophet” delivered the last 
clause of the Koran to the assembled multitude at Mecca. 

Kelpie. In mythology of Scotland, a spirit of the 
water seen in the form of a horse. Each lake has its 
Kelpie. 

Kobold. A house-spirit in German superstition. In 
northern lands the name is sometimes used in place of 
elf or dwarf representing an under-ground spirit. Prob¬ 
ably the same as the Scotch brownie. 

Koppelberg. The hill which miraculously opened 
to receive the children who followed the Pied Piper. 
This belongs to mythology, as people in the Middle 
Ages considered Odin as the leader of disembodied 
spirits, and from this came the Pied Piper. The rats 
were the restless souls of the dead, which the Pied Piper 
released by drowning. 

Krish'na. In Hindu mythology, the eighth incar¬ 
nation of Vishnu. According to some authorities he is 
considered distinct from all the Avatars, as these had 
only a portion of the divinity, and Krishna was Vishnu 
himself in form of “the Black One.” 

Kro'nos. Kronos (Time) was the youngest of the 
Titans, and as the heavens measure out time to us, and 
earth is considered its beginning, he is said to be born 
of Uranos and Ge. He was generally worshiped under 
the name of Saturn. 

Kuve'ra. In Hindu mythology, the god of riches, 
represented as frightfully deformed, and as riding in a 
car drawn by hobgoblins. 

Each'e-sis. One of the three fates; the one that 
spun the thread of life. 

Ladon. The dragon who guarded the apples of the 
Hesperides, and was slain by Hercules. Ladon is also the 
name of the father of Daphne and Metope. 

Lse'ding. In Norse mythology the strong chain with 
which the wolf, Fenris, was bound. He easily broke the 
chain and from this legend has grown the saying, “to 
get loose out of Lseding.” A stronger chain was known 
as Droma. 

Laer'tes. Mythical King of Ithaca and father of 
Ulysses. Lsertes took part in the Calydonian hunt, and 
in the expedition of the Argonauts. He was still alive 
when Ulysses returned to Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. 
During the absence of Ulysses he had withdrawn to the 
country in grief and bowed with age, and Penelope, the 
wife of Ulysses, is represented as weaving the shroud of 
her father-in-law, the work with which she put aside her 
many suitors. 

La'ius. King of Thebes, son of Labdacus, husband 
of Jocasta, and father of Oedipus, by whom he was 
slain. 

La'mia. A monstrous specter, which was believed 
to devour human beings. 

Laoc/oon. Son of Priam and priest of Apollo. He 
opposed the reception of the Wooden Horse into Troy, 
thinking it some artifice of the deceitful Greeks. He and 
his two sons were killed by two monstrous serpents which 
came from the sea. The people believed that they were 
struck by the gods .because of their interference. The 
death of Laocoon is the subject of one of the most mag¬ 
nificent and celebrated works of ancient sculpture still 
in existence; it was discovered in 1506 at Rome, and is 
now preserved in the Vatican. It is a single block of 
marble, and was the work of Agesander of Rhodes and 
two other sculptors. 

Laodam'a. The wife of Protesilaus, who was slain 
before Troy. She begged to be allowed to converse with 
her dead husband for only three hours, and her request 
was granted. Hermes (Mercury) led Protesilaus back 
to the upper world; and when Protesilaus died a second 
time, Laodama died with him. 

Laom'edon. The king who built the walls of Troy 
assisted by Neptune and Apollo, who had displeased 



334 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Jupiter and were sent to work for wages. Neptune built 
the walls of Troy, while Apollo tended the king’s flocks 
on Mount Ida. When the two gods had done their work, 
Laomedon refused the reward he had promised and ex¬ 
pelled them from his dominions. Neptune sent a sea- 
monster to ravage the country; and a maiden, chosen 
by lot, was from time to time sacrificed to propitiate it. 

Lap'ithae. A mythical people of Thessaly, noted 
for their defeat of the Centaurs. 

La'res. Inferior gods at Rome, and known as do¬ 
mestic Lares and public Lares. There was in every 
house their proper sanctuary (lararium) and altar. 
They seem to have been viewed as the spirits of the de¬ 
parted ancestors, the fathers and forefathers of the fam¬ 
ily, who sought the welfare of their descendants. The 
Lares and the Penates are often confounded, but were 
not the same. “.The Penates were originally gods, the 
powers of nature personified. The Lares were originally 
themselves human being;;, who, becoming pure spirits 
after death, loved still to hover round the dwelling they 
once inhabited; to watch over its safety, and to guard 
it as the faithful dog guards its master.” 

Lati'nus. A king of Latium, son of Faunus and 
the nymph Marica, brother of Lavinius, husband of 
Amata, and father of Lavinia, whom he gave in marriage 
to JEneas. Italy was so called from Lavinia, daughter 
of Lati'nus and wife of iEneas. iEneas built a town 
which he called Lavin'ium, capital of La'tium. Accord¬ 
ing to one account, Latinus, after his death, became 
Jupiter Latiaris, just as Romulus became Quirinus. 

Lat'mus. A mountain in Cairia. It was the mytho¬ 
logical scene of the story of Selene (Luna) and Endy- 
mion. 

Lato'na. Daughter of Coe us, a Titan, and Phoebe, and 
by Jupiter, the mother of Apollo and Diana. The love 
of the king of the gods procured for her the hatred of Juno. 

Lavin'ia. The daughter of Latinus and Amata, be¬ 
trothed to Turnus, but married to ^Eneas. .Eneas 
founded the town of Lavinium, called after Lavinia, the 
daughter of Latinus. 

Le'da. The mother of Helen. Jupiter visited her 
in the form of a swan, and “Leda and the Swan” has 
been a favorite subject with artists. Correggio and 
Michael Angelo have both left paintings of the same 
subject. 

Lepra'caun. The fairy shoemaker of Ireland, so 
called because he is always seen working at a single shoe. 

Les'trigons. A mythical race of giants who lived in 
Sicily. Ulysses sent two of his men to request that he 
and his crew might land, but the king ate one and the 
other fled. The Lestrigons assembled on the coast and 
threw stones against Ulysses and his crew. Ulysses fled 
with much loss. 

Leth'e. The river that separates Hades from the 
Elysian fields. The Greeks believed in a magical power 
of the waters of this river, which the souls of all the dead 
are obliged to taste, that they may forget everything 
said and done in the earth. 

Li'ber. A name frequently given by the Roman 
poets to the Greek Bacchus or Dionysus. But the god 
Liber and the goddess Libera were ancient Italian di¬ 
vinities, presiding over the cultivation of the vine and 
the fertility of the fields. Hence they were worshiped 
in early times in conjunction with Ceres. The vine and 
ivy and the panther were especially sacred to him. 
Goats were usually offered in sacrifice to him, because 
they are particularly injurious to the vine. 

Li'bertas. The goddess of liberty, to whom several 
temples were erected at Rome. Libertas is represented 
in works of art as a matron, with the pileus, the symbol 
of liberty, or a wreath of laurel. Sometimes she appears 
holding the Phrygian cap in her hand. 

Lib'issa. Queen of fays and fairies. 

Libiti'na. An ancient goddess of Rome, who pre¬ 
sided over the burial of the dead. At her temple at 
Rome everything necessary for funerals was kept, and 
persons might there either buy or hire such things. 
Hence a person undertaking the burial of a person (an 
undertaker) was called “ libitinarius,” and his business 
“libitina.” 

Lidskial'fa. The throne of Alfader, whence he can 
view the whole universe. 

Lif. In Norse mythology the name given to man 
who is to occupy the purified earth when goodness 
resumes its sway. 

Lil'inau. In American Indian folk-lore Lilinau was 
wooed by a phantom. She followed his green waving 
plume through the forest, and was never seen again. 

Li'lith. In Hebrew mythology a female specter who 
lies in wait for children in order to destroy them. The 
older traditions tell of Lilith as a former wife of Adam 
and the mother of demons. Amulets were worn as pro¬ 
tection from her powers. 


Lob'aircin. In Irish mythical tales a fairy shoe¬ 
maker resembling an old man, who resorts to out-of-the- 
way places, where he is discovered by the noise of his 
hammer. He is rich, and while anvone keeps his eye 
fixed upon him cannot escape, but the moment the eye 
is withdrawn he vanishes. 

Lo'fen. The Scandinavian god who guards friendship. 

Lof'ua. The Scandinavian goddess who reconciles 
lovers. 

L/O'ki. The great god of fire in Norse mythology. 

Lo're-lei'. In German legend a siren who haunted a 
rock of the same name on the right bank of the Rhine. 
She combed her hair with a golden comb, and sang a 
wild song which enticed fishermen and sailors to destruc¬ 
tion on the rocks and rapids at the foot of the precipice. 
In Northern mythology Lorelei is represented as im¬ 
mortal, a daughter of the Rhine, and dwelling in the 
river bed. 

Lo'tis. A nymph, who, to escape the embraces of 
Priapus, was metamorphosed into a tree, called after 
her Lotus. 

Lubins. A species of goblins in Normandy that take 
the form of wolves, and frequent churchyards. They 
are very timorous, and take flight at the slightest noise. 

Lu'cifer. As the b ringer of light, is the name of the 
planet Venus, when seen in the morning before sunrise. 
The same planet was called “Hesperus,” when it appeared 
in the heavens after sunset. 

Lu'na. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, 
and was distinct in name, descent, and story, from Diana, 
who was taken as goddess of the moon. To Luna was 
ascribed great influence in relation to the birth of men. 
Luna seems to have been especially worshiped by the 
Atlantides. 

Lycome'des. A king in the Island of Scyros, to 
whose court Achilles was sent, disguised as a maiden, 
by his mother, Thetis, who was anxious to prevent his 
going to the Trojan War. Some traditions say that 
Lycomedes treacherously killed Thesus by throwing 
him from a rock. 

Maenalaus. A mountain in Arcadia, extending 
from Megalopolis to Tegea, celebrated as the favorite 
haunt of the god Pan. The Roman poets frequently 
use the adjectives “Maenalius” and “Maenalis” as 
equivalent to Arcadian. 

Mae'ra. The dog of Icarios. Icarios having made 
wine, gave it to some shepherds, who, thinking them¬ 
selves poisoned, killed him; recovering themselves, they 
buried him. His daughter, Erigone, being shown the 
spot by his faithful dog Maera, hung herself through 
grief. 

Mam'mon. In demonology, placed at the head of 
nine ranks of demons. Also a Syriac word used in the 
Scriptures to signify either riches or the god of riches. 
By poetic license, Milton makes Mammon one of the 
fallen angels. 

Ma'nes. In Roman mythology these are found 
among the demons of the Genii. Although often spoken 
of as the spirits or souls of the departed, they seem more 
commonly to have been considered as guardians of the 
deceased, whose office was to watch over their graves, 
and hinder any disturbance of their tranquillity. 

Ma'ni. Name given in ancient Norse mythology to 
the moon. Later known as the son of Mundilfori; 
taken to heaven by the gods to drive the moon-car. 
He is followed by a wolf, which, when time shall be no 
more, will devour both Mani and his sister Sol. 

Man'itou. The great spirit of American Indians. 

Mars. The god of war and battles was a son of 
Jupiter and Juno, and educated in Thrace. He was 
viewed as presiding over rude and fierce war, the origin 
of Which was ascribed to him, while Minerva had the 
credit of inventing tactics and the proper military art. 
The Romans regarded him as the father of Romulus, 
and the founder and protector of their nation. 

Mar'syas. The Phrygian flute-player who challenged 
Apollo to a contest of skill, and, being beaten by the god, 
was flayed alive for his presumption. From his blood 
arose the river so called. The flute on which Marsyas 
played was one Athe'na had thrown away, and, being 
filled with the breath of the goddess, discoursed most 
excellent music. 

Max'imus. One of the appellations of Jupiter, being 
the greatest of the gods. 

Mede'a. A daughter of Eetes, skilled in charms and 
witchcraft. She had scarcely beheld Jason, when, through 
the influence and disposal of the gods, a tender affection 
for the hero was raised in her bosom, which soon kindled 
to a flame of the most violent passion. Jason went to 
the temple of Hecate to supplicate the mighty goddess, 
where he was met by Medea. She disclosed her love 
to him, at the same time promising her assistance in 
the dangers which threatened him, and her powerful 




LITERATURE 


335 


help in accomplishing his glorious undertaking, provided 
he would swear fidelity to her. Jason complied, and 
Medea, reciprocating the oath, rendered the hero invin¬ 
cible by means of her magical incantations. 

Medu'sa. One of the three Gorgons whose hair was 
entwined with hissing serpents, and their bodies were 
covered with impenetrable scales; they had wings, and 
brazen claws, and enormous teeth, and whoever looked 
upon them was turned to stone. Medusa, who alone of 
the sisters was mortal, was, according to some legends, 
at first a beautiful maiden, but her hair was changed 
into serpents by Athena (Minerva), in consequence of 
her having become by Poseidon (Neptune) the mother 
of Chrysaor and Pegasus, in one of Athena’s temples. 
She was killed by Perseus, and her head was fixed on 
the shield of Minerva. From her blood sprang the 
winged horse, Pegasus. 

Megae'ra. One of the Furies; sometimes said to 
personify a guilty conscience. The names of the Furies 
were: Tisiphone, whose particular work was to originate 
fatal epidemics and contagion; Alecto, to whom was 
ascribed the devastations and cruelties of war; and 
Megsera, the author of insanity and murders. Temples 
were consecrated to them among both the Greeks and 
the Romans, and among the latter a festival also. 

Me'gin-giord. A magic belt worn by the god Thor. 
He once proposed to show his strength by lifting great 
weights, but when challenged to pick up the giant’s cat, 
he tugged and strained, only to succeed in raising one 
paw from the floor, although he had taken the precau¬ 
tion to enhance his strength as much as possible by 
tightening his belt Megin-giord. 

Melea'ger. Son of the Calydonian King Oeneus; 
took part in the Argonautic expedition. He distin¬ 
guished himself as one of the Argonauts, and by his 
skill in throwing the javelin. 

Mel'ia. One of the daughters of Oceanus and mother 
of Phoroneus, one of the fabulous kings of Argos. 

Mel'ian Nymphs. The nymphs sent to bear the 
infant Jupiter to the cave on Mount Ida. 

Melicer'tes. A son of the Theban King Athamas 
by Ino. He was metamorphosed into a sea-god. 

Melissa. A nymph, said to have discovered the use 
of honey, and from whom bees were believed to have 
received their name. There can be no doubt, however, 
that the name really came from a Greek word meaning 
honey, and was hence given to nymphs. 

Mello'na. One of the rural divinities, the goddess of 
bees. 

Mel-pom'e-ne. One of the Muses. Melpomene, 
the Muse of tragedy, was supposed to preside over 
melancholy subjects of all kinds. 

Melusi'na. The most noted among French fairies. 
She was condemned to become every Saturday a serpent 
from the waist downward, as a punishment for having, 
by means of a charm, inclosed her father in a high 
mountain, in order to avenge an injury her mother had 
received from him. She married Raymond, Count of 
Poitiers, and, having been seen by him during her loath¬ 
some transformation — in violation of his solemn prom¬ 
ise never to visit her on a Saturday — was immured in 
a subterranean dungeon of the castle of Lusignan. 

Mem'non, A son of Tithonus and Aurora, and King 
of Ethiopia. After the fall of Hector, he went to the 
assistance of his uncle, Priam, with ten thousand men, 
and displayed great courage in the defense of Troy, but 
was at length slain by Ajax, or by Achilles, in single 
combat, whereupon he was changed into a bird. 

Men'des. An Egyptian god like Pan. He was wor¬ 
shiped in the form of a goat. 

Menela'us. A son of Plisthenes or Atreus, and 
younger brother of Agamemnon, was King of Lacedae¬ 
mon, and married to the beautiful Helen, by whom he 
became the father of Hermione. His early life, the 
rape of his wife by Paris, and the expedition of the 
Greeks to Asia to punish the Trojans, are related under 
Agamemnon. In the Trojan War Menelaus killed many 
Trojans, and would have slain Paris also in single com¬ 
bat had not the latter been carried off by Aphrodite 
(Venus) in a cloud. 

Menoe'ceus. (1) A Theban, grandson of Pentheus, 
and father of Hipponome. Jocasta, and Creon. (2) 
Grandson of the former, and son of Creon, put an end 
to his life because Tiresias had declared that his death 
would bring victory to his country, when the seven 
Argive heroes marched against Thebes. 

Menoe'tius. Brother of Atlas and son of one of the 
Titans. On account of his pride and strength he was 
killed by Jupiter’s lightnings. 

Men'tor. A friend of Ulysses in Ithaca, whose form 
Minerva assumed, to give instructions to Ulysses’ son 
Telemachus, whom she accompanied to Pylos and 
Lacedaemon. 


Meph'is-toph'e-Ies. One of the seven chief devils 
in the old demonology, the second of the fallen arch¬ 
angels, and the most powerful of the infernal legions 
after Satan. He figures in the old legend of Dr. Faustus 
as the familiar spirit of that magician. To modern 
readers he is chiefly known as the cold, scoffing, relent¬ 
less fiend of Goethe’s “Faust,” and the attendant demon 
(Mephistophilis) in Marlowe’s “Faustus.” 

Mercury. Has been identified with the Greek Her¬ 
mes. The Romans of later times transferred all the 
attributes and myths of Hermes to their own god. [Her¬ 
mes.] The Fetiales, however, never recognized the 
identity; and, instead of the “caduceus,” they used a 
sacred branch as the emblem of peace. The resem¬ 
blance between Mercurius and Hermes is indeed very 
slight. The worship of Mercury was very common 
among Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and many 
temples were consecrated to him. At Rome there was 
a particular festival held for the expiation of merchants, 
in honor of Mercury. 

Meri'ones. A Cretan hero, son of Molus, was one 
of the bravest heroes in the Trojan War, and usually 
fought along with his friend Idomeneus. 

Mer-maids. Wave maidens of Northern mythology 
and classed with nymphs in Grecian and Roman. They 
were generally represented as young and beautiful vir¬ 
gins, partially covered with a veil or thin cloth, bearing 
in their hands vases of water, or shells, leaves, or grass, 
or having something as a symbol of their appropriate 
offices. They were attendants of the gods. 

Me'u. In Hindu mythology, a sacred mountain, 
80,000 leagues high, situated in the center of the world. 
It is the abode of Indra, and abounds with every charm 
that can be imagined. 

Mi'das. In mythology, known as King of Phrygia, 
who restored to Bacchus his nurse and preceptor Silenus, 
and received as a compensation the fatal attribute of 
turning into gold everything he touched. But this 
proved to be very inconvenient, as it prevented him 
from eating and drinking, and he prayed that the gift 
might be revoked. At the command of the god, he 
washed in the Pactolus, the sands of which became, in 
consequence, mixed with gold. Another tradition is, 
that in a musical contest between Pan and Apollo, he 
gave judgment in favor of the satyr; whereupon Apollo 
in contempt gave the king a pair of ass’s ears. Midas, 
hid them under his Phrygian cap; but his servant, 
who used to cut his hair, discovered them, and was so 
pleased with the “ joke,” which he durst not mention, 
that he dug a hole in the earth, and relieved his mind by 
whispering in it, “Midas has ass’s ears.” 

Mid'gard. In Scandinavian mythology the name 
given to the earth. Out of the giant’s flesh they fash¬ 
ioned Midgard (middle garden), as the earth was called, 
which was placed in the exact center of the vast space, 
and hedged all round with Ymir’s eyebrows which formed 
its bulwarks or ramparts. The solid portion of Midgard 
was surrounded by the giant’s blood or sweat, which 
now formed the ocean, while his bones made the hills, 
his flat teeth the cliffs, and his curly hair the trees and 
all vegetation. 

Midgard Sormen (earth’s monster). The great ser¬ 
pent that lay in the abyss at the root of the celestial 
ash. Child of Loki. 

Mi'mir. In Scandinavian mythology, the god of 
wisdom. Also god of the ocean, which is called “Mir- 
mir’s well,” in which wit and wisdom lay hidden, and of 
which he drank every morning from the horn Gjallar. 
Odin once drank from this fountain, and by doing so 
became the wisest of gods and men; but he purchased 
the privilege and distinction at the cost of one eye, 
which Mimir exacted from him. 

Miner'va. Under the name of Minerva among the 
Romans and of Athena among the Greeks, ancient fic¬ 
tion personified and deified the idea of high intelligence 
and wisdom. She was a daughter of Jupiter, sprung 
from his head. The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the 
invention of many arts and sciences, which had a great 
influence on their civilization. She was regarded as 
inventress of the flute, of embroidery and spinning, the 
use of the olive, and various instruments of war; in 
short, of most works indicating superior intelligence or 
skill. Arachne’s contest with ner in working with the 
needle, and consequent despair and transformation are 
beautifully described by Ovid. The city of Athens was 
consecrated to Minerva, and boasted of receiving its 
name from her. 

Minos. Son of Lycastus, and grandson of the former, 
was likewise a king and lawgiver of Crete. In order to 
avenge the wrong done to his son Androgeos at Athens, 
he made war against the Athenians, and compelled 
them to send to Crete every year, as a tribute, seven 
youths and seven maidens, to be devoured in the laby- 



336 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


rinth by the Minotaurus. From Minos we have Minois, 
a daughter or a female descendant of Minos, as Ariadne, 
and the adjectives Minoius and Minous, used by the 
poets as equivalent to Cretan. 

Mino'taur. A celebrated monster with the head of 
a bull and the body of a man. The labyrinth in which 
it was kept was constructed by Daedalus. This monster 
was slain by Theseus, with the assistance of Ariadne, 
the daughter of Minos. [Theseus.] Daedalus having 
fled from Crete to escape the wrath of Minos, Minos fol¬ 
lowed him to Sicily, and was there slain by Cocalus and 
his daughters. 

Mith'ras. In Persian mythology, one of the prin¬ 
cipal gods of the ancient Persians, a personification of 
the sun. He was regarded as a mediator between the 
two opposite deities, Ormuzd and Akriman, or the prin¬ 
ciple of good and the principle of evil. 

Mjolnir. From mythology of northern lands. The 
name of Thor’s celebrated hammer — a type of the 
thunderbolt — which, however far it might be cast, was 
never lost, as it always returned to his hand; and which, 
whenever he wished, became so small that he could put 
it in his pocket. 

Mnemos'yne. Mother of the Muses and goddess of 
memory. Jupiter courted the goddess in the guise of a 
shepherd. 

Mnes'theus. A Trojan, and a companion of iEneas 
in his voyage to Italy; the reputed progenitor of the 
family of the Memmii in Rome. At the funeral games, 
by which Aeneas celebrated the death of his father, 
Anchises, Mnestheus took part in a naval contest, and, 
though not the victor, obtained a prize for skill and 
energy. 

Moakkibat. A class of angels, according to the 
Mohammedan mythology. Two angels of this class at¬ 
tend every child of Adam from the cradle to the grave. 
At sunset they fly up with the record of the deeds done 
since sunrise. Every good deed is entered ten times by 
the recording angel on the credit or right side of his 
ledger, but when an evil deed is reported the angel 
waits seven hours, “if haply in that time the evil-doer 
may repent.” 

Moi'rae. The Greek name for Parcae or the Fates. 
These grave and mighty goddesses were represented by 
the earliest artists with staffs or scepters, the symbol of 
dominion. 

Morpheus. The son of Sleep and the god of dreams. 
The name signifies the fashioner or molder, because 
he shaped or formed the dreams which appeared to the 
sleeper. 

Mowis. The bridegroom of Snow, who (according 
to American Indian tradition) wooed and won a beautiful 
bride; but when morning dawned, Mowis left the wigwam, 
and melted into the sunshine. The bride hunted for him 
night and day in the forests, but never saw him more. 

Muses. Nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, 
goddesses of poetry, history, and other arts and sciences. 
Calliope was the muse of eloquence and heroic poetry 
(to her the ancients gave precedence); Clio, of history; 
Erato, of amorous poetry; Euterpe, of music; Mel¬ 
pomene, of tragedy; Polyhymnia, of eloquence and imi¬ 
tation; Terpsichore, of dancing; Thalia, of comic and 
lyric poetry; and Urania, of astronomy. Their usual 
residence was Mount Parnassus in Helicon. 

Mysterious Three, The, of Scandinavian mythology 
were “Har” (the Mighty), the “Like-Mighty,” and the 
“Third Person,” who sat on three thrones above the 
rainbow. Then came the “ZEsir,” of which Odin was 
chief, who lived in Asgard (between the rainbow and 
earth); next come the “Vanir,” or gods of the ocean, 
air, and clouds, of which deities Niord was chief. 

Myr'midons. The trusty followers of Achilles. They 
are said to have inhabited originally the island of Angina, 
and to have emigrated with Peleus into Thessaly; but 
modern critics, on the contrary, suppose that a colony 
of them emigrated from Thessaly into iEgina. The 
Myrmidons disappear from history at a later period. 
The ancients derived their name either from a mythical 
ancestor, Myrmidon, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Euryme- 
dusa, and father of Actor; or from the ants in iEgina, 
which were supposed to have been metamorphosed into 
men in the time,of Abacus. 

_ Na'ids. The nymphs of fresh water, whether of 
rivers, lakes, brooks, or springs. Many of these nymphs 
presided over springs, which were believed to inspire 
those who drank of them. The nymphs themselves 
were, therefore, thought to be endowed with prophetic 
power, and to be able to inspire men. Hence all per¬ 
sons in a state of rapture, such as seers, poets, madmen, 
etc., were said to be caught by the nymphs. 

Nar'aka. The hell of the Hindus. It has twenty- 
eight divisions, in some of which the victims are mangled 


by ravens and owls; in others they will be doomed to 
swallow cakes boiling hot, or walk over burning sands. 

Narcis'sus. The beautiful youth Narcissus was son 
of the river-god Cephissus and the sea-nymph Liriope. 
Echo, who was enamored of him, died of grief. But 
Nemesis, to punish him, caused him to see his own image 
reflected in a fountain, whereupon he became so enamored 
of it that he gradually pined away, until he was meta¬ 
morphosed into the flower which bears his name. Ac¬ 
cording to another tradition Narcissus had a sister of 
remarkable beauty, to whom he was tenderly attached. 
She resembled him in features, was similarly attired, 
and accompanied him in the hunt. She died young, 
and Narcissus, lamenting her death, frequented a neigh¬ 
boring fountain to gaze upon his own image in its stream. 
The strong resemblance that he bore to his sister made 
his own reflection appear to him, as it were, the form of 
her whom he had lost. The gods looked with pity upon 
his grief, and changed him to the flower that bears his 
name. 

Nausica'a. A daughter of Alcinous, King of the 
Phseacians, and Arete, who conducted Ulysses to the 
court of her father. 

Nec'tar. Wine conferring immortality, and drunk 
by the gods. 

Ne'leus. Son of Neptune and Tyro, and brother to 
Pelias. He became king in Peloponnesus; was the father 
of twelve sons, all of whom were killed by Hercules. 

Neme'an Lion. A monstrous lion, near the forest 
of Nem*a, wasted the surrounding country and threat¬ 
ened destruction to the herds. Hercules promised to 
deliver the country of the monster, and Thespius re¬ 
warded Hercules by making him his guest so long as the 
chase lasted. Hercules slew the lion, and henceforth 
wore its skin as his ordinary garment, and its mouth and 
head as his helmet. Others related that the lion’s skin 
of Hercules was taken from the Nemean lion. This great 
adventure happened while he was watching the oxen 
of his father. 

Nem'esis. A Greek goddess, who measured out to 
mortals happiness and misery, and visited with losses 
and sufferings all who were blessed with too many gifts 
of fortune. This is the character in which she appears 
in the earlier Greek writers; but subsequently she was 
regarded, like the Erinyes or Furies, as the goddess who 
punished crimes. 

Neoptol'emus. The son of Achilles. Neoptolemua 
was reared in Scyros, in the palace of Lycomedes, and 
was brought from thence by Ulysses, because it had been 
prophesied that Neoptolemus and Philoctetes were 
necessary for the capture of Troy. At Troy Neoptole¬ 
mus showed himself worthy of his great father. He was 
one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse. At 
the capture of the city he killed Priam, and sacrificed 
Polyxena to the spirit of his father. 

Nep'tune. The sea. In Roman mythology the di¬ 
vine monarch of the ocean. The principal exploits and 
merits ascribed to Neptune are, the assistance to Jupiter 
against the Titans; the building of the walls and ram¬ 
parts of Troy; the creation and taming of the horse; the 
raising of the Island Delos out of the sea; and the de¬ 
struction of Hippolytus by a monster from the deep. 
He was feared also as the author of earthquakes and del¬ 
uges, which he caused or checked at pleasure by his 
trident. 

Ne'reids. Sea-nymphs, generally regarded as be¬ 
longing to the Mediterranean. The chief characteristics 
of these minor deities of the sea were the power of divina¬ 
tion and ability to change their forms at pleasure. The 
daughters of Nereus and Doris were the so-called "Ne¬ 
reides,” or sea-nymphs, fifty in number. They belonged 
to the train of Neptune and were subservient to his will. 

Ne'reus. A son of Pontus and Gsea, and husband of 
Doris, by whom he became the father of the fifty Nereides. 

Nes'tor. A son of Neleus and Chloris, and King of 
Pylos in Triphylia. He took a prominent part in the 
Trojan War, acting as counselor of the other Grecian 
chiefs, but was equally distinguished for his valor in the 
field of battle. Homer extols his wisdom, justice, brav¬ 
ery, and eloquence. He lived to so great an age that his 
advice and authority were deemed equal to those of the 
immortal gods. 

Niekar or Hnickar. The name assumed by Odin 
when he personated the destroying principle. 

Nicneven. A gigantic and malignant female spirit of 
the old popular Scottish mythology. The hag is repre¬ 
sented as riding at. the head of witches and fairies at 
Hallow-e’en. 

Nidhug. The dragon that gnaws at the root of Yggd- 
rasil ; the tree of the universe in Scandinavian mythology. 

Niflheim. Mist-home of old Norse mythology. The 
region of endless cold and everlasting night, ruled over 





LITERATURE 


337 


by Hela. It consists of nine worlds, to which are con¬ 
signed those who die of disease or old age. This region 
existed “from the beginning” in the North, and in the 
middle thereof was the well Hvergelmeer, from which 
flowed twelve rivers. 

Ni'nus. The son of Belus, the husband of Semiramis, 
and the reputed builder of Nineveh and founder of the 
Assyrian monarchy. 

Ni'o-be. The daughter of Tantalus, and the wife of 
Amphion, King of Thebes. Niobe slighted the divinity 
of Latona, and the latter engaged both her children. 
Apollo and Diana, to avenge her; they, by their arrows, 
slew the seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who 
by grief was changed into stone. She was transported 
in a whirlwind to the top of Mount Sipylus, where she 
has ever since remained, her tears flowing unceasingly. 

Niord. The Scandinavian sea-god. He was not one 
of the iEsir. Niord’s son was Frey (the fairy of the 
clouds), and his daughter was Freyja. His home was 
Noatun. Niord was not a sea-god, like Neptune, but 
the spirit of water and air. The Scandinavian Neptune 
was J3gir, whose wife was Skadi. His temples were near 
the sea shore and all aquatic plants belonged to him. 

Ni'sus. A Trojan youth who accompanied iEneas 
tp Italy, after the fall of Troy, and who is celebrated for 
his devoted attachment to Euryalus. 

Nix. Little creatures not unlike the Scotch brownie 
and German kobold. They wear a red cap, and are ever 
ready to lend a helping hand to the industrious and 
thrifty. 

Noko'mis. Daughter of the moon, American Indian 
myths. Sporting one day with her maidens on a swing 
made of vine canes, a rival cut the swing, and Nokomis 
fell to earth, where she gave birth to a daughter named 
Weno'nah. 

Nomir or Norns. The three fates of Scandinavian 
mythology, past, present, and future. They spin the 
events of human life, sitting under the ash-tree Yggdrasil 
(Igg'-dra-sil / ), which they carefully tend. Their names 
are Urda (the past), Verdandi (the present), and Skulda 
(the future). Besides these three Norns, every human 
creature has a personal Norn or fate. The home of the 
Norns is called in Scandinavian mythology “ Doomstead.” 

Nox. Goddess of night was considered among the 
ancients as one of their oldest divinities, and was wor¬ 
shiped by them with great solemnity. In the temple 
of Diana, at Ephesus, was a famous statue of her. She 
became the mother of iEther (air), and Dies (day). 
She is likewise, according to some, the mother of the 
inexorable Parcse; of the avenging Nemesis, who pun¬ 
ishes hidden crime; of the Furies, who torment the 
wicked; of Charon, the ferry-man of hell; and of the 
twin brothers, Sleep and Death. 

Nymphs. The nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed 
as holding a sort of intermediate place between men and 
gods, as to the duration of life; not being absolutely* 
immortal, yet living a vast length of time. Oceanus was 
considered as their common father, although the descent 
of different nymphs is given differently. Their usual 
residence was in grottoes or water-caves. Their particu¬ 
lar offices were different, and they were distinguished 
by various names according to the several objects of 
their patronage, or the regions in which they chiefly 
resided. Thus there were the “Oreades,” or nymphs 
of the mountains; “Naiades,” “Nereides,” and “Po- 
tamides,” nymphs of the fountains, seas, and rivers; 
“Dryades” and “Hamadryades,” nymphs of the woods; 
“Nap»se,” nymphs of the vales. 

Oce'anids. Nymphs of the oceaft, said to be three 
thousand in number; daughters of Oceanus. 

Oce'anus. The god of the water which was believed 
to surround the whole earth, is called the son of Heaven 
and Earth, the husband of Tethys, and the father 
of all the river-gods and water-nymphs. The early 
Greeks regarded the earth as a flat circle, which was 
encompassed by a river perpetually flowing round it, 
and this river was Oceanus. Out of and into this 
river the sun and the stars were supposed to rise 
and set; and on its banks were the abodes of the dead. 
Before Neptune, Oceanus, son of the heavens and the 
earth, and husband of Thetis, was honored as god of 
the sea. 

Odhaerir. In Scandinavian mythology, the mead or 
nectar made of Kvasir’s blood, kept in three jars. The 
second of these jars is called “Sohn,” and the “.Bohn.” 
Probably the nectar is the “spirit of poetry.” 

Odin. The king of gods and men, and the reputed 
progenitor of the Scandinavian kings. He corresponds 
both to the Jupiter and the Mars of classical mythology. 
As god of war, he holds his court in Valhalla, surrounded 
by all warriors who have fallen in battle, and attended 
by two wolves, to whom he gives his share of food; 


for he himself lives on wine alone. On his shoulders 
he carries two ravens, Hugin (mind) and Munin (mem¬ 
ory), whom he dispatches every day to bring him news 
of all that is doing throughout the world. He has 
three great treasures: namely, Sleipnir, an eight-footed 
horse of marvelous swiftness; Gungnir, a spear, which 
never fails to strike what it is aimed at; and Draupnir, 
a magic ring, which every ninth night drops eight other 
rings of equal value. The German tribes worshiped 
Odin under the name of “.Woden.” The fourth day of 
the week, Wednesday (i. e., Woden’s day), was sacred 
to him. 

O'dur. In Scandinavian mythology, husband of 
Freyja, whom he deserted. He abandoned his wife on 
her loss of youth and beauty, and was punished. 

Odys'seus. A Greek form of the name Ulysses. 

CEd'i-pus. He was the son of Laius, King of Thebes, 
and his wife Jocasta. Laius, having been warned by 
an oracle that his throne and life were in danger from 
this son, gave him to a herdsman to be killed. But his 
life was saved, and he was reared by a peasant. After¬ 
wards he ransomed Thebes from the Sphinx by answer¬ 
ing her riddle, unwittingly killed his ownLather, married 
Jocasta, and became King of Thebes. Subsequently 
discovering his parentage, he destroyed his eyesight, 
and wandered away from Thebes, attended by his 
daughter, Antigone, who remained with him till his 
death. 

O'gres of nursery mythology are giants of very 
malignant dispositions, who live On human flesh. 

Olym'pus. A range of mountains in Thessaly, the 
abode of the gods. A gate of clouds, kept by the god¬ 
desses named the Seasons, unfolded to permit the pas¬ 
sage of the Celestials to earth, or to receive them on 
their return, j 

Ophi'on. (1) One of the Titans. (2) One of the 
companions of Cadmus. (3) Father of the Centaur 
Amycus, who is hence called “ Ophionides.” 

Ops. A goddess of plenty, fertility, and power, the 
wife of Saturn, and the patroness of husbandry; iden¬ 
tical with Cybele, or Rhea. 

Ores'tes. The son of Agamemnon and Clytem- 
nestra. On the murder of his father by iEgisthus and 
Clytemnestra, Orestes was saved from the same fate 
by his sister Electra, who caused him to be secretly 
carried to Strophius, King in Phocis, who was married 
to Anaxibia, the sister of Agamemnon. There he formed 
a close and intimate friendship with the king’s son, 
Pylades; and when he had grown up, he repaired secretly 
to Argos with his friend, and avenged his father’s 
death by slaying Clytemnestra and iEgisthus. After 
the murder of his mother he was seized with madness, 
and fled from land to land, pursued by the Erinyes or * 
Furies. At length, on the advice of Apollo, he took 
refuge in the temple of Athena (Minerva), at Athens, 
where he was acquitted by the court of the Areopagus, 
which the goddess had appointed to decide his fate. 
(See Pylades.) 

O-ri'on. A mighty giant and hunter, famous for his 
beauty. Having come to Chios, he fell in love with 
Merope, the daughter of Oenopion; his treatment of 
the maiden so exasperated her father, that, with the 
assistance of Dionysus (Bacchus), he deprived the giant 
of his sight. Being informed by an oracle that he should 
recover his sight if he exposed his eyeballs to the rays 
of the rising sun, by following the sound of a Cyclops’ 
hammer, he reached Lemnos, where he found Vulcan, 
who gave him Cedalion as a guide to the abode of the 
sun. After the recovery of his sight he lived as a hunter 
with Artemis (Diana). Orion was slain by Diana, 
or, as some say, by Jupiter, and placed among the stars, 
where he forms the most splendid of all the constella¬ 
tions, appearing as a giant wearing a lion’s skin and a 
girdle, and wielding a club. 

Orithy'ia. A daughter of Erechtheus, beloved by 
Boreas, who carried her off as she was wandering near 
the River Ilissus. (See Boreas.) 

Or'log. A god of Norse fable personifying the eternal 
law of the universe, from whose decree there was no 
appeal. 

Ormuzd. The name of the supreme deity of the 
ancient Persians, and of their descendants, the Parsees 
and Guebers. He is an embodiment of the principle of 
good, and was created by the will of the great eternal 
spirit, Zervan-Akharana, simultaneously with Ahriman, 
the principle of evil, with whom he is in perpetual con¬ 
flict. Ormuzd is the creator of the earth, sun, moon, 
and stars, to each of which he originally assigned its 
proper place, and. whose various movements he con¬ 
tinues to regulate. 

Or'pheus. The son of Oeagrus and Calliope, lived 
in Thrace at the period of the Argonauts, whom he 
accompanied in their expedition. Presented with the 




338 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


lyre by Apollo, and instructed by the Muses in its use, 
he enchanted with its music not only the wild beasts, 
but the trees and rocks upon Olympus, so that they 
moved from their places to follow the sound of his 
golden harp. After his return from the Argonautic ex¬ 
pedition, he took up his abode in Thrace, where he 
married the nymph Eurydice. His wife having died of 
the bite of a serpent, he followed her into the abodes of 
Hades. Here his lyre so charmed King Pluto that 
Eurydice was released from death on the condition that 
Orpheus would not look back till he reached the earth. 
He was just about to place his foot on the earth when 
he turned round, and Eurydice vanished from him in 
an instant. 

Osi'ris, in Egyptian mythology, is said to have been 
the son of Jupiter by Niobe, and to have ruled first over 
the Argives, and afterwards to have become king of 
the Egyptians. His wife was Isis, who is by many said 
to be the same with the Io, daughter of Inachus. Osiris 
was at length slain by Typhon, and his corpse concealed 
in a chest and thrown into the Nile. Isis, after much 
search, by the aid of keen-scented dogs, found the body, 
and placed it in a monument on an island near Memphis. 
The Egyptians paid divine honor to his memory, and 
chose the ox to represent him, because, as some say,, a 
large ox appeared to them after the body of Osiris was 
interred, or according to others, because Osiris had 
instructed them in agriculture. Osiris was generally 
represented with a cap on his head like a mitre, with 
two horns; he held a stick in his left hand, and in his 
right a whip with three thongs. Sometimes he appears 
with the head of a hawk. 

O'tus. This giant and his brother, Ephialtes, were 
usually called the Aloidae. They were renowned for 
their extraordinary strength and daring spirit. 

Pacto'lus. The river whose sands turned to gold 
when Midas washed in the waters by order of Bacchus. 

Paimosaid'. In American Indian myths a walking 
thief, especially one who walks through cornfields about 
harvest time to pluck the ears of maize or corn. 

Palae'mon. Originally calledMelicertes. Sonoflno; 
called Pakemon after he was made a sea-god. The 
Roman Portu'nus, the protecting god of harbors, is the 
same. 

Pa'les. The goddess of shepherds, presided over 
cattle and pastures, whose festival, the Palilia, was cele¬ 
brated on the 21st of April, the day on which Rome was 
founded. 

Palame'des. A Greek hero. He was sent by the 
Greek princes, who were going to the Trojan War, to 
bring Ulysses to the camp, who, to withdraw himself 
from the expedition, had pretended to be insane. Pala- 
medes soon penetrated the deception, and Uylsses was 
obliged to join in the war. 

Palla'dium. A Trojan statue of the goddess Pallas, 
which represented her as sitting with a spear in her right 
hand, and in her left a spindle or distaff. On this statue 
the fate of the city was supposed to depend; for while 
this sacred image was kept intact, Troy was supposed 
to be impregnable. The Palladium is said to have fallen 
from heaven near the tent of Hus, at the time when that 
grince was employed in building the citadel of Ilion or 
Troy; and Apollo, by an oracle, declared that the city 
should never be taken whilst the Palladium was con¬ 
tained within its walls. 

Pal'las. (1) One of the giants. (2) The father of 
Athena, according to some traditions. (3) Son of Ly- 
caon, and grandfather of Evander. (4) Son of Evander, 
and an ally of iEneas. 

Pallas-Athene. She is in Homer, and in the general 
popular system, the goddess of wisdom and skill. In 
war she is opposed to Ares, the wild war-god, as the 
patroness and teacher of just and scientific warfare. 
Therefore she is on the side of the Greeks, and he on that 
of the Trojans. Ulysses was her special favorite. As 
the patroness of arts and industry in general, Pallas- 
Athene was regarded as the inspirer and teacher of all 
able artists. Thus she taught Epius to form the wooden 
horse, by means of which Troy was taken; and she also 
superintended the building of the ship Argo. 

Pan. One of the most singular of the inferior gods 
was Pan, whose worship was universally regarded. He 
was the god of shepherds and herdsmen, of groves and 
fields, and whatever pertained to rural affairs. His 
worship was probably derived from the Egyptians. He 
was said to be the son of Mercury and Dryope. His 
favorite residence was in the woods and mountains of 
Arcadia. From his love to Syrinx, who was changed 
into a reed, he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven 
reeds, and called it by her name. His pride in this in¬ 
vention led him into his unlucky contest with Apollo. 
Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped 
in the form of a goat, and under the name of Mendes. 


In Greece, Arcadia was especially sacred to him, and 
here he is said to have given oracles on Mount Lycseus. 
His festivals were introduced by Evander among the 
Romans, and by them called Lupercalia. Goats, honey, 
and milk were the usual offerings to Pan. Pan, like 
other gods, who dwelt in forests was dreaded by travelers, 
to whom he sometimes appeared, and whom he startled 
with sudden awe or terror. Hence sudden fright, with¬ 
out any visible cause, was ascribed to Pan, and was called 
a panic fear. 

Pando'ra. The first mortal female that ever lived. 
She was made of clay by Vulcan, and having received 
life, all the gods made presents to her. Venus gave her 
beauty and the art of pleasing; the Graces gave her the 
power of captivating; Apollo taught her how to sing; 
Mercury instructed her in eloquence and brought her to 
Epimetheus, who made her his wife, forgetting the ad¬ 
vice of his brother Prometheus, not to receive gifts from 
the gods. 

Parcae. (The fates.) Powerful goddesses who pre¬ 
sided over the birth and life of mankind. They were 
three in number, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, daughters 
of Nox and Erebus. Parcae is from “pars,” a lot; and 
the corresponding Moirae is from “meros,” a lot. The 
fates were so called because they decided the lot of every 
man. Among early peoples the superiority which they 
ascribed to their deities consisted chiefly in freedom 
from bodily decay, a sort of immortal youth, ability to 
move with wonderful celerity, to appear and disappear 
at pleasure with a noble and beautiful form, and to exert 
an immediate influence upon the condition of mortals. 
In these respects, however, their power was limited, 
according to the general opinion, being controlled by an 
eternal and immutable relation of things, termed fate, 
and to the Parcse, or fates, was attributed a power over 
all destinies and at times control of the gods themselves. 

Paris. The son of Priam, King of Troy, and He¬ 
cuba; he was also called Alexander. The tradition is 
that at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis the goddess of 
discord, who had not been invited, showed her displeas¬ 
ure by throwing into the assembly of the gods, who were 
at the nuptials, a golden apple, on which were the words: 
“Let it be given to the fairest.” The apple was claimed 
by Hera (Juno), Aphrodite (Venus), and Athena (Mi¬ 
nerva). Zeus (Jupiter), ordered Hermes (Mercury), to 
take the goddesses to Mount Ida, and to intrust the de¬ 
cision of the dispute to the shepherd Paris. The god¬ 
desses accordingly appeared before him. Hera promised 
him the sovereignty of Asia, Athena renown in war, and 
Aphrodite the fairest of women for his wife. Paris de¬ 
cided in favor of Aphrodite, and gave her the golden 
apple. This judgment called forth in Hera and Athena 
fierce hatred against Troy. Under the protection of 
Aphrodite, Paris now sailed to Greece, and was hospit¬ 
ably received in the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. Here 
he succeeded in carrying off Helen, the wife of Menelaus, 
who was the most beautiful woman in the world. Hence 
arose the Trojan War. Paris fought with Menelaus be¬ 
fore the walls of Troy, and was defeated, but was carried 
off by Aphrodite. He is said to have killed Achilles, 
either by one of his arrows or by treachery. 

Parnassos (Greek). Parnassus (Latin). A moun¬ 
tain near Delphi, in Greece. It was well wooded; at its 
foot grew myrtle, laurel, and olive trees, and higher up 
firs; and its summit was covered with snow during the 
greater part of the year. It contained numerous caves, 
glens, and romantic ravines. It has two summits, one 
of which was consecrated to Apollo and the Muses, the 
other to Bacchus. It was anciently called Larnassos, 
from larnax, an ark, because Deucalion’s ark stranded 
there after the flood. After the oracle of Delphi was 
built at its foot it received the name of Parnassos. It is 
celebrated as one of the chief seats of Apollo and the 
Muses, and an inspiring source of poetry and song. 

Parthen'ope. One of the sirens, whose dead body 
was washed ashore on the present site of Naples. She 
threw herself into the sea out of love for Ulysses. 

PatrocTus. The gentle and amiable friend of Achilles 
in Homer’s Iliad. 

Pau'guk. Name given to the great power, death, in 
American-Indian mythology. 

Pau'puk-kee'wis. In American-Indian folk-lore a 
mischievous magician, who is pursued by Hiawatha, 
pes through a series of wonderful transformations in 
is endeavors to escape, and finally becomes an eagle. 

Pax. The goddess of peace, worshiped in Greece 
under the name Irene. Pax wears a crown of laurel, 
and holds in her hand the branch of an olive tree. 

Pe'boan. In American-Indian folk-lore the personifi¬ 
cation of winter in form of a great giant who shook the 
snow from his hair and turned water into stone by his 
breath. 



LITERATURE 


339 


Peg'asus. The winged horse which sprang from the 
blood of Medusa when her head was struck off by Perseus. 
He was called Pegasus because he made his appearance 
near the sources of Oceanus. 

Pe'leus. King of the Myrmidons at Phthia, in Thes¬ 
saly. Having, in conjunction with his brother Tela¬ 
mon. murdered his half-brother Phocus, he was expelled 
by Eacus from Egina, and went to Thessaly. He was 
urified from the murder by Eurytion, who gave Peleus 
is daughter Antigone in marriage, and a third part of 
his kingdom. 

Pe'lias. The name of the spear of Achilles, which 
was so large that none could wield it but the hero himself. 

Pe'li-on. A high mountain in Thessaly celebrated 
in mythology. Near its summit was the cave of the 
Centaur Chiron. The giants, in their war with the gods, 
are said to have attempted to heap Ossa and Olympus 
on Pelion, or Pelion and Ossa on Olympus, in order to 
scale heaven. On Pelion the timber was felled with 
which the ship Argo was built. 

Pe'lops. A Phrygian prince, grandson of Jupiter, 
and son of Tantalus. Expelled from Phrygia, he came 
to Elis, where he married Hippodamia, daughter of 
(Enomaus, whom he succeeded on the throne. By means 
of the wealth he brought with him, his influence became 
so great in the peninsula that it was called after him 
“.the Island of Pelops.” 

Pena'tes. The Penates were also domestic or house¬ 
hold gods, but they were not a distinct class by them¬ 
selves, because the master of the dwelling was allowed 
to select any deity according to his pleasure, to watch 
over his family affairs, or preside over particular parts 
of them. 

Penel'ope. The faithful wife of Ulysses, who being 
importuned, during his long absence, by numerous suitors 
for her hand, postpones making a decision among them 
until she shall have finished weaving a funeral pall for 
her father-in-law, Laertes. Every night she secretly 
unravels what she has woven by day, and thus puts off 
Hie suitors till Ulysses returns. 

Pe'ri. Peris are delicate, gentle, fairy-like beings of 
Eastern mythology, begotten by fallen spirits. They 
direct with a wand the pure in mind the way to heaven. 
These lovely creatures, according to the Koran, are under 
the sovereignty of Eblis; and Mohammed was sent for 
their conversion, as well as for that of man. 

Per'se. A daughter of Oceanus, and wife of Helio3 
(the sun), by whom she became the mother of Aeetes, 
Circe, Pasiphae, and Perses. 

Perse'is. A name given to Hecate, as the daughter 
of Perses by Asteria. 

Perseph'one. The Greek name of Proserpine. 
Homer describes her as the wife of Hades (Pluto), and 
the formidable, venerable, and majestic queen of the 
shades, who rules over the souls of the dead, along with 
her husband. 

Per'seus. He was one of the most distinguished of 
the early heroes. He was the son of Jupiter and Danse, 
educated by Polydectus on the Island Seriphus. His 
chief exploit was the destruction of the gorgon Medusa, 
whose head he struck off with a sword given to him by 
Vulcan. From the blood that fell, sprang the winged 
horse Pegasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed over 
many lands. Of his subsequent achievements, the most 
remarkable were his changing King Atlas into a high 
rock or mountain, by means of Medusa’s head, and his 
deliverance of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to 
be devoured by the sea-monster. 

Phse'dra. Daughter of Minos, and wife of Theseus, 
who falsely accused her step-son Hippolytus. 

Pha'eton. A son of Sol, or, according to most my- 
thologists, of Phoebus and Clymene. Anxious to display 
his skill in horsemanship, he was so presumptuous as to 
request his father to allow him to drive the chariot of 
the sun across the heavens for one day. Helios was 
induced by the entreaties of his son and of Clymene 
to yield, but the youth being too weak to check the 
horses, they rushed out of their usual track, the chariot 
was upset, and caused great mischief; Libya was 

{ jarched into barren sands, and all Africa was more or 
ess injured, the inhabitants blackened, and vegetation 
nearly destroyed. Zeus killed him with a flash of light¬ 
ning, and hurled him down into the River Eridanus. 
His sisters, the Heliada? or Phaethontiades, who had 
yoked the horses to the chariot, were metamorphosed 
into poplars, and their tears into amber. 

Pha'on. A boatman at Mitylene, is said to have been 
originally an ugly old man; but having carried Aphro¬ 
dite (Venus) across the sea without accepting payment, 
the goddess gave him a box of ointment, with which, 
when he anointed himself, he grew so beautiful that 
Sappho became enamored of him; but when the oint¬ 


ment had all been used Phaon returned to his former 
condition, and Sappho, in despair, drowned herself. 

Philocte'tes. The most celebrated archer in the 
Trojan War. He was the friend and armor-bearer of 
Hercules, who bequeathed to him his bow and the pois¬ 
oned arrows, for having set fire to the pile on Mount (Eta, 
on which Hercules perished. 

Philomela. A daughter of Pandion, King of Athens. 
Her sister Procne had married Tereus, King of Thrace, 
and being separated from Philomela spent her time in 
great melancholy. Tereus treated Philomela with great 
cruelty. In poetry we frequently find the nightingale 
alluded to as Philomela. 

Phce'be. The goddess of the moon, and sister of 
Phoebus; a name of Diana. See Diana. 

Phoe'bus. The god of archery, prophecy, and music; 
was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and brother of Diana 
(Artemis). He was god of the sun, as Diana, his sister, 
was the goddess of the moon. 

Phoenix. A fabulous bird described as being as large 
as an eagle; its head finely crested with a beautiful 
plumage, its neck covered with gold-colored feathers, its 
tail white, and its body purple or crimson. 

Phyl'lis. (1) A daughter of King Sithon of Thrace, who 
hung herself, thinking that she was deserted by her lover, 
and was changed by the gods into an almond tree. (2) 
A country girl in Virgil’s third and fifth Eclogues; hence, 
a rustic maiden in general. 

Pire'ne. A celebrated fountain of Corinth, at which 
Bellerophon is said to have caught the horse Pegasue. 
It gushed forth from the rock in the Acrocorinthus, was 
conveyed down the hill by subterraneous conduits, and 
fell into a marble basin, from which the greater part of 
the town was supplied with water. The poets frequently 
used Pirenis in the general sense of Corinthian. 

Plei'ades. Means the “sailing stars,” because the 
Greeks considered navigation safe at the return of the 
Pleiades, and never attempted it after those stars dis¬ 
appeared. The Pleiades were the seven daughters of 
Atlas and Pleione, named Electra, Alcyone, Celseno, 
Maia, Sterope, Taygete, and Merope. They were trans¬ 
formed into stars, one of which (Merope), is invisible 
out of shame, because she alone married a human being. 
Some call the invisible star “Electra,” and say she hides 
herself from grief for the destruction of the city and royal 
race of Troy. 

Pluto. He was a second brother of Jupiter, and re¬ 
ceived, as his portion in the division of empire, the in¬ 
fernal regions, or the world of shades. Under this idea 
the ancients imagined the existence of regions situated 
down far below the earth. The chief incident in the 
history of Pluto is his seizure and abduction of Proser¬ 
pine, who thereby became his wife, and the queen of the 
lower world. 

Plu'tus. The god of riches, was probably of allegori¬ 
cal rather than mythical origin, since his name in Greek 
is but the common term for wealth. 

Pluvius. “The sender of rain,” a surname of Jupiter 
among the Romans, to whom sacrifices were offered 
during long-protracted droughts. 

Podali'rius. The son of Esculapius, and brother of 
Machaon, with whom he led the Thessalians of Tricca 
against Troy. He was, like his brother, skilled in the 
medical art. 

Pol'ias. Meaning “the goddess protecting the city,” 
a surname of Athena at Athens, where she was wor¬ 
shiped as the protecting divinity of the acropolis. 

Poli'tes. A son of Priam and Hecuba, and father of 
Priam the younger, was slain by Pyrrhus. 

Pol'lux. A son of Jupiter and Leda, brother to 
Castor. 

Polydo'rus. (1) King of Thebes, son of Cadmus and 
Harmonia, husband of Nycteis, and father of Labdacus. 
(2) Son of Priam and Hecuba. When Ilium was on the 
point of falling into the hands of the Greeks, Priam in¬ 
trusted Polydorus and a large sum of money to Poly- 
mestor or Polymnestor, King of the Thracian Chersonesus. 

Polyhym'nia. Daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. 
One of the Muses, who presided over singing and 
rhetoric. 

Pol'y-phe'mus. A son of Neptune, and one of the 
Cyclops, who dwelt in Sicily. He was a cruel monster, 
of immense size and strength, and had but one eye, which 
was in the middle of his forehead. He dwelt in a cave 
near Mount .Etna, and fed his flocks upon the mountain. 
He fell in love with the nymph Galatea, but as she re¬ 
jected him for Acis, he destroyed the latter by crushing 
him under a huge rock. When Ulysses landed in Sicily, 
he, with twelve of his companions, got caught in the 
cave of Polyphemus, and six of the number were eaten 
by the tremendous cannibal. The rest were in expec¬ 
tation of the same fate, but their cunning leader enabled 




340 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


them to escape, by contriving to intoxicate Polyphemus, 
and then destroying his single eye with a fire-brand. 

Polyx'ena. The daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
was beloved by Achilles. 

Pomo'na. A nymph at Rome, who was supposed to 
preside over gardens and to be the goddess of fruit trees. 

Pone'mah. In Amqrican-Indian mythology the 
name of the land of the future life, or the spirit-land. 

Posei'don. Called Neptune by the Romans; was 
the god of the Mediterranean Sea. He was a brother of 
Zeus (Jupiter), and Hades (Pluto), and it was determined 
by lot that he should rule over the sea. The palace of 
Poseidon was in the depth of the sea, near .Ega?, where 
he kept his horses with brazen hoofs and golden manes. 
With these horses he rides in a chariot over the waves 
of the sea, which become smooth as he approaches, 
while the monsters of the deep play around his chariot. 
Poseidon, in conjunction with Apollo, is said to have built 
the walls of Troy for Laomedon. 

Pri'am. King of Troy when that city was sacked by 
the allied Greeks. His wife’s name was Hec'uba; she 
was the mother of nineteen children, the eldest of whom 
was Hector. When the Greeks landed on the Trojan 
coast Priam was advanced in years, and took no active 
part in the war. Once only did he venture upon the 
field of battle, to conclude the agreement respecting the 
single combat between Paris and Menelaus. After the 
death of Hector, Priam went to the tent of Achilles to 
ransom his son’s body for burial, and obtained it. When 
the gates of Troy were thrown open by the Greeks con¬ 
cealed in the wooden horse, .Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, 
slew the aged Priam. 

Proe'tus. Twin brothers of Acrisius and son of 
Abas. In the dispute between the two brothers for the 
Kingdom of Argos, Prcetus wJI expelled, whereupon he 
fled to Iobates in Lycial, and married Antea, the daughter 
of the latter. With the assistance of Iobates, Proetus 
returned to his native land, and Acrisius gave him a 
share of his kingdom, surrendering to him Tiryns, Midea, 
and the coast of Argolis. 

Pro-me'theus. A son of Iapetus and Clymene, the 
brother of Epimetheus, and the father of Deucalion. 
He made men of clay, and animated them by means of 
fire which he stole from heaven; for this he was chained 
by Jupiter to Mount Caucasus, where an eagle, or, as 
some say, a vulture, preyed by day upon his liver, which 
grew again by night. The word means forethought, 
and one of his brothers was Epimetheus or afterthought. 

Pros'erpine. Known as Persephone also. A god¬ 
dess, daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. The seizure and 
abduction of Proserpine by Pluto has been subject of 
many tales. 

Psy'che. ‘‘.The soul,’’ occurs in the later times of 
antiquity as a personification of the human soul. Psyche 
was the youngest of the three daughters of a king, and 
excited by her beauty the jealousy and envy of Venus. 
In order to avenge herself, the goddess ordered Cupid or 
Amor to inspire Psyche with a love for the most con¬ 
temptible of all men; but Cupid was so stricken with her 
beauty that he himself fell in love with her. He accord¬ 
ingly conveyed her to a charming spot, where unseen 
and unknown he visited her every night, and left her as 
soon as the day began to dawn. But her jealous sisters 
made her believe that in the darkness of night she was 
embracing some hideous monster, and accordingly once, 
while Cupid was asleep, she drew near to him with a lamp, 
and, to her amazement, beheld the most handsome and 
lovely of the gods. In the excitement of joy and fear, a 
drop of hot oil fell from her lamp upon his shoulder. This 
awoke Cupid, who censured her for her mistrust, and 
fled. Psyche’s happiness was now gone, and after at¬ 
tempting in vain to throw herself into a river, she wan¬ 
dered about from temple to temple, inquiring after 
her lover, and at length came to the palace of Venus. 
There her real sufferings began, for Venus retained her, 
treated her as a slave, and imposed upon her the hardest 
and most humiliating labors. Psyche would have per¬ 
ished under the weight of her sufferings had not Cupid, 
who still loved her in secret, invisibly comforted and 
assisted her in her toils. With his aid she at last suc¬ 
ceeded in overcoming the jealousy and hatred of Venus; 
she became immortal, and was united to him forever. 
In this pleasing story Psyche evidently represents the 
human soul, which is purified by passions and misfor¬ 
tunes, and thus prepared for the enjoyment of true and 
pure happiness. In works of art Psyche is represented 
as a maiden with the wings of a butterfly, along with 
Cupid in the different situations described in the allegory. 

Pukwa'na. The smoke from the calumet or peace- 
pipe among American Indians. The pipe was made 
from stone found near the head waters of the Mississippi. 
A quarry, located near the mountains, was famous 
among the Indians, who had made the adjacent territory 


neutral ground. Here they came and provided them¬ 
selves with pipes. To apply the stone to any other use 
than that of pipe-making would have been sacrilege in 
their mind. From the color, they even fancied it to 
have been made, at the great deluge, out of the flesh of 
the perishing Indian. 

Pukwudj'ies. The pygmies of American-Indian 
folk-lore; little wild men of the woods. 

Pygma'lion. A grandson of Agenor. He made a 
beautiful statue, which he fell so deeply in love with, 
that Venus, at his earnest petition, gave it life. In Gil¬ 
bert’s comedy of Pygmalion and Galatea, the sculptor 
is a married man, whose wife (Cynisca) was jealous of 
the animated statue (Galatea), which, after enduring 
great misery, voluntarily returned to its original state. 
This, of course, is mixing up two Pygmalions, wide as 
the poles apart. 

Pyl'ades. Son of Anaxibia, sister of Agamemnon. 
His father was King of Phocis; and after the death of 
Agamemnon, Orestes was secretly carried to his father’s 
court. Here Pylades contracted that friendship with 
Orestes which became proverbial. 

Pyr'amus. The lover of Thisbe, who, on account 
of her supposed death, stabbed himself under a mulberry 
tree. Thisbe, afterward, finding the body of her lover, 
killed herself on the same spot with the same weapon; 
and the fruit of the mulberry has ever since been as red 
as blood. (See Thisbe.) 

Pyr'rhus. Known also as Neoptolemus, a son of 
Achilles, remarkable for his cruelty at the siege of Troy. 
He was slain at Delphi, at the request of his own wife, 
by Orestes. 

Pythia. The priestess of Apollo and Delphi. She is 
represented as crowned with laurels and seated on a tri¬ 
pod similarly adorned and placed over a chasm whence 
arose a peculiar vapor. Whoever inhaled this intoxicat¬ 
ing air was thrown into convulsive ravings, which were 
thought to be an evidence of divine inspiration. The 
prophetic influence was at first variously attributed to 
different gods, but was at length assigned to Apollo only. 
A priestess, called the Pythia, was appointed to inhale 
the hallowed air and utter inspired words, which were 
interpreted by the priests. 

Py'thon. The monster serpent hatched from the 
mud of Deucalion’s deluge. He lived in the caves of 
Mount Parnassus, but was slain by Apollo, who founded 
the Pythian games in commemoration of his victory, 
and received in consequence the surname Pythius. 

RaclVaders. In Indian mythology, the second tribe 
of giants or evil genii, who had frequently made the 
earth subject to their kings, but were ultimately pun¬ 
ished by Shiva and Vishnu. 

Radegaste. In Slavonic mythology, a tutelary god 
of the Slavi. The head was that of a cow, the breast 
was covered with an segis, the left hand held a spear, 
and a cock surmounted its helmet. 

Ragnarok (twilight of the gods). The day of doom, 
when the present world and all its inhabitants will be 
annihilated. Vidar of Vali will survive the conflagration, 
and reconstruct the universe. In Scandinavian my¬ 
thology is the belief taught that after this time the earth 
or realm will become imperishable and happiness sure. 

Ra'hu. In Hindu mythology, the demon that causes 
eclipses. One day Rahu stole into Valhalla to quaff 
some of the nectar of immortality. He was discovered 
by the Sun and Moon, who informed against him, and 
Vishnu cut off his head. As he had already taken some 
of the nectar into his mouth, the head was immortal, 
and he ever afterwards hunted the Sun and Moon, 
which he caught occasionally, causing eclipses. 

Rak'shas. Evil spirits in Hindu myths, who guard 
the treasures of Kuvera, the god of riches. They haunt 
cemeteries and devour human beings; assume .any 
shape at will, and their strength increases as the day 
declines. Some are hideously ugly, but others, espe¬ 
cially the female spirits, allure by their beauty. 

Rava'na, according to Indian mythology, was fas¬ 
tened down between heaven and earth for 10,000 years 
by Siva’s leg, for attempting to mov.e the hill of heaven 
to Ceylon. He is described as a demon giant with ten 
faces. 

Ravens. According to an oracle from the gods, 
delivered at ancient Athens, ravens prognosticate fam¬ 
ine and death because they bear the characters of Saturn, 
the author of these calamities, and have a very early 
perception of the bad disposition of that planet. 

Rem'blia. A Hindoo goddess of pleasure. 

Rliadaman'thus. A son of Jupiter and Europa, 
brother of Minos, and King of Lycia. He was so re¬ 
nowned for his justice and equity, that, after death, he 
was made one of the three judges in the under-world. 

Rham'nus. A daughter of Nox, and otherwise 
known as Nemesis. Having belonged with the original 



LITERATURE 


341 


deities, those mysterious beings who were regarded 
with awe by gods and men, she is allowed the same 
rank among the modern heathen deities, and was par¬ 
ticularly worshiped at Rhamnus in Attica, where she 
had a celebrated statue. 

Sat'urn. This was one of the most ancient of the 
gods, called Chronos by the Greeks and Saturnus by the 
Romans. He was said to be the son of Uranos and 
Titsea, i. e., the heavens and the earth, and to have 
ppssessed the first government of the universe. His 
wife was Rhea, who was his sister. Saturn and his 
five brethern were called Titans, probably from their 
mother; Rhea and her five sisters likewise Titanides. 
Saturn seized upon the government of the universe by 
his superiority over his father and brothers; yet pledged 
himself to rear no male children; accordingly he is 
represented as devouring his sons as soon as born. 
But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune, and 
Pluto, escaped, through the artifice of Rhea, their 
mother, who gave him stones to devour instead of the 
children at their birth. Jupiter aided Saturn in recov¬ 
ering his throne, after he had been driven from it by 
his brothers, the Titans, and bound in Tartarus. But 
soon he made war, himself, upon Saturn, and seized 
the government. 

Sa'tyr. A sylvan deity, or demi-god, represented as 
a monster, half man and half goat; having horns on his 
head, a hairy body, with the feet and tail of a goat. 
They belong in the train of Bacchus, and have been dis¬ 
tinguished for lasciviousness and riot. Although mortal, 
they are superior to the cares and sorrows of mortal life. 

ScylTa. A maiden whose body the enchantress Circe 
changed below the waist into frightful monsters always 
barking. The old Greek story is, that Circe was jealous 
of Scylla, and so deformed her by pouring the juice of 
poisonous herbs into the water in which she bathed. 
This sudden metamorphosis so terrified Scylla, that she 
threw herself into the sea, and became the rocks which 
bear her name. 

Sedrat. The lotus tree which stands on the right- 
hand side of the invisible throne of Allah. Its branches 
extend wider than the distance between heaven and 
earth. Its leaves resemble the ears of an elephant. 
Each seed of its fruit encloses a houri; and two rivers 
issue from its roots. Numberless birds sing among its 
branches, and numberless angels rest beneath its shade. 

Sile'nus. The older satyrs were generally termed 
Sileni; but one of these Sileni is commonly the Silenus, 
who always accompanies Dionysus (Bacchus), whom he 
is said to have brought up and instructed. He is repre¬ 
sented as’ a jovial old man, with a bald head, pug nose, 
and rubicund visage, and generally as intoxicated, and, 
therefore, riding on an ass or supported by satyrs. 
He was fond of music and dancing and is often accom¬ 
panied by the flute. But it is a peculiar feature in bis 
character that he was an inspired prophet, yet, when 
he was drunk and asleep he was in the power of mortals, 
who might compel him to prophesy and sing by sur¬ 
rounding him with chains of flowers. Like tbe sea- 
gods, Silenus was noted for wisdom; and it would, 
therefore, appear that a Silen was simply a river-god; 
and the name probably comes from the Greek verb, 
signifying to roll, expressive of the motion of the streams. 
The connection between Silenus, Bacchus, and the 
Naiades thus becomes easy of explanation, all being 
deities relating to moisture. 

Silva'nus or Sylva'nus. A deity presiding over 
woods, forests, and fields. He is also called the pro¬ 
tector of the boundaries of fields. 

Si'rens. They were a sort of sea-goddesses, said by 
some to be two in number, by others, three, and even 
four. Homer mentions but two, and describes them as 
virgins, dwelling upon an island, and detaining with 
them every voyager who Was allured thither by their 
captivating music. They would have decoyed even 
Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca, but were not permitted. 
By others they were described as daughters of tbe river- 
god Achelous, and companions of Proserpine, after 
whose seizure they were changed into birds, that they 
might fly in search of her. In an unhappy contest 
with the Muses in singing they lost their wings as a 
punishment. Others make them sea-nymphs, with a 
form similar to that of the Tritons, with the faces of 
women and the bodies of flying fish. Their fabled 
residence was placed by some on an island near Cape 
Pelorus in Sicily; by others, on the islands or rocks 
called Sirennusse, not far from the promontory of Sur- 
rentum on the coast of Italy. Various explanations of 
the fable of the Sirens have been given. It is commonly 
considered as signifying the dangers of indulgence in 
pleasure. 

Sir'ius. Known in mythology as the faithful dog of 
Orion, and set in the heavens as a bright star by Diana 


when she mourned the display of her archery which 
caused Orion’s death. 

Sol. Although the Greeks and Romans worshiped 
Apollo as the god and dispenser of light, and in view of 
this attribute named him Phoebus, yet they conceived 
another distinct divinity, distinguished from Apollo 
especially in the earlier fables, under the literal name 
applied to designate the sun, viz, Sol. These words, 
therefore, were employed to express not only the actual 
body in the heavens, but also a supposed being having 
a separate and personal existence. 

Som'nus. The personification and god of sleep, is 
described as a brother of Death and as a son of Night. 

Specter of the Brock'en. Among German myths, 
a singular colossal apparition seen in the clouds, at cer¬ 
tain times of the day, by those who ascend the Brocken, 
or Blocksberg, the highest mountain of the Hartz Moun¬ 
tains. 

Sphinx. A monster said to be a daughter of Chi- 
maera, in the neighborhood of Thebes. Seated on a 
rock, she put a riddle to every Theban that passed by, 
and whoever was unable to solve it was killed by the 
monster. This calamity induced the Thebans to pro¬ 
claim that whoever should deliver the country of the 
sphinx should obtain the kingdom and Jocasta as his 
wife. The riddle ran as follows: “What is that which 
has one voice, and at first four feet, then two feet, and 
at last three feet, and when it has most is weakest?” 
(Edipus explained the enigma by saying that it was 
man, who, when an infant, creeps on all fours, when a 
man, goes on two feet, and, when old, uses a staff, a 
third foot. The monster immediately flung herself into 
the sea and perished. The form of the. so-called Egyp¬ 
tian sphinxes is that of a winged lion with a human 
head and bust, always in a lying attitude, whereas the 
Greek sphinxes are represented in any attitude which 
might suit the fancy of the poet. 

Styx. The word, or name, comes from the Greek, 
meaning to abhor, and Styx is called the River of Hate 
and represented as the river of the lower world. The 
classic fables concerning it are of Egyptian origin. It 
was said to flow nine times round the infernal regions. 
The third river, Cocytus, flows out of the River Styx 
and the murmur of its waters, the sound of which imi¬ 
tates howlings, is inexpressibly dismal; Phlegethon, the 
fourth river, rolls slowly along its waves of fire. As a 
mythical being, Styx is described as a daughter of Oce- 
anus and Tethys. As a nymph, she dwelt at the entrance 
of hades, in a lofty grotto which was supported by silver 
columns. She became the divinity by whom the most 
solemn oaths were sworn. When one of the gods had to 
take an oath by Styx, Iris fetched a cup full of water 
from the Styx, and the god, while taking the oath, 
poured out the water. 

Tan'talus. The son of Jupiter, and king of Lydia, 
who, according to some legends, was punished for be¬ 
traying the secrets of his father by being placed in a 
lake, in the infernal regions, whose waters fled from 
him when he sought to quench his thirst, and amid 
trees laden with fruit, whose boughs avoided every 
effort he made to seize them. 

Tar'tarus. A dark abyss under the earth in which 
the Titans were chained when their father feared their 
strength. The music of Orpheus penetrated its depths 
and caused the condemned to cease their toil. The 
name has come to signify an inner region of hell, to 
which the gods sent the exceptionally depraved. 

Tel'amon. A son of iEacus and Endeis, and brother 
of Peleus. Having assisted Peleus in slaying their half- 
brother Phocus, Telamon was expelled from AEgina, and 
came to Salamis, where he was made king. He after¬ 
ward became the father of Atlas. Telamon himself 
was one of the Calydonian hunters and one of the 
Argonauts. He was also a great friend of Hercules, 
whom he joined in his expedition against Laomedon of 
Troy, which city he was the first to enter. Hercules, 
in return, gave to him Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon. 

Telem'achus. The son of Ulysses and Penelope. 
He was an infant when his father went to Troy; and 
when he had been absent nearly twenty years, Telema- 
chus went to Pylos and Sparta to gather information 
concerning him. He was hospitably received by Nestor, 
who sent his own son to conduct Telemachus to Sparta. 
Menelaus also received him kindly, and communicated 
to him the prophecy of Proteus concerning Ulysses. 
From Sparta Telemachus returned home; and on his 
arrival there he found his father, whom he assisted in 
slaying the suitors. (See Penelope.) 

The'nus. The goddess of justice was one of the 
most celebrated of the Titanides, or daughters of Uranus 
and Titaea. To her is ascribed the first uttering of 
oracles, and also the first introduction of sacrifices. 



342 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Thersi'tes. The ugliest and most scurrilous of the 
Greeks before Troy. He spared, in his revilings, neither 
prince nor chief, but directed his abuse principally 
against Achilles and Ulysses. He was slain by Achilles 
for deriding his grief for Penthesilea. The name is 
often used to denote a calumniator. 

The'seus. He became king of Athens, finding the 
sword and sandals of his father, JEgeus. Of the many 
adventures of Theseus, one of the most celebrated was 
his expedition against the Amazons. He is said to have 
assailed them before they had recovered from the attack 
of Hercules, and to have carried off their queen, Antiope. 
The Amazons, in their turn, invaded Attica, and pene¬ 
trated into Athens itself, and the final battle, in which 
Theseus overcame them, was fought in the very midst 
of the city. Theseus figures in almost all the great 
heroic expeditions. 

Thes'pian Maids, The. The nine Muses. So called 
from Thespia, in Boeotia, near Mount Helicon, often 
called Thespia Rupes. 

The'tis. One of the daughters of Nereus and Doris, 
was a marine divinity, and dwelt — like her sisters, the 
Nereids — in the depths of the sea, with her father 
Nereus. She there received Dionysus (Bacchus) on his 
flight from Lycurgus, and the god in his gratitude pre¬ 
sented her with a golden urn. When Vulcan was 
thrown down from heaven, he was likewise received by 
Thetis. Thetis rejected the offers of Zeus, because she 
had been brought up by Hera, and the god, to revenge 
himself, decreed that she should marry a mortal. 

Thor. In Scandinavian mythology, the eldest son 
of Odin and Frigga; strongest and bravest of the gods. 
He launched .the thunder, presided over the air and the 
seasons, and protected man from lightning and evil 
spirits. His wife was Sif (“love”); his chariot was 
drawn by two he-goats; his mace or hammer was called 
Mjolner; his belt was Megingjard, whenever he put it 
on his strength was doubled; his palace was Thrud- 
vangr. It contained 540 halls; Thursday is Thor’s day. 
The word means “Refuge from terror.” 

Ti'tans. The enterprises of the Titans are celebrated 
in the ancient fables of the Greeks. They have been 
mentioned in the account of Saturn, to whom they were 
brothers, being generally considered as sons of Uranus or 
Coelus and Titaea, or Gaia. The oldest was called Titan, 
and from him, or their mother, they derived their common 
name. 

Titho'nus. A son of Laomedon, king of Troy. 
He was so beautiful that Aurora became enamored of 
him, and persuaded the gods to make him immortal; 
but, as she forgot to ask for eternal youth, he became 
decrepit and ugly, and was, therefore, changed by her 
into a cicada. 

Tit'yus. A famous giant, son of Jupiter and Terra. 
His body was so vast that it covered nine acres of ground. 
He had dared to offer an insult to Juno and in punish¬ 
ment was chained like Prometheus while a vulture 
feasted on his liver. He is mentioned by Virgil. 

Tri'ton. Son of Neptune, who dwelt with his father 
and mother in a golden palace in the bottom of the sea, 
or, according to Homer, at Agae. Later writers de¬ 
scribe him as riding over the sea on sea-horses or other 
monsters. 

Trolls. Dwarfs of Northern mythology, living in 
hills or mounds; they are represented as stumpy, mis¬ 
shapen, and humpbacked, inclined to thieving, and fond 
of carrying off children or substituting one of their own 
offspring for that of a human mother. They are called 
hill-people, and are especially averse to noise, from a 
recollection of the time when Thor used to fling his 
hammer after them. 

Truth. A daughter of Time, because Truth is dis¬ 
covered in the course of Time. Democritus says that 
Truth lies hidden at the bottom of a well. 

Troy. The classic poets say that the walls of this 
famous city were built by the magic sound of Apollo’s 
lyre. 

Tyr. In Norse mythology, he was a warrior deity, 
and the protector of champions and brave men; he was 
also noted for his sagacity. When the gods wished to 
bind the wolf Fenrir, Tyr put his hand into the demon’s 
mouth as a pledge that the bonds should be removed 
again. But Fenrir found that the gods had no inten¬ 
tion of keeping their word, and revenged himself in 
some degree by biting the hand off. Tyr was the son 
of Odin and brother of Thor. 

Ulys'ses. Called “Odysseus” by the Greeks, one of 
the principal Greek heroes in the Trojan War, was a son 
of Laertes, or, according to a later tradition, of Sisyphus, 
and was married to Penelope, the daughter of Icarius, 
by whom he became the father of Telemachus. During 
the siege of Troy he distinguished himself by his valor, 
prudence, and eloquence, and after the death of Achilles, 


contended for his armor with the Telamonian Ajax, and 
gained the prize. He is said by some to have devised 
the stratagem of the wooden horse. The most celebrated 
part of his story comes after the Trojan War. Among 
his adventures he entered the cave of the Cyclops and 
escaped with some sheep. One of the gods gave to him 
a bag of winds which should carry him home, but the 
winds were let loose and his ships driven to an island 
inhabited by the sorceress Circe. After many wander¬ 
ings and strange adventures, a ship was provided to con¬ 
vey him to Ithaca, from which he had been absent twenty 
years. During his absence his father Laertes, in grief and 
old age, had withdrawn into the country; his mother An- 
ticlea had died; his son Telemachus grown to manhood, 
and his wife Penelope had rejected all the offers that 
had been made to her by the importunate suitors from 
the neighboring islands. In order that he might not be 
recognized, Athena metamorphosed Ulysses into an 
unsightly beggar. He was kindly received by Eumaeus, 
the swineherd, made himself known to him, and a plan 
of revenge was resolved on. Penelope, with great dif¬ 
ficulty, was made to promise her hand to him who should 
conquer the others in shooting with the bow of Ulysses. 
As none of the suitors were able to draw this bow, Ulysses 
himself took it up, and, directing his arrows against the 
suitors, slew them all. Ulysses now made himself known 
to Penelope. The people rose in arms against Ulysses; 
but Athena, who assumed the appearance of Mentor, 
brought about a reconciliation 

Valhal'la. In Scandinavian mythology the palace 
of immortality wherein are received the souls of heroes 
slain in battle. 

Val'kyrs. The battle-maidens of Scandinavian 
mythology. They were mounted on swift horses and 
held drawn swords. They rushed with battle and se¬ 
lected those destined to death and conducted them to 
Valhalla. The number of Valkyrs differs greatly ac¬ 
cording to the various mythologists, and ranges from 
three to sixteen, the greater part of them, however, 
naming only nine. 

Ve'nus. The goddess of beauty, and mother of love. 
She is said to have sprung from the foam of the sea, and 
was immediately carried to the abode of the gods on 
Olympus, where they were all charmed with her extreme 
beauty. According to other legends she was the daugh¬ 
ter of Jupiter and Dione. She bore as many names 
as there are aspects of love, and finally they were re¬ 
garded as the names of different deities. Sparrows and 
doves were customarily yoked to her chariot; her girdle 
inspired all hearts with passion for the wearer; and her 
son, Cupid, was her attendant and minister. The myrtle 
was sacred to her. Her favorite residence was at 
Cyprus. 

Ves'ta. The ancient goddess of fire. iEneas was 
believed to have brought the eternal fire of Vesta from 
Troy, along with the images of the Penates; and the 
praetors, consuls, and dictators, before entering upon 
their official functions, sacrificed, not only to the Penates, 
but also to Vesta at Lavinium. In the ancient Roman 
house, the hearth was the central part, and around it all 
the inmates daily assembled for their common meal 
(ccena); every meal thus taken was a fresh bond of 
union and affection among the members of a family, and 
at the same time an act of worship of Vesta, combined 
with a sacrifice to her and the Penates. 

Vish'nu. In Hindu mythology one of the great deities 
of the Hindu triad, ranking as the “Preserver,” after 
Brahma, the “Creator,” and before Siva, the “Destroyer.” 
It is believed that he has appeared on earth nine times, 
his tenth “avatar,” or incarnation, having yet to come. 

Vul'can. The god of fire. Traces of the worship of 
fire are found in the earliest times. 

Wo'den. The Anglo-Saxon form of the Scandinavian 
god Odin; Wednesday is called after him. 

Zem. The sacred well of Mecca. According to Arab 
tradition, this is the very well that was shown to Hagar 
when with Ishmael in the desert. It is supposed to be 
in the heart of the city of Mecca. 

Zeus. Called “Jupiter” by the Romans, the greatest 
of the Olympian gods, was a son of Cronus (Saturnus), 
and Rhea. When Zeus and his brothers distributed 
among themselves the government of the world by lot, 
Poseidon obtained the sea, Hades the lower world, and 
Zeus the heavens and the upper regions, but the earth 
became common to all. According to Homer, Zeus dwelt 
on Mount Olympus in Thessaly, which was believed to 
penetrate into heaven itself. He is called the father of 
gods and men. He is the supreme ruler, who with his 
counsel manages everything ; the founder of law and 
order, whence Dice, Themis, and Nemesis are his as¬ 
sistants. Everything good, as well as bad, comes from 
Zeus; according to his own choice he assigns good or evil 
to mortals; fate itself was subordinate to him. 



LITERATURE 


343 


NAMES IN FICTION, LITERARY 
PLOTS, AND ALLUSIONS 

A-bad'don. The Hebrew name of an evil spirit or 
destroying angel called Apollyon in Greek. In mediaeval 
literature he is regarded as the chief of the demons of 
the seventh hierarchy and the one who causes wars 
and uproars. Klopstock has introduced him in his 
Messiah under the name of Abbadona. He represents 
him as a fallen angel still bearing traces of his former 
dignity and repenting of his part in the rebellion against 
God. In Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress,” he meets and 
fights with Pilgrim. 

Abdall'ah. Life of Mohammed, Washington 

Irving. A hero in Mohammedan legend. It is said 
that Abdallah, the father of Mohammed, was so beauti¬ 
ful, that, when he married Amina, two hundred virgins 
broke their hearts from disappointed love. 

Ab-di'el. Paradise Lost, Milton. The name of 
the seraph, who, when Satan stirred up a revolt, boldly 
withstood him. 

Abon'de. A character in French literature that 
corresponds to our Santa Claus. She is the good fairy 
who comes at night, especially New Year’s night, to 
bring toys to children while they sleep. 

Ab'ou Hassan. Arabian Nights. As related in 
“Arabian Nights,” a merchant of Bagdad who was car¬ 
ried in his sleep to the bed of the Caliph Haroun-al- 
Raschid and on awaking was made to believe himself the 
caliph. Twice in this way he was made to believe 
himself caliph. He afterward became in reality the 
caliph’s favorite and companion. 

A-brax'as. In Persian literature a word denoting 
a supreme being. In Greek notation it stands for the 
number 365. In old tales or romances Abraxas presides 
over 365 impersonated virtues, one of which is supposed 
to prevail on each day of the year. In the Second 
Century the word was employed by the Basilid'ians 
for the deity; it was also the principle of the Gnostic 
hierarchy, and that from which sprang their numerous 
Eons. 

Ab'sa-Iom. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. 

A name given by Dryden, in his satirical poem “ Absalom 
and Achitophel,” to the Duke of Monmouth, a natural 
son of Charles II. Like Absalom, the son of David, 
Monmouth was remarkable for his personal beauty, his 
popularity, and his undutifulness to his father. 

Ab'solute, Captain. The Rivals, Sheridan. A 
character in Sheridan’s comedy, “The Rivals.” He is 
distinguished for his gallant, determined spirit, his quick¬ 
ness of speech, and dry humor. 

Absolute, Sir Anthony. The Rivals, Sheridan. 
An amusing character in Sheridan’s “Rivals.” He is 
represented as testy, positive, impatient, and over¬ 
bearing, but yet of a warm and generous disposition. 

Abu'dah. A merchant of Bagdad. He finds the 
only way to rid himself of the torment of an old hag by 
whom he is haunted is “to fear God and keep His com¬ 
mandments.” 

A-ca'di-a. The name said to be derived from 
“ Shubenacadie, the name of one of the principal rivers” 
of Nova Scotia: in old grants called “L’Acadie,” and 
“La Cadie,” the original, and now the poetic, name of 
Nova Scotia. In 1755, the French inhabitants were 
seized, forcibly removed, and dispersed among the Eng¬ 
lish colonists on the Atlantic Coast. Longfellow has 
made this event the subject of his poem “Evangeline.” 

A-chit'o-phel. Absalom and Achitophel, Dry¬ 
den. Achitophel, a nickname given to the first Earl 
of Shaftesbury by his contemporaries, and made use of 
by Dryden in his poem “Absalom and Achitophel,” a 
satire designed as a defense of Charles II. against the 
Whig party. There is said to be a striking resemblance 
between the character and career of Shaftesbury and 
those of Achitophel, or Ahithophel, the treacherous friend 
and counselor of David, and the fellow-conspirator of 
Absalom. 

A-cra'si-a. Faerie Queene, Spenser. A witch 
represented as a lovely and charming woman, whose 
dwelling is the Bower of Bliss, which is situated on an 
island floating in a lake or a gulf, and is adorned with 
everything in nature that can delight the senses. The 
word signifies intemperance. She is the personification 
of sensuous indulgence and intoxication. Sir Guyon, 
who illustrates the opposite virtue, is commissioned by 
the fairy queen to bring her into subjection, and to 
destroy her residence. 

A'cres, Bob. The Rivals, Sheridan. A character 
in “The Rivals” celebrated for his cowardice and his 
peculiar method of allegorical swearing. 

Acrostic* A form of verse in which the first letters 


of the lines form a word, usually a name. The Hebrews 
wrote a form of acrostic poetry in which the initial 
letters made their alphabet in regular order. Some of 
the Psalms of the Old Testament are on this plan, especi¬ 
ally the one hundred and nineteenth psalm. 

Ad'am. (1) A character frequently alluded to in 
the “Talmud.” Many strange legends are related of 
him. He was buried, so Arabian tradition says, on 
Aboncais, a mountain of Arabia. (2) In As You Like 
It, Shakespere. An aged servant to Orlando who offers 
to accompany Orlando in his flight and to share with 
him his carefully-hoarded savings of 500 crowns. (3) In 
Comedy of Errors, Shakespere. An officer known 
by his dress, a skin-coat. 

Adamas'tor. Lusiad, Camoens. (1) A hideous 
phantom described by Camoens as the spirit of the 
stormy cape (Cape of Good Hope). (2) One of the 
giants who invaded heaven. 

Ad'ams, Parson. Joseph Andrews, Fielding. 
A character in Fielding’s story of “Joseph Andrews.” 
He is distinguished for his goodness of heart, poverty, 
learning, and ignorance of the world, combined with 
courage, modesty, and a thousand oddities. 

Ad'emar or Ad'e-ma-ro. Jerusalem Delivered, 
Tasso. An ecclesiastical warrior who besought the 
pope that he might be sent on the crusades. He was 
slain in an attack on Antioch but in the final attack on 
Jerusalem his spirit came with three squadrons of angels 
to aid the besiegers. 

Adol'pha. Maid of Mariendorpt, Knowles. 

The daughter of General Kleiner, Governor of Prague, 
and wife of Idenstein. She is known for her “excess 
of too sweet nature,” which Knowles in his romance 
pictures as a fault. 

Ad'o-na'is. A poetical name given by Shelley to the 
poet Keats, on whose untimely death he wrote an elegy 
bearing this name for its title. The name was coined by 
Shelley probably to hint an analogy between Keats’s fate 
and that of Adonis. 

Adrastus. Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. An 

Indian prince from the banks of the Ganges, who aided 
the King of Egypt against the crusaders. _ He was dis¬ 
tinguished by his garment, a serpent’s skin. Adrastus 
was slain by Rinaldo. 

E-ne'as. The hero of Virgil’s.Eneid, son of Anchises 
and the goddess Venus; to him is ascribed the founda¬ 
tion of the Roman Empire. He is called the “Pious 
.Eneas,” because he carried his father Anchises on his 
shoulders from burning Troy. 

.Eneid. An epic of national life. Virgil introduces 
into his poem the outlines of the Roman history, and a 
number of interesting episodes. The first three books 
are not arranged in the order of time. The second book, 
which relates the downfall of Troy, and is the basis of 
the poem, is the first in time. The third, which relates 
the voyage of Eneas, until after his departure from 
Sicily for Italy, follows. The first, which relates the 
dispersion of his fleet, and his arrival in Africa, with 
his kind reception by Dido, succeeds the third. By 
this change the hero relates the downfall of his country, 
and the fortunes of his long and eventful voyage. The 
idea which underlies the whole action of the poem is 
the great part played by Rome in the history of the 
world. 

Agamem'non. A Tragedy by Eschylus. The 
first of a trilogy consisting of Agamemnon, Choephori, 
and Eumenides. 

Aga'pida, Fray Antonio. The imaginary chronicler 
of the “Conquest of Granada,” written by Washington 
Irving. 

A'gib. Arabian Nights’ Entertainment. The 
third Calendar in the story of “The Three Calendars,” 
in the “Arabian Nights.” 

Ag'nes. (1) A young girl in MolRre’s “L’Ecole des 
Femmes,” who affects to be remarkably simple and 
ingenuous. The name has passed into popular use, and 
is applied to any young woman unsophisticated in affairs. 
(2) A strong womanly character in David Copperfield, 
who proves a true friend to David’s “child-wife,” Dora, 
and to David himself. Later Dora dies and David 
marries Agnes. 

A-gra-man'te or Ag'ra-mant. King of the Moors 
in Ariosto’s poem of “Orlando Furioso.” 

A'gue-clieek, Sir Andrew. Twelfth Night, 
Shakespere. A simpleton in “Twelfth Night,” to 
whom life consists only of eating and drinking. He is 
stupid even to silliness, but so devoid of self-love or self- 
conceit that he is delightful in his simplicity. 

Ah'med, Prince. Arabian Nights. A hero who 
possessed a magic tent which would cover a whole 
army but might be carried in the pocket. He also pos¬ 
sessed a magic apple which would cure all diseases. 



344 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A-lad'din. One of the best known characters in the 
“Arabian Nights Tales.” Aladdin becomes possessed 
of a wonderful lamp and ring. On rubbing them, two 
genii appear, who are the slaves of anyone who possesses 
the lamp and ring. They obey Aladdin and perform 
most incredible deeds by their magic. 

A1 A'raf (&l a'raf ). The Mohammedan limbo. The 
subject of an uncompleted poem by Edgar A. Poe. 

A-las'nam. The hero of a story in the “Arabian 
Nights’ Entertainments” entitled “The History of 
Prince Zeyn Alasnam and the Sultan of the Genii.” 
Alasnam has eight diamond statues, but had to go in 
quest of a ninth more precious still, to fill the vacant 
pedestal. The prize was found in the lady who became 
his wife, at once the most beautiful and the most perfect 
of her race. 

Al-ba'nia, ATba-ny. A name given to Scotland or 
the Scottish Highlands in old romances and early his¬ 
tories. 

Al'bi-on. An ancient name of Briton, now used only 
in poetic allusion. Some say the name is derived from 
the lofty white cliffs on the south coast. Others derive 
it from the name of a fabulous giant, Albion, son of 
Neptune, who called the island after his own name, and 
ruled it forty-four years. 

Albrac'ca. Orlando Innamorata, Bojardo. A 

castle of Cathay to which Angelica retires in grief at 
being scorned and shunned by Rinaldo, with whom she 
is deeply in love. Here she is besieged by Agricane, 
King of Tartary, who resolves to win her, notwithstand¬ 
ing her indifference to his suit. 

Al-ceste'. Le Misanthrope, Moliere. A noble 
but misanthropic man, the hero of Molifere’s comedy. 

Al-ci'na. Orlando Innomorato, Bojardo. A 
fairy represented as carrying off Astolfo. She reappears 
in great splendor in Ariosto’s “Orlando Furioso.” 

Al'di-bo-ron'ti-phos'co-phor'ni-o. A character 
in Henry Carey’s burlesque tragedy “Chrononhoton- 
thologos.” 

Aldine Edition. This name is now applied to 
some elegant editions of English works. The original 
Aldine editions were books from the press of Aldus 
Manutius, printed in the years 1490-1597. These 
books have been highly prized both for their literary 
value and their handsome exterior. The Aldus printing 
establishment was kept up for 100 years. The distin¬ 
guishing mark of the Aldine books is an anchor entwined 
with a dolphin. Collections of these books have been 
made. Many of the works are now very rare and are 
highly prized. 

Al'din-gar, Sir. A character in an ancient legend, 
and the title of a celebrated ballad, preserved in Percy’s 
“Reliques,” This ballad relates how the honor of Queen 
Elianor, wife of Henry Plantagenet, impeached by Sir 
Aldingar, her steward, was submitted to the chance of a 
duel, and how an angel, in the form of a little child, 
appeared as her champion, and established her innocence. 

Alexandrian Codex. A manuscript of the Scrip¬ 
tures in Greek, which belonged to the library of the 
patriarchs of Alexandria, in Africa, A. D., 1098. In 
1628, it was sent as a present to Charles I., and was 
placed in the British Museum. It is on parchment, 
in uncial letters, and contains the Septuagint version 
(except the Psalms), a part of the New Testament, and 
the Epistles of Clemens Romanus. This is much con¬ 
sulted by Biblical scholars, especially in the critical 
study of the epistles. 

Alice Brand. Lady of the Lake. Sir Walter 
Scott. Alice signed Urgan the dwarf thrice with the 
sign of the cross, and he became “the fairest knight in all 
Scotland ”; when Alice recognized in him her own 
brother. 

Al'lan-a-Bale'. A friend of Robin Hood’s in the 
ballad. He is introduced into Sir Walter Scott’s “Ivan- 
hoe” as Robin Hood’s minstrel. 

All’s Well that Ends Well, a comedy by Shakes- 
pere. The hero and heroine are Bertram, Count of 
Rousillon, and Hel'ena, a physician’s daughter, who are 
married by the command of the king of France, but 
part because Bertram thought the lady not sufficiently 
well-born for him. Ultimately, however, all ends well. 

All'worthy, Mr. Tom Jones, Fielding. Dis¬ 
tinguished for his benevolence. This character is said 
to be drawn from Fielding’s friend Ralph Allen. 

Alp. Siege of Corinth, Byron. The hero of this 
poem. 

Alph. Kubla Khan, Coleridge. A name invented 
by Coleridge and applied to a river mentioned in this poem. 

Al'qrui-fe. A personage that figures in all the books 
of the lineage of Amadis as a powerful wizard. 

Al-Rakin'. A fabulous dog connected with the 
legend of the “Seven Sleepers.” The Mohammedans 
have given him a place in paradise. 


Al-Sirat'. A bridge from this world to the next 
extending over the abyss of hell. This narrow bridge, 
less than the thread of a famished spider, must be passed 
over by every one who would enter the Mohammedan 
£1TR d is © • 

Am'-a-dis de Gaul. The hero of an ancient and 
celebrated Portuguese romance. A French version w r as 
printed in 1555. 

A man'da. A young woman who impersonates 
spring in Thompson’s “Seasons.” 

A-mai'mon, or A-may'mon. An imaginary king 
of the East, one of the principal devils who might be 
bound or restrained from doing hurt from the third hour 
till noon, and from the ninth hour till evening. He is 
alluded to in Shakespere’s “Merry Wives of Windsor.” 

Ama'urot. Utopia, Sir Thomas More. Amaurot 
was the chief city in Utopia. 

Amaurote. A bridge in Utopia. 

Ame'lia. The title of one of Fielding’s novels, and 
the name of its heroine, who is distinguished for her 
tenderness and affection. The character of Amelia is 
said to have been drawn from Fielding’s wife. 

Amine'. In Arabian Nights a female character who 
leads her three sisters by her side as a leash of hounds. 

Aminte'. Les Pre'cieuses Ridicules, Moliere. 
A contradictory character in this comedy. She dis¬ 
misses her admirers for proposing to marry her, scolds 
her uncle for not carrying himself as a gentleman, and 
marries a valet whom she believes to be a nobleman. 

Am'let, Richard. The name of a gamester in Van¬ 
brugh’s “Confederacy.” 

Am'o-ret. The name of a lady married to Sir 
Scudamore, in Spencer’s “Faery Queen.” She is the 
type of a devoted, loving wife. (2) The heroine of 
Fletcher’s pastoral drama, “The Faithful Shepherdess.” 

A'mys and Amyl'ion. Two faithful friends. The 
Pylades and Orestes of the feudal ages. Their adven¬ 
tures are the subjects of ancient romances. An ab¬ 
stract of this early romance is found in Ellis’ “Specimens 
of Early English Metrical Romances.” 

Anacreontic Verse. Commonly of the jovial or 
Bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon, of Teos, 
the Greek lyric poet, born at Teos, an Ionian city in 
Asia Minor. He removed to Abdera, in Thrace, when 
Teos was taken by the Persians, but he lived chiefly 
at Samos, under the patronage of Polycrates. After 
the death of Polycrates, he went to Athens at the invi¬ 
tation of the tyrant Hipparchus. He died at the age of 
85, probably about the year 550 B. C. In his poems 
Anacreon sung chiefly the praises of love and wine, to 
the enjoyment of which his life would also appear to 
have been dedicated. Many fragments of his songs are 
preserved, which are models of delicate grace, simplicity 
and ease. 

Anagram, a transposition of the letters of a name 
or sentence, the change of one word or phrase into 
another, by reading the letters backwards, or by trans¬ 
posing them. 

An-as-ta'si-us. Anastasius, Hope. The hero of 
this novel purports to be a Greek, who, to escape the 
consequences of his own crimes and villainies, becomes 
a renegade, and passes through a long series of the most 
extraordinary vicissitudes. 

Ancient Man. Idylls of the King, Tennyson. 

Meaning Merlin, the old magician, King Arthur’s pro¬ 
tector and teacher. 

Ancient Mariner. Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 
Coleridge. The ancient mariner, for the crime of hav¬ 
ing shot an albatross, a bird of good omen to voyagers, 
is doomed to undergo terrible suffering. Dreadful pen¬ 
alties are visited upon his companions, who have made 
themselves accomplices in his crime. The penalties are 
at last remitted in consequence of his repentance. When 
pity enters his heart he can pray, and the dead albatross, 
bound about his neck, falls off. The ship moves on 
and he returns to his home port. There he encounters 
a hermit to whom he relates his story. At certain 
times the agony of remorse returns and drives him on, 
like the Wandering Jew, from land to land, compelled 
to relate the tale of his suffering and crime as a warning 
to others, and as a lesson of love and charity towards 
all God’s creatures. The conception of this poem and 
the mystical imagery of the skeleton-ship are said to 
have been borrowed by Coleridge from a dream. 

Andrews, Joseph. The hero in a novel by tbe same 
name, written by Fielding, to ridicule Richardson’s 
“Pamela.” Fielding presents “Joseph Andrews” as a 
brother to the modest and prudish Pamela, and pictures 
him as a model young man. 

Androeclus and the Lion. A story of a runaway 
slave who befriended a lion, and was in turn befriended 
by the lion. This story is found in the “Gesta Roman- 
orum” and in “iEsop’s Fables.”. 



LITERATURE 


345 


Angelica. An infidel princess of exquisite beauty 
in Bojardo’s “Orland Innamorato” and Ariosto’s “Or¬ 
lando Furioso.” 

Angelus Domini. A prayer of the Roman Catholic 
Church, embodying a passage in Scripture beginning 
with those words. It was ordered by Pope John XXII., 
in 1326, to be repeated three times a day, morning, 
noon, and night, when the church-bell gives the people 
warning. 

An-tiph'o-lus of Eph'e-sus, An-tiph'o-lus of 
Syr'a-cuse. Twin brothers, sons to ACgeon and ^Emi¬ 
lia, in Shakespere’s “Comedy of Errors.” 

An-to'ni-o. (1) The “Merchant of Venice” in 
Shakespere’s play of that name, the friend to Bassanio, 
and the object of Shylock’s hatred. (2) The usurping 
Duke of Milan, and brother to Prospero, in Shakespere’s 
“Tempest.” (3) The father of Proteus, in Shakespere’s 
“Two Gentlemen of Verona.” (4) A minor character 
in Shakespere’s “Much Ado about Nothing.” (5) A 
sea-captain, friend to Sebastian, in Shakespere’s “.Twelfth 
Night.” 

Antony and Cleopatra. Historical tragedy by 
Shakespere which may be considered as a continuation 
of Julius Caesar. In the opening scene of Julius Caesar 
absolute power is lodged in one man. In the conclu¬ 
sion of Antony and Cleopatra a second Caesar is again 
in possession of absolute power and the entire Roman 
world is limited under one imperial ruler. There are 
four prominent characters in this play: Cleopatra, 
voluptuous, fascinating, gross in her faults, but great 
in the power of her affections; Octavius Caesar, cool, 
prudent, calculating, avaricious; Antony, quick, brave, 
reckless, prodigal; Enobarbus, a friend of Antony, at 
first jocular and blunt, but transformed by penitence 
into a grief-stricken man who dies in the bitterness of 
despair. 

Aonian Mount. Milton says his muse is to soar 
above “the Aonian Mount,” i. e., above the flight of 
fable and classic themes, because his subject was “Jeho¬ 
vah, lord of all.” 

Ap'e-man'tus. A churlish philosopher in Shake¬ 
spere’s play, “Timon of Athens.” 

Apocalypse. The Greek name of the last book of 
the New Testament, termed in English “Revelations.” 
It has been generally attributed to the Apostle St. John, 
but some wholly reject it as spurious. In the first 
centuries many churches disowned it, and in the Fourth 
Century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the 
council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in the 
year 1545. Most commentators suppose it to have been 
written after the destruction of Jerusalem, about A. D. 
96; while others assign it an earlier date. Its figures 
and symbols are impressive. 

Apocrypha. The word originally meant secret or 
hidden and it is said that the books of the Apocrypha 
are not found in either the Chaldean or the Hebrew 
language. These books were not in the Jewish canon, 
but they were received as canonical by the Catholic 
Church, by the Council of Trent. The apocryphal 
writings are ten in number: Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, 
Wisdom of Solomon, Tobit, Judith, two books of the 
Maccabees, Song of the Three Children, Susannah, and 
Bell and the Dragon. Their style proves that they 
were a part of the Jewish-Greek literature of Alexandria, 
within three hundred years before Christ; and as the 
Septuagint Greek version of the Hebrew Bible came 
from the same quarter, it was often accompanied by 
these Greek writings, and they gained a general circu¬ 
lation. No trace of them is found in the Talmud ; 
they are mostly of legendary character, but some of 
them are of value for the historical information, for 
their moral and maxims, and for the illustrations they 
give of ancient life. 

Apollyon. An evil spirit introduced by Bunyan in 
his allegorical romance, “Pilgrim’s Progress.” See 
Abaddon. 

Arabian Nights Entertainments, consisting of 
one thousand and one stories, told by the Sultana of 
the Indies to divert the Sultan from the execution of a 
bloody vow he had made to marry a lady every day 
and have her head cut off next morning, to avenge 
himself for the disloyalty of the first Sultana. The 
story on which all the others hang is familiar. Schehe- 
rezade, the generous, beautiful young daughter of the 
vizier, like another Esther, resolves to risk her life in 
order to save the poor maidens of her city whom the 
Sultan is marrying and beheading at the rate of one a 
day. She plans to tell an interesting story each night 
to the Sultan, breaking off in a very exciting place in 
order that the Sultan may be tempted to spare her life 
eo that he may hear the sequel. 


Ar'den, Enoch. The hero of Tennyson’s poem of 
the same name, a seaman who is wrecked on an unin¬ 
habited, tropical island, where he spends many years, 
and who returns home at last only to find that his wife, 
believing him to be dead, has married his old play¬ 
fellow and rival, and is prosperous and happy. In a 
spirit of heroic self-sacrifice, he determines not to un¬ 
deceive her, and soon dies of a broken heart. 

Ar'cher. Beaux* Stratagem, Farquhar. A serv¬ 
ant to Aimwell and an amusing fellow. 

Ar-chi-ma'go or Ar'chi-mage. Faery Queen, 
Spencer. As the name implies a hypocrite or deceiver. 
He is an enchanter in the “ Faery Queen,” and is opposed 
to holiness embodied in the Red Cross Knight. He 
wins the confidence of the knight in the disguise of a 
reverend hermit, and by the help of Duessa, or Deceit, 
separates him from Una, or Truth. 

Ar-ci'te. Palamon and Arcite, Chaucer. Pala- 
mon and Arcite in the first story told by Chaucer in his 
“Canterbury Tales.” Chaucer borrowed this story 
from Boccacio, who, in his turn, borrowed it from a more 
ancient mediaeval tale. Dryden later put the same 
story into verse. Dryden pronounced the word Ar'cite' 
or Ar-ci-te'. Arcite, a young Theban knight, made 
prisoner by Duke Thesus, is shut up in a prison in 
Athens with Palamon. Both the captives fall in love 
with Emily, the Duke’s sister-in-law. Both gain their 
liberty and Emily is promised by the duke to the one 
who wins in a tournament. Arcite wins but is killed 
by a fall from a horse and Emily marries Palamon. 
This story is better known through Dryden’s “Palamon 
and Arcite.” 

Ar-e-thu'sa. The name of a sylph in Pope’s “Rape 
of the Lock.” 

Argalia. Orlando Innamorato, Bojardo. A 

brother to Angelica in this romantic poem. He is 
celebrated as the possessor of an enchanted lance which 
threw whomsoever it touched. Ferrau eventually 
killed him, and Astolfo obtained the lance. 

Ar-mi'da. Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. The 
most important character in this poem. 

Ar-nolphe'. L’Ecole des Femmes, Moliere. 
A selfish and morose cynic. 

Ar'ga-lus. An unhappy lover in Sir Philip Sidney’s 
“ ArcadE.” 

Ar'gan. The hero of MolRre’s comedy “Le Malade 
Imaginaire.” 

Ar-ga-li'a. A brother to Angelica, in Bojardo’s 
“Orlando Innamorato.” He is celebrated as the pos¬ 
sessor of an enchanted lance which overthrew whom¬ 
soever it touched. 

A'ri-el. In the denomology of the Cabala, a water 
spirit; in the fables of the Middle Ages, a spirit of the 
air, the guardian angel of innocence; in Shakespere’s 
“Tempest,” an airy and tricksy spirit, once imprisoned 
in a tree but released by Prospero and now becomes his 
messenger, assuming any shape, or rendering himself 
invisible, in order to execute the commands of his master. 

Ar-i-o-dan'tes. A lover in Ariostos’ “.Orlando 
Furioso.” 

Armi'da. Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. A beau¬ 
tiful sorceress with whom Rinaldo fell in love. By a 
talisman he is disenchanted. Not being able to allure 
him back, Armida rushes into the midst of a combat 
and is slain. 

Ar'oun-dight. The sword of Lancelot of the Lake. 

Ar-sin'oe. Le Misanthrope, Moliere. A prudish 
character in this comedy. 

Ar'te-gal, also written Artegall, Arthegal, and 
Artegale. (1) A legendary king of Briton mentioned 
by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his chronicles and by 
Milton in his History of Britain. (2) A character in 
Spencer’s “Faery Queen” representing justice. (3) The 
hero in a poem by William Wordsworth, entitled “ Arte- 
gal and Elidore.” 

Arthur, King. A poetical character, based on his¬ 
torical traditions. The Arthur of the old Welsh bards 
was a warrior chieftain ruling over fierce and war-like 
tribes. Every generation of poets have added some¬ 
thing to this picture until the Arthur of modern romance 
is the Christian gentleman as Tennyson pictures him 
in his “Idylls of the King” surrounded by his chival¬ 
rous knights, all bound together in one quest, the 
Holy Grail. 

Arthurian Romances. These may be divided into 
six parts: (1) The romance of the “San Graal.” (2) 
“The Merlin,” which celebrates the birth and exploits 
of King Arthur. (3) “The Launcelot.” (4) The 
search or “Quest of the San Graal.” (5) The “Mort 
d’Arthur,” or death of Arthur. (6) “Sundry Tales.” 

Arthur’s Drinking-Horn. No one could drink 
from this horn who was either unchaste or unfaithful. 




346 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Arthur’s Sword, Escal'ibur or Excal'iber. Geoffrey 
calls it Caliburn, aud says it was made in the isle of 
Avallon, by Merlin. 

Arthur’s Round Table. It contained seats for 150 
knights. Three were reserved, two for honor, and one 
(called the “siege perilous”) for Sir Galahad, destined 
to achieve the quest of the Holy Grail. 

As'ca-part. The name of a giant whom Bevis of 
Southampton conquered. This is a favorite story of 
the old British romancers, The effigy of As'ca-part 
may be seen on the city gates of Southampton. He is 
said to have been thirty feet high, and to have carried 
Sir Bevis, his wife, and horse, under his arm. Allusions 
to him occur in Shakespere, Drayton, and other English 
poets. 

Ash'ton, Sir William. The Lord Keeper of Scot¬ 
land; a prominent character in Scott’s “.Bride of Lam- 
mermoor.” 

As'mo-de'us. In the Jewish demonology, an evil 
spirit, the demon of vanity, or dress. In modern times 
he has been spoken of as the destroying demon of matri¬ 
monial happiness. 

As-pa'ti-a. The unfortunate heroine of Beaumont 
and Fletcher’s play “The Maid’s Tragedy.” 

As'tolot. The home of Elaine in Tennyson’s “Idylls 
of the King.” 

As-tol'fo or As-tol'pho. A celebrated character 
in the romantic tales and poems founded upon the sup¬ 
posed adventures of Charlemange and his Paladins. 

As You Like It, a comedy by Shakespere. A French 
duke, driven from his dukedom by his brother, sought 
a refuge in the forest of Arden with a few of his followers. 
Here they lived a free and easy life. Rosalind, the 
daughter of the banished duke, remained at court 
with her cousin Celia. At a wrestling match Rosalind 
fell in love with Orlando, who threw his antagonist, a 
giant and professional athlete. The usurping duke 
(Frederick) now banished her from the court, but her 
cousin Celia resolved to go to Arden with her; so Rosa¬ 
lind, in boy’s clothes, and Celia, as a rustic maiden, started 
to find the deposed duke. Orlando being driven from 
home by his elder brother, also went to the forest of 
Arden, and was taken under the duke’s protection. 
Here he met the ladies, and a double marriage was the 
result — Orlando married Rosalind, and his elder 
brother Oliver married Celia. The usurper retired to 
a religious house, and the deposed duke was restored to 
his dominions. 

Ath'a-lie. Athalie, Racine. Daughter of A hah 
and Jezebel in Racine’s famous tragedy by this name. 

Auburn. The name of a village immortalized by 
Oliver Goldsmith in his “Deserted Village”; it has been 
identified with Lissoy, in Ireland, near Athlone. 

Au'drey. A country wench, in Shakespere’s “As 
You Like It.” 

Autol'ycus. The craftiest of thieves. He stole the 
flocks of his neighbors, and changed their marks. Si'sy- 
phus outwitted him by marking his sheep under their 
feet. Shakespere introduces him in “The Winter’s 
Tale ” as a peddler, and says he was called the son of 
Mercury. 

Av'a-lon, or A-vil'ion. The earthly paradise of 
the Britains. In Middle-Age romance, the name of an 
ocean island, and of a castle. It is represented as the 
abode of Arthur and Oberon and Morgan le Fay. It is 
most fully described in the old French romance of “Ogier 
le Danois.” It is the Island Kingdom to which King 
Arthur is finally borne by the mysterious barge in 
Tennyson’s “Passing of Arthur.” Some identify 
Avalon with the modern Glastonbury. 

Aver'nus. A lake in Campania so called from the 
belief that its vapors would kill all life. Poets call it 
the entrance to the infernal regions. 

Ay'mer, Prior. A Benedictine Monk, prior of Jor- 
vaulx Abbey, in Sir Walter Scott’s “Ivanhoe.” 

Ay'mon. A semi-mythical personage who figures 
in romances. 

Aza'zil. Paradise Lost, Milton. Represented 
in this poem as Satan’s standard bearer. According to 
the Koran, when God commanded the angels to worship 
Adam, Azazil replied, “Why should the son of fire fall 
down before a son of clay?” and God cast him out of 
heaven. 

A'zo. The name given by Byron to the Prince of 
Este, in his poem of “Parisina.” 

Az'rafll. In the Koran the archangel commis¬ 
sioned to blow the trumpet of the resurrection. 

Babes in the Wood. Wonderful Gent’s Last 
Will, Ancient Ballad. According to some authori¬ 
ties this old story in verse was founded on the deed of 
King Richard III., of England, who made his two young 
nephews prisoners in the Tower of London from which 
they disappeared. It was believed that they were mur¬ 


dered by his orders. A common tale, much liked by 
English children, in its many forms, grew from this 
ballad. Perhaps the best known was the one in which 
the lost babes were covered with leaves by the birds in 
the woods. 

Baboon, Lewis. History of John Bull, Arbuth- 
not. A name given to Louis XIV. of France. The 
name Philip Baboon was given in the same writing to 
Philip Bourbon, Duke of Anjou. 

Backbite, Sir Benjamin. School for Scandal, 
Sheridan. A vacantly busy man who peddled scandal. 

Bagstock, Joe. Dombey and Son, Dickens. The 
insistent and selfish “.J. B.,” “old J. B.,” and “Joey B.” 
of the story. 

Baillif, Harry. Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. 

The jolly landlord at Tabard Inn, where the Canterbury 
Pilgrims gathered in making ready for their journey. 

Balafre. Quentin Durward, Scott. Name given 
to an old archer belonging to the Scottish Guards. 

Balderstone, Caleb. Bride of Lammermoor, 
Scott. A bore and an intrusive buffoon whq tries to 
appear rich but lives in discomfort and often in hunger 
and want. His pretentions have often been laughingly 
quoted. 

Baldwin. Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. The 

brother of Godfrey of Bouillon. In the tale of “Rey¬ 
nard the Fox” the name, Baldwin, is given to one of the 
beasts. 


Balmawhapple. Waverly, Scott. An obstinate 

stupid-faced blundering Scotch laird. 

Balthazar. Comedy of Errors, Shakespere. 
A merchant ordered to furnish impossible merchandise. 
In “Much Ado About Nothing” Balthazar appears as 
servant to Don Pedro. Balthazar is also the name of 
one of the Wise Men who followed the star to Bethle¬ 
hem. 

Balwhidder. Annals of the Parish, Galt. A sin¬ 
cere, kind, talkative Scotch Presbyterian clergyman. 
With natural prejudices and old-fashioned ways he is 
too “easy” to carry on his parish work with zeal. His 
friends enjoy Balwhidder’s jokes. 

Banquo. Macbeth, Shakespere. A thane of 
Scotland said to belong to the Eleventh Century and 
ancestor of the Stuarts. In fiction made immortal as 
the innocent laird murdered by Macbeth. Banquo’s 
ghost is more famous than Banquo himself. 

Barabas. The Jew of Malta, Marlowe. A mon¬ 
ster, the hero of the tragedy, who wears a big nose and 
invents infernal machines. 

Bardell, Mrs. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. The 
landlady, a widow, who sues Mr. Pickwick for breach of 
promise«to marry her. 

Bard of Avon. Name given to Shakespere who was 
born and buried in Stratford-on-Avon. 

Bard of Ayrshire. A name often given to Robert 
Burns, the great poet of Scotland, who was a native and 
resident of the county of Ayr. 

Bard of Hope. A title sometimes given to Thomas 
Campbell, author of “The Pleasures of Hope,” one of the 
most beautiful didactic poems in the language. 

Bard of 3Iemory. A name used to designate the 
poet Rogers, author of “The Pleasures of Memory.” 

Bard of Rydal Mount. An epithet sometimes ap¬ 
plied to the poet Wordsworth, who resided at Rydal, a 
chapelry of England, in the County of Westmoreland. 
His dwelling overlooked a beautiful view of Lake 
Rydal. 

Bardolph. Merry Wives of Windsor, Shake¬ 
spere. A follower of Falstaff, known as “the knight of 
the burning lamp,” from his red nose. He is a poor, low¬ 
bred drunkard. 

Barkis. David Copperfield, Dickens. Remem¬ 
bered by the much-quoted “Barkis is walling,” his form 
of proposing marriage to his beloved Clara Pegotty. 

Barley-Corn, Sir John. Tam O’Shanter, Burns. 
Name given to the personification of a malt liquor 
made from barley. Sir Barley-corn has also been 
noticed by the authors Scott and Hawthorne. The 
name comes down to us from an old English pamphlet 
of uncertain date in which Sir John Barley-corn is 
arraigned in court, tried by jury and acquitted. 

Barnaby Rudge. Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. 
A half-witted lad who wanders about with a pet raven. 
They flit together through many adventures, including a 
No-popery riot. 

Basilisco. Soliman, and Perseda, old Play. 

A boasting knight who became so popular with his 
foolish bragging that his name grew into a proverb. 

Bassanio. Merchant of Venice, Shakespere. 
The lover of Portia who won her when he chose a leaden 
casket in which her portrait was hidden. 

Bath, Major. Amelia, Henry Fielding. A noble- 
minded gentleman, pompous in spite of poverty, and 



LITERATURE 


347 


striving to live according to the “dignity and honor of 
man.” He tries to hide his poverty under bold speech 
even when found doing menial service. 

Battle, Sarah. Essays of Elia, Lamb. Sarah 
considered whist the business of life and literature one 
of the relaxations. When a young gentleman, of a liter¬ 
ary turn, said to her he had no objection to unbend his 
mind for a little time by taking a hand with her, Sarah 
declared “Whist was her life business; her duty; the 
thing she came into the world to do. She unbent her 
mind afterwards over a book.” 

Bayard. Old Poems and Romances. Bayard 
was a famous horse belonging to the four sons of Amyon, 
a semi-mythical character. He seemed but an ordinary 
horse when one person rode, but if the four mounted, the 
horse accommodatingly grew in length. Among won¬ 
derful things related of him his hoof-prints have been 
found on rocks and in deep forests. Bayard is also 
known as the property of Amadis de Gaul in an old 
Portuguese romance. He was found under the watch of 
a dragon whom a wizard knight charmed and then 
rescued the horse. In French tales Bayard is repre¬ 
sented to be yet living in some of the forests of France 
but disappears when disturbed. Bayard is also the 
name of the.horse belonging to Fitz-James in Scott’s 
poem, “Lady-of-the-Lake. “Bayardo’s Leap” belongs 
to this story. It is said that Rinaldo was riding on his 
favorite steed, when a demon sprang behind him, but 
the animal in terror took three tremendous leaps and 
unhorsed the fiend. 

Bayes. The Rehearsal, George Villiers. This 
farce, or satire, was written about the year 1670 and its 
wit has been much quoted. In its present form the hero, 
Bayes, is intended to represent Dryden as at the head of 
heroic rhymes. He is shown as greedy for applause; 
impatient of censure or criticism; inordinately vain, yet 
obsequious to those who, he hopes, will gratify him by 
returning his flattery, and, finally, as anxiously mindful 
of the minute parts of what, even in the whole, is scarce 
worthy of attention. 

Beatrice. Divine Comedy, Dante. Daughter of 
an illustrious family of Florence for whom Dante had 
a great love. In his poem she is represented as being his 
guide through paradise. Beatrice is also the name of 
the heroine of Shakespere’s “Much Ado About Nothing.” 
Of her Mrs. Jameson says: “The extraordinary success 
of this play in Shakespere’s own day, and ever since, 
in England, is to be ascribed more particularly to 
the parts of Benedict and Beatrice, two humorsome 
beings, who incessantly attack each other with all the 
resources of raillery. In Beatrice, high intellect and 
high animal spirits meet, and excite each other like 
fire and air. In her wit there is a touch of insolence, 
not infrequent in women when the wit predominates 
over reflection and imagination. In her temper, too, 
there is a slight infusion of the termagant. But Bea¬ 
trice, though willful, is not wayward; she is volatile, 
not unfeeling.” 

Beauty and the Beast. Fairy Tale, Ime. Ville- 

neuve. Oft-repeated in stories for children. Beauty 
and the Beast are known in many forms. In the original 
tale young and lovely Beauty saved the life of her father 
by putting herself in the power of a frightful, but kind- 
hearted, monster, whose respectful affection and deep 
melancholy finally overcame her aversion to his hideous¬ 
ness, and induced her to consent to marry him. By her 
love Beast was set free from enchantment and allowed 
to anume his own form, a handsome and graceful young 
prince. 

Bede, Adam. Adam Bede, George Eliot. An 
ideal workman, hero of the novel. 

Bedivere. Tales of the Round Table. Bedivere 
was the last knight of King Arthur’s Round Table. He 
had served as a butler, was of much importance and was 
sent by the dying king to throw his sword, Excalibar, 
into the lake. A hand and arm rose from the lake, 
caught the sword, flourished it three times and sank. 
Bedivere watched King Arthur’s departure for Avalon, 
the “Isle of the Blest.” This knight is noticed, under 
the name Bedver, in Geoffry’s British History. 

Beggar’s Daughter. Reliques, Percy. First 
known as the Beggar’s daughter of Bethnal Green, a 
beautiful girl named Bessie, who is wooed by a knight, 
and whose father turns out to be a son of Simon de Mont- 
ford, living in disguise as a blind beggar. The story was 
dramatized by Sheridan Knowles. 

Belch, Sir Tony. Twelfth Night, Shakespere. 
Uncle to Olivia, a jolly, care-free fellow, type of the 
roisterers of Queen Elizabeth’s days. 

Belinda. Rape of the Lock, Pope. Poetical name 
of the heroine whose real name was said to be Arabella 
Fermor. In a frolic Lord Petre cut a lock from the 
lady’s hair, this was so much resented that it broke the 


great friendship between the two families. The poem, 
“Rape of the Lock,” was written to bring the people 
into a better temper and lead to reconciliation. Belinda 
is also the name of the heroine in a novel written by 
Maria Edgeworth. 

Bell, Adam. Old Ballad. A famous wild outlaw 
belonging to the north country and celebrated for his 
skill as an archer. 

Bell, Laura. Pendennis, Thackeray. One of the 

sweetest heroines in English Literature. 

Bell-man. L’Allegro, Milton. The watchman 
who patrolled the streets and called out the hour of night. 
Sometimes he repeated scraps of pious poetry in order to 
charm away danger. 

Bell, Peter. Peter Bell, a Tale in verse, Words¬ 
worth. A wandering tinker, subject of Wordsworth’s 
poem, whose hard heart was touched by the fidelity of an 
ass to its dead master. Shelley wrote a burlesque of this 
poem, entitled “Peter Bell the Third,” intended to ridi¬ 
cule the ludicrous puerility of language and sentiment 
which Wordsworth often affected. This burlesque was 
given the name of the Third because it followed a parody, 
already published as “Peter the Second.” 

Bell-the-Cat. Name given to a nobleman at Lauder, 
Scotland, early in the Sixteenth Century. King James II. 
called an assembly of Scottish barons to resist a threat¬ 
ened invasion of his realm by Edward IV., of England. 
After long discussion one of the barons related the nur¬ 
sery tale of a convention of mice in which it was proposed 
to hang a bell on the cat’s neck, to give warning of her 
presence. No one would serve on the Mouse Committee. 
To the story Archibald Douglas responded by saying 
“I will bell the cat” and was afterward known by the 
name, Bell-the-cat. 

Beloved Physician. Bible. Name given to St. 
Luke and first suggested in the Apostle Paul’s letter to 
the Colossians. 

Belphoebe. Faery Queen, Spencer. A delicate 
and graceful flattery offered to Queen Elizabeth through 
the huntress, Belphoebe, intended as a likeness of the 
Queen. The name taken from belle, meaning beautiful, 
and Phoebe, a name sometimes bestowed on Diana. 

Belvawney, Miss. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. 
She belonged to the wonderful Portsmouth theater, 
always took the part of a page and gloried in silk stock¬ 
ings. 

Belvidera. Venice Preserved, Otway. The beau¬ 
tiful heroine of the almost forgotten tragedy. Sir Wal¬ 
ter Scott said “more tears have been shed, probably,for 
the sorrows of Belvidera and Moninia than for those of 
Juliet and Desdemona.” 

Benedick. Much Ado About Nothing, Shake¬ 
spere. A young lord of Padua who is gentleman, wit, 
and soldier. He was a pronounced bachelor, but after 
a courtship full of witty sayings and coquetry he marries 
the lovely Beatrice. From this gentleman comes the 
name Benedick or Benedict, applied to married men who 
were not going to marry. 

Benengeli, Cid Hamet. Don Quixote, Cervan¬ 
tes. Supposed to be a writer of chronicles among the 
Moors and claimed as authority for the tales of adventure 
recorded by Cervantes. The name, Cid Hamet, has been 
often quoted by writers. 

Ben Hur, General Lew Wallace. Messala, the 
Roman playmate and young friend of Ben Hur, after¬ 
ward became his remorseless enemy. Ambitious, hard, 
and cruel, when he came into power he made Ben Hur 
a galley slave, confiscated his property and imprisoned 
the mother and sister. Ben Hur escaped, returned 
later as a wealthy Roman, and entered in the famous 
chariot race against Messala who had put up enormous 
sums in wagers. Messala recognized Ben Hur and 
hoped to win the race and bring him to final ruin ; but 
Messala himself was thrown and seriously injured. 
His cruelties were made known and he was at last slain 
by his wife, Isas, the daughter of Balthasar. 

Bennet, Mrs. Amelia, Fielding. An improper 
character. 

Benvolio. Romeo and Juliet, Shakespere. One 

of Romeo’s friends who would “quarrel with a man 
that had a hair more or a hair less in his beard than he 
had.” Mercutio says to him, “Thou hast quarreled 
with a man for coughing in the street.” 

Beowulf. Anglo-Saxon Poem. He was a Gothic 
warrior who slew the monster Grendel, which infested the 
great hall of Hrothgar, King of the West Danes. This 
great poem of over 6,000 lines is divided into two parts. 
The first part describes the beautiful palace of King 
Hrothgar, the ravages wrought by the fiend Grendel 
and his mother, and the deliverance wrought by the 
hero Beowulf. The second part describes the combat 
between the aged King Beowulf and the dragon which 
was wasting the land of the Goths. The Beowulf who 



348 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


took part in Hygelac’s historical expedition against the 
Hetware is probably historical, but the Beowulf of the 
four great exploits of the poem, the swimming match 
with Breca, and the contests with Grendel, with his 
dam, and with the dragon, is probably a character 
allied to the Norse divinities. 

Bertram. Guy Mannering, Scott. The character 
was suggested by James Annesley, Esq., rightful heir of 
the earldom of Anglesey, of which he was dispossessed by 
his uncle Richard. He died in 1743. Bertram was also 
the name of the haughty and dissolute count, husband 
of Helena in Shakespere’s comedy “.All’s Well that Ends 
Well.” 

Bianca. Othello, Shakespere. Cassio’s sweetheart. 

Biblio'mancy, a mode of divination much practiced 
during many ages. The diviner opened the Bible 
and observed the first passage which occurred or upon 
entering a place of worship took notice of the first words 
of the Bible heard after entering. The application was 
often very fanciful, and depended rather upon the mere 
sound of the words than upon their proper signification, 
or the scope of the passage. Prayer and fasting were 
sometimes used as a preparation for a mode of consulting 
the divine oracles, than which nothing could be more 
contrary to their purpose and spirit, and which was in 
harmony only with the notions and practices of hea¬ 
thenism. 

Biblioma'nia, signifies book-madness. It is a pas¬ 
sion for rare and curious books. While the ordinary 
collector is satisfied with the possession of works which 
are valuable, either on account of their established 
reputation or as assisting him in his literary or profes¬ 
sional pursuits, the bibliomaniac is actuated by other 
motives. With him utility is of secondary importance, 
rarity being the first and great requisite. Thus even 
a common book becomes valuable in his eyes if it be 
one of a few copies thrown off on vellum or on large 

£ aper, or if it has been bound by Derome, Bozerian, 
ewis, or Payne; and for the same reason, he some¬ 
times prefers an inferior to a better article. The forma¬ 
tion of complete sets of such books as the “ Elzevir 
Republics” (see Elzevir), or of the works of a single 
author, provided they be scarce, is a favorite pursuit 
with many. 

Bigendians. Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. The 
name of a religious party in the imaginary Empire of 
Lilliput who made it a matter of duty and conscience to 
break their eggs at the large end. They were regarded 
as heretics by the law, which required all persons to break 
the smaller end of their eggs, under pain of heavy penal¬ 
ties in case of disobedience. 

Bilfll. Tom Jones, Fielding. Allworthy’s nephew, 
a talebearer. 

Birch, Harvey. The Spy, Cooper. The chief 
character of the novel. 

Black-eyed Susan. Ballad, John Gay. The 

heroine of the popular sea-song. 

Blatant Beast. Faery Queen, Spenser. A bel¬ 
lowing monster typical of slander; or, an impersonation 
of what we now call'“.Vox Populi,” or the “.Voice of the 
People.” 

Blimber, Miss Cornelia. Dombey and Son, Dick¬ 
ens. The daughter of Dr. Blimber, the head of a first- 
class educational establishment conducted on the forcing 
or cramming principle. She is a very learned, grave, 
and precise young lady, “no light nonsense about her,” 
who has become “dry and sandy with working in the 
graves of deceased languages.” 

Blouzalinda. Shepherd’s Week, John Gay. 
The country girl, heroine of this pastoral poem, written 
more than one hundred and fifty years ago, but quoted 
as a picture of the poverty and rudeness of rural life at 
that time. 

Bobadil, Captain. Every Man in His Humor, 
Jonson. A boasting coward, who passes himself off 
With young and simple people for a Hector. 

Boeuf, Front de. Ivanhoe, Scott. One of King 
John’s followers. A ferocious scoundrel. 

Bois Guilbert, Brian de. Ivanhoe, Scott. A 
brave but cruel, crafty, and dissolute commander of the 
Knights Templar. 

Boniface. The Beaux’ Stratagem, Farquhar. 

A fine representation of an English landlord. Hence 
applied to landlords generally. 

Bontemps, Roger. Song, Beranger. Known in 
France as the personification of care-free leisure. The 
equivalent, among the French peasantry, for the English 
proverb, “There’s a good time coming,” is “Roger Bon¬ 
temps.” This one of Beranger’s most celebrated songs 
was written in 1814. 

Bottom, Nick. A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 
Shakespere. A man who fancies he can do every¬ 
thing, and do it better than anyone else. Shakespere 


has drawn him as profoundly ignorant, and with an over¬ 
flow of self-conceit. Oberon, the fairy king, desiring to 
unish Titania, his queen, commissioned Puck to watch 
er till she fell asleep, and then to annoint her eyelids 
with the juice of a plant called “love-in-idleness,” the 
effect of which, when she awoke, was to make her dote 
upon Bottom, upon whom Puck had fixed an ass’s head. 

Bowling, Tom. Roderick Random, Smollett. 
A name made almost famous as hero of the novel. 
Critics have said “The character of Tom Bowling, in 
‘Roderick Random,’ will be regarded in all ages as a 
happy exhibition of those naval heroes to whom Britain 
is indebted for so much of her happiness and glory.” 
The Tom Bowling referred to in Dibdin’s famous sea- 
song was Captain Thomas Dibdin, brother of Charles 
Dibdin, who wrote the song. 

Box and Cox. Farce, Morton. Principal charac¬ 
ters in the farce known as a “dramatic romance of real 
life.” 

Brag, Jack. Jack Brag, Theodore Hook. Hero 

of the novel and a spirited embodiment of the arts em¬ 
ployed by a vulgar pretender to creep into aristocratic 
society, and of his ultimate discomfiture. General Bur- 
goyne figures in an old ballad known as “Sir Jack Brag.” 

Bramble, Matthew. Humphrey Clinker, Smol¬ 
lett. Noted character in the novel described as “an odd 
kind of humorist,” afflicted with the gout, and “always 
on the fret,” but full of generosity and benevolence. 

Brass, Sally, and Sampson. Old Curiosity Shop, 
Dickens. Brother and sister, well mated, he a shyster- 
ing lawyer and she getting ahead of him in villany. 
Sampson was dishonest, sentimental, and affected in 
manner, and both are interesting characters to read about. 

Brentford, the two Kings of. The Rehearsal, 
Villiers. Much question has been raised as to who was 
to be ridiculed under these characters. The royal 
brothers, Charles II. and James II., have been suggested, 
others say the fighting Kings of Granada. In the farce 
the two kings are represented as walking hand in hand, 
as dancing together, as singing in concert, and, generally, 
as living on terms of the greatest intimacy and affection. 

Brick, Mr. Jefferson. Martin Chuzzlewit, Dick¬ 
ens. A ranting American politician who makes a ridic¬ 
ulous figure as editor. 

Brook Farm. The full name was “Brook Farm 
Institute of Agriculture and Education,” a stock com¬ 
pany of nearly 70 members, located on a farm of 200 
acres at West Roxbury, Mass. Among the members 
were George Ripley, Charles A. Dana, George William 
Curtis, Margaret Fuller and Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
Among their frequent visitors were Ralph Waldo Emer¬ 
son, Theodore Parker, Bronson Alcott. This idyllic life 
lasted about five years, from 1841 to 1846. Brook 
Farm was a financial failure but it was important in 
intellectual results. Hawthorne has written the story 
of the experiment in “ Blithedale Romance.” 

Brown, Tom. Tom Brown’s School Days and 
Tom Brown at Oxford, Thomas Hughes. The hero 
of these stories of school days, a typical English school¬ 
boy and undergraduate. 

Brunehild. Nibelungen-lied. The story of Brune- 
hild holds large place in ancient German romance. She 
was, herself, a warrior, proud and skillful and she prom¬ 
ised to be the bride of the man who could conquer her in 
three trials, in hurling the lance, in throwing the stone, 
and in leaping after the stone when thrown. By the arts 
and bravery of Siegfried, she was deluded into marrying 
Gunther, King of Burgundy; but, discovering the trick, 
she planned and accomplished the destruction of Sieg¬ 
fried, and the humiliation of Chriemhild, his wife. 

Bumble, Mr. Oliver Twist, Dickens. A pompous, 
disagreeable beadle who figures largely in the beginning 
of the story. The name, Bumble, has since attached 
itself to the office. 

Bunthorne. Patience, Sullivan. A gloomy poet 
showing most distinctly in his gloom surrounded by the 
characters of a comic opera. He was inserted as a satire 
on the aesthetic craze, turning into ridicule the imitators 
of Rosetti. 

Bunsby, Jack. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A 

commander of a ship looked up to as an oracle by his 
friend Captain Cuttle. He is described as wearing a 
“rapt and imperturbable manner,” and seeming to be 
“always on the lookout for something in the extremest 
distance.” 

Burchell, Mr. Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. 

A prominent character who passes himself off as a poor 
man, but is really a baronet in disguise. He is noted 
for his habit of crying out “Fudge! ” by way of express¬ 
ing his strong contempt for the opinions of others. 

Kurd, Helen. Scotch Ballad. A traditional name 
standing for constancy. She was carried to England by 
fairies and imprisoned in a castle. The youngest brother 



LITERATURE 


349 


of the fair Burd Helen was guided by the enchanter 
Merlin and accomplished the perilous task of rescuing 
his sister. This is recited in the line “Childe Roland to 
the dark tower came,” quoted by Shakespere. Only a 
fragment of the old ballad has been preserved. 

Buskin. Tragedy. The Greek tragic actors used 
to wear a sandal some two or three inches thick, to 
elevate their stature. To this sole was attached a very 
elegant buskin. 

Buz-Fuz, Serjeant. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. 

A pompous, chaffing lawyer, who bullies Mr. Pickwick 
and the witnesses in the famous breach of promise suit, 
Bardell vs. Pickwick. 

Byfield. A New England parish the scene of an 
historical novel by John Lewis Ewell. Here lived the 
ancestor of Longfellow, to whom the poet dedicated 
‘‘ The Village Blacksmith,” himself a blacksmith, keeping 
his accounts in peculiar orthography. According to the 
deed of sale in 1681, the Byfield Indians got a larger 
price from the first English settlers than was paid for 
Manhattan Island. 

Cab'ala. The oral law of the Jews delivered down 
from father to son by word of mouth. It is the usual 
belief that God instructed Moses, and Moses his brother 
Aaron, and so on from age to age. 

Cabalistic Science. This science consists mainly 
in understanding the combination of certain letters, 
words, and numbers, said to be significant. 

Cadme'an Victory. A victory purchased at great 
expense of life. The allusion is to the armed men who 
sprang out of the ground from the teeth of the dragon 
sown by Cadmus. These men fell foul of each other, 
and only five of them escaped death. 

Cai'us, Doctor. Merry Wives of Windsor. 
Shakespere. A physician in the comedy who adds 
a touch of humor. He is most conspicuous as the lover 
of Anne Page. 

Calandri'no. A simpleton frequently introduced 
in Boccaccio’s “Decameron”; expressly made to be 
befooled and played upon. His mishaps, as Macaulay 
states, “have made all Europe merry for more than four 
centuries.” 

Ca'leb. (1) The enchantress who carried off St. 
George in infancy. (2) A character in Dryden’s satire 
of “Absalom and Achitophel,” meant for Lord Grey, one 
of the adherents of the Duke of Monmouth. 

Ca'leb Quo'tem. A parish clerk or jack-of-all-trades, 
in Coleman’s play “The Review, or Ways of Windsor.” 
Coleman borrowed the character from “.Throw Physic to 
the Dogs,” an old farce. 

Cal'i-ban. A savage and deformed slave of Pros- 
ero in Shakespere’s “Tempest.” He is represented as 
eing the “freckled whelp” of Sycorax, a foul hag, who 
was banished from Argier (or Algiers) to the desert 
island afterward inhabited by Prospero. From his rude, 
uncouth language we get the phrase “Caliban style,” 
“Caliban speech,” meaning the coarsest possible use of 
words. 

Cal'l-dore. A knight in Spenser’s “Faery Queen,” 
typical of courtesy, and said to be intended for a portrait 
of Sir Philip Sidney. 

Ca-lis'ta. The name of a celebrated character in 
Rowe’s “Fair Penitent.” 

Callip'olis, Battle of Alcazar. George Peele. 

A character in the “Battle of Alcazar,” used by Sir Wal¬ 
ter Scott and others as a synonym for lady-love, sweet¬ 
heart, charmer. Sir Walter always spells the word 
Callipolis, but Peele calls it Calipolis. 

Caly-'don. A forest celebrated in the romances 
relating to King Arthur and Merlin. 

Camaral'zaman, Prince. Arabian Nights. One 
of the stories of the Arabian Nights and the name of a 
prince who fell in love with Badou'ra, Princess of China, 
the moment he saw her. 

Ca-ma'cho. Don Quixote, Cervantes. A charac¬ 
ter in an episode in “Don Quixote,” who gets cheated 
out of his bride after having made great preparations for 
their wedding. 

Cam'ba-lo, or Cam'bel. Faery Queen, Spenser. 
A brother of Candace. He challenged every suitor to 
his sister’s hand, and overthrew all except Tri'amond, 
who married the lady. 

Cam'ba-lu. In the “Voyages” of Marco Polo the 
chief city of the province of Cathay. 

Cam'buscan'. A Tartar king identical with Genghis 
Khan. The King of the far East sent Cambuscan, a 
“steed of brass, which, between sunrise and sunset, w r ould 
carry its rider to any spot on the earth.” All that was 
required was to whisper the name of the place in the 
horse’s ear, mount upon his back, and turn a pin set in 
his ear. When the rider had arrived at the place re¬ 
quired, he had to turn another pin, and the horse in¬ 
stantly descended, and, with another screw of the pin, 


vanished till it was again required. This story is begun 
by Chaucer in the “Squire’s Tale,” but was never 
finished. 

Cam'e-lot. A parish in Somersetshire, England 
(now called Queen’s Camel), where King Arthur is said 
to have held his court. In this place there are still to 
be seen vast intrenchments of an ancient town or station 
— called by the inhabitants “King Arthur’s Palace.” 

Ca'mille'. A member of the Parisian demimonde 
and the heroine of a play dramatized from the novel of 
“La Dame aux Camelias,” by Alexander Dumas, the 
younger. 

Can'a-ce. Faery Queen, Spenser. A paragon 
among women, the daughter of King Cambuscan to 
whom the King of the East sent as a present a mirror 
and a ring. The mirror would tell the lady if any man 
on whom she set her heart would prove true or false, and 
the ring (which was to be worn on her thumb) would 
enable her to understand the language of birds and to 
converse with them. Can'ace was courted by a crowd 
of suitors, but her brother gave out that anyone who 
pretended to her hand must encounter him in single 
combat and overthrow him. She ultimately married 
Tri'amond, son of the fairy Ag'ape. _ 

Can-dide'. The hero of Voltaire’s novel so called. 
All sorts of misfortunes are heaped upon him, and he 
bears them all with philosophical indifference. 

Cani'idia. A sorceress, alluded to by Horace, who 
could bring the moon from Leaven. 

Candor, Mrs. A most energetic slanderer in Sheri¬ 
dan’s “School for Scandal.” 

Ca'ora. Description of Guiana, Raleigh. A 
river, on the banks of which are a people whose heads 
grow beneath their shoulders. Their eyes are in their 
shoulders, and their mouths in the middle of their 
breasts. The original picture is found in Hakluyt’s 
“Voyages” 1598. 

Cap'u-let. The head of a noble Veronese house in 
Shakespere’s tragedy of “Romeo and Juliet,” —- hostile 
to the house of Montague. He is at times self-willed and 
tyrannical, but a jovial and testy old man. 

Cap'u-let, Lady. The proud and stately wife of 
Capulet, and mother of Juliet. 

Carad'oc. A Knight of the Round Table. Also in 
history, the British chief whom the Romans called Carac- 
tacus. Caradoc is the hero of an old ballad entitled 
“The Boy and the Mantle.” 

Carker. A scoundrelly clerk in Dickens’s “Dombey 
and Son.” 

Car'ton, Sidney. A hero transformed by unselfish 
love in Dickens’s “Tale of Two Cities.” He voluntarily 
goes to the guillotine to save his successful rival in love. 

Car-ras'co, Sanson. A waggish bachelor of Sala¬ 
manca, in Cervantes’ romance, “Don Quixote.” 

Cas'ca. Julius Caesar, Shakespere. A blunt- 
witted Roman, one of the conspirators against Julius 
Caesar. 

Cas-san'dra. A daughter of Priam, King of Troy, 
gifted with the power of prophecy; but Apollo, whom 
she had offended, brought it to pass that no one believed 
her predictions. Shakespere makes use of this character 
in “Troilus and Cressida.” 

Ca-sel'la. The name of a musician and old friend 
of Dante, immortalized by him in his poem “La Divina 
Commedia.” 

Cassib'elan. Great-uncle to Cymbeline, in Shakes¬ 
pere’s play by that name. 

Cas'si-o. A Florentine and lieutenant of Othello, 
and a tool of Iago, in Shakespere’s tragedy of “Othello.” 
Iago made Cassio drunk, and then set on Roderi'go to 
quarrel with him. Cassio wounded Roderigo. Othello 
suspended Cassio, but Iago induced Desdemo'na to 
plead for his restoration. This interest in Cassio, con¬ 
firmed the jealous rage of Othello to murder Desde- 
mona and kill himself. After 'the death of Othello, 
Cassio was appointed governor of Cypreus. 

Castle Dangerous. A keep belonging to the Doug¬ 
las family, which gives its name to one of Sir Walter 
Scott’s “Tales of my Landlord.” It was so called by 
the English because it was always retaken from them 
by the Douglas. 

Castle of Indolence. The title of a poem by Thom¬ 
son, and the name of a castle described in it as situated 
in a pleasing land of drowsiness, where every sense was 
steeped in the most luxurious and enervating delights. 

Cas'tlewood, Beatrix. The heroine of Thackeray’s 
novel “Henry Esmond,” a picture of splendid, lustrous, 
physical beauty. 

Caudle, Mrs. Margaret. The feigned author of a 
series of curtain lectures delivered to her husband, Job 
Caudle, who was a patient sufferer under this form of 
persistent nagging by his wife. The real author of these 
humorous lectures was Douglas Jerrold. 



350 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Cauline, Sir. The hero of an ancient English ballad 
preserved in Percy’s “Reliques.” 

Cave of Mammon. The abode of the god of riches, 
described in the second book of Spenser’s “Faery 
Queen.” 

Cax'ton, Pi-sis'tra-tus. The hero of Bulwer 
Lytton’s novel “The Caxtons,” and of its sequel “My 
Novel.” 

Ce-cil'ia, St. A patron saint of the blind, also pat¬ 
roness of musicians, and “inventor of the organ.” 
According to tradition, an angel fell in love with her for 
her musical skill, and used nightly to visit her. A crown 
of martyrdom was bestowed both upon her and her hus¬ 
band. Dryden and Pope have written odes in her honor, 
and both speak of her charming an angel by her musical 
powers. 

Ced'ric* A Saxon thane in Scott’s “Ivanhoe.” 

Ce'lia. Faery Queen, Spenser. (1) Mother of 
Faith, Hope, and Charity. She was herself known as 
Heavenliness and lived in the hospices Holiness. (2) 
Celia, cousin to Rosalind in Shakespere’s Comedy “As 
You Like It.” Celia is a common poetical name for a 
lady or a lady-love. 

Ceph'alus and Procris. Cephalus was the husband 
of Procris, who, out of jealousy, deserted him. Cephalus 
went in search of her, and rested awhile under a tree. 
Procris discovered him, and crept through some bushes 
to ascertain if a rival was with him. Cephalus heard 
the noise and, thinking it to be made by some wild beast, 
hurled his javelin into the bushes and slew Procris. 
When the unhappy man discovered what he had done, 
he slew himself in anguish of spirit with the same javelin. 
This story is alluded to in “Pyramus and Thisbe,” in 
Shakespere’s “Midsummer Night’s Dream,” where they 
are humorously miscalled “Shafalus and Procus.” 

Chad'band, The Rev. A clerical character in 
Dickens’ “Bleak House.” He will always stand as a 
type of hypocritical piety. 

Chan'ticleer. The cock, in the tale of “Reynard 
the Fox.” and in Chaucer’s “Nonne Prestes Tale.” 

Char'lemagne. The romance of Charlemagne and 
his Paladins is of French origin, as the romances of 
King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is of 
Celtic or Welsh origin. According to one tradition 
Charlemagne is not dead, but waits crowned and armed, 
in Odenberg, near Saltzburg, till the time of antichrist, 
when he will wake up and deliver Christendom. Accord¬ 
ing to another tradition, Charlemagne appears in seasons 
of plenty. He crosses the Rhine on a golden bridge, 
and blesses both corn-fields and vineyards. 

Char'mi-an. A kind-hearted but simple-minded 
female attendant on Cleopatra in Shakespere’s play of 
“Antony and Cleopatra.” 

Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. The plan of the 
“Canterbury Tales ” affords artistic scope for introducing 
a company of pilgrims on their way to the shrine of 
Thomas a Becket. It represents all classes of society 
and presents a series of tales of great interest set in the 
midst of beautiful descriptions of nature. The stories 
best worth reading are: “The Clerk’s Tale” (Griseldis); 
“The Knight’s Tale” (Palamon and Arcite); “The 
Man of Law’s Tale” (Constance); “The Prioress’s 
Tale” (Hugh of Lincoln); “The Priest’s Tale” (Chanti¬ 
cleer and Pertelote). 

Chery and Fair-Star. Countess d’Auluoy’s 
Fairy Tales. Two children of royal birth, whom their 
father’s brothers and their mother’s sisters cast out 
to sea; they are found and brought up by a Corsair and 
his wife. Ultimately they are told of their birth by a 
green bird and marry each other. A similar tale is 
found in “The Arabian Nights.” 

Cheer'y-ble Brothers, The. A firm of benevolent 
London merchants in Dickens’ “Nicholas Nickleby.” 

Chev'y Chase. The subject and the title of an 
famous old English ballad. The event which is com¬ 
memorated is probably the battle of Otterburn, which 
happened in August, 1388, but it is impossible to recon¬ 
cile the incidents of the poem with history. 

Chib'iabas. The musician in Longfellow’s “Hia¬ 
watha,” personifying harmony in nature. 

Childe Harold. Childe, so often used in old 
English ballads, is a title of honor as “Childe Harold,” 
“Childe of Ellechilde Waters,” “Childe Roland,” “Childe 
Tristram,” “Childe Arthur,” etc. In Byron’s poem 
“Childe Harold,” the “Childe” is the poet himself 
represented as a man, sated of the world roaming from 
place to place. In canto I., he visits Portugal and 
Spain; in canto II., Turkey in Europe; in canto III., 
Belgium and Switzerland; and in canto IV., Venice, 
Rome, and Florence. 

Children in the Wood. Two characters in an 
ancient and well-known ballad entitled "The Children 
in the Wood, or The Norfolk Gent’s Last Will and Testa¬ 


ment.” This is said to be a disguised recital of the 
alleged murder of his nephews by Richard III. This is 
the story as related in Percy’s “Reliques.” The master 
of Wayland Hall, Norfolk, on his deathbed left a little 
son, three years old, and a still younger daughter, named 
Jane, to the care of his wife’s brother. If the children 
died before they came to their majority, their uncle was 
to inherit their estate. After twelve months had elapsed, 
the uncle hired two ruffians to murder the two babes. As 
they went along one of the ruffians relented, and killed 
his fellow; then, putting down the children in a wood, 
left them. The poor babes gathered blackberries to 
allay their hunger, but died during the night, and “Robin 
Redbreast” covered them over with strawberry leaves. 
Addison says of the ballad referred to, that it is “one of 
the darling songs of the common people.” 

ChilTingly, Kenelm. The hero in a novel by this 
name by Bulwer. 

Chin-gach'gook. A sagamore of the Mohicans, and 
father of Uncas, in Cooper’s “Leather-Stocking Tales.” 

Chlo'e, Daphins and Chloe Longue. (1) The 
shepherdess loved by Daphne. (2) “Paul and Vir¬ 
ginia” by St. Pierre is founded on this romance. (3) 
Chloe is also a shepherdess in Shakespere’s “As You 
Like It.” 

Chce'reas. The lover of Callir'rhoe, in Cha'riton’s 
Greek romance. 

Chriemhild or Chriemhilde. The heroine of the 
German epic poem, the “ Nibelungen Lied.” She is repre¬ 
sented as a woman of the rarest grace and beauty, and 
rich beyond conception. By the treacherous murder of 
her husband she is transformed into a furious creature 
of revenge. For plot of this epic cycle, see Kreimhild. 

Chris'ta-bel. (1) The subject and heroine of an 
old romance by Sir Eglamour of Artois. (2) The hero¬ 
ine of an ancient ballad “Sir Cauline.” (3) The lady 
in Coleridge’s poem “Christabel.” 

Chris'tian. The hero of John Bunyan’s allegory 
"Pilgrim’s Progress.” He flees from the “City of De¬ 
struction,” and journeys to the “Celestial City.” He 
starts with a heavy burden on his back, but it falls off 
when he stands at the foot of the cross. All his trials 
on the way are depicted. 

Christian'a. The wife of Christian, who started 
with her children and Mercy from the “City of Destruc¬ 
tion” forms the subject of Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Prog¬ 
ress,” part II. She was placed under the guidance of 
Mr. Great-Heart, and met her husband at the Celestial 
City. 

Christopher, St. The giant that carried a child 
over a brook, and said, “Chylde, thou hast put me in 
grete peryll. I might bere no greater burden.” The 
Chylde was the Christ and the burden was the “Sin of 
the world.” This has been a favorite theme for painters. 

Chris'tus, a Mystery. A dramatic triology by 
Henry W. Longfellow: Part I, “Divine Tragedy.” 
Part II, “The Golden Legend”; Part III, “New Eng¬ 
land Tragedies.” 

Chrysalde. A character in Molifere’s “L’ficole des 
Femmes ”; a friend of Arnolphe. 

Chrysale. An honest, simple-minded, hen-pecked 
tradesman, in the same comedy by Molifere. 

Chuz'zle-wit, Martin. The hero of Dickens’ novel 
of the same name. 

Chuz'zle-wit, Jonas. A miser and a murderer, the 
opposite type of character from Martin. 

Cid Campeador is the name given in histories, 
traditions, and songs to the epic hero of Spain. So 
greatly was he honored that he was called “Mio Cid el 
Campeador,” my lord the champion. Relics of the 
“Blessed Cid,” as he is still called in Spain, such as his 
sword, shield, banner, and drinking-cup, are still held in 
great reverence by the populace. The numerous “Cid 
Romances ” that were first published in the Sixteenth 
Century, contain the most romantic improbabilities con¬ 
cerning the life and deeds of the “Cid.” The most in¬ 
teresting chronicle of the “Cid” for English readers was 
written by Robert Southey. 

Cim-me'ri-ans. A people described by Homer 
dwelling “beyond the ocean-stream,” in a land where 
the sun never shines. 

Cinderel'la. Heroine of a fairy tale. She is the 
drudge of the house, while her elder sisters go to fine balls. 
At length a fairy enables her to go to the prince’s ball; 
the prince falls in love with her, and she is discovered by 
means of a glass slipper which she drops, and which will 
fit no foot but her own. She is represented as returning 
good for evil and heaping upon her half-sisters every 
kindness a princess can show. 

Ci-pan'go. A marvelous island, described in the 
“Voyages” of Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler. It is 
represented as lying in the eastern seas, some 1,500 miles 
from land, and of its beauty and wealth many stories 




LITERATURE 


351 


are related. Columbus and early navigators made a 
diligent search for this island. 

Clare, Ada. The wife of Carstone, and one of the 
most important characters in Dickens’ “Bleak House.” 

Clem'en-ti'na, The Lady. A beautiful and accom¬ 
plished woman, deeply in love with Sir Charles Grandi- 
son, in Bichardson’s novel of this name. 

Clifford, Paul. An attractive highwayman and an 
interesting hero in Bulwer’s novel by the same name. 
He is familiar with the haunts of low vice and dissipation, 
but afterward is reformed and elevated by the power of 
love. 

Clinker, Humphrey. The hero of Smollett’s novel 
entitled, “The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker,” a 
philosophic youth who meets many adventures. 
Brought up in the work-house, put out by the parish as 
apprentice to a blacksmith, he was afterward employed 
as a hostler’s assistant. Having been dismissed from 
the stable, and reduced to great want, he at length 
attracts the notice of Mr. Bramble, who takes him into 
his family as a servant. He becomes the accepted lover 
of Winifred Jenkins, and at length turns out to be a 
natural son of Mr. Bramble. 

Clo'ten. A rejected lover of Imogen, in Shakespere’s 
play of “Cymbeline.” 

Clorin'da, Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. Clo- 
rinda, the heroine of this poem, is represented as an 
Amazon inspiring the most tender affection in others, 
especially in the Christian chief Tancred; yet she is 
herself susceptible of no passion but the love of military 
fame. 

Clout, Colin. A name that Spenser applies to him¬ 
self in the “Faery Queen” and “Shepherd’s Calendar.” 
Colin Clout also is introduced into Gay’s pastorals. 

Coe'lebs. The hero of a novel by Hannah More, 
“Ccelebs in Search of a Wife.” 

Col-lean', May. The heroine of a Scottish ballad. 

Cologne, The Three Kings of. A name given to 
the three magi who visited the infant Saviour, and whose 
bodies are said to have been brought oy the Empress 
Helena from the East to Constantinople, whence they 
were transferred to Milan. Afterward, they were 
removed to Cologne and placed in the principal church 
of the city, where, says Cressy, “they are to this day 
celebrated with great veneration.” Their names are 
commonly said to be Jaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar. 

Comedy of Errors. Shakespere. Twin brothers 
of exact likeness named Antipnolus are served by 
attendant slaves named Dromio also of striking resem¬ 
blance. The humor of the play lies in the complications 
that arise. The two brothers are lost at sea with their 
servants and are picked up by different vessels. After 
long separation they all reappear in Ephesus. There is 
great entanglement of plot until both brothers face 
each other in a trial before the duke and all is explained. 

Co'mus. In Milton’s poem entitled “Comus: a 
Masque,” he is represented as a base enchanter, who 
endeavors, but in vain, to beguile and entrap the innocent 
by means of his enchantments. 

Consuelo. The heroine of George Sand’s novel of 
the same name, an impersonation of noble purity sus¬ 
tained amidst great temptations. 

Co-phet'u-a. An imaginary African king, of whom 
a legendary ballad told that he fell in love with a beggar 
maid and married her. This ballad is found in Percy’s 
“Reliques.” Many poets have made use of the story. 
Tennyson has given us a modern version in “ The Beggar 
Maid.” 

Cop'per-field, David. The hero of Dickens’ novel 
of the same name. This is said to be Dickens’ favorite 
among his works and somewhat autobiographic. 

Corde'lia. King Lear, Shakespere. The young¬ 
est of Lear’s three daughters, and the one that truly loved 
him. 

Cor'y-don. A shepherd in one of the “Idyls of Theo¬ 
critus,” and one of the Eclogues of Virgil. Used by 
Shakespere and later poets to designate a rustic swain. 

Cos'tard. A clown, in Shakespere’s “Love’s Labors 
Lost,” who apes the display of wit and misapplies, in 
the most ridiculous manner, the phrases and modes of 
combination in argument that were then in vogue. 

Cov'er-ley, Sir Roger. One of the members of the 
imaginary club under whose direction the “Spectator” 
was professedly edited. He was a kind-hearted, simple- 
mind, type of an English Squire in the time of Queen 
Anne. He figures in thirty papers of the “Spectator.” 

Crabtree. A character in Smollett’s novel, “.The 
Adventures of Peregrine Pickle.” 

Crane, Ichabod. The name of a Yankee school¬ 
master, whose adventures are related in the “.Legend of 
Sleepy Hollow,” in Irving’s “Sketch-book.” 

Craw'ley, Rawdon. The husband of Becky Sharp 
in “Vanity Fair,” Thackeray’s novel without a hero. 


Crea'kle, Mr. A tyrannical and cruel school¬ 
master in Dickens’ “David Copperfield.” 

Cres'si-da. The heroine of Shakespere’s play, 
“Troilus and Cressida,” also the heroine of one of Chau¬ 
cer’s “ Canterbury Tales.” 

Croaker. A character in Goldsmith’s comedy, 
“The Good-natured Man.” 

Crum'mles, Vincent. A theatrical head of a theat¬ 
rical family in Dickens’ “Nicholas Nickleby.” 

Cru'soe, Rob'in-son. The hero of De Foe’s great 
novel; a ship-wrecked sailor who for many years leads 
a solitary existence on an uninhabited island of the 
tropics, where he employed the most admirable ingenuity 
in providing for his daily wants. 

Cuneiform Letters. Wedge-shaped letters which 
occur in old Persian and Babylonian inscriptions. This 
is probably the oldest form of writing. 

Cym'beline. A mythical king of Britain and the 
hero of Shakespere’s play of the same name. Imogen, 
daughter of Cymbeline, king of Britain, married clan¬ 
destinely Posthumus Leonatus; and Posthumus, 
being banished for the offense, retired to Rome. One 
day, in the house of Philario, the conversation turned 
on the merits of wives, and Posthumus bet his diamond 
ring that nothing could tempt the fidelity of Imogen. 
Through the villainy of Iachimo Cymbeline was forced 
to believe Imogen untrue. The villainy was in time dis¬ 
closed and the beautiful character of Imogen revealed. 

Cut'tie, Captain. A character in Dickens’ “Dombey 
and Son,” good-humored, eccentric, pathetic in his 
simple credulity. 

Day'onet, Sir. In the romance “Le Mort d’Arthur ” 
he is called the fool of King Arthur. 

Dal-get'ty, Rittmaster Dugald. A soldier of 
fortune in Sir Walter Scott’s “Legend of Montrose,” 
distinguished for his pedantry, conceit, valor, vulgar 
assurance, knowledge of the world, greediness, and a 
hundred other qualities, making him one of the most 
amusing, admirable, and natural characters ever drawn 
by the hand of genius. 

Dam'o-cles, a flatterer in the court of Dionysius of 
Syracuse. By way of answer to his constant praises 
of the happiness of kings, Dionysius seated him at a 
royal banquet, with a sword hung over his head by a 
single horsehair. In the midst of his magnificent ban¬ 
quet, Damocles, chancing to look upward, saw a sharp 
and naked sword suspended over his head. A sight 
so alarming instantly changed his views of the felicity 
of kings. The phrase signifies now evil foreboding or 
dread, a tantalizing torment. 

Da'mon and Py'thias, or Pbi'ntias, two noble 
Pythagoreans of Syracuse, who have been remembered 
as models of faithful friendship. Pythias having been 
condemned to death by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syra¬ 
cuse, begged to be allowed to go home, for the purpose 
of arranging his affairs, Damon pledging his own life 
for the reappearance of his friend. Dionysius con¬ 
sented, and Pythias returned just in time to save Damon 
from death. Struck by so noble an example of mutual 
affection, the tyrant pardoned Pythias, and desired to 
be admitted into their sacred fellowship. 

Dandie Dinmont. A jovial, true-hearted store- 
farmer, in Sir Walter Scott’s “Guy Mannering.” 

Dantes'que. Dante-like — that is, a minute life¬ 
like representation of the infernal horrors, whether by 
words, as in the poet, or in visible form, as in Dora’s 
illustrations of the “Inferno.” 

Daph'nis and Chlo'e. A pair of lovers in the 
pastoral romance of the same name written by Longus 
in Greek prose in the Fourth Century. 

Darby and Joan. A married couple said to have 
lived, more than a century ago, in the village of Hea- 
laugh, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and celebrated 
for their long life and conjugal felicity. They are the 
hero and heroine of a ballad called “The Happy Old 
Couple,” which has been attributed to Prior, but is of 
uncertain authorship. Timperley says that Darby was 
a printer in Bartholomew Close, who died in 1730, and 
that the ballad was written by one of his apprentices 
by the name of Henry Woodfall. 

Da'res. One of the competitors at the funeral games 
of Anchises in Sicily, described in the fifth book of 
“ Virgil’s iEneid.” 

David. He was the uncle of King Arthur. St. David 
first embraced the ascetic life in the Isle of Wight, but 
subsequently removed to Menevia, in Pembrokeshire, 
where he founded twelve convents. 

David, in Dryden’s satire called “.Absalom and 
Achitophel,” represents Charles II.; Absalom, his beau¬ 
tiful but rebellious son, represents the Duke of Monmouth. 

Davy. Henry IV., Shakespere. The varlet of 
justice Shallow, who so identifies himself with his master 
that he considers himself half host half varlet. Thus 




352 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


when he seats Bardolph and Page at table, he tells them 
they must take “.his” good will for their assurance of 
welcome. 

Dawfyd The Betrothed, Scott. “.The one-eyed ” 
freebooter chief. 

Dawkins. Oliver Twist, Dickens. Known by the 
sobriquet of the “Artful Dodger.” He is one of Fagin’s 
tools. Jack Dawkins is a scamp, but of^a cheery, buoy¬ 
ant temper. ~- 

Deans, Douce Davie. A poor herdsman at Edin¬ 
burgh, and the father of Effie and Jeanie Deans, in Sir 
Walter Scott’s novel, “The Heart of Mid-Lothian.” 

Deans, Effie. A beautiful but unfortunate charac¬ 
ter in Sir Walter Scott’s “Heart of Mid-Lothian.” 

Deans, Jeanie. The heroine of “The Heart of Mid- 
Lothian,” characterized by her kindness, sturdiness, 
and good sense. She journeys from Edinburgh to 
London, and obtains pardon for her sister Effie, con¬ 
demned for child murder. 

De'bon. One of the heroes who accompanied Brute 
to Britain. According to British fable, Devonshire is 
the county or share of Debon. 

Decameron. A volume of one hundred tales told 
by Boccaccio. Ten ladies and their gentlemen assem¬ 
bled in one place agree that each shall tell one story 
every day for the entertainment of the rest. Thus ten 
stories daily are told for ten consecutive days. Chaucer 
borrowed the plan but reconstructed it for his “.Canter¬ 
bury Tales.” 

Dedlock, Sir Leicester. A character in Bleak 
House, by Charles Dickens. An honorable and 
truthful man but of such fixed ideas that no man could 
shake his prejudices. He had an idea that the one 
thing of greatest importance to the world was a certain 
family by the name of Dedlock. He loved his wife 
Lady Dedlock and believed in her implicitly. His 
ride had a terrible fall when he learned the secret of 
er life before her marriage and knew the terrible fact 
she had been hiding from him that she had a daughter. 

Dedlock, Lady. Wife of Sir Leicester, beautiful, 
and apparently cold and heartless but suffering con¬ 
stant remorse. The daughter’s name is Esther Sum- 
merson, the heroine of the novel. 

Dedlock, Volumnia. Cousin of Sir Leicester, a 
young lady of sixty, who had the disagreeable habit 
of entering into other people’s business. 

Deerslayer. The hero of a novel by the same name, 
by James Fenimore Cooper. A strong fine character, hon¬ 
orable, truthful, brave, without cultivation but without 
reproach. This character appears under different 
names in five of Cooper’s novels. “The Deerslayer,” 
“The Pathfinder,” “The Last of the Mo'hicans,” “.The 
Pioneers,” and “The Prairie.” 

Defarge, Mons. Tale of Two Cities, Dickens. 
Keeper of a wine shop in the Faubourge St. Antoine, 
in Paris. He is a bull-necked, implacable-looking man. 

Defarge, Mde, his wife, a dangerous woman, ever¬ 
lastingly knitting. 

Del'phi. A famous oracle of Apollo in Phocis, at 
the foot of Mount Parnassus. [Erroneously written 
Delphos by early English writers.] 

Delphin Classics. For the use of the dauphin, 
son of Louis XIV. (1674-91), the writings of thirty- 
nine Latin authors were collected and published in 
sixty volumes. Notes and an index were added to 
each work. An edition of the Delphin classics was 
published in London in the year 1818. 

Delphine. The title of a novel by Mme. de Stael and 
the name of its heroine. 

Delphine, Madame. Old Creole Days, George 
W. Cable. A free quadroon connected with the splendor 
of La Fitts, the smuggler and patriot. Madame Delphine 
disowned her beautiful daughter Olive in order to 
assure to her the rights of a white woman. 

Demetrius. Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shake- 
spere. The young Athenian to whom Egeno promised 
his daughter Hermia in marriage. 

De Profundis. “Out of the Depths.” The 130th 
Psalm is so called from the first two words in the Latin 
version. In the Roman Catholic Liturgy it is sung 
when the dead are committed to the grave. 

Deronda, Daniel. One of George Eliot’s strongest 
character sketches in her novel by the same name. 

Deserted Village. A poem by Goldsmith in which 
he describes rural England. He calls the village Auburn, 
but tells us it was the seat of his youth, every spot of 
which was dear and familiar to him. He pictures 
familiar persons, the preacher, the teacher, pastimes, 
and favorite haunts. 

Desmas. The repentant thief is so called in “The 
Story of Joseph of Arimathea.” Longfellow, in “The 
Golden Legend,” calls him Dumachus. The impenitent 
thief is called Gestas, but Longfellow calls him Titus. 


Dhu, Roderick. A highland chieftain and outlaw 
in Scott’s poem “Lady of the Lake,” cousin of Ellen 
Douglas, and also her suitor. He is slain by James- 
Fitz-James. 

Di'do. The daughter of Belus, King of Tyre, and 
the wife of Sichseus, whom her brother Pygmalion mur¬ 
dered for his riches. Not far from the Phenician 
colony of Utica she built the city of Carthage. Accord¬ 
ing to Virgil, when ACneas was shipwrecked upon her 
coast, in his voyage to Italy, she hospitably entertained 
him, fell in love with him, and, because he did not 
requite her passion, stabbed herself in despair. 

Dies Irae, the name generally given (from the opening 
words) to the famous mediseval hymn on the Last Judg¬ 
ment. On account of the solemn grandeur of the 
ideas which it brings before the mind, as well as the 
deep and trembling emotions it is fitted to excite, it 
soon found its way into the liturgy of the Church. 
The authorship of the hymn has been ascribed to 
Gregory the Great, St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Umbertus, 
and Frangipani, the last two of whom were noted as 
church-hymnists. 

Diggon, Davie. A shepherd in the “ Shephearde’s 
Calendar,” by Spenser, He tells Hobbinol that he 
drove his sheep into foreign lands, hoping to find better 
pasture; but he was amazed at the luxury and profligacy 
of the shepherds whom he saw there, and the wretched 
condition of the flocks. 

Dimmes'dale, Arthur. In Hawthorne’s romance 
“The Scarlet Letter,” a Puritan minister of great elo¬ 
quence and spirituality, in Colonial New England, who 
secretly commits adultery and afterwards makes a public 
confession. 

Di'nah, Aunt. In Sterne’s “Tristram Shandy.” 
She leaves Mr. Walter Shandy £1,000, which he fancies 
will enable him to carry out all the schemes that enter 
into his head. 

Dinah, Friendly. The Bashful Man, Moncrieff. 

Daughter of Sir Thomas Friendly. 

Dinah. St. Ronan’s Well, Scott. Daughter of 
Sandie Lawson, landlord of the Spa hotel. 

Dinah. A character in Mrs. Stowe’s “.Uncle .Tom’s 
Cabin.” 

Ding'ley Hall. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. The 
home of Mr. Wardle and his family, and the scene of 
Tupman’s love adventure with Miss Rachel. 

Diome'des or Diomed. Iliad, Homer. King of 
TEto'lia, in Greece, brave and obedient to authority. 
He survived the siege of Troy; but on his return home 
found his wife untrue to him. He fled to Italy and 
remained in exile. 

Dirlos, Count. One of Charlemagne’s paladins, 
an ideal of valor, generosity, and truth. 

Divine Comedy. Dante’s immortal work, the 
11 Divina Commedia,” was written during the period 
1300-18, and has been translated into English by Cary, 
Longfellow, and others. Dante called it a comedy only 
because the ending was not tragical, and the epithet 
divine was given to it in admiration. The name “ Com¬ 
media ” signifies lowly, written in the common tongue, or 
as some explain, “comedy ” also signifies ending happily. 
The “ Divine Comedy ” is an epic poem, divided into three 
parts; Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso. The poet depicts 
a vision, in which he is conducted, first by Virgil (human 
reason) through hell and purgatory; and then by 
Beatrice (revelation), and finally by St. Bernard through 
the several heavens, where he beholds the triune God. 
In all parts of the regions thus traversed, there arise 
conversations with noted personages. The deepest ques¬ 
tions of philosophy and theology are diseussed and 
solved; and the social and moral condition of Italy, 
with the corruptions of Church and State, are depicted 
with indignation. Fifty-two years after the poet’s 
death, the Republic of Florence, set apart an annual 
sum for public lectures to explain the “Divine Comedy” 
to the people in one of the churches, and Boccaccio 
himself was appointed first lecturer. 

Doctour of Phisikes, Tale. Is the Roman story 
of Virginius, given by Livy. Told by Chaucer in “Can¬ 
terbury Tales.” 

Doctor Syntax. The hero of a work entitled “The 
Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Picturesque,” 
Doctor Syntax is a simple-minded, pious, henpecked 
clergyman, but of excellent taste and scholarship who 
left home in search of the picturesque. His adventures 
are told in eight-syllable verse by William Combe. “Dr. 
Syntax’s Horse.” Grizzle, all skin and bone. 

)Dods. The old landlady in Scott’s novel called 
“St. Ronan’s Well.” An excellent character, a mosaic 
of oddities, all fitting together, and forming an admirable 
whole. She was so good a housewife that a cookery 
book of great repute bears her name. 




LITERATURE 


I 


353 


Dodson. The Three Warnings, Mrs. Thrale. 

A youth called upon by Death on his wedding day. 
Death told him he must go with him. “With you 1” 
the hapless youth cried, “young as 1 am.” Death 
then told him he would not disturb him yet, but would 
call again after giving him three warnings. When he 
was 80 years of age, Death called again. “So soon 
returned? ” old Dodson cried. “You know you promised 
me three warnings.” Death then told him that as he was 
“lame, and deaf, and blind,” he had received his three 
warnings. 

Dodson and Fogg. The lawyers employed by the 
plaintiff in the famous case of “Bardell v. Pickwick.” 
in the “Pickwick Papers,” by Charles Dickens. 

Do'eg. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. Doeg 
was Saul’s herdsman, who had charge of his mules and 
asses. He told Saul that the priests of Nob had pro¬ 
vided David with food; whereupon Saul sent him to 
put them to death, and eighty-five were ruthlessly 
massacred. 

Dogberry and Verges, two ignorant conceited con¬ 
stables, in Shakespere’s “Much Ado.About Nothing.” 

Dolly 31urry. A character in Crabbe’s “Borough” 
who was devoted to playing cards. She died at the card 
table. 

Dolly Varden. Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. 

Daughter of Gabriel Varden, locksmith. Dolly dressed 
in the Watteau style, and was lively, pretty, and be¬ 
witching. 

Dolopa'tos. Sandabar’s Parables. The Sicilian 
king, who placed his son Lucien under the charge of 
“seven wise masters.” The son fell under the father’s 
fury and was condemned to death. By astrology the 
rince discovered that if he could tide over seven days 
is life would be saved; so the wise masters amused 
the king with seven tales, and the king relented. The 
rince himself then told a tale which embodied his own 
istory; the eyes of the king were opened, and the 
queen was condemned to death. 

Dom'bey. Dombey and Son, Dickens. Mr. 
Dombey, a self-sufficient, purse-proud, frigid merchant, 
who feels satisfied there is but one Dombey in the world, 
and that is himself. When Paul was born, his ambition 
was attained, his whole heart was in the boy, and the 
loss of the mother was but a small matter. The boy’s 
death turned his heart to stone. 

Dombey, Florence. A motherless child, hunger¬ 
ing and thirsting to be loved, but regarded with indif¬ 
ference by her father, who thinks that sons alone are 
worthy of regard. 

Dombey, Little Paul. A pathetic child in Dickens’ 
novel “Dombey and Son.” He is a delicate, thoughtful 
boy, the only son of a rich and pompous London mer¬ 
chant. 

Dom-dan'i-el. A cave in the region adjoining 
Babylon, the abode of evil spirits. By some traditions 
said to have been originally the spot where the prophet 
Daniel imparted instruction to his disciples. In 
another form, the Domdaniel was a purely imaginary 
region, subterranean, or submarine, the dwelling-place 
of genii and enchanters. 

Do'mesday Book, or Doo'insday Book, the name 
of one of the oldest and most valuable records of England, 
containing the results of a statistical survey of that 
country made by William the Conqueror, and completed 
in the year 1086. The origin of the name — which 
seems to have been given to other records of the same 
kind — is somewhat uncertain; but it has obvious 
reference to the supreme authority of the book in doom 
or judgment on the matters contained in it. 

Domi'nical Letter, or Sunday Letter, is one of 
the seven letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, used in almanacs, 
etc., to mark the Sundays throughout the year. The first 
seven days of the year being marked in their order by 
the above letters in their order, then the following seven, 
and all consecutive sets of seven days to the end of the 
year are similarly marked; so that the 1st, 8th, loth, 
22d, etc., days of the year are all marked by A; and 
the 2d, 9th, 16th, 23d, etc., by B; and so on. The 
day3 being thus marked, it is evident that on whatever 
day the first Sunday of the year falls, the letter which 
marks it will mark all the other Sundays in the year, 
as the number of the letters and of the days in the week 
is the same. As the common year consists of fifty-two 
weeks and one day over, the dominical letters go back¬ 
wards one day every common year. If the dominical 
letter of a common year be G, F will be the dominical 
letter for the next year. 

Dom'inie, Sampson. Guy Mannering, Scott. A 
village schoolmaster and scholar, poor as a church mouse, 
and modest as a girl. He cites Latin like a “porcus 
litera'rum,” and exclaims “ Prodigious ! ” He has fallen 
to the leeward in the voyage of life. He is no uncom¬ 


mon personage in a country where a certain portion of 
learning is easily attained by those who are willing to 
suffer hunger and thirst in exchange for acquiring 
Greek and Latin. 

Don Ad'ri-a'no de Ar-ma'do. A pompous, fan¬ 
tastical Spaniard in Shakespere’s “Love’s Labor’s Lost,” 
“who has a mint of phrases in his brain.” His language 
is fantastically out of proportion to the thought. He 
uses “examples suited only to the gravest propositions 
and impersonations, or apostrophes to abstract thoughts 
impersonated, which are, in fact, the natural language 
only of the most vehement agitations of the mind.” 

Don-a-tel'lo. The hero of Hawthorne’s romance 
“The Marble Faun.” He is a young Italian with a 
singular likeness to the Faun of Praxiteles. He leads 
an innocent but purely animal existence, until a sudden 
crime awakens his conscience and transforms his whole 
nature. 

Don Cher'u-bim. The “Bachelor of Salamanca,” 
in Le Sage’s novel of this name; a man placed in dif¬ 
ferent situations of life, and made to associate with all 
classes of society, in order to give the author the greatest 
possible scope for satire. 

Don'e-gild. Man of Law’s Tale, Chaucer. 

Mother of Alla, King of Northumberland, hating Con¬ 
stance, the wife of Alla, because she was a Christian, she 
put her on a raft with her infant son, and turned her 
adrift. When Alla returned from Scotland and discov¬ 
ered this cruelty of his mother, he put her to death. 
The tradition of St. Mungo resembles the “Man of Law’s 
Tale” in many respects. 

Don'et, the first grammar put into the hands of 
scholars. It was that of Dona'tus the grammarian, 
who taught in Rome in the Fourth Century, and was 
the preceptor of St. Jerome. 

Don Giovan'ni. Mozart’s best opera. 

Don Ju'an is a legendary and mythical personage 
like Dr. Faustus. Don Juan is presented in the life of 
a profligate who gives himself up so entirely to the 
gratification of sense, especially to the most powerful 
of all the impulses, that of love, that he acknowledges 
no higher consideration, and proceeds to murder the 
man that stands between him and his wish, fancying 
that in so doing he had annihilated his very existence. 
He then defies that Spirit to prove to his senses his 
existence. The Spirit returns and compels Don Juan 
to acknowledge the supremacy of spirit, and the worth¬ 
lessness of a merely sensuous existence. The traditions 
concerning Don Juan have been dramatized by Tirso 
de Mo'lina; thence passed into Italy and France. 
Gluck has a musical ballet of Don Juan, and Mozart 
has immortalized the character in his opera of “ Don 
Giovanni.” His adventures form the subject of a half- 
finished poem by Byron. 

Don Quix'ote. The hero of a celebrated Spanish 
romance of the same name by Cervantes. Don Quixote 
is represented as “a gaunt country gentleman of La 
Mancha, full of genuine Castilian honor and enthusiasm, 
gentle and dignified in his character, trusted by his 
friends, and loved by his dependents,” but “so com¬ 
pletely crazed by long reading the most famous books 
of chivalry, that he believes them to be true, and feels 
himself called on to become the impossible knight- 
errant they describe, and actually goes forth into the 
world to defend the oppressed and avenge the injured, 
like the heroes of his romances.” The fame of Cervantes 
will always rest upon this incomparable satire upon 
the foolish and extravagant romances of chivalry. 

Doorrn. Idylls of the King; Enid, Tennyson. 
An earl called “the Bull,” who tried to make Enid his 
handmaid; but, when she would neither eat, drink, 
nor array herself in bravery at his bidding, “.he smote 
her on the cheek”; whereupon Geraint slew the 
“russet-bearded earl” in his own hall. 

Do'ra. David Copperfleld, Dickens. The child- 
wife to David, affectionate and tender-hearted. She 
was always playing with her poodle and saying simple 
things to her “Dody.” She could never be his helper 
but she looked on her husband with idolatrous love. 
When quite young she died. 

Do-ras'tus. The hero of an old popular “history” 
or romance, upon whicfi Shakespere founded his “Win¬ 
ter’s Tale.” It was written by Robert Greene, and 
was first published in 1588, under the title of “Pandosto, 
the Triumph of Time.” 

Dorothea. The heroine of Goethe’s celebrated 
poem of “Hermann und Dorothea.” 

Dorrit, Edward, and “ Little.” Little Dorrit, 
Dickens. The father of the Marshalsea prison and his 
interesting daughter. It is a fine picture of innocent, 
affectionate, child-life in the midst of the trying circum¬ 
stances of a debtor’s prison. 



354 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Dory, John. A character in “.Wild Oats” or “The 
Strolling Gentleman,” a comedy by John O’Keefe. 

Do-the-Boys’ Hall. Nicholas Nickleby, Dick¬ 
ens. A school for boys kept by a Mr. Squeers a puf¬ 
fing, ignorant, over-bearing brute, whose system of 
education consisted of alternately beating and starving. 

Doubting Castle. The castle of the giant Despair, 
in which Christian and Hopeful were incarcerated, but 
from which they escaped by means of the key called 
“Promise,” which was able to open any lock in the 
castle. 

Dous'ter-swiv'el. A German schemer, in Sir 
Walter Scott’s novel of “The Antiquary.” 

Drac. A sort of fairy in human form, whose abode 
is the caverns of rivers. “Faire le drac,” same as “ Faire 
le diable.” Irish, “Play the Puck”; English, “Play 
the deuce.” 

Dragon, A. The device on the royal banner of the old 
British kings. The leader was called the pendragon. 
Geoffrey of Monmouth says, “When Aurelius was king, 
there appeared a star at Winchester of wonderful magni¬ 
tude and brightness, darting forth a ray, at the end of 
which was a flame in form of a dragon.” 

Drama of Exile, A. A poem by Elizabeth Barrett 
Browning (1844). The exile is Eve, driven out of para¬ 
dise into the wilderness, Lucifer, Gabriel, and Christ 
are introduced into the poem, as well as Adam and 
Eve. 

Dramatic Unities, The Three. One catastrophe, 
one locality, one day. These are Aristotle’s unities of 
time, place, and action. To these the French have 
added a fourth, the unity of uniformity, i. e., in tragedy 
all the “dramatis perSonse ” should be tragic in style, 
in comedy comic, and in farce farcical. 

Drap. Drayton. One of Queen Mab’s maids of 
honor. 

Draw'can-sir. The name of a blustering, bullying 
fellow in the celebrated mock-heroic play of “The 
Rehearsal,” written by George Villiers, Duke of Buck¬ 
ingham, assisted by Sprat and others. He is repre¬ 
sented as taking part in a battle, where,, after killing 
all the combatants on both sides, he makes an extrava¬ 
gantly boastful speech. From the popularity of the 
character, the name became a synonym for a braggart. 

Dri'ver. Guy Mannering, Scott. Clerk to Mr. 
Pleydell, advocate, Edinburgh. 

Dro'mio. The Brothers Dromio. The brothers 
exactly alike, who serve two brothers exactly alike, 
in Shakespere’s “Comedy of Errors,” based on the 
“Menajch'mi of Plautus.” 

Dry-as Dust, The Rev. An imaginary personage 
who serves to introduce Scott’s novels to the public. 

Dudu, one of the three beauties of the harem, into 
which Juan, by the sultana’s order, had been admitted 
in female attire. 

Du-es'sa. A foul witch, in Spenser’s “ Faery Queen,” 
who under the assumed name of Fidessa, and the assumed 
character of a distressed and lovely woman, entices the 
Redcross Knight into the House of Pride. The knight 
having left the palace, is overtaken by Duessa, and 
drinks of an enchanted fountain, which paralyses him, 
in which state he is attacked, defeated, and imprisoned 
by the giant Orgoglio. Duessa becomes the paramour 
of Orgoglio, who decks her out in gorgeous ornaments, 
gives ner a gold and purple robe to wear, puts a triple 
crown on her head, and sets her upon a monstrous beast 
with seven heads. Prince Arthur slays Orgoglio and 
rescues the knight. Duessa is stripped of her gorgeous 
disguise and is found to be a hideous hag. 

Duff, Jamie. Guy Mannering, Scott. The idiot 
boy attending Mrs. Bertram’s funeral. 

Dulcine'a-del Toboso. A country girl whom 
Don Quixote courts as his lady love. 

Du -maine'. A lord attending on the King of 
Navarre, in Shakespere’s “Love’s Labor’s Lost.” 

Dun'can. (1) A king of Scotland immortalized in 
Shakespere’s tragedy of “Macbeth.” Shakespere 
represents him as murdered by Macbeth, who succeeds 
to the Scottish throne, but according to history he fell 
in battle. (2) A highland hero in Scott’s “.Lady of the 
Lake.” 

Dunder, Sir David, of Dunder Hall. A conceited, 
whimsical old gentleman, who forever interrupts a 
speaker with “Yes, yes, I know it,” or “Be quiet, I 
know it.” “.Ways and Means,” by Colman. 

Dun-drear'y, Lord. A grotesque character in Tay¬ 
lor’s comedy, “Our American Cousin”; noted for his 
aristocratic haughtiness of manner. The character is 
said to have been created by the actor Sothern. 

Du'ran'dal', written also Durandart, Durindana, 
and Durlindana. The name of the marvelous sword 
of Orlando, the renowned hero of romance. It is said 
to have been the workmanship of the fairies, who endued 


it with such wonderful properties that its owner was 
able to cleave the Pyrenees with it at a blow. 

Du-ran-dar'te. A fabulous hero of Spain, cele- 
brated in the ancient ballads of that country and in the 
romances of chivalry. Cervantes has introduced him, 
in “Don Quixote,” in the celebrated adventure of the 
knight in the cave of Montesinos. 

Dur'den, Dame. (1) Theheroineof a popular English 
song. She is described as a notable housewife, and the 
mistress of five serving-girls and five laboring men. 
The five men loved the five maids. (2) A sobriquet 
playfully applied to Esther Summerson, the heroine of 
Dickens’s “Bleak House ” 

Dur'ward, Quen'tin. The hero of Scott’s novel of 
the same name; a young archer of the Scottish guard 
in the service of Louis XJ. of France. When Lifege 
is assaulted, Quentin Durward and the Countess Isabelle, 
who has been put into his charge, escape on horseback. 
The countess publicly refuses to marry the Ducd’Orleans, 
to whom she has been promised, and ultimately marries 
the young Scotchman. 

Dwarf, The Black. A novel by Sir Walter Scott. 
The black dwarf is a fairy of the most malignant charac¬ 
ter; a genuine northern Duergar, and once held by the 
dalesmen of the border as the author of all the mischief 
that befell their flocks and herds. In Scott’s novel the 
“ Black Dwarf ” is introduced under the “aliases” of Sir 
Edward Mauley; Elshander, the recluse; Cannie Elshie; 
and the Wise Wight of Mucklestane Moor. 

Dwarf, Alberich. In the “Nibelungen Lied” the 
dwarf “Alberich ” is the guardian of the famous “hoard ” 
won by Siegfried from the Nibelungs. The dwarf is 
twice vanquished by the hero, who gets possession of 
his “Tarn-kappe” (cloak of invisibility). 

Dwarf, Peter. An allegorical romance by Ludwig 
Tieck. The dwarf is a castle specter that advises and 
aids the family; but all his advice turns out evil, and 
all his aid productive of trouble. 

Earnscliffe, Patrick. Black Dwarf, Scott. The 
young laird of Earnscliff. 

Eb'lis. The name given by the Arabians to the 
prince of the apostate angels, whom they represent as 
exiled to the infernal regions for refusing to worship 
Adam at the command of the Supreme. Eblis alleged, 
in justification of his refusal, that he himself had been 
formed of ethereal fire, while Adam was only a creature 
of clay. 

Eck'hardt, The Faithful. A legendary hero of 
Germany, represented as an old man with a white staff, 
who, in Eisleben, appears on the evening of Maundy 
Thursday, and drives all the people into their houses, 
to save them from being harmed by a terrible procession 
of dead men, headless bodies, and two-legged horses, 
which immediately after passes by. Other traditions 
represent him as the companion of the knight, Tann- 
hauser, and as warning travelers from the Venusberg, 
the mountain of fatal delights in the old mythology of 
Germany. Tieck has founded a story upon this legend, 
which has been translated into English by Carlyle, in 
which Eckhardt is described as the good servant who 
perishes to save his master’s children from the seducing 
fiends of the mountain. The German proverb, “Thou 
art the faithful Eckhardt; thou warnest everyone,” is 
founded upon this tradition. 

Eclecta, the “Elect” personified in “The Purple 
Island,” by Phineas Fletcher. She is the daughter of 
Intellect and Voletta (free-will). 

Ector, Sir. The foster-father of King Arthur, and 
lord of many parts of England and Wales. Father of 
Sir Kay, seneschal to King Arthur. 

Edda. There are two religious codes, so called, con¬ 
taining the ancient Scandinavian mythology. One is in 
verse, composed in Iceland in the Eleventh Century, by 
Ssemund Sigfusson, “the Sage”; and the other in prose, 
compiled a century later by SnorroSturleson, who wrote 
a commentary on the first edda. 

E'den-hall, The Luck of. A painted goblet in the 
possession of the Musgrave family of Eden-hall, Cumber¬ 
land, said to have been left by the fairies on St. Cuth- 
bert’s Well. The tradition runs, that the luck of the 
family is dependent on the safe keeping of this goblet. 
The German poet Uhland embodied the legend in a 
ballad, translated into English by Longfellow. 

Edgar. Son to Gloucester, in Shakespere’s tragedy of 
“Lear.” He was disinherited for his half-brother, 
Edmund. 

Edgar or Edgar'do. Master of Ravenswood, in 
love with Lucy Ashton in Scott’s “ Bride of Lammer- 
moor.” 

E'dith. The “Maid of Lorn” in Scott’s “Lord of 
the Isles,” who married Ronald when peace was restored 
after the battle of Bannockburn. 




LITERATURE 


355 


Edith, The Lady. Ivanhoe, Scott. Mother of 
Athelstane “the Unready” (thane of Coningsburgh). 

Edith Granger. Daughter of the Hon. Mrs. Skew- 
ton, married to Colonel Granger of “Ours,” who died 
within two years. Edith became Mr. Dombey’s second 
wife, but the marriage was altogether unhappy. 

Edith Plantagenet, The Lady. The Talisman, 
Scott. Called "The Fair Maid of Anjou,” a kinswoman 
of Richard I., and attendant on Queen Berenga'ria. 

Ed'mund. A bastard son of Gloucester in Shake- 
spere’s tragedy of “King Lear.” 

Edward, Sir. The Iron Chest, Coleman. He 
commits a murder, and keeps a narrative of the trans¬ 
action in an iron chest. Later, he trusts the secret to 
his secretary, Wilfred, and the whole transaction now be¬ 
came public. 

Edward. Count Robert of Paris, Scott. Brother 
of Hereward, the Varangian guard. He was slain in 
battle. 

Ed'win. (l)The hereof Goldsmith’s ballad entitled 
“The Hermit.” (2) The hero of Mallet’s ballad “Edwin 
and Emma.” (3) The hero of Beattie’s “Minstrel.” 

Ed'ym. Idylls of the King (Enid), Tenny¬ 
son. Son of Nudd. A suitor for the hand of Enid and 
an evil genius of her father, who opposed him. Later, 
Edyrn went to the court of King Arthur and became 
quite a changed man — from a malicious “sparrow- 
hawk” he was converted into a courteous gentleman. 

E'geus. Father of Hermia in Shakespere’s “Mid¬ 
summer Night’s Dream.” 

E'gil, Brother of Weland, a great archer. The 
story related is similar to the William Tell story. There 
are many such stories. One day, King Nidung com¬ 
manded him to shoot at an apple placed on the head of 
his own son. Egil selected two arrows, and being asked 
why he wanted two, replied, “One to shoot thee with, 
O tyrant, if I fail.” Such stories, though probably not 
true to fact, are true to the spirit of patriotism, and are 
worth repeating. 

EgTan-tine, Madame. The prioress in Chaucer’s 
“Canterbury Tales,” who was “full pleasant and amiable 
of port.” She was distinguished for the ladylike deli¬ 
cacy of her manners at table, and for her partiality to 
“small hounds,” and a peculiar mixture in her manner 
and dress of feminine vanity and slight worldliness, 
together with an ignorance of the world. She is noted 
for her partiality to lap-dogs, her delicate oath, “by 
Seint Eloy,” her “entuning the service swetely in her 
nose,” and her speaking French “after the scole of 
Stratford atte Bowe.” 

EgTa-mour. (1) A character in Shakespere’s “Two 
Gentlemen of Verona,” who is an agent of Silvia in her 
escape. (2) (Sir.) A valiant knight of the Round 
Table, celebrated in the romances of chivalry, and in an 
old ballad. [Written also “Eglamore.”] 

Egyptian Thief. A personage alluded to by the 
Duke in Shakespere’s “Twelfth Night.” The reference 
is to the story of Thyamis, a robber-chief and native 
of Memphis. 

Eivir. Harold the Dauntless, Scott. A Danish 
maid, who assumes boy’s clothing, and waits on Harold 
“the Dauntless,” as his page. 

E-laine'. A mythic lady in the romances of King 
Arthur’s court. She is called “the lily maid of Astolat ” 
in Tennyson’s “Idylls of the King.” For love of Sir 
Launcelot she died, and then at her request was borne 
on a barge to the castle of King Arthur, holding a lily 
in one hand and a letter to Launcelot in the other. 
According to Sir Thomas Malory, Elaine was sister of 
King Arthur by the same mother. She married Sir 
Nentres of Carlot, and was by King Arthur the mother 
of Mordred. 

ETber-ich. In German hero legends, a dwarf who 
aided the Lombard Emperor Otnit to win the daughter 
of the Soldan of Syria. He is identical with the Oberon 
of French and English fairy mythology. 

Elbow. A constable, in Shakespere’s “Measure for 
Measure,” modest and well-meaning, though of simple 
mind and the object of wit among those who are wiser 
but not better. 

El Do-ra'do. A name given by the Spaniards to 
an imaginary country, supposed, in the Sixteenth Cen¬ 
tury, to be situated in the interior of South America, 
between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon, and abounding 
in gold and all manner of precious stones. Expeditions 
were fitted out for the purpose of discovering this fabu¬ 
lous region; and, though all such attempts proved 
abortive, the rumors of its existence continued to be 
believed down to the beginning of the Eighteenth Cen¬ 
tury. 

E-lec'tra. The daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra, and the heroine of a tragedy by Sophocles 
and of another by Euripides. She saved the life of her 


brother, Orestes, and afterwards assisted him to avenge 
their father’s death. (See Agamemnon, Clytemnestra, 
and Orestes.) 

Elf-land. The realm ruled over by Oberon, King of 
Faery 

El'githa. Ivanhoe, Scott. A female attendant at 
Rotherwood on the Lady Rowe'na. 

El'i-dure. A legendary King of Britain, fabled to 
have been advanced to the throne in place of his brother, 
Artegal, or Arthgallo. Returning to the country after 
a long exile, Artegal accidentally encountered his brother, 
who received him with open arms, took him home to 
the palace, and reinstated him in his old position, abdi¬ 
cating the throne himself. Wordsworth has taken the 
story of these two brothers for the subject of a poem. 

ETim. The Messiah, Klopstock. The guardian 
angel of Libbeus the Apostle. Libbeus, the tenderest 
and most gentle of the apostles, at the death of Jesus 
also died from grief. 

Elliott, Hobbie. There are seven by this name in 
the “Black Dwarf,” by Sir Walter Scott. The farmer 
Elliott himself and his bride-elect, Grace Armstrong; 
Mrs. Elliott, Hobbie’s grandmother; John and Harry, 
Hobbie’s brothers; Lilias, Jean, and Arnot, Hobbie’s 
sisters. 

El'ope. Milton gives this name to the dumb serpent 
which gives no warning of its approach. 

El'speth. (1) A character in Sir Walter Scott’s 
“Antiquary.” (2) An old servant to Dandie Dinmont, 
in Scott’s “Guy Mannering.” 

Elsie. The daughter of Gottlieb, a farm tenant of 
Prince Henry of Hoheneck, who offered her life as a 
substitute for the prince. She was rescued as she was 
about to make the sacrifice. Longfellow has told this 
story in “The Golden Legend.” 

Elzevier, or Elzevir. The name of a celebrated 
family of printers at Amsterdam, Leyden, and other 
places in Holland, whose beautiful editions were chiefly 
published between the years 1583 and 1680. These 
editions are unrivaled both for beauty and correctness. 
It is said that the Elzeviers generally employed women 
to correct the press, under the conviction that they 
would be less likely than men, on their own responsi¬ 
bility, to introduce alterations into the text. They 
printed in all about two thousand books, of which nine 
hundred sixty-eight were in Latin, forty-four in Greek, 
one hundred twenty-six in French, thirty-two in Flem¬ 
ish, eleven in German, ten in Italian, and twenty-two in 
Oriental languages. Rare editions of the Elzeviers are 
highly valued by collectors. 

Em'elye. The sister-in-law of “.Duke Theseus,” 
beloved by the two knights, Pal'amon and Ar'cyte. 

E-mile'. The hero of Jean Jacques Rousseau’s 
novel of the same name, in which he has depicted his 
ideal of a perfectly educated young man. 

E-mil'i-a. (1) A lady attending Hermione in 
Shakespere’s “Winter’s Tale.” (2) Wife to Iago, and 
waiting woman to Desdemona, in the tragedy of “Oth¬ 
ello,” a woman of thorough vulgarity and loose prin¬ 
ciples, united to a high degree of spirit, energetic feel¬ 
ing, strong sense, and low cunning. (3) The sweetheart 
of Peregrine Pickle in Smollett’s novel “.The Adven¬ 
tures of Peregrine Pickle.” 

Em’ly, Little. David Copperfield, Dickens. 

Daughter of Tom, the brother-in-law of Dan’el Peggotty, 
a Yarmouth fisherman, by whom the orphan child was 
brought up. David Copperfield and Em’ly were at one 
time playfellows. While engaged to Ham Peggotty 
(Dan’el’s nephew), Little Em’ly runs away with Steer- 
forth, a friend of David’s, who was a handsome but un¬ 
principled gentleman. Being subsequently reclaimed, 
she emigrates to Australia with Dan’el Peggotty and old 
Mrs. Gummidge. 

Empyre'an. According to Ptolemy, there are five 
heavens, the last of which is pure elemental fire and the 
seat of Deity: this fifth heaven is called the empyrean 
(from the Greek “en-pur,” in fire). 

Endell, Martha. David Copperfield, Dickens. 
A poor girl, to whom Em’ly goes when Steerforth deserts 
her 

En-dym'i-on. A beautiful shepherd boy whom 
Diana kissed while he lay asleep on Mount Latmus. 
The story was made the subject of an English poem 
by Keats, in memory of his much-loved friend, the poet 
Shelley. 

E'nid. A mythical lady mentioned in a Welsh triad 
as one of the three celebrated ladies of Arthur’s court — 
a beautiful picture of conjugal patience and affection 
Her story is told in the “ Mabinogion,” and in Tenny¬ 
son’s “Idylls of the King.” In the midst of an impure 
court she is the personification of purity. 

Enigma. The origin of the enigma is doubtful. 
Gale thinks that the Jews borrowed their enigmatical 




356 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


forms of speech from the Egyptians. The philosophy 
of the Druids was altogether enigmatical. In Nero s 
time the Romans were often obliged to have recourse 
to this method of concealing truth under obscure lan¬ 
guage. . . . 

Eolian Harp. Baruch. There is a Rabbinical 
story of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, 
when hung up at night, was played upon by the north 
wind. .... 

Epigram. A short pointed or antithetical poem: 
or any short composition happily or antithetically 
expressed 

Epitaphs. Boileau. They were used by the an¬ 
cient Jews, by the Athenians, the Romans, and most of 
the nations of antiquity: their date is referred in Eng¬ 
land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the an¬ 
cients arose the epigram. . 

Epithala'mium was a species of poem which it was 
the custom among the Greeks and Romans to sing in 
chorus near the bridal-chamber of a newly married 
couple. Anacreon, Stesichorus, and Pindar composed 
poems of this kind, but only scanty fragments have been 
preserved. Spenser’s “ Epithalamium,” written on the 
occasion of his marriage, is one of the finest specimens 
of this kind of verse. 

Eppie. St. Honan’s Well, Scott. One of the ser¬ 
vants of the Rev. Josiah Cargill. In the same novel is 
Eppie Anderson, one of the servants at the Mowbray 
Arms, Old St. Ronan’s, held by Meg Dods. 

Eppie. In George Eliot’s “Silas Marner ” the child 
of Godfrey Cass, brought up and adopted by Silas Mar¬ 
ner, whose love transformed him from a miser into a 
tender, loving father. 

Ep'i-meiTi-des. A philosopher and poet of Crete, 
who probably lived in the Sixth or Seventh Century, 
B. C. He is said to have fallen asleep in a cave, when a 
boy, and to have remained in that state for fifty-seven 
years. On waking and going out into the broad day¬ 
light, he was greatly perplexed and astonished to find 
everything around him altered. But what was more 
wonderful still, during his long period of slumber, his 
soul, released from its fleshly prison, had been busily 
engaged in the study of medicine and natural philosophy: 
and when it again became incarnated, Epimenides found 
himself a man of great knowledge and wisdom. Goethe 
has written a poem on the subject, “Des Epimenides 
Erwachen.” (See Klaus, Peter, and Winkle, Rip Van.) 

Erl-king. King of the elves, who prepares mischief 
for children, and even deceives men with his seductions. 
He is said to haunt the Black Forest. Goethe has a 
ballad called “The Erl King.” 

Ermangarde of Baldringham, Lady. The Be¬ 
trothed, Scott. Aunt of the Lady Eveline Berenger, 
“ the betrothed.” 

Er'meline. The wife of Reynard, in the tale of 
“Reynard the Fox.” 

Ermina. The heroine of Tasso’s “Jerusalem Deliv¬ 
ered,” who fell in love with Tancred. When the Chris¬ 
tian army besieged Jerusalem, she dressed herself in 
Clorinda’s armor to go to Tancred, but, being discovered, 
fled, and lived awhile with some shepherds on the banks 
of the Jordan. Meeting with Vafri'no, sent as a secret 
spy by the crusaders, she revealed to him the design 
against the life of Godfrey, and, returning with him to 
the Christian camp, found Tancred wounded. She 
cured his wounds, so that he was able to take part in 
the last great day of the siege. 

Ernest, Duke. A poetical romance by Henry of 
Veldig (Waldeck), contemporary with Frederick Bar- 
barossa. It is a mixture of Greek and Oriental myths 
and hero adventures of the Crusader. 

Error. Faery Queen, Spenser. A monster who 
lived in a den in “Wandering Wood,” and with whom 
the Red Cross Knight had his first adventure. She had 
a brood of 1,000 young ones of sundry shapes, and these 
cubs crept into their mother’s mouth when alarmed, as 
young kangaroos creep into their mother’s pouch. The 
knight was nearly killed by the stench which issued 
from the foul fiend, but he succeeded in “rafting” her 
head off, whereupon the brood lapped up the blood, and 
burst with satiety. 

Es'ca-lus. An ancient and kindhearted lord, in 
Shakespere’s “Measure for Measure,” whom Vincentio, 
the Duke of Vienna, joins with Angelo as his deputy 
during a pretended absence on a distant journey. 

Es'ca-nes. A lord of Tyre, in Shakespere’s "Peri¬ 
cles.” 

Esmeralda. Notre Dame de Paris, Victor Hugo. 

A beautiful gipsy-girl, who, with tambourine and goat, 
dances in the “place” before Notre Dame. 

Esmond, Henry. A cavalier and fine-spirited gen¬ 
tleman in reign of Queen Anne. Hero of Thackeray’s 
novel by same name. 


Es-telTa. The heroine of Dickens’s novel of “Great 
Expectations.” 

Es-tot'i-land or Es-tot'i-land'i-a. An imaginary 
region in America, near the Arctic Circle, referred to by 
Milton as “cold Estotiland,” and variously fabled to 
have been discovered by Frisian fisherman in the Four¬ 
teenth Century, and by a Pole named John Scalve, in 
1477. 

Etzel, i. e., Attila. King of the Huns a monarch 
ruling over three kingdoms and more than thirty princi¬ 
palities: being a widower, he married Kriemhild, the 
widow of Siegfried. In the Nibelungen-Lied, where he 
is introduced, he is made very insignificant. 

Eu'phrasy. Paradise Lost, Milton. The herb 
eye-bright: so called because it was once supposed to 
be efficacious in clearing the organs of sight. Hence, 
the archangel Michael purged the eyes of Adam with it, 
to enable him to see into the distant future. 

Eu'phu-es. The principal character in Lyly’s two 
famous works, entitled “Euphues, or the Anatomy of 
Wit,” and “Euphues a,nd His England.” These works 
are remarkable for their pedantic and fantastical style, 
and for the monstrous and overstrained conceits with 
which they abound. Euphues is represented as an 
Athenian gentleman, distinguished for the elegance of 
his person and the beauty of his wit, and for his amorous 
temperament and roving disposition. He gained a 
bosom friend, Philautus, and then robbed him of his 
lover, Lucilla. The lady is false to both, the friends 
are reconciled, and Euphues returns to Athens and 
philosophy. The peculiarities of Lyly’s style are a per¬ 
petual striving after alliteration and antithesis, and a 
most ingenious stringing together of similes. This book 
immediately became the rage in the court circles, and 
for many years was the court standard. > From this book 
we get our words; euphuistia, euphuism, meaning an 
affected, bombastic style of language. 

Eu'lalie, St. In the calendar of saints there is a 
virgin martyr called Eulalie. She was martyred by 
torture February 12, 308. Longfellow calls Evangeline 
the “Sunshine of St. Eulalie.” 

Eulen-spie'gel. The hero of a German tale, which 
relates the pranks and drolleries of a wandering cottager 
of Brunswick. 

Evan Dhu M’Combich. Waverley, Scott. The 

foster-brother of M’lvor. 

Evan Dhu of Lochiel. Legend of 3Iontrose, Scott. 

A Highland chief in the army of Montrose. 

Evan'geline. The heroine of Longfellow’s poem. 
The subject of the tale is the expulsion of the inhabit¬ 
ants of Aca'dia (Nova Scotia) from their homes by order 
of George II., and the life-lpng wanderings of Evangeline 
in search of her lover, Gabriel. It is a story of a woman’s 
love and devotion. 

Evan'gelist, in Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress,” rep¬ 
resents the effectual preacher of the Gospel, who opens 
the gate of life to Christian. 

Every Man in His Humor. A comedy by Ben 
Jonspn. Every person in the play is liable to be duped 
by his special humor ; Captain Bobadil’s humor is brag¬ 
ging: Kitelly’s is jealousy: Stephen’s is stupidity: 
Knowell’s is suspicion: Dame Kitelly’s, like her hus¬ 
band’s, is jealousy. 

Evir-Allen. Fingal, _ Ossian. The white-armed 
daughter of Branno, an Irishman. “A thousand heroes 
sought the maid: she refused her love to a thousand. 
The sons of the sword were despised, for graceful in her 
eyes was Ossian.” 

Evelina. The heroine in a novel by the same name, 
by Miss Burney. 

Excal'ibur. Meaning of the words: “ liberated from 
the stone.” The name of Arthur’s far-famed sword, 
which he unfixed from a miraculous stone, though pre¬ 
viously two hundred and one of the most puissant 
barons in the realm had singly been unable to extract 
it. In consequence of this remarkable feat, Arthur was 
chosen and proclaimed king by general acclamation. 
When about to die, he sent an attendant to throw the 
weapon into a lake hard by. Twice eluding the request, 
the squire at last complied. A hand and arm arose from 
the water, and caught the sword by the hilt, flourished 
it thrice, and then sank into the lake, and was seen no 
more. [Written also “ Excalibor,” “Escalibar,” “Es- 
calibor, and “Caliburn.”] 

Ez'zelin, Sir. Lara, Byron (1814). The gentle¬ 
man who recognizes Lara at the table of Lord Otho, 
and charges him with being Conrad the Corsair. A duel 
ensues, and Ezzelin is never heard of more. A serf 
used to say that he saw a huntsman one evening cast a 
dead body into the river which divided the lands of 
Otho and Lara, and that there was a star of knighthood 
on the breast of the corpse. 



LITERATURE 


357 


Eyre, Jane. The heroine of Charlotte Bronte’s 
novel of the same name, a governess in the family of a 
Mr. Rochester, to whom she is finally married. 

Faa, Gabriel. Guy Mannering, Scott. Nephew 
of Meg Merrilies. One of the huntsmen at Liddes- 
dale. 

Fab'liaux. The metrical fables of the Trouvferes, 
or early poets north of the Loire, in the Twelfth and 
Thirteenth Centuries. The word fable, in this case, is 
used very widely, for it includes not only such tales as 
“Reynard the Fox,” but all sorts of familiar incidents 
of knavery and intrigue, all sorts of legends and family 
traditions. The fabliau of “Aucassin and Nicolette” is 
full of interesting incidents, and contains much true 
pathos and beautiful poetry 

Fadla Deen. The hypercritical Grand Chamberlain 
in Thomas Moore’s poem “Lalla Rookh.” Fadladeen’s 
criticism upon the several tales which make up the ro¬ 
mance are very racy and full of humor; and his crest¬ 
fallen conceit when he finds out that the poet was the 
^prince in disguise is well conceived. 

Faery or Feerie Land. The land of the fays or 
fairies. The chief fay realms are Av’alon, an island 
somewhere in the ocean. Oberon’s dominions, situate 
“in wilderness among the holtis hairy”; and a realm 
somewhere in the middle of the earth, where was Pari 
Banou’s palace. 

Faery Queen. A metrical romance, in six books, of 
twelve cantos each, by Edmund Spenser. The hero. 
Prince Arthur, arriving at the court of Glouana, the Faery 
Queen, in Fairyland, finds her holding a solemn festi¬ 
val during twelve days. At the court there is a beautiful 
lady, for whose hand twelve most distinguished knights 
are rivals, and in order to settle their pretensions these 
twelve heroes undertake twelve separate adventures. 
The first book contains the legend of the Red Cross 
Knight, who is the allegorical representative of “Holi¬ 
ness,” while his mistress Una represents true “Religion”; 
and the action of the knight’s exploit shadows forth the 
triumph of Holiness over the enchantments and decep¬ 
tions of Heresy. The second book is the legend of Sir 
Guyon. The third book is the legend of Britomartis — 
a female champion — or “Chastity.” Britomartis is 
Diana, or Queen Elizabeth the Britoness. The fourth 
book is the legend of Cambel and Tri'amond (fidelity). 
The fifth book is the legend of Ar'tegal (justice). The 
sixth book is the legend of Sir Cal'idore (courtesy). The 
remaining books were never completed. The plan of the 
“Faery Queen” is borrowed from the Orlando Furioso, 
but the creative power of Spenser is more original, and 
his imagery more striking, than Ariosto’s. 

Fag. A lying servant to Captain Absolute in Sheri¬ 
dan’s “Rivals.” 

Fa'gin. An old Jew in Dickens’s “Oliver Twist,” 
who employs young persons of both sexes to carry on a 
systematic trade of robbery. 

Fain'all, Mr. and Mrs. Noted characters in Con¬ 
greve’s Comedy “The Way of the World.” 

Faineant, Le Noir (the Black Idler). In Sir 
Walter Scott’s “Ivanhoe,” a name applied to Richard 
Cceur de Lion, in disguise, by the spectators of a tourna¬ 
ment, on account of his indifference during a great part 
of the action, in which, however, he was finally victorious. 

Falkland. In Godwin’s novel called “Caleb Wil¬ 
liams.” He commits murder, and keeps a narrative of 
the transaction in an iron chest. Williams, a lad in his 
employ, opens the chest, and is caught in the act by 
Falkland. The lad runs away, but is hunted down. 
This tale, dramatized by Colman, is entitled “.The Iron 
Chest.” 

Fairy. Fairy-lore of the nursery grows out of belief 
in Providence, the Good and the Bad. Good fairies are 
called fairies, elves, elle-folks, and fays; the evil ones 
are urchins, ouphes, ell-maids, and ell-women. 

Fairy of the Mine. A malevolent being supposed 
to live in mines, busying itself with cutting ore, turning 
the windlass, etc., and yet effecting nothing. 

Fair Maid of Perth. The title of a novel by Sir 
Walter Scott, and the name of the heroine. 

Fairservice, Andrew. A shrewd Scotch gardener 
at Osbaldistone Hall in “Rob Roy,” Sir Walter Scott. 

Faithful. One of the allegorical personages in Bun- 
yan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress,” who dies a martyr before 
completing his journey. 

Faithful, Jacob. The title and hero of a sea tale, 
by Captain Marryat (1835). 

Fa'kenham Ghost. A ballad by Robert Bloom¬ 
field, author of “The Farmer’s Boy.” The ghost was a 
donkey. 

Fakreddin’s Valley. Over the several portals of 
bronze were these inscriptions: (1) “The Asylum of 
Pilgrims”; (2) “.The Traveler’s Refuge”; (3) “.The 
Depository of the Secrets of All the World.” 


Fal'staff, Sir John. A famous character in Shakes- 
pere’s cornedy of the “Merry Wives of Windsor,” and in 
the first ana second parts of his historical drama of 
“Henry IV.” He is as perfect a comic portrait as was 
ever sketched. In the former play; he is represented as 
in love with Mrs. Ford and Mrs. Page, who make a butt 
and a dupe of him; in the latter, he figures as a soldier 
and a wit; in both he is exhibited as a monster of fat, 
sensual, mendacious, boastful, and cowardly. In Henry 
V. his death is described by Mrs. Quickly. 

Fang. A sheriff’s officer, in the second part of Shakes- 
pere’s ‘ ? Iving Henry IV.” 

Fang, Charles Dickens’s “ Oliver Twist.” A 
bullying insolent magistrate, who would have sent Oliver 
Twist to prison, on suspicion of theft, if Mr. Brownlow 
had not interposed. 

Fa'ta Morgana. The name of a potent fairy, cele¬ 
brated in the tales of chivalry, and in the romantic poems 
of Italy. She was a pupil of the enchanter Merlin, and 
the sister of Arthur, to whom she discovered the intrigue 
of his queen, Geneura, or Guinever, with Lancelot of 
the Lake. In the “Orlando Innamorato ” of Bojardo, 
she appears at first as a personification of Fortune, in¬ 
habiting a splendid residence at the bottom of a lake, 
and dispensing all the treasures of the earth, but she 
is afterward found in her proper station subject to the 
all potent Demogorgon. Also, as sister to King Arthur 
and pupil of Merlin. She lived at the bottom of the 
lake and dispensed good fortune as she liked. 

Fata Alci'na. Bojardo Orlando Innamorato 
(1495). Sister of Fata Morgana. She carried off Astolfo 
on the back of a whale to her isle, but turned him into a 
myrtle tree when she tired of him. 

Fat Boy, The. A laughable character in Dickens’s 
“Pickwick Papers”; a youth of astonishing obesity, 
whose employment consists in alternate eating and 
sleeping. 

Fathom, Ferdinand, Count. The title of a novel 
by Smollett, and the name of its principal character, a 
complete villain, who proceeds step by step to rob his 
benefactors and finally dies in misery and despair. 

Fat'i-ma. (1) A female worker, in the story of 
“Aladdin,” in the “Arabian Nights’ Entertainments.” 
(2) The last of the waves of Blue-Beard, and the only one 
who escaped being murdered by him. 

Faust. The hero and title of a celebrated tragedy 
by Goethe, the materials of which are drawn in part from 
the popular legends of Dr. Faustus, a famous magician 
of the Sixteenth Century. Faust is a student who is 
toiling after knowledge beyond his reach, and who after¬ 
wards deserts his studies, and makes a pact with the 
Devil (Mephistopheles), in pursuance of which he gives 
himself up to the full enjoyment of the senses, until the 
hour of his doom arrives, when Mephistopheles reap¬ 
pears upon the scene, and carries off his victim as a con¬ 
demned soul. This mystical personage dates back to 
the time of the Reformation. 

Faus'tus. The hero of Marlowe’s tragedy of the same 
name; represented as a vulgar sorcerer tempted to sell 
his soul to the Devil (Mephistopheles), on condition of 
having a familiar spirit at his command, the possession 
of earthly power and glory, and unlimited gratification 
of his sensual appetites, for twenty-four years; at the 
end of which time, when the forfeit comes to be exacted, 
he shrinks and shudders in agony and remorse, imploring 
yet despairing of the mercy of heaven. This has been 
the theme of many writers. It is the subject of an opera 
by Gounod. 

Faw, Tibbie. Redgauntlet, Scott. The ostler’s 
wife, in Wandering Willie’s tale. 

Feast of Lemuria. The festival called “Lemuria” 
was held on the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May, and was 
accompanied with ceremonies of washing hands, throw¬ 
ing black beans over the head, etc., and the pronuncia¬ 
tion nine times of these words: “Begone, you specters 
of the house! ” which deprived the Lemurise of their 
power to harm. Ovid describes the Lemurise in the 
fifth book of his “Fasti.” 

Feast of Lights. Christmas was called the “Feast 
of Lights” in the Western or Latin Church, because at 
this feast they used more candles or lights, symbolic of 
Christ, The Light of all lights. 

Felton, Septimius. Septimius Felton is the mystical 
hero in Hawthorne’s novel by the same name. 

Fe-nel'la. A fairy-like creature, a deaf and dumb 
attendant on the Countess of Derby, in Sir Walter Scott’s 
“Peveril of the Peak.” 

Fen'ton. A character in Shakespere’s “Merry Wives 
of Windsor,” who wooes the rich Anne Page for her 
money, but soon discovers inward treasures in her which 
quite transform him. 

Fer'Amorz. Lalla Rookh, Thomas Moore. Fer 
Amorz in I.alia Rookh is the young Cashmerian poet, 



358 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


who relates poetical tales to Lalla Rookh, in her journey 
from Delhi to Lesser Buchar'ia. Lalla Rookh is going 
to be married to the young sultan, but falls in love with 
the poet. On the wedding morn she is led to her future 
husband, and finds that the poet is the sultan himself, 
who had gallantly taken this course to win the heart of 
his bride and beguile her journey. 

Ferdinand. (1) A character in Shakespere’s ‘‘Tem¬ 
pest.” He is a son of the King of Naples, and falls in love 
with Miranda, the daughter of Prospero, a banished 
Duke of Milan. (2) King of Navarre, a character in 
‘‘Love’s Labor’s Lost.” 

Ferrers. Endymion. The hero of Benjamin Dis¬ 
raeli’s novel “Endymion.” 

Ferrex and Porrex. Two sons of Gorboduc, a 
mythical British king. Porrex drove his brother from 
Britain, and when Ferrex returned with an army he was 
slain, but Porrex was shortly after put to death by his 
mother. One of the first, if not the very first, historical 

E lays in the English language was “Ferrex and Porrex,” 
y Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville. 

Fib. Nymphidia, Drayton. One of the fairy 
attendants to Queen Mab. 

Fidel'le. Cymbeline, Shakespere. The name as¬ 
sumed by Imogen, when, attired in boy’s clothes, she 
started for Milford Haven to meet her husband Pos¬ 
thumus. 

Fidele. Subject of an elegy by Collins. 

Fidessa. Faery Queen, Spenser. The companion 
of Sansfoy; but when the Rea Cross Knight slew that 
“faithless Saracen,” Fidessa turned out to be Duessa, the 
daughter of Falsehood and Shame. The sequel must 
be sought under the word Duessa. 

Fine-Ear. Fairy Tales (Fortunio), Com- 
tesse D’Aunoy. One of the seven attendants of For¬ 
tunio. He could hear the grass grow, and even the wool 
on a sheep’s back. This is an old, old story. It is also 
found in Grimm’s Fairy Tales. There the hero is “For¬ 
tunio.” In the German tale “Fortunio” the fairy gave 
her a horse named Comrade, not only of incredible swift¬ 
ness, but all-knowing, and endowed with human speech; 
she also gave her an inexhaustible turkey-leather trunk, 
full of money, jewels, and fine clothes. By the advice 
of Comrade, she hired seven gifted servants, named 
Strongback, Lightfoot, Marksman, Fine-ear, Boisterer, 
Trinquet, and Grugeon. Fortunio goes forth disguised 
as a warrior, meets her king and marries him. 

Finetta, The Cinder Girl. A fairy tale by the 
Comtesse D’Aunoy. This is merely the old tale of 
Cinderella slightly altered. 

Fin'gal, or Fin-gal'. A mythical hero, whose name 
occurs in Gaelic ballads and traditions, and in Mac- 
pherson’s “Poems of Ossian.” 

Fires of St. John. A representative play of the 
school to which Sudermann belongs. The whole group 
of plays of which “The Fires of St. John” is a type regis¬ 
ter a movement of revolt against the conventionalities 
of life in Germany as Ibsen’s dramas express the revolt 
against the conventionalities of life in Northern Europe. 

Firmin, Philip. The hero of Thackeray’s novel, 
“.The Adventures of Philip.” 

Fle'ance. A son of Banquo, in Shakespere’s tragedy 
of “Macbeth.” The legend relates that after the assas¬ 
sination of his father he escaped to Wales, where he 
married the daughter of the reigning prince, and had a 
son named Walter. This Walter afterwards became 
lord high steward of Scotland, and called himself Walter 
the Steward. From him proceeded in a direct line the 
Stuarts of Scotland, a royal line which gave James VI. 
of Scotland, James I. of England. This myth has been 
seriously accepted by some as fact. 

Fledge'by. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. An 
overreaching cowardly sneak who pretends to do a 
decent business under the trade name of Pubsey & Co. 

Flo-ren'ti-us. A knight whose story is related in 
the first book of Gower’s “Confessio Amantis.” He 
bound himself to marry a deformed hag, provided she 
taught him the solution of a riddle on which his life 
depended. 

Florian. The Foundling of the Forest, W. Di- 

mond. Discovered in infancy by the Count de Val- 
mont, and adopted as his own son. Florian is light¬ 
hearted and volatile, but with deep affection, very brave, 
and the delight of all who knew him. 

Flor'i-mel. A female character in Spenser’s “Faery 
Queen,” of great beauty, but so timid that she feared 
the “smallest monstrous mouse that creeps on floor,” 
and was abused by everyone. She was noted for sweet¬ 
ness of temper amid great trials. The word Florimel 
signifies “honey-flower.” 

Flor'i-zel. A prince of Bohemia, in Shakespere’s 
!* Winter’s Tale,” in love with Perdita. 


Flu-el'len. A Welsh captain, who is an amusing 
pedant, in Shakespere’s “Henry V.” 

Flying Dutchman. A spectral ship, seen in stormy 
weatner off the Cape of Good Hope, and considered 
ominous of ill-luck. Captain Marryat has taken this 
theme for his novel “The Phantom Ship.” 

Folk. Fairies, also called “people,” “neighbors,” 
“wights.” The Germans have their Kleine volk (little 
folk), the Swiss their hill people and earth people. See 
Fairies. 

Ford. Mr. and Mrs. Ford are characters in “The 
Merry Wives of Windsor.” Mrs. Ford pretends to ac¬ 
cept Sir John Falstaff’s protestations of love, in order 
to punish him by her devices. 

For'tin-bras. Prince of Norway, in Shakespere’s 
tragedy “Hamlet.” 

Fortunatus. You have found Fortunatus’s purse. 
Are in luck’s way. The nursery tale of Fortunatus re¬ 
cords that he had an inexhaustible purse. It is from the 
Italian fairy tales. 

Fortunio’s Horse. Comrade, not only possessed 
incredible speed, but knew all things, and was gifted 
with human speech. (See “Fine-ear.”) 

Forty Thieves. In the tale of Ali Baba (Arabian 
Nights’ Entertainments). Represented as inhabiting 
a secret cave in a forest, the door of which would open 
and shut only at the sound of the magic word “Sesame,” 
the name of a kind of grain. One day, Ali Baba, a wood- 
monger, accidentally discovered the secret, and made him¬ 
self rich by carrying off gold from the stolen hoards. 
The captain tried several schemes to discover the thief, 
but was always outwitted by Morgia'na, the wood-cut¬ 
ter’s female slave. 

Foxley, Squire 31atthew. Redgauntlet, Sir W. 
Scott. A magistrate who examines Darsie Latimer 
(Sir Arthur Darsie Redgauntlet), after he had been at¬ 
tacked by the rioters. 

Francesco. The “Iago” of Massinger’s “.Duke of 
Milan.” 

Frank'en-stein. The hero in Mrs. Shelley’s ro¬ 
mance of the same name. As a young student of phy¬ 
siology he constructs a monster out of the horrid rem¬ 
nants of the churchyard and dissecting-room, and 
endues it, apparently through the agency of galvanism, 
with a sort of spectral and convulsive life. This 
existence, rendered insupportable to the monster by his 
vain craving after human sympathy, and by his con¬ 
sciousness of his own deformity, is employed in inflicting 
the most dreadful retribution upon the guilty philoso¬ 
pher. It is a parody on the creature man, powerful for 
evil, and the instrument of dreadful retribution on the 
student, who usurped the prerogative of the Creator. 

Freeport, Sir Andrew. The name of one of- the 
members of the imaginary club under whose direction 
the “Spectator” was professedly published. He is 
represented as a London merchant of great eminence 
and experience, industrious, sensible, and generous. 

Friar Lawrence. The Franciscan monk who at¬ 
tempted to befriend the lovers in “Romeo and Juliet.” 

Friar’s Tale, The. In The Canterbury Tales, 
Chaucer. An arch-deacon employed a sumpnour as 
his secret spy to find out offenders, with the view of ex¬ 
acting fines from them. In order to accomplish this 
more effectually, the sumpnour entered into a compact 
with the Devil, disguised as a yeoman. Those who im¬ 
precated the Devil were to be dealt with by the yeoman- 
devil, and those who imprecated God were to be the 
sumpnour’s share. 

Friar Tuck. Chaplain and steward of Robin Hood. 
Introduced by Sir Walter Scott in “Ivanhoe.” He is a 
self-indulgent, combative Falstaff, a jolly companion to 
the outlaws in Sherwood Forest. 

Friday. Robinson Crusoe’s faithful man Friday 
pictured by De Foe. 

Frol'lo, Archdeacon Claude. A noted character 
in Victor Hugo’s “Notre-Dame de Paris,” absorbed in 
a bewildering search after philosopher’s stone. 

Front de Boeuf. Ivanhoe, Sir W. Scott. A fol¬ 
lower of Prince John of Anjou, and one of the knight’s 
challengers. 

Froth, Master. A foolish gentleman in Shakes¬ 
pere’s “Measure for Measure.” His name explains his 
character. 

Fudge Family. A name under which the poet 
Moore satirized the absurdities of his traveling country¬ 
men, who, having been long confined at home by the 
wars waged by Napoleon flocked to the continent after 
his defeat at Waterloo. The family is composed of a 
hack-writer and spy, his son, a young dandy of the first 
water, and his daughter, a sentimental damsel, and 
Madame Le Roy, in love with a Parisian linen-draper, 
j whom she has mistaken for one of the Bourbons in dis- 
I guise. There is also a tutor and “poor relation ” of this 




LITERATURE 


359 


egregious family, who is an ardent Bonapartist and Irish 
patriot. 

Funk, Peter, A person employed at petty auctions 
to bid on articles put up for safe, in order to raise their 
price; probably so called from such a name having fre¬ 
quently been given when articles were brought in. 

Fus'bos. Utopia, Sir Thomas Moore, Minister 
of state to Artaxaminous, King of Utopia. 

Fy'rapel, Sir. The leopard, the nearest kinsman of 
King Lion, in the beast epic of “.Reynard the Fox” 
(1498). 

Ga'bri-el. The name of an angel described in the 
Scriptures as charged with the ministration of comfort 
and sympathy to man. In the New Testament, he is 
the herald of good tidings, declaring the coming of the 
predicted Messiah and of his forerunner. In Jewish 
and Christian tradition he is one of the seven archangels. 
Gabriel has the reputation, among the Rabbins, of being 
a distinguished linguist, having taught Joseph the seventy 
languages spoken at Babel. The Mohammedans hold 
him in even greater reverence than the Jews. He is 
called the spirit of truth, and is believed to have dictated 
the Koran to Mohammed. Milton posts him at “the 
eastern gate of paradise,” as “ chief of the angelic guards,” 
keeping watch there. The Talmud describes him as the 
prince of fire, and as the spirit who presides over thunder. 

Gads'hill. A companion of Sir John Falstaff, in the 
First Part of Shakespere’s “King Henry IV.” 

Gal'ahad, Sir, A celebrated knight of the Round 
Table who achieved the quest of the Holy Grail. Tenny¬ 
son has made him the subject of one of his idylls. 
In Malory he is also represented as the perfect knight 
clad in wonderful armor. He was the only knight 
who could sit in the “Siege Perilous” a seat reserved 
for the “knight without a flaw,” who achieved the 
quest of the holy grail.” 

Gal'apas. A giant of marvelous height in the army 
of Lucius, King of Rome. He was slain by King Arthur. 

Gal-a-te'a. A sea nymph beloved by the Cyclops 
Polyphemus, who in his jealous rage destroyed her 
lover Acis with a rock torn from the mountain side. 
W. S. Gilbert in his drama “Pygmalion and Galatea” 
represents the artist as creating a piece of sculpture so 
perfect that he loves it with such a passion that he 
awakens it into life. 

Ga-laph'-ro-ne or Gal'a-fron. A king of Cathay 
and father of Angelica in Bojardo’s “.Orlando Innam- 
orato ” and Ariosto’s “Furioso.” 

Gamp, Mrs. A nurse who is a prominent character 
in Dickens’s novel of “Martin Chuzzlewit.” She is cele¬ 
brated for her constant reference to a certain Mrs. 
Harris, a purely imaginary person, for whose feigned 
opinions and utterances she professes the greatest 
respect, in order to give the more weight to her own. 

Gan, Ga-ne-lo'ne, Ga'ne-lon' or Ga'no. A count 
of Mayence, and one of the Paladins of Charlemagne, 
whom he betrayed at the battle of Ronces valles; always 
represented as a traitor, engaged in intrigues for the 
destruction of Christianity. He figures in the romantic 
poems of Italy, and is placed by Dante in his “Inferno.” 

Gander-Cleugh, “folly-cliff,” that mysterious place 
where a person makes a goose of himself, in “Tales of 
My Landlord,” Sir Walter Scott. 

Gan'elon. The character of Sir Ganelon was marked 
with spite, dissimulation, and intrigue, but he was 
patient, obstinate, and enduring. He loved solitude, 
disbelieved in the existence of moral good, and has be¬ 
come a by-word for a false and faithless friend. Dante 
has placed him in his “Inferno.” 

Garcia, Pedro. A mythical personage, of whom 
mention is made in the preface to Gil Bias, in which is 
related how two scholars of Salamanca discovered a 
tombstone with the inscription, “Here lies interred 
the soul of the Licentiate Pedro Garcia,” and how, on 
digging beneath the stone, was found a leathern purse 
containing a hundred ducats. 

Gar'eth. In Arthurian romance a knight of the 
Round Table, who was first a scullion in King Arthur’s 
kitchen, but afterwards became champion of the Lady 
Linet, or Lynette, whose sister Lionfes, or Lyonors, he 
delivered from Castle Perilous. 

Gargamelle'. The mother of Gargantua in Rabelais’ 
celebrated romance of this name. 

Gar-gan'tu-a. The hero of Rabelais’ celebrated 
romance of the same name, a gigantic personage, about 
whom many wonderful stories are related. He lived 
for several centuries, and at last begot a son, Pantagruel, 
as wonderful as himself. The“ Pleasant Story of the 
Giant Gargantua and of his Son Pantagruel,” so satirized 
the monastic orders of his time that it was denounced 
by the spiritual authorities. Francis I., however, pro¬ 
tected the author, and allowed him to print the third 
part of it in 1545. 


Gargan'tuan. Enormous, inordinate, great beyond 
all limits. The word refers to the hero of the romance 
Gargantua. 

Gar'gery, Mrs. Joe. Great Expectations, Dick¬ 
ens. Pip’s sister. A virago, who kept her husband 
and Pip in constant awe. Joe Gargery, a blacksmith, 
married to Pip’s sister. A noble-hearted, simple- 
minded young man, who loved Pip sincerely. Joe 
Gargery was one of nature’s gentlemen. 

Gaspar or Caspar (the white one), one of the 
three Magi or kings of Cologne. His offering to the 
infant Jesus was frankincense, in token of divinity. 

Gaunt, Griffith. Hero of a novel by Charles Reade, 
of same title. 

Gavotte'. Name given to a certain dance common 
among people in the upper Alps. 

Ga'wain, Sir. A nephew of King Arthur, and one 
of the most celebrated knights of the Round Table ; 
noted for his sagacity and wonderful strength. He was 
surnamed “the courteous.” His brothers were Agra- 
vaine, Gaheris, and Gareth. 

Ge'bir. A legendary Eastern prince, said to have 
invaded Africa and to have given his name to Gibraltar. 
He is the subject of a poem of the same name by Walter 
Savage Landor. 

Gael'lat-ley, Da'vie. The name of a poor fool in 
Sir Walter Scott’s novel of “Waverley.” 

Gen'e-vieve'. (1) The heroine of a ballad by Cole¬ 
ridge. (2) Under the form “Genoveva,” the name 
occurs in a German myth as that of the wife of the Count 
Palatine Siegfried, in the time of Charles Martel. Upon 
false accusations her husband gave orders to put her to 
death, but the servant intrusted with the commission 
suffered her to escape into the forest of Ardennes, where 
she lay concealed, until by accident her husband discov¬ 
ered her retreat, and recognized her innocence. This 
legend is often repeated in the folk tales of Germany. 
Tieck and Miller have given in modern versions and 
Raupach has made it the subject of a drama. 

Genev'ra. A lady in Ariosto’s “Orlando Furioso.” 
Her honor is impeached, and she is condemned to die 
unless a champion appears to do combat for her. Her 
lover, Ariodantes, answers the challenge, kills the false 
accuser, and weds the dame. Spenser has a similar 
story in the “Faery Queen,” and Shakespere availed 
himself of the main incident in his comedy of “Much 
Ado About Nothing.” From Italian romances “ Gen- 
evra ” has been taken as subject of “The Mistletoe 
Bough, ” by T. Haynes Bayley, and as both title and 
subject of a metrical tale by Samuel Rogers, in which 
he tells of a young Italian, who, upon her wedding-day, 
secreted herself, from motives of frolic, in a self-locking 
oaken chest, the lid of which shut down and held her 
captive. Many years afterward the chest was opened 
and revealed the skeleton. 

Ge'nii. Protecting spirits or tutelar deities analagous 
to the guardian angels of the Christian faith. The 
Persian and Indian genii had a corporeal form, which 
they could change at pleasure. They were not attendant 
spirits, but fallen angels. They were naturally hostile 
to man, though compelled sometimes to serve them 
as slaves. The Roman genii were guardian spirits, 
unseen but helpful. 

Georg'ics. A bucolic poetical composition, treating 
of farm-husbandry and the tillage of the soil. The 
most famous example of the kind is that by Virgil, 
31 B. C., in four books. 

Ge-raint', Sir. One of the knights of the Round 
Table. His story is told in Tennyson’s “.Idylls of the 
King” under “Geraint and Enid.” 

Ger'aldine. A name frequently found in romantic 
poetry. The name is said to have been adopted from 
the heroine, connected with Surrey, whose praises he 
celebrates in a famous sonnet, and who has been the 
occasion of much controversy among his biographers 
and critics. There is no doubt that the lady called 
Geraldine was an Irish lady named Elizabeth Fitz¬ 
gerald, the daughter of Gerald Fitzgerald. This sonnet 
led to the adoption of the name into the class of romantic 
names. 

Gertrude of Wyoming. Heroine of a poem by 
Thomas Campbell. 

Giao'ur. Byron’s tale called “.The Giaour” is 
represented as told by a fisherman, a Turk, who had 
committed a crime which haunted him all his life. See 
Hassan. 

Ges'ta Eomano'rum. Compiled by Pierre Ber- 
cheur, prior of the Benedictine Convent of St. Eloi, 
Paris. A collection of old romances which has been the 
storehouse for our best story writers. Shakespere, 
Spenser, Gower, and many later writers have gone to 
this source. It took its present form in England about 
the beginning of the Fourteenth Century, the foundation 




360 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


coming from Roman writers to which were added 
moralizing paragraphs and sometimes other religious 
and mystical tales. . ^ , .. , 

Gib'bie, Goose. A half-witted boy in Scott s Old 
Mortality.” 

Gib'bie, Sir. A simple-hearted, fine character in 
George Macdonald’s novel by the same name. 

Giant Despair. Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan, 
A giant who is the owner of Doubting Castle, and who, 
finding Christian and Hopeful asleep upon his grounds, 
takes them prisoners, and thrusts them into a dungeon. 
Giant Grim. A giant who seeks to stop the march of 
the pilgrims to the Celestial City, but js slain in a duel 
by Mr. Great-heart, their guide. Giant Slay-good. 
A giant slain in a duel by Mr. Great-heart. 

Gil Bias. The title of a famous romance by LeSage, 
and the name of its hero. The tale is full of adventures 
and Gil Bias is represented as squire to a lady and 
brought up by his uncle, canon Gil Peres. Gil Bias 
went to Dr. Godinez’s school of Oviedo and gained the 
name of being a great scholar. He had fair abilities 
and good inclinations, but was easily led astray by his 
vanity, full of wit and humor, but lax in his morals. 
Duped at first, he afterwards played the same devices 
on others. As he grew in years, his conduct improved, 
and when his fortune was made he became an honest man. 

Gil'pin, John. A citizen of London, and ‘‘a train- 
band captain,” whose adventures are related in Cow- 
er’s humorous poem, ‘‘John Gilpin’s Ride.” After 
eing married twenty years his wife proposed a holiday, 
they agreed to make a family party, and dine at the Bell, 
at Edmonton. Mrs. Gilpin, her sister, and four children 
went in the chaise, and Gilpin promised to follow on 
horseback. The horse being fresh, began to trot, and 
then to gallop, and John a bad rider grasped the mane 
with both his hands. On went the horse, off flew John 
Gilpin’s cloak, together with his hat and wig. He flew 
through Edmonton, and never stopped till he reached 
Ware, when his friend the calender, furnished him with 
another hat and wig, and Gilpin galloped back again, 
till the horse stopped at his house in London. 

Glaucus. A fisherman of Boeo'tia who has become 
the fisherman’s patron deity. 

Glaucus, son of Hippolytus. Being smothered in 
a tub of honey, he was restored to life by Escula'pios. 

Glo'ri-a'na. In Spenser’s ‘‘Faery Queen,” the 
"greatest glorious queen of Faery land.” 

Gloss. In Biblical criticism, an explanation of purely 
verbal difficulties of the text, to the exclusion of those 
which arise from doctrinal, historical, ritual, or cere¬ 
monial sources. From an early period, these verbal 
difficulties were the object of attention, and the writers 
who devoted themselves to the elucidation were called 
‘‘gl ossa tores,” and their works “glossaria.” 

Glumdal'ca. Tom Thumb, Fielding. Queen of 
the giants, captive in the court of King Arthur. 

Glum-dal'clitch. Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. A 
girl nine years old ‘‘and only forty feet high.” Being 
Buch a “little thing,” the charge of Gulliver was com¬ 
mitted to her during his sojourn in Brobdingnag. 

Glumms. Peter Wilkins, Robert Pullock. The 
male population of the imaginary country Nosmnbds- 
grsutt, visited by Peter Wilkins. Both males and 
females had wings which served both for flying and for 
clothes. 

Gnome. (1) A pithy and sententious saying com¬ 
monly in verse, embodying some moral sentiment or 
precept. The gnome belongs to the same generic 
class with the proverb: but it differs from a proverb 
in wanting the common and popular acceptance. The 
use of gnomes prevailed among all the early nations, 
especially the Orientals, and the literatures of most 
countries abound with them. In the Bible, the book of 
Proverbs, part of Ecclesiastes, and still more the apocry¬ 
phal book of Ecclesiasticus, present numberless illustra¬ 
tions of the highest form of this composition. (2) In 
ancient times the name gnome represented one of the 
classes of imaginary beings which are supposed to be 
the presiding spirits in the mysterious operations of 
nature in the mineral and vegetable world. 

Gob'bo, Launcelot. A clown in Shakespere’s 
"Merchant of Venice.” He left the service of Shylock 
the Jew for that of Bassa'nio a Christian. Launcelot 
Gobbo is one of the famous clowns of Shakespere. 

Gob'bo, Old. Father to Launcelot Gobbo in "Mer¬ 
chant of Venice.” He was stone blind. 

Go'blins and Bogles. Familiar demons of popular 
superstition, a spirit which lurks about houses. It is 
also called hobgoblin. Goblin is used in a serious sense 
by Shakespere in “Hamlet,” where the ghost is supposed 
to be a "spirit of health or goblin damned.” 

God Save the King. The national anthem of 
Great Britain, and by adoption that of Prussia and the 


German states. Its words are apparently imitated 
from the Domine Salvum of the Catholic Church service. 

Gold Bug, The. Found in Poe’s mpst successful 
tale, by same name. Scene laid on Sullivan’s Island, 
near Charleston, S. C., and the cipher made to concern 
Captain Kidd’s buried treasure. 

Golden Legend, The. The title of an ecclesiastical 
work in 177 sections, dating from the Thirteenth Cen¬ 
tury, written by one James de Voragine, a Dominican 
monk, and descriptive of the various saints’ days in 
the Roman Calendar. It is deserving of study as a 
literary monument of the period, and as illustrating the 
religious habits and views of the Christians of that time. 

Gold of Nibelungen, The. Unlucky wealth. “To 
have the gold of Nibelungen” is to have a p 9 ssession 
which seems to bring a curse with it. Icelandic Edda. 

Gon'eril. The oldest of the three daughters to King 
Lear, in Shakespere’s tragedy. Having received her 
moiety of Lear’s kingdom, the unnatural daughter first 
abridged the old man’s retinue, then gave him to under¬ 
stand that his company was not wanted and sent him 
out a despairing old man to seek refuge where he could 
find it. Her name is proverbial for filial ingratitude. 

Gon-za'lo. An honest old counselor in Shakespere’s 
“Tempest,” a true friend to Prospero. 

Goody Blake. A character in Wordsworth’s poem 
entitled “Goody Blake and Harry Gill.” A farmer 
forbids old Goody Blake to carry home a few sticks, 
which she had picked up from his land, and in revenge 
she invokes upon him the curse that he may "never 
more be warm ” : and ever after “his teeth they chatter, 
chatter still.” 

Goody Two-Shoes. The name of a well-known 
character in a nursery tale by Oliver Goldsmith. Goody 
Two-Shoes was a very poor child, whose delight at 
having a pair of shoes was unbounded. She called con¬ 
stant attention to her “two shoes” which gave her the 
name. 

Gordian Knot. A great difficulty. Gordius, a 
peasant, chosen King of Phrygia, dedicated his wagon 
to Jupiter, and fastened the yoke with a rope so ingeni¬ 
ously that no one could untie it. Alexander w r as told 
that "whoever undid the knot would become king” and 
he cut the knot with his sword. 

Gra'ci-o'sa. A princess in an old and popular fairy 
tale— the object of the ill-will of a step-mother named 
Grognon, whose malicious designs are perpetually 
thwarted by Percinet, a fairy prince, who is in love with 
Graciosa. 

Graal, Gral, or Greal (a word derived probably 
from the old French, perhaps Celtic, “gr£al”). In the 
legends and poetry of the Middle Ages, we find accounts 
of the Holy Graal — San Gr£al — a miraculous chalice, 
made of a single precious stone, sometimes said to be 
an emerald, which possessed the power of preserving 
chastity, prolonging life, and other wonderful properties. 
It is fabled to have been preserved and carried to Eng¬ 
land by Joseph of Arimathea. It remained there 
many years, an object of pilgrimage and devotion, but 
at length it disappeared, one of its keepers having 
violated the condition of strict virtue in thought, word, 
and deed, which was imposed upon those who had charge 
of it. The quest of this cup forms the most fertile 
source of adventures to the knights of the Round Table. 
The story of the Sangreal or Sangraal was first written 
in verse by Troyes (end of the Tenth Century), thence 
into Latin, and finally turned into French prose by 
order of Henry III. It commences with the genealogy 
of our Saviour, and details the whole Gospel history: 
but the prose romance begins with Joseph of Arimathea. 
Its quest is continued in Percival, a romance of the 
Fifteenth Century. The legend of the graal was intro¬ 
duced into German poetry in the Thirteenth Century 
by Wolfram von Eschenbach, who took Guiot’s tales 
of Parcival and Titurel as the foundation of his poem, 
but filled it with deep allegorical meanings. 

Grad'grind. A hardware merchant in Dickens’s 
"Hard Times.” He is a man of hard facts and culti¬ 
vates the practical. His constant demand in conversa¬ 
tion is for “facts.” He allows nothing for the weak¬ 
ness of human nature, and deals with men and women 
as a mathematician with his figures. 

Grad'grind, Mrs. Wife of Thomas Gradgrind. 
A little thin woman, always taking physic, without 
receiving from it any benefit. 

Grad'grind, Tom. Son of the above, a sullen young 
man, much loved by his sister. 

Grad'grind, Louise. A faithful daughter and sister. 

Gran'di-son, Sir Charles. The hero of Richard¬ 
son s novel “The History of Sir Charles Grandison.” 
Designed to represent his ideal of a perfect hero — a 
union of the good Christian and the perfect English 
gentleman. 




LITERATURE 


361 


Gratia'no'. A friend to Antonio and Bassino in 
Shakespere’s “Merchant of Venice.” He “talks an 
infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in Venice.” 
(2) Brother to Brabantio, in Shakespere’s tragedy of 
“Othello.” (3) A character in the Italian popular 
theater called “Commedia dell’Arte.” He is repre¬ 
sented as a Bolognese doctor, and has a mask with a 
black nose and forehead and red cheeks. 

Gray, Auld Rob'in. The title of a popular Scotch 
ballad written by Lady Anne Lindsay, and name of its 
hero. Auld Robin Gray was a good old man married 
to a poor young girl whose lover was thought to have 
been lost at sea, but who returns to claim her hand a 
month after her marriage. 

Great'-heart, Mr. In Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Prog¬ 
ress,” the guide of Christian’s wife and children upon 
their journey to the Celestial City. 

Gre'mio. In Shakespere’s “Taming of the Shrew,” 
an old man who wishes to wed Bianca. 

Gren'del. Beowulf. An Anglo-Saxon epic. The 
half-brute, half-man monster from which Beowulf de¬ 
livered Hrothgar, King of Denmark. Night after night 
Grendel crept stealthily into the palace called Heorot, 
and slew sometimes as many as thirty of the inmates. 
At length Beowulf, at the head of a mixed band of war¬ 
riors, went against it and slew it. 

Gri'ffin. A chimerical creature, which the fancy of 
the modern has adopted from that of the ancient world. 
The Griffin is variously described and represented, but 
the shape in which it most frequently appears is that of 
an animal having the body and legs of the lion with the 
beak and wings of the eagle. Like all other monsters, 
griffins abound in the legendary tales of the Teutonic 
nations. (Same as Gryphon.) 

Griffin-feet. Fairy Tales, Comtesse D’Aunoy. 
The mark by which the Desert Fairy was known in all 
her metamorphoses. 

Grimalkin. A cat, the spirit of a witch. Any witch 
was permitted to assume the body of a cat nine times. 

Grimwig. Oliver Twist, Dickens. An irascible 
old gentleman, who hid a very kind heart under a rough 
exterior. He was always declaring himself ready to 
“ eat his head ” if he was mistaken on any point on which 
he passed an opinion. 

Gri-sel'da, The Patient. A lady in Chaucer’s 
"Clerk of Oxenford’s Tales” immortalized by her virtue 
and her patience. The model of womanly and wifely 
obedience, she comes victoriously out of cruel and re¬ 
peated ordeals. The story of Griselda is first told in the 
Decameron. Boccaccio derived the incidents from 
Petrarch, who seems to have communicated them also 
to Chaucer, as the latter refers to Petrarch as his author¬ 
ity. 

Grub Street, London, is thus described in Dr. John¬ 
son’s Dictionary; “Originally the name of a street near 
Moorfields, in London, much inhabited by writers of 
small histories, dictionaries, and temporary poems, 
whence any production is called Grub Street.” The 
name in its appropriate sense, was freely used by Pope, 
Swift, and others. 

Grundy. “What will Mrs. Grundy say?” What 
will our rivals or neighbors say? The phrase is from 
Tom Morton’s “Speed the Plough,” but “Mrs. Grundy” 
is npt introduced into the comedy as one of the “dra¬ 
matis personee.” The solicitude of Dame Ashfield, in 
this play, as to “what will Mrs. Grundy say,” has given 
the Tatter great celebrity, the interrogatory having ac¬ 
quired a proverbial currency. 

Gu’drun. Edda, Samund Sigfusson. A lady 
married to Sigurd by the magical arts of her mother: 
and on the death of Sigurd to Atli (Attila), whom she 
hated for his cruelty, and murdered. She then cast her¬ 
self into the sea, and the waves bore her to the castle of 
King Jonakun, who became her third husband. 

Gu'drun. North-Saxon poem. A model of heroic 
fortitude and pious resignation. She was the daughter 
of King Hettel (Attila), and the betrothed of Herwig, 
King of Heligoland. 

Guen'dolen. A fairy whose mother was a human 
being. 

Guil'den-stern. The name of a courtier in Shakes¬ 
pere’s tragedy, Hamlet. 

Gul'li-ver, Lemuel. The imaginary hero of Swift’s 
celebrated satirical romance known as “Gulliver’s 
Travels.” He is represented as being first a surgeon in 
London, and then a captain of several ships. After hav¬ 
ing followed the sea for some years he makes in succes¬ 
sion four extraordinary voyages. 

Gup'py, Mr. Bleak House, Dickens. A weak, 
commonplace youth, who has the conceit to propose to 
Esther Summerson, the ward in Chancery. 

Gurth. Ivanhoe, Sir Walter Scott. The swine¬ 
herd of Rotherwood. 


Gur'ton, Gammer. The heroine of an old English 
comedy, long supposed to be the earliest in the language, 
but now ranked as the second in point of time. 

Guy'on. The impersonation of Temperance or Self- 
government in Spenser’s “ Faery Queen.” He destroyed 
the witch Acra'sia, and her bower, called the “Bower 
of Bliss.” His companion was Prudence. “Sir Guyon 
represents the quality of Temperance in the largest sense: 
meaning the virtuous self-government which holds in 
check not only the inferior sensual appetites but also 
the impulses of passion and revenge.” 

Guy, Sir, Earl of Warwick. The hero of a famous 
English legend, which celebrates the wonderful achieve¬ 
ments by which he obtained the hand of his lady-love, 
the Fair Felice, as well as the adventures he subsequently 
met with in a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He is re¬ 
puted to have lived in the reign of the Saxon King Athel- 
stan. The romance of Sir Guy, mentioned by Chaucer 
in the “Canterbury Tales,” cannot be traced further 
back than the earlier part of the Fourteenth Century. 
His existence at any period is very doubtful. 

Guy Mannering. The second of Scott’s historical 
novels. It contains the excellent characters. Dandy 
Dinmont, the shrewd and witty counselor Pleydell, the 
desperate seabeaten villainy of Hatteraick, the uncouth 
devotion of that gentlest or all pedants poor Domine 
Sampson, and the savage crazed superstition of the 
gypsy-dweller in Derncleugh. 

Ha'dad. One of the six Wise Men led by the guid¬ 
ing star to Jesus. 

Ha'gen. The murderer of Siegfried, in the German 
epic, the “ Nibelungenlied.” He is a pale-faced dwarf, 
who knows everything and whose sole desire is mis¬ 
chief. After the death of Siegfried he seized the “Nibe- 
lung hoard,” and buried it in the Rhine, intending to 
appropriate it. Kriemhild invited him to the court 
and had him slain. 

Hai-dee'. A beautiful young Greek girl in Byron’s 
poem, “Don Juan.” She is called the “beauty of the 
Cyclades.” 

Ha/kim. The Talisman, Scott. Saladin, in the 
disguise of a physician, visited Richard Cceur de Lion 
in sickness: gave him a medicine in which the “talis¬ 
man” had been dipped, and the sick king recovered. 

Ham'let. In Shakespere’s tragedy of the same 
name, son to the former, and nephew to the reigning 
King of Denmark. The ghost of his father appears to 
him, and urges him to avenge his murder upon his uncle. 
But the prince feigns madness, and puts off his revenge 
from day to day by “thinking too precisely on the 
event.” Hamlet’s mother had married Claudius, King 
of Denmark, after the death of her former husband. 
Claudius prepared poisoned wine, which he intended 
for Hamlet: but the queen, not knowing it was pois¬ 
oned, drank it and died. Hamlet, seeing his mother 
fall dead, rushed on the king and killed him almost by 
accident, and is killed himself by a poisoned rapier in 
the hands of Laertes. (See “Ophelia.”) 

Hans von Rip'pach. A fictitious personage, to ask 
for whom was a joke among German students. 

Hans'wurst. A pantomimic character formerly in¬ 
troduced into German comedies. It corresponds to the 
Italian “Macaroni,” the French “Jean Potage,” and the 
English “Jack Pudding.” 

Hard'cas'tle, Mr. A character in Goldsmith’s 
comedy of “She Stoops to Conquer,” represented as 
prosy and hospitable. 

Hardcastle, Mrs. A very “genteel” lady indeed. 
Tony Lumpkin is her son by a former husband. 

Hard Times. A novel by Dickens, dramatized 
under the title of “Under the Earth” or “The Sons of 
Toil.” Bounderby, a street Arab, raised himself to 
banker and cotton prince. When past fifty years of 
age, he married Louisa, daughter of Thomas Grad- 
grind. The bank was robbed, and Bounderby believed 
Stephen Blackpool to be the thief, because he had dis¬ 
missed him from his employ. The culprit was Tom 
Gradgrind, the banker’s brother-in-law, who escaped 
out of the country; In the dramatized version, the 
bank was not robbed, but Tom removed the money to 
another drawer for safety. 

Har'le-quin. The name of a well-known character 
in the popular extemporized Italian comedy. 

Har'lowe, Cla-ris'sa. The heroine of Richardson’s 
novel entitled “The History of Clarissa Harlowe.” In 
order to avoid a marriage urged upon her by her parents, 
she casts herself on the protection of Lovelace, who 
grossly abuses the confidence thus reposed in him. He 
subsequently proposes to marry her, but Clarissa rejects 
the offer. 

Har'old, Childe. Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, 
Byron. A man of gentle birth and peerless intellect, 
who exhausted all the pleasures of youth and early 



362 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


manhood, and loathed his fellow-bacchanals and the 
“laughing dames in whom he did delight.’’ To banish 
his disgust and melancholy, he determines to travel: 
but, though he traverses some of the fairest portions 
of the earth, the feelings of bitterness and desolation 
still prey upon him. 

Haroun'-al-Raschid. Caliph of the Abbasside 
race, contemporary with Charlemagne, and, like him, 
a patron of literature and the arts. Many of the tales 
in the “Arabian Nights” are placed in the caliphate of 
Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Har-pa'gon'. The hero of Moliere’s comedy of 
“L’Avare.” represented as a wretched miser. 

Har'pi-er or Har'per. Some mysterious person¬ 
age referred to by the witches in Shakespere’s tragedy, 
** Macbeth ** 

Hass'an. The Giaour, Byron. Caliph of the 
Ottoman Empire, noted for his hospitality and splendor. 
In his seraglio was a beautiful young slave named Leila, 
who loved a Christian called the Giao'ur. Leila is put 
to death by an emir, and Hassan is slain by the Giaour. 
Caliph Hassan has become the subject of popular 
romance. 

Hassan, Al. The Arabian emir' of Persia, father of 
Hinda, in Moore’s “Fire-worshippers.” 

Haf'to. In German legend, an Archbishop of Mentz 
in the Tenth Century, who, for his hard-hearted ness to 
the poor in time of famine, was eaten by mice in the 
“Mouse Tower” on an island in the Rhine near Bingen. 
Robert Browning has made this legend the subject of a 
poem. 

Have'lock the Dane. A fisherman, known as Grim, 
rescued an infant named Havelock, whom he adopted. 
This infant was the son of the King of Denmark, and 
when the boy was restored to his royal sire Grim was 
laden with gifts. He built the town which he called 
after his own name. This is the foundation of the 
mediaeval tales about “Havelock the Dane.” 

Hazlewood, Sir Robert. The old baronet of 
Hazlewood. 

Hazlewood, Charles. Guy Mannering, Scott. 

Son of Sir Robert. In love with Lucy Bertram, whom 
he marries. 

Heart of Mid-lo'thi-an. Thetolbooth, or old jail of 
of Edinburgh, Midlothian being the old name of Edinburgh 
County. It is the title of one of Sir Walter Scott’s novels. 

Heep, Uri'ah. David Copperfleld, Dickens. A 
detestable character who, under the garb of the most 
abject humility, conceals a diabolic malignity. Mrs. 
Heep, Uriah’s mother. Was a character equally to be 
despised for her hypocritical assumption of humility. 

Hel’ s or Hela’s Kingdom. Frequent allusions in 
Norse poetry to the kingdom of the lower world. Many 
of its descriptions are said to be a source from which our 
Puritan ancestors derived images of the region of the 
unhappy dead. 

Hel'e-na. (1) A lady in Shakespere’s “Midsummer 
Night’s Dream,” in love with Demetrius. (2) The hero¬ 
ine of Shakespere’s “All’s Well that Ends Well,” in love 
with Bertram, who marries her against his will and 
leaves her, but is finally won by the strength of her 
affection. (3) A character in an old popular tale, repro¬ 
duced in Germany by Tieck. 

Her'mann and Dor'o-the'a. The hero and heroine 
of Goethe’s poem of the same name. 

Her'megild. Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. The 
wife of the lord-constable of Northumberland. She was 
converted by Constance, but was murdered by a knight. 
Hermegild at the bidding of Constance restored sight 
to a blind Briton. 

Her'mi-a. A lady in Shakespere’s “Midsummer 
Night’s Dream,” in love with Lysander. 

Her-mi'o-ne. The heroine of the first three acts of 
Shakespere’s “Winter’s Tale.” 

Her-na'ni or Er-na'ni. The hero of Victor Hugo’s 
tragedy of the same name, and of Verdi’s opera, founded 
on the play. He was a Spanish noble in revolt against 
the Emperor Charles V. and killed himself from a high 
sense of honor. 

He'ro and Le-an’der. A pair of lovers in a late 
Greek poem. Hero dwelt on the Hellespont and Lean- 
der, who lived opposite, swam the strait to visit her. He 
was drowned, and Hero, in grief, cast herself into the sea. 

Hex'am, Lizzie. The heroine of Dickens’s novel, 
Our Mutual Friend.” 

Hiawa'tha. A mythical person believed by the 
North American Indians to have been sent among them 
to clear their rivers, forests, and fishing-grounds, and to 
teach them the arts of peace. When the white man 
came then Hiawatha knew that the time of his depar¬ 
ture was at hand, when he must go “to the kingdom of 
Ponemah, the land of the Hereafter.” Longfellow 
gathered these myths from the Algonquin legends 


Hil'de-brand. The nestor of German romance, a 
magician and champion. . . 

Hil'da. A New England girl of the most sensitive 
delicacy and purity of mind, in Hawthorne’s romance, 
“The Marble Faun.” She is an artist, living in Rome, 
and typifies perhaps the conscience. 

HiFdesheim. In an old German legend, the monk 
of Hildesheim, doubting how a thousand years with 
God could be “only one day,” listened to the melody 
of a bird, as he supposed, for only three minutes, but 
found that he had been listening to it for a hundred 
years. 

Hob'bl-did'ance. The name of one of the fiends 
mentioned by Shakespere in “Lear,” and taken from 
the history of the Jesuits’ impostures. 

Hod'e-kin. A famous German kobold, or domestic 
fairy-servant: so called because he always wore a little 
felt hat pulled down over his face. 

Hol'o-fer'nes. (1) A pedant living in Paris, under 
whose care Gargantua is placed for instruction. (2) A 
pedantic schoolmaster in Shakespere’s “Love’s Labor’s 
Lost.” 

Holt, Felix. The hero of George Eliot’s novel by 
the same name. 

Hom'ilies. The later entries in the Peterborough 
“Chronicle” and a few homilies are almost all that we 
have left of the literature of the Twelfth Century. Some 
of these homilies are copied or imitated from those of 
iElfric. 

Hon'ey-comb', Will. One of the members of the 
imaginary club by whom the “Spectator” was pro¬ 
fessedly edited. He is distinguished for his graceful 
affectation, courtly pretension, and knowledge of the 
gay world. 

Honeyman, Charles. A fashionable preacher in 
Thackeray’s novel, “The Newcomes.” 

Hope'ful. A pilgrim in Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Prog¬ 
ress,” who accompanies Christian to the end of his 
journey. 

Hop'-o’-my-Thumb'. A character in the tales of 
the nursery. Tom Thumb and Hop-o’-my-Thumb are 
not the same, although they are often confounded. 
Tom Thumb was the son of peasants, knighted by King 
Arthur, and was killed by a spider. Hop-o’-my-Thumb 
was a nix, the same as the German “daumling,” the 
French “ le petit pouce,” and the Scotch “Tom-a-lin” 
or “Tamlane.” He was not a human dwarf, but a fay. 

Hora'tio. Hamlet, Shakespere. An intimate 
friend of Hamlet, a prince, a scholar, and a gentleman. 

Hora'tius, Codes. Captain of the bridge-gate over 
the Tiber. He and two men to help him held the bridge 
against vast approaching armies. Subject and title of 
a poem by Lord Macaulay. 

Hornbook. The primer or apparatus for learning 
the elements of reading, used in England before the 
days of printing, and common down to the time of 
George II. It consisted of a single leaf, containing on 
one side the alphabet, large and small, in black letter 
or in Roman, with perhaps a small regiment of mono¬ 
syllables. Then followed a form of exorcism and the 
Lord’s Prayer, and, as a finale, the Roman numerals. 
The leaf was usually set in a frame of wood, with a slice 
of transparent horn in front — hence the name of “horn¬ 
book.” Copies of the hornbook are now exceedingly rare. 

Hor'ner, Jack. The name of a celebrated person¬ 
age in the literature of the nursery. A Somersetshire 
tradition says that the plums which Jack Horner pulled 
out of the Christmas pie alluded to the title deeds of the 
abbey estates at Wells, which were sent to Henry VIII. 
in a pasty, and abstracted on the way by the messenger, 
a certain Jack Horner. 

Hortense'. Bleak House, Dickens. The vindic¬ 
tive French maid-servant of Lady Dedlock. In revenge 
for the partiality shown by Lady Dedlock to Rosa, Hor¬ 
tense murdered Mr. Tulkinghorn, and tried to throw 
the suspicion of the crime on Lady Dedlock. 

House of Fame. Of this poem it has been said 
that of itself it might have given fame to Chaucer. 
Under the form of a dream, it gives a picture of the 
“Temple of Glory,” crowded with aspirants for immortal 
renown, and adorned with statues of great poets and 
historians. 

Hous'sain. A prince in the “Arabian Nights” who 
had a flying carpet which would carry him whitherso¬ 
ever he wished. 

Hubbard, Old Mother. A well-known nursery 
rhyme. “Mother Hubbard’s Tale,” by Edmund Spen¬ 
ser, is a satirical fable in the style of Chaucer. 

Hu'bert de Burgh. Justice of England, created 
Earl of Kent, introduced by Shakespere into “ King 
John.” .He is the one to whom the young prince ad¬ 
dresses his piteous plea for life. The lad was found dead 
soon afterwards, either by accident or foul play. 



LITERATURE 


363 


Hu'bert, Saint* The legend of Saint Hubert makes 
him a patron saint of huntsmen. 

Hu'di-bras. The title and hero of a celebrated 
satirical poem by Samuel Butler. Hudibras is a Pres¬ 
byterian justice of the time of the Commonwealth. 

Hugh of Lincoln. A legendary personage who 
forms the subject of Chaucer’s “ Prioress’s Tale,” and also 
of an ancient English ballad. Wordsworth has given 
a modernized version of this tale. 

Hu'go Hug'onet. Castle Dangerous, Scott. Min¬ 
strel of the Earl of Douglas. 

Hum'phrey. The imaginary collector of the tales 
in ‘‘Master Humphrey’s Clock,” by Charles Dickens. * 

Hump'ty Dump'ty. The hero of a well-known 
nursery rhyme. The name signifies humped and 
dumpy, and is the riddle for an egg. 

Hu'on of Bordeaux, Sir. A hero of one of the 
romances of chivalry bearing this name. 

^ Hur'al Oyun'. In the fairy tales found in the 
Koran, these are the black-eyed daughters of paradise. 
They are created from muck and are free from all phys¬ 
ical weakness and are always y 9 ung. It is held out to 
every male believer that he will have seventy-two of 
these girls as his household companions in paradise.— 
From the Koran. 

HyTas. A beautiful boy, beloved by Hercules, who 
was drawn into a spring by the enamored nymphs. 
The story has been treated by Bayard Taylor, and by 
William Morris in his ‘‘Life and Death of Jason.” 

Hypatia. Of this romance its author, Charles Kings¬ 
ley, said; “My idea in the romance is to set forth Chris¬ 
tianity as the only really democratic creed and philos¬ 
ophy: above all, spiritualism as the most exclusively 
aristocratic creed.” 

Hypapanti. The Feast of Purification is called 
Festum Hypapanti. 

Hyperion or Hyperion. This myth has formed a 
favorite theme for English poets. In Keats’ “ Hyperion ” 
nature and classic imagery are combined with exquisite 
delicacy. 

Hypocrites’ Isle. An island described by Rabelais 
in one of his satires. He pictures thi3 island of “Hypo¬ 
crites” as wholly inhabited by people of low and defiled 
natures, as, by sham saints, spiritual comedians, seducers, 
and “such-like sorry rogues who live on the alms of 
passengers like the hermit of Lamont.” 

Ia'go. Othello, Shakespere. Othello’s ensign and 
the villain of the play. Iago is said to be a character 
next to a devil, yet not quite a devil, which Shakespere 
alone could execute without scandal. 

Idleness, The Lake of. Faery Queen, Spenser. 
Whoever drank thereof grew instantly “faint and 
weary.” The Red Cross Knight drank of it, and was 
readily made captive by Orgoglio. 

Idylls of the King. Tennyson has told the purpose 
and the meaning of these Idylls. Taken together they 
form a parable of the life of man. Each Idyll taken as 
a separate picture represents the war between Sense and 
Soul. In Lancelot and Guinevere the lower nature leads 
them astray and there is intense struggle before the higher 
nature prevails. In Vivien, Ettarre, Tristam, and Mo- 
dred the base and sensual triumph. In Arthur, Sir 
Galahad and Percival, it is the victory of the spiritual. 

Igna'ro. Faery Queen, Spenser. Foster-father of Or¬ 
goglio. Spenser says this old man walks one way and looks 
another, because ignorance is always “wrong-headed.” 

Il'iad. The tale of the siege of Troy, an epic poem in 
twenty-four books. It is written in Greek hexameters, 
and commemorates the deeds of Achilles and other Greek 
heroes at the siege of Troy. The date of its composition 
may, with much probability, be assigned to the Ninth 
Century B. C., and the poem is so deficient in continuity, 
and contains so much that is inconsistent and irrelevant 
with the main topic, that it has been thought by many 
critics to have been the performance of several persons, 
although its authorship is still nominally accredited to 
Homer. Books one, two, and three are introductory 
to the war. Paris proposes to decide the contest by 
single combat, and Menelaus accepts the challenge. 
Paris, being overthrown, is carried off by Venus, and 
Agamemnon demands that the Trojans should give up 
Troy in fulfillment of the compact, and the siege follows. 
The gods take part and frightful slaughter ensues. At 
length Achilles slays Hector and the battle is at an end. 
Old Priam, going to the tent of Achilles, craves the body 
of his son Hector; Achilles gives it up, and the poem 
concludes with the funeral rites of the Trojan hero. 
Virgil continues the tale from this point, shows how 
the city was taken and burnt, and then continues with 
the adventures of ^Ene'as, who escapes from the burning 
city, and makes his way to Italy. 

Illuminating. The art of adorning manuscripts 
and books with ornamented letters and paintings, which 


was practiced in the Middle Ages, prior to the intro¬ 
duction of printing, by artists, generally monks, called 
“illuminators.” Manuscripts, containing portraits, pic¬ 
tures, and emblematic figures, form a valuable part of 
the riches preserved in the principal libraries in Europe. 

Im'o-gen. The wife of Posthumus, and the daughter 
of Cymbeline in the play of Shakespere’s under title 
Cymbeline. “Of all Shakespere’s women,” says Hazlitt, 
“she is, perhaps, the most tender and the most artless.” 

Improvvisato'ri. Poets who utter verses without 
previous preparation on a given theme. Among the 
ancients, Greece was the land of improvisation. In 
modern times, it has been almost entirely confined to 
Italy, where Petrarch introduced the practice of singing 
improvised verses to the lute. 

Incanta'tion. Is derived from a Latin root mean¬ 
ing simply “to sing.” It is the term in use to denote 
one of the most powerful and awe-inspiring modes of 
magic, resting on a belief in the mysterious power of 
words solemnly conceived and passionately uttered. 

Inchcape Rock. It is dangerous for navigators, and 
therefore the abbot of Aberbrothok fixed a bell on a float, 
which gave notice to sailors. Southey says that Ralph 
the Rover, in a mischievous joke, cut the bell from the 
buoy, and it fell into the sea, but on his return voyage 
his boat ran on the rock, and Ralph was drowned. Pre¬ 
cisely the same tale is told of St. Goven’s bell. 

Infer'no, The. Divine Comedy, Dante. Epic 
poem in thirty-four cantos. Inferno is the place of the 
souls who are wholly given up to sin. The ascent is 
through Purgatorio to Paradiso. 

Innocents Abroad. Twain. Travelers seeing 
Europe without any illusions. The fun consists in an 
irreverent application of modern commonsense to his¬ 
toric associations, ridiculing sentimental humbug. An 
air of innocence and surprise adds to the drolleries of 
their adventures. 

Interludes, The. Springing from the Moralities 
and bearing some resemblance to them, though nearer 
the regular drama, are The Interludes, a class of com¬ 
positions in dialogue, much shorter and more merry 
and farcical. They were generally played in the inter¬ 
vals of a festival. 

Invocation. An address at the commencement of 
a poem, in which the author calls for the aid of some 
divinity, particularly of his muse. 

Iphigeni'a. The heroine of Euripides’ tragedy 
“Iphigenia in Aulis,” and of Goethe’s tragedy “Iphi- 
genie auf Tauris.” She was placed on the altar in a rash 
vow by her father. Artemis at the last moment snatched 
her from the altar and carried her to heaven, substituting 
a hind in her place. The similarity of this legend to the 
Scripture stories of Jephthah’s vow and Abraham’s 
offering of his son Isaac is noticeable. 

I'ras. A strongly delineated character in “Ben Hur, 
a Tale of The Christ,” by Lew Wallace. 

Iras. A female attendant on Cleopatra in Shakes¬ 
pere’s play, “Antony and Cleopatra.” 

Fsaac of York. A wealthy Jew, the father of Re¬ 
becca, in Sir Walter Scott’s novel, “Ivanhoe.” 

Isabella. The heroine in Shakespere’s comedy, 
“Measure for Measure.” 

Islands of the Blest. Imaginary islands in the 
west. Hither the favorites of the gods were conveyed 
without dying, and dwelt in never-ending joy. The 
name first occurs in Hesiod’s “Works and Days.” This 
phrase is often used in modern literature. 

I'sland of Lanterns. In the celebrated satire of 
Rabelais, an imaginary country inhabited by false pre¬ 
tenders to knowledge. The name was probably sug¬ 
gested by the “City of Lanterns,” in the Greek romance 
of Lucian. Swift has copied this same idea in his Island 
of Laputa. 

Island of St. Bran'dan. A marvelous flying island, 
the subject of an old and widely-spread legend of the. 
Middle Ages. Though the Island of St. Brandan has! 
been a disappointment to voyagers it has been a favorite! 
theme with poets. 

I-thu'ri-el. In Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” an angel 
commissioned by Gabriel to search through paradise, in 
company with Zephon, to find Satan, who had eluded the 
vigilance of the angelic guard, and effected an entrance 
into the garden. It is related that Ithuriel found Satan 
“squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve,” and trans¬ 
formed him by a touch of his spear to his proper shape. 

I'van-hoe. The hero of Sir Walter Scott’s novel of 
the same name. He figures as Cedric of Rotherwood’a 
disinherited son, the favorite of King Richard I., and 
the lover of the Lady Rowena, whom, in the end, he 
marries. The scene is laid in England in the reign of 
Richard I„ and we are introduced to Robin Hood in 
Sherwood Forest, banquets in Saxon halls, tournaments, 
and all the pomp of ancient chivalry. Rowena, the 



364 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


heroine, is quite thrown into the shade by the gentle, 
meek, yet high-souled Rebecca. 

Iva'novitch, Ivan. An imaginary personage, who 
is the embodiment of the peculiarities of the Russian 
people, in the same way as John Bull represents the 
English, and Jean Crapaud the French character, and 
Brother Jonathan the American character. 

I'vory Gate of Dreams. Dreams which delude 
pass through the ivory gate, but those which come true 
through the horn gate. 

Jack and the Bean-Stalk. A nursery legend said 
to be an allegory of the Teutonic Al-fader: the red 
hen” representing the all-producing sun, the “money¬ 
bags” the fertilizing rain, and the “harp” the winds. 

Jack-in-the-Green. A prominent character in 
May-pole dances. 

Jack Robinson. A famous comic song by Hudson. 

Jack Sprat. The hero of a nursery rhyme. Jack 
and his wife form a fine combination in domestic economy. 

Jack, the Giant-killer. The name of a famous hero 
in the literature of the nursery, the subject of one of the 
Teutonic or Indo-European legends, which have become 
nationalized in England and America. 

Jaques. A lord attending upon the exiled duke, in 
Shakespere’s “As You Like It.” A contemplative char¬ 
acter who thinks and does — nothing. He is called the 
“melancholy Jaques,” and affects a cynical philosophy. 
He could “suck melancholy out of a song, as a weasel 
sucks eggs.” 

Jaquenet'ta. Love’s Labor’s Lost, Shakespere. 
A country wench courted by Don Adriano de Armado. 

Jar'ley. Mrs. The proprietor of a waxwork show in 
Dickens’s *‘01d Curiosity Shop.” She has lent her name 
to a popular game of parlor tableaux. 

Jarn'dyce. A prominent figure in Dickens’s “Bleak 
House,” distinguished for his philanthropy, easy good¬ 
nature and good sense, and for always saying, “The wind 
is in the east,” when anything went wrong with him. 
The famous suit of “Jarndyce vs. Jarndyce,” in this 
novel, is a satire upon the Court of Chancery. 

Jar'vie, Baillie Nic'ol. A prominent character in 
Sir Walter Scott’s novel “Rob Roy.” He is a magis¬ 
trate of Glasgow. 

Jek'yll, Doctor, and Mr. Hyde. The duplex hero 
of Robert Louis Stevenson’s singular romance of the 
same name. Doctor Jekyll is a benevolent and upright 
hysician, who by means of a potion is able to transform 
imself for a time into a second personality, Mr. Hyde, 
of a brutal and animal nature. 

JelTy-by, Mrs. A character in Dickens’s novel 
“Bleak House,” a type of sham philanthropy. She 
spends her time and energy on foreign missions to the 
neglect of her family. Mrs. Jellyby is quite overwhelmed 
with business correspondence relative to the affairs of 
Borrioboola Gha. 

Jen'kins, Win'i-fred. The name of Miss Tabitha 
Bramble’s maid in Smollett’s “Expedition of Humphry 
Clinker.” She makes ridiculous blunders in speaking 
and writing. 

Jenkinson, Ephraim. A green old swindler, whom 
Dr. Primrose met in a public tavern. Dr. Primrose sold 
the swindler his horse, Old Blackberry, for a draft upon 
Farmer Flamborough. 

Jeroboam Sermon. One of Dr. Emmons’s sermons 
which made a great noise at the time. It was known as 
his Jeroboam Sermon. It was written on the occasion 
of Jeffersqn’s inauguration as president, and although 
Jefferson is not named, the delineation of the character 
of Jeroboam is such that no one can doubt the personal 
application intended. 

Jerusalem Delivered. An epic in twenty books, 
by Torquato Tasso (1544-1595). The crusaders, en- 
camped on the plains of Torto'sa, chose Godfrey for their 
chief, and Alandine, King of Jerusalem, made prepara¬ 
tions of defense. _ The Christian army having reached 
Jerusalem, the King of Damascus sent Armi'da to be¬ 
guile the Christians. It was found that Jerusalem could 
nevei be taken without the aid of Rinaldo. Godfrey, 
being informed that the hero was dallying with Armi'da 
in the enchanted island, sent to invite him back to the 
army, he returned, and Jerusalem was taken. Armi'da 
fled into Egypt, and offered to marry any knight who 
slew Rinaldo. The love of Rinaldo returned, he pur¬ 
sued her and she relented. The poem concludes with the 
triumphant entry of the Christian army into the Holy 
City, and their devotions at the tomb of the Redeemer. 
The two chief episodes are the loves of Olindo and So- 
phro'nia, and of Tancred and Corinda. 

Jes'sa-my Bride. A by-name given to Miss Mary 
Horneck, afterward Mrs. Gwyn. She was a contempo¬ 
rary and friend of Goldsmith. Also title of a novel by 
F. F. Moore. 


Jes'si-ca. The beautiful daughter of Shylock, in 
Shakespere’s “Merchant of Venice.” 

Jew, The Wandering. An imaginary person in a 
legend connected with the history of Christ’s passion. 
As the Saviour was on the way to the place of execution, 
overcome with the weight of the cross, he wished to rest 
on a stone before the house of a Jew, who drove him away 
with curses. Driven by fear and remorse, he has since 
wandered, according to the command of the Lord, from 
place to place, and has never yet been able to find a 
grave. Romances have been founded on this character 
ranking among the best in literature. 

Jones, Tom. The hero of Fielding’s novel entitled 
“The History of a Foundling,” represented as a model 
of generosity, openness, and manly spirit, though thought¬ 
less and dissipated. 

Joy'euse, La. The sword of Charlemagne as men¬ 
tioned in romances of chivalry. 

Joyeuse' Garde, La. The residence of the famous 
Lancelot du Lac. 

Juan, Don. A legendary personage made the hero 
of many dramatic romances and poems. (See Don Juan.) 

Judith. The heroine in the book by the same name 
in the Apocrapha. She was a beautiful Jewess of Be- 
thulia, who, when her town was besieged by Holofernes, 
the general of Nebuchadnezzar, attended him in his tent, 
and, when he was drunk, killed him, whereupon her 
townsmen fell upon the Assyrians and defeated them with 
great slaughter. The tale is not mentioned by Josephus, 
and has, from an early period, been held to be an allegory. 
It has frequently furnished poets and painters with sub¬ 
jects. 

Kadr, Al. The night on which the “Kor&n” was 
sent down to Mahommed. Al Kadr is supposed to be the 
seventh of the last ten nights of Ramadan, or the night 
between the twenty-third and twenty-fourth days of 
the month. 

Kay. A foster-brother of King Arthur, and a 
rude and boastful knight of the Round Table. He was 
the butt of King Arthur’s court. Called also “Sir 
Queux.” He appears in the “Boy and the Mantle,” in 
Percy’s “Reliques.” Sir Kay is represented as the type 
of rude boastfulness, Sir Gaw'ain of courtesy, Sir Launce- 
lot of chivalry, Sir Mordred of treachery, Sir Galahad of 
chastity, Sir Mark of cowardice. 

Ke-ha'ma. A Hindoo rajah, who obtains and 
sports with supernatural power. His adventures are 
related in Southey’s poem entitled “.The Curse of 
Kehama.” 

Kent, Earl of. A rough, plain-spoken, but faithful 
nobleman in Shakespere’s “King Lear,” who follows 
the fallen fortunes of the king, disguised as a servant, 
under the assumed name of Caius. 

Ken'wigs. A family in Dickens’s novel “Nicholas 
Nickleby,” including a number of little girls who differed 
from one another only in the length of their frilled 
pantalettes and of their flaxen pigtails tied with bows 
of blue ribbon. 

Kil-ken'ny Cats. Two cats, in an Irish story, 
which fought till nothing was left but their tails. It is 
probably a parable of a local contest between Kilkenny 
and Irishtown, which impoverished both boroughs. 

King Cam-by'ses. The hero of “A Lamentable 
Tragedy” of the same name, by Thomas Preston, con¬ 
temporary of Shakespere. A ranting character known 
to modern readers by Falstaff’s allusion to him in 
Shakespere’s first “Henry IV.” 

King Es'ter-mere. The hero of an ancient and 
beautiful legend, which, according to Bishop Percy, 
should seem to have been written while a great part of 
Spain was in the hands of the Saracens or Moors, whose 
empire was not fully extinguished before the year 1491. 

King Horn. A metrical romance which was very 
opular in the Thirteenth Century. King Horn is a 
eautiful young prince who is carried away by pirates; 
but his life is spared, and after many wonderful adven¬ 
tures he weds a princess, and regains his father’s kingdom. 

King Log and King Stork. Characters in a cele¬ 
brated fable of iEsop, which relates that the frogs, 
grown weary of living without government, petitioned 
Jupiter for a king. Jupiter accordingly threw down a 
log among them, which made a satisfactory ruler till 
the frogs recovered from their fright and discovered his 
real nature. They, therefore, entreated Jupiter for an¬ 
other king, whereupon he sent them a stork, who imme¬ 
diately began to devour them. 

Klaus, Peter. The hero of an old popular tradition 
of Germany — the prototype of Rip Van Winkle — 
represented as a goatherd. 

Knlck'er-bock'er, Die'drich. The imaginary author 
of a humqrous fictitious “.History of New York,” written 
by Washington Irving. 



LITERATURE 


365 


Knights of the Bound Table. A name given to 
King Arthur’s knights. They were so called because 
they sat with him at a round table made by Merlin for 
King Leodegraunce. This king gave it to Arthur on 
his marriage with Guinevere, his daughter. 

Knight’s Tale, The. Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. 
Two Tneban knights, Palamon and Arcite, captives of 
Duke Theseus, used to see from their dungeon window 
the duke’s sister-in-law, Emily, and fell in love with her. 
Both captives having gained their liberty contended 
for the lady by single combat. Arcite was victor, but 
being thrown from his horse was killed, and Emily be¬ 
came the bride of Palamon. 

Koppenberg. The mountain of Westphalia to 
which the pied piper (Bunting) led the children, when 
the people of Hamelin refused to pay him for killing 
their rats. Browning’s poem, “The Pied Piper,’’ tells 
the tale. 

Kriem'hild. A beautiful Burgundian lady, daughter 
of Dancrat and sister of Gunther. She first marries 
Siegfried, King of the Netherlands, and next Etzel, 
King of the Huns. In the first part of the “Nibelungen- 
lied,” Kriemhild brings ruin on herself by a tattling 
tongue. In the second part of the great epic she is 
represented as bent on vengeance, and, after a most 
terrible slaughter both of friends and foes, she is killed 
by Hildebrand. 

Kubla Khan. A poem by Coleridge. Coleridge 
says that he composed the poem in a dream immediately 
after reading a description of the Khan Kubla’s palace, 
and he wrote it down on awaking. 

Lacedaemonian Letter. The smallest of all letters 
in the Greek alphabet. 

Laconic. Very concise and pithy. The name came 
from the Spartan manner of curt speech. A Spartan 
was called a Lacon from name of his country, Laconia. 

Lady-day. The twenty-fifth day of March, anni¬ 
versary of the Annunciation. 

Lady of Lyons, The. Pauline Deschappelles, 
daughter of a Lyonese merchant. She rejected the suits 
of Beauseant, Glavis, and Claude Melnotte, who there¬ 
fore combined on vengeance. Claude, who was a gar¬ 
dener’s son, aided by the other two, passed himself off 
as Prince Como, married Pauline, and brought her home 
to his mother’s cottage. The proud beauty was very 
indignant, and Claude left her to join the French army. 
He became a colonel, and returned to Lyons. He found 
his father-in-law on the eve of bankruptcy, and that 
Beauseant had promised to satisfy the creditors if 
Pauline would consent to marry him. Pauline was 
heartbroken; Claude revealed himself, paid the money 
required, and carried home the bride. 

Lady of the Lake and Arthur’s Sword. The 
heroine who gave to King Arthur the sword “ Excalibur.’’ 
She ordered King Arthur to sail out into the lake and 
take the sword as they could see it rising in the water. 
He sailed out with the knight and Merlin, came to the 
sword that a hand held up, and took it by the handles, 
and the arm and hand went under the lake again. This 
Lady of the Lake asked in recompense the head of Sir 
Balin, because he had slain her brother; but the king 
refused the request. Balin, who was present, exclaimed: 
“Evil be ye found! Ye would have my head; therefore 

e shall lose thine own.” With his sword he smote off 

er head in the presence of King Arthur. 

Lady of the Lake, The. The heroine in the poem 
of Sir Walter Scott. She was Ellen Douglas, once a 
favorite of King James; when her father fell into dis¬ 
grace, she retired with him into the vicinity of Loch 
Katrine. 

Laer'tes. The son of Polonius, Lord-chamberlain 
of Denmark, and brother of Hamlet’s beloved Ophelia. 
The king persuades him to challenge Hamlet, after 
Ophelia wanders in mind, and he calls him out in “ friend¬ 
ly ” duel, but poisons his own rapier. He wounds Hamlet 
and, in the scuffle which ensues, the combatants change 
swords, and Hamlet wounds Laertes, so that both die. 

Lagado. Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. The name 
of a city belonging to the King of Laputa. Lagado is 
celebrated for its grand academy of projectors, who 
try to extract sunbeams from cucumbers, and to convert 
ice into gunpowder. In the description of this fancied 
academy, Swift ridicules the pretenders in philosophy 
and science. 

Lake of the Cat. Name given to Lake Erie until 
the last of the Seventeenth Century. 

Lake Poets, The. Wordsworth, Southey, and 
Coleridge, who lived about the lakes of Cumberland. 

Lame Dog’s Diary. A clever diary in which the 
provincial life of a little English village is reflected. 
It is supposed to be kept by an invalid officer who 
returned crippled from the Boer War. The suggestion 
of the diary came from a winning, tantalizing young 


widow, who cheered the invalid by her amusing, para¬ 
doxical talk. The diarist and his sister Palestrina are 
true English types — quiet gentlefolk. ’ 

Lampoon. A personal satire, often bitter and 
malignant. These libels, carried to excess in the reign 
of Charles II., acquired the name of lampoons from the 
burden sung to them: “Lampone, lampone, camerada 
lampone.” 

Lamps of Sleep. Magic lamps. A wonderful knight 
of a mythical land had an equally wonderful Black 
Castle. In the mansion of the Knight of the Black 
Castle were seven lamps, which could be quenched only 
with water from an enchanted fountain. So long as 
these lamps kept burning, every one within the room fell 
into a deep sleep, from which nothing could rouse them. 

Land of Beulah. The paradise in which souls wait 
before the resurrection. In “Pilgrim’s Progress” the 
land from which the pilgrims enter the Celestial City. 
The name is found in Isaiah lxii, 4. 

Land of Bondage. Name given to Egypt in the Bible. 

Land of Cakes. A name sometimes given to Scot¬ 
land, because oatmeal cakes are a common national 
article of food, particularly among the poorer classes. 

Land of Nod. In common speech sleepy-land or 
land of dreams. 

Land of Promise. The land promised to Abraham 
— Canaan. 

Land of Shadows. A place of unreality, sometimes 
meaning land of ghosts. 

Land o’ the Leal. An unknown land of happiness, 
loyalty, and virtue. Carolina Oliphant, Baroness 
Nairne, meant heaven in her song and this is now its 
accepted meaning. (Leal means faithful, and “Land 
of the leal” means the land of the faithful.) 

Land of Veda. Name often given to India. 

Land of Wisdom. A name given to Normandy, 
in France, because of the wise customs which have pre¬ 
vailed there, and also because of the skill and judgment 
of the people in making laws. 

Landlady’s Daughter. She rowed Flemming 
“over the Rhine-stream, rapid and roaring wide,” and 
told to him the story of the Liebenstein. 

Lantern-Land. The land of literary charlatans, 
whose inhabitants, graduates in arts, doctors, professors, 
and artists of all grades, waste time in displaying their 
wonderful learning. The home of egotists. 

Lantern of Demosthenes. An edifice in Athens. 
It stood in the street of the tripods, so called from the 
circumstance that in it were erected numerous tripods, 
which had been obtained as prizes in the musical or 
theatrical contests. 

Laodice'an. One indifferent to religion, like the Chris¬ 
tians of that Church mentioned in the Book of Revelation. 

Laputa. The name of a flying island described by 
Swift in “Gulliver’s Travels.” It is said to be “exactly 
circular, its diameter 7,837 yards, or about four miles 
and a half, and consequently contains ten thousand 
acres.” The inhabitants are chiefly speculative philoso¬ 
phers, devoted to mathematics and music; and such is 
their habitual absent-mindedness, that they are com¬ 
pelled to employ attendants — called “flappers”—to 
rouse them from their profound meditations. This is 
done by striking them gently on the mouth and ears with 
a peculiar instrument consisting of a blown bladder with 
a few pebbles in it, fastened on the end of a stick. 

Last of the Mo-hi'cans. The Indian chief, Uncas. 
He is so called by Cooper, in his novel of that title. 

Latitudina'rians, Persons who hold very loose 
views of Divine inspiration and of what are called 
orthodox doctrines. 

Laughing Philosopher, The. Democritus of 
Abdera, a celebrated philosopher of antiquity, contem¬ 
porary with Socrates. He was so called because he made 
a jest of man’s follies, sorrows, and struggles. He is 
contrasted with Heraclitus, “The Weeping Philosopher.” 

Launfal, Sir. Steward of King Arthur. Detesting 
Queen Guinevere, he retired to Carlyoun, and fell in love 
with a lady named Tryamour. She gave him an un¬ 
failing purse, and told him if he wished to see her, he 
was to retire into a private room, and she would be with 
him. Sir Launfal now returned to court, and excited 
much attention by his great wealth. Guinevere made 
advances to him; he would not turn from the lady to 
whom he was devoted but lauded her praises. At this 
repulse, the angry queen complained to the king, and 
declared to him that she had been insulted by his stew¬ 
ard. Arthur bade Sir Launfal produce this paragon 
of women. On her arrival, Sir Launfal was allowed to 
accompany her to the isle of Ole'ron; and no one ever 
saw him afterwards. *** James Russell Lowell has 
written a poem entitled “The Vision of Sir Launfal.” 

Lau'reate, Poet. An officer appointed by the crown 
to compose odes, etc., in honor of grand state occasions 




366 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


The appellation seems to have originated in a custom of 
the English universities of presenting a laurel wreath to 
graduates; the new graduate being then styled “Poeta 
Laureatus." The king’s laureate was simply a gradu¬ 
ated rhetorician in the service of the king. R. Whit¬ 
tington, in 1512, seems to have been the last man who 
received a rhetorical degree at Oxford. The earliest 
mention of a poet-laureate in England occurs in the 
reign of Edward IV., when John Key received the 
appointment. In 1630, the first patent of the office was 
granted. The salary was fixed at £100 per annum, 
with a tierce of canary; which latter emolument was 
in Southey’s time, commuted into an annual payment of 
£27. It used to be the duty of the laureate to write 
an ode on the birthday of the sovereign, and on the 
occasion of a national victory; but this custom was 
abolished towards the end of the reign of George III. 
The poets who have held this office are Edmund Spenser, 
1591-1599; Samuel Daniel, 1599-1619; Ben Jonson, 
1619-1637. Interregnum. William Davenant, 
Knight, 1660-1668; John Dryden, 1670-1689; Thomas 
Shadwell, 1689-1692; Nahum Tate, 1692-1715; Nicho¬ 
las Rowe, 1715-1718; Lawrence Eusden, 1718-1730; 
Colley Cibber, 1730-1757; William Whitehead, 1757- 
1785; Thomas Warton, 1785-1790; Henry James Pye, 
1790-1813; Robert Southey, 1813-1843; William 
Wordsworth, 1843-1850; Alfred Tennyson, 1850-1892, 
Alfred Austin, 1896. 

Laus Deo. A poem by Whittier. Called forth by 
the passing of the constitutional amendment abolishing 
slavery; suggested to the poet as he sat in the Friends, 
meeting-house in Amesbury, and listened to the bells 
proclaiming the fact. -- 

Lavinia and Pale'mon. Lavinia was the daughter 
of Acasto, patron of Palemon. Through Acasto Pale- 
mon gained a fortune and wandered away from his 
friend. Acasto lost his property, and dying, left a 
widow and daughter in poverty. Palemon often sought 
them, but could never find them. One day, a lovely 
modest maiden came to glean in Palemon’s fields. The 
young squire was greatly struck with her exceeding 
beauty and modesty, but she was known as a pauper 
and he dared not give her more than passing glance. 
Upon inquiry, he found that the beautiful gleaner was 
the daughter of Acasto; he proposed marriage, and 
Lavinia was restored to her rightful place. 

Lavaine. Son of the Lord of As'tolat, who accom¬ 
panied Sir Lancelot when he went to tilt for the ninth 
diamond. Lavaine is described as young, brave, and a 
true knight. He was brother to Elaine. 

Lawyer’s Alcove. Name given to a volume of 

f )oems selected from the best poems by lawyers, for 
awyers, and about lawyers. Included in this volume 
are Shakespere’s “Sonnet CXXXIV”; Blackstone’s 
“A Lawyer’s Farewell to his Muse”; “Justice,” by 
John Quincy Adams; Landor’s “At the Buckingham 
Sessions”; “The Judicial Court of Venus,” by Jonathan 
Swift; Saxe’s “Briefless Barrister” and his “The Law¬ 
yer’s Valentine”; “General Average,” by William 
Allen Butler; “The Festival of Injustice” by Carlton, 
and Riley’s “Lawyer and Child.” 

Lay of the Last Minstrel. Ladye Margaret [Scott] 
of Branksome Hall, the “flower of Teviot,” was beloved 
by Baron Henry of Cranstown, but a deadly feud existed 
between the two families. A goblin lured Ladye Marga¬ 
ret’s brother into a wood, where he fell into the hands 
of the Southerners. At the same time an army of 3,000 
English marched to Branksome Hall to take it, but 
hearing that Douglas was on the march against them, 
the two chiefs agreed to decide the contest by single 
combat. Victory fell to the Scotch, when it was dis¬ 
covered that “Sir William Deloraine,” the Scotch 
champion, was in reality Lord Cranstown, who then 
claimed and received the hand of Ladye Margaret as his 
reward. This united the two houses. 

Lazarre. This hero’s relation to history is so 
shadowy as to be no burden, and yet sufficiently well- 
defined to serve as a lure to the imagination. He is the 
supposed Dauphin of France, the son of Louis XVI. and 
Marie Antoinette, who, according to the full chronicles 
of his time, died in prison, but whose removal to America 
is hinted in certain footnotes to history. However this 
may have been, one Eleazar Williams, the reputed son 
of a half-breed Indian who lived in northern New York 
in the early years of the last century, was not without 
reason for believing himself the lost Dauphin. Mrs. 
Catherwood has written a romance under this name 
taking this character as her hero. 

Lazy Lawrence. One of the dwellers in Lubberland 
in the story of which he is pictured. It tells of his birth 
and breeding, how he served the school-master, his wife, 
the squire’s cook, and the farmer, which, by the laws 
of Lubberland, was accounted high treason; his arraign¬ 


ment and trial, and happy deliverance from the many 
treasons laid to his charge. . 

Leander. The story of Hero and Leander is so old 
and so well known as to nearly belong to mythology. 
A young man of Abydos, who swam nightly across the 
Hellespont to visit his lady-love, Hero, a priestess of 
Sestos. One night he was drowned in his attempt, and 
Hero leaped into the Hellespont also. _ t 

Lear. A fabulous or legendary King of Britain, and 
the hero of Shakespere’s tragedy of the same name. He 
had three daughters, and when four score years old, 
wishing to retire from the active duties of sovereignty, 
resolved to divide his kingdom between them. By 
elaborate but false professions of love and duty on the 
part of two daughters (Goneril and Regan), King Lear 
was persuaded to disinherit the third (Cordelia), who 
had before been deservedly more dear to him, and to 
divide his kingdom between her sisters. The tragedy 
is wrought out in the ungrateful conduct of the older 
sisters and the suffering of Lear. The beauty of the 
play in the exquisite character Cordelia, who is in every 
respect a “perfect woman.” 

Leather-Stocking Tales. Five stories or romances 
written by James Fenimore Cooper. The same hero, 
Leather-Stocking, or Natty Bumpo, figures in all in his 
life among the Indians. Natty had learned wood-lore 
as the young Indian learned it. He knew the calls of the 
wild animals far across the wilderness. He could follow 
the deer and bear to their haunts. He could trace the 
path of the wolf by the broken cobwebs glistening in 
the sunlight; and the cry of the panther was a speech as 
familiar as his own tongue. When he was thirsty he 
made a cup of leaves, and drank in the Indian fashion. 
He lay down to rest with that sense of security that 
comes only to the forester. These tales take Leather- 
Stocking from young manhood to old age following the 
fortunes of the American Indian tribes. The order in 
which his story is told in these volumes is the “The 
Deerslayer,” “The Last of the Mohicans,” “.The Path¬ 
finder,” “The Pioneers” and “The Prairie.” He is also 
known by the name of Hawkeye in one part of his story. 
The best writers on the American Indian are thus 
quoted in our literatures: James F. Cooper, the roman¬ 
cer of the Indian; Henry W. Longfellow, the poet of 
the Indian; Francis Parkman, the historian of the 
Indian; Helen Hunt Jackson, the novelist of the Indian. 

Legend. Anciently, a kind of rubric containing 
the prayers appointed to be read in Roman Catholic 
churches. In later times, the word was employed to 
denote a chronicle or register of the lives of saints, because 
they were to be read on the festivals of the saints. The 
way in which a credulous love of the wonderful, exag¬ 
geration of fancy, and ecclesiastical enthusiasm, at times 
even pious fraud, mixed themselves up in these narratives 
with true history, caused stories of a religious or eccle¬ 
siastical nature generally to be designated as “.legends,” 
to distinguish them from real history. The word has 
been much used in connection with the wild tales of 
ancient times, especially those known among the peas¬ 
antry of Europe. Among the medieeval collections of 
legends, that drawn up by the Genoese archbishop, 
Jacobus de Voragine, in the second half of the Thirteenth 
Century, under the title of “Legenda Aurea” (the 
Golden Legends), or “Historia Lombardica,” is the 
most celebrated. 

Legion of Hon'or, The. An order conferred in 
recognition of military and civil merit, instituted by 
Napoleon I., while First Consul, May 19, 1802. It con¬ 
sists of different grades, as grand-crosses (of whom there 
are eighty), grand-officers (500), officers (4,000), and 
legionaries (whose number is not limited). The highest 
functionary is the “chancellor.” The splendid edifice 
erected in Paris during the first empire, and known as 
the “Palace of the Legion of Honor,” after having been 
artially destroyed during the Communist outbreak has 
een rebuilt. 

Le'onine Verses. These fancies were common in 
the Twelfth Century, and were so called from Leoninus, 
a canon of the Church of St. Victor, in Paris, the 
inventor. In English verse, any meter which ryhmes 
middle and end is called a Leonine verse. 

Le'the. A personification of oblivion often referred to 
in literature. The tradition is that the soul, at the 
death of the body, drank of the River Lethe that it 
might carry into the world of shadows no remembrance 
of earth and its concerns. 

Letterpress. Printed matter. The word is often 
used to distinguish printed words from engraving. 

Lexicon. A vocabulary, or book containing an 
alphabetical arrangement of the words of a language, 
with an explanation of the meaning or sense of each. 
The term is chiefly used with reference to dictionaries 
or word-books of the Greek and Hebrew languages. 




LITERATURE 


367 


Libations* With the prayers among all ancient 
peoples were usually joined the libations, or drink 
offerings. These consisted generally of wine, part of 
which was poured out in honor of the gods, and part of 
it drunk by the worshiper. The wine must be pure, 
and offered in a full cup. Sometimes there were liba¬ 
tions of water, of honey, of milk, and of oil. 

Light of the Harem. Name given to the bride of 
Selim in the poem Lalla Rookh. She was the Sultana 
Nour'mahal', afterwards called Nourjeham (“light of the 
world”). 

Ligeia. Written by Poe. Suggested by a dream 
in which the eyes of the heroine produced the wonderful 
effect described in the story. Its theme is the conquest 
of death through the power of will. 

Liguo'rians. A congregation of missionary priests, 
called also Redemptorists, founded in 1732, by St. 
Alphonsus. 

Lilli-Burle'ro. A song with the refrain of “Lilli- 
burlero, bullen-a-la! ” was written by Lord Wharton, 
and contributed much to the great revolution of 1688. 
The whole army, and at last the people, both in city and 
country, sang it perpetually. The words are also said 
to have been used as a sort of war-cry during the perse¬ 
cution of the Protestants by the Irish Papists in 1641. 

Lilliput. An imaginary country described in 
“Gulliver’s Travels,” where an ordinary man becomes 
a great giant beside the small people of the land. Lilli¬ 
putian used to designate small ways of expressing malice 
or jealousy. Among amusing characters in Lilliput 
land were the Little-Endians and Big-Endians who 
made up two religious factions, which waged incessant 
war on the subject of the right interpretation of the 
fifty-fourth chapter of the “ Blun'decral ”: “All true 
believers break their eggs at the convenient end.” The 
odfather of Calin, the reigning Emperor of Lilliput, 
appened to cut his finger while breaking his egg at the 
big end, and therefore commanded all faithful Lilli¬ 
putians to break their eggs in future at the small end. 
The Blefuscudians called this decree rank heresy, and 
determined to exterminate the believers of such an 
abominable practice from the face of the earth. Hun¬ 
dreds of treatises were published on both sides, but each 
empire put all those books opposed to its own views into 
the “Index Expurgatorius,” and not a few of the more 
zealous sort died as martyrs for daring to follow their 
private judgment in the matter. 

Limbo. A place where the souls of good men not 
admitted into heaven wait the general resurrection. A 
similar place exists for the souls of unbaptized children. 
Still another Limbo is a Fool’s Paradise, a place for all 
nonsense. This old superstitious belief has been used 
by Dante and Milton in their poems. 

Literati. Men of letters, scholars of note. 

Lithgow’s Bower. A favorite residence of the kings 
and queens of Scotland, especially of Mary of Guise; 
and here the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots was born 
in 1542. 

Little Brother. An appellation made popular 
through the tale bearing the name. Josiah Flynt ran 
away from home when he was three years old and had 
been doing it frequently ever after. His first piece of 
fiction was naturally based on trampdom. His hero is a 
boy-tramp, a little fellow whose irresistible impulse to 
view the great world around him causes him to become 
a "Prushun” to an old inhabitant of Hoboland. He 
wished people to see where a number of stray boys land, 
for he had found out that a great many of the so-called 
“kidnapped” youngsters are in reality simple runaways 
with romantic temperaments. 

Little Citizens. Characters in a New York school 
teacher’s stories of her East Side Jewish charges. Human 
nature and American Yiddish dialect are alike faithfully 
rendered. 

Little Dorrit. The heroine and title of a novel by 
Dickens. Little Dorrit was born and brought up in the 
Marshalsea prison, where her father was confined for 
debt. 

Little John. A big, stalwart fellow, named John 
Little, who encountered Robin Hood, and gave him a 
sound thrashing, after which he was rechristened, and 
Robin stood godfather. Little John is introduced by 
Sir Walter Scott in “.The Talisman.” 

Little Masters. A name applied to certain designers 
belonging in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 
Called little because their designs were on a small scale, 
fit for copper or wood. The most famous are Jost 
Amman, for the minuteness of his work; Hans Burgmair, 
who made drawings in wood illustrative of the triumph 
of the Emperor Maximilian; Hans Sebald Beham; 
Albert Altdorfer, and Henrich Aldegraver. Albert 
Dtirer and Lucas van Leyden brought the art into notice 
and it became popular. 


Little Nell. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. The 

prominent character of the story, pure and true, though 
living in the midst of selfishness and crime. She was 
brought up by her grandfather, who was in his dotage, 
and who tried to eke out a narrow living by selling 
curiosities. At length, through terror of Quilp, the old 
man and his grandchild stole away, and led a vagrant 
life. 

Llewel'lyn. A legendary Welsh prince who, on return¬ 
ing from hunting, found his baby boy missing and his 
favorite greyhound, Gelert, covered with blood. Think¬ 
ing that the hound had eaten him, he killed it. But, 
on searching more carefully, the child was found alive 
under the cradle clothes, and near him the body of a 
huge wolf which had been killed by the faithful hound. 

Lochiel. Is the title of the head of the clan Cameron. 

Lochinvar'. A young Highlander, in the poem of 
Marmion, was much in love with a lady whose fate was 
decreed, that she should marry a “laggard.” Young 
Lochinvar persuaded the too-willing lassie to be his 
partner in a dance; and while the guests were intent 
on their amusements, swung her into his saddle and 
made off with her before the bridegroom could recover 
from his amazement. 

Locksley. So Robin Hood is sometimes called, 
from the village in which he was born. 

Locksley Hall. A poem by Tennyson, in which 
the hero, the lord of Locksley Hall, having been jilted 
by his cousin Amy for a rich boor, pours forth his feelings 
in a flood of scorn and indignation. The poem is under¬ 
stood to have been occasioned by a similar incident in 
the poet’s own life, but this has been questioned. 

Locrin, or Locrine. Father of Sabri'na, and eldest 
son of the mythical Brutus, King of ancient Britain. On 
the death of his father he became King of Loe'gria. 

Loegria or Lo'gres. England is so called by Geoffrey 
of Monmouth, from Logrine, eldest son of the mythical 
King Brute. 

Logogriph. Among the French, a kind of riddle, 
which consists in some elision or mutilation of words; 
it may be defined as being between an enigma and a rebus. 

Logos. This word, as occurring at the beginning of 
the gospel of St. John, was early taken to refer to the 
“second person of the Trinity, i. e., Christ.” Yet the 
precise meaning of the Apostle, who alone makes use of 
the term in this manner, and only in the introductory 
part of his gospel; whether he adopted the symbolizing 
usage in which it was employed by the various schools 
of his day; which of their differing significations he had 
in view, or whether he intended to convey a meaning 
quite peculiar to himself;—these are some of the innu¬ 
merable questions to which the word has given rise, and 
which, though most fiercely discussed ever since the first 
days of Christianity, are far from having found a satis¬ 
factory solution. 

Lo'hen-grin. The Knight of the Swan: the hero 
of a romance by Wolfram von Eschenbach, a German 
minnesinger of the Thirteenth Century, and also of a 
modern music drama by Richard Wagner. He was the 
son of Parsival, and came to Brabant in a ship drawn 
by a white swan, which took him away again when his 
bride, disobeying his injunction, pressed him to discover 
his name and parentage. 

Lord Linlithgow. A character growing into favor 
and while it does not prove that the end justifies the 
means, certainly suggests that the “means” may be 
excused if sufficiently prominent men sanction them. 
In his desire to serve his party, and incidentally himself, 
this Lord blackmails a man, but, when the party chief 
rewards the blackmailer by a seat in parliament, it 
seemed reasonable, that the Lord should once more 
hold up his head in society as one who had quite regained 
a possibly lost self-esteem. To the perplexed lady-love 
such a hope, as this is offered: “If it is not easy to be 
quite good, it is impossible to be wholly bad.” “Lord 
Linlithgow” has value in giving an up-to-date glimpse 
of political life in England. When an indignant moralist 
recently ventured to point out Mr. Cecil Rhodes’s defici¬ 
encies, Mr. Kipling rejoined: “Why, man, but he is 
building an empire l ” (Morley Roberts.) 

Lotos-Eaters. Tennyson has a poem called “The 
Lotos-Eaters,” a set of islanders who live in a dreamy 
idleness, weary of life, and regardless of all its stirring 
events. 

Love Doctor, The. L’Amour Medecin. A com¬ 
edy by Molifcre written about the year 1665. Lucinde, 
the daughter of Sganarelle, is in love, and the father calls 
in four doctors to consult upon the nature of her malady. 
They see the patient, and retire to consult together, but 
talk about Paris, about their visits, about the topics of 
the day; and when the father enters to know what 
opinion they have formed, they all prescribe different 
remedies, and pronounce different opinions. Lisetta 




368 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


then calls in a “.quack” doctor (Clitandre, the lover), 
who says that he must act on the imagination, and pro¬ 
poses a seeming marriage, to which Sganarelle assents. 
The assistant being a notary, Clitandre and Lucinde are 
married. . , , XT 

Love’s Labor’s Lost. Ferdinand, King of Navarre, 
with three lords named Biron, Dumain, and Longaviiie, 
agree to spend three years in study, during which time 
no woman was to approach the court. 1 he compact 
signed all went well until the princess of France, attended 
by Rosaline, Maria, and Katharine, besought an inter¬ 
view respecting certain debts said to be due from the 
King of France to the King of Navarre. Ihe four 
gentlemen fell in love with the four ladies. The love 
of the king sought the princess, by right, Biron loved 
Rosaline, Longaviiie admired Maria, and Dumain adored 
Katharine. In order to carry their suits, the four gen¬ 
tlemen, disguised as Muscovites, presented themselves 
before the ladies; but the ladies being warned of the 
masquerade, disguised themselves also, so that the 
gentlemen in every case addressed the wrong lady. A 
mutual arrangement was made that the suits should be 
deferred for twelve months and a day; and if, at the 
expiration of that time, they remained of the same mind, 
the matter should be taken into serious consideration. 
(Shakespere.) 

Loves of the Angels. A rhymed story written by 
Thomas Moore. It may be called the stories of three 
angels, and was founded on the Eastern tale of “Harut 
and Marut, and the rabbinical fictions of the loves of” 
‘‘Uzziel and Shamchazai.” (1) The first angel fell in 
love with Lea, whom he saw bathing. She returned 
love for love, but his love was carnal, hers heavenly. 
He loved the woman she loved the angel. At last the 
angel gave to her the pass-word which should open the 
gates of heaven. She pronounced it, and rose through 
the air into paradise. The angel degenerated and 
became no longer an angel of light, but “of the earth, 
earthy.” (2) The second angel was Rubi, one of the 
seraphs. He loved Liris, who asked him to come in all 
his celestial glory. He did so; and she, rushing into his 
arms, was burnt to death; but the kiss she gave him 
became a brand on his face forever. (3) The third 
angel was Zaraph, who loved Nama. It was Nama’s 
desire to love without control, and to love holily; but 
as she fixed her love on a creature, and not on the Creator, 
both she and Zaraph were doomed to live among the 
things that perish. When the end of all shall come, 
Nama and Zaraph will be admitted into the realms of 
everlasting love. 

Lover’s Vows. Altered from Kotzebue’s. Baron 
Wildenhaim, in his youth, seduced Agatha Friburg, 
and then forsook her. She had a son Frederick, who 
became a soldier. "While on furlough, he came to spend 
his time with his mother, and found her in abject poverty 
and almost starved. A poor cottager took her in, while 
Frederick, who had no money, went to beg charity. 
Count Wildenhaim was out with his gun, and Frederick 
asked alms of him. The count gave him a shilling; 
Frederick demanded more, and, being refused, seized 
the baron by the throat. The keepers arrived and put 
him in the castle dungeon. Here he was visited by the 
chaplain, and it came out that the count was his father. 
The chaplain being appealed to, told the count the only 
reparation he could make would be to marry Agatha 
and acknowledge the young soldier to be his son. This 
advice he followed, and Agatha Friburg, the beggar, 
became the baroness Wildenhaim of Wildenhaim Castle. 

Loving Cup. A large cup passed round from guest 
to guest at state banquets and city feasts. On the 
introduction of Christianity, the custom of wassailing 
was not abolished, but it assumed a religious aspect. 
The monks called the wassail bowl the loving cup. In 
the universities the term “Grace Cup” is more general. 
Immediately after grace the silver cup, filled with wine, 
is passed round. The master and wardens drink wel¬ 
come to their guests; the cup is then passed to all the 
guests. A loving or grace cup should have two handles, 
and some have four. This ceremony, of drinking from 
one cup and passing it round, was observed in the Jewish 
paschal supper, and our Lord refers to the custom in 
the words, “Drink ye all of it.” 

Lubberland. An imaginary country of idleness 
and luxury. The name has been applied to certain 
cities in burlesque. 

Lugg-nagg. An imaginary island whose inhabitants 
have the gift of eternal life lacking with it the gift of 
immortal health and strength. 

Lumbercourt, Lord. A voluptuary, greatly in 
debt, who consented, for a good money consideration, 
to give his daughter to Egerton McSycophant. Egerton, 
however, had no fancy for the lady, but married Con¬ 
stants, the girl of his choice. His lordship was in alarm 


lest this should be his ruin; but Sir Pertinax told him 
the bargain should still remain good if Egerton’s younger 
brother, Sandy, were accepted by his lordship instead. 
To this his lordship readily agreed. 

Lumbercourt, Lady Rudolpha, daughter of 
Lord Lumbercourt, who, for a consideration, consented 
to marry Egerton McSycophant; but as Egertop had 
no fancy for the lady, she agreed to marry Egerton’s 
brother Sandy on the same terms. 

Lure of the Labrador Wild, The. A recital of 
the ill-fated expedition to Labrador undertaken by 
Leonidas Hubbard, Jr., during the summer of 1903. 
The party consisted of Mr. Hubbard, Mr. Wallace, and 
a half-breed Cree Indian named Elson, who proved 
himself a veritable hero. As is generally known, the 
object of the party was to reach the interior of Labrador 
over a portion of that country unexplored, or at least 
unmapped by white men. This purpose was only par¬ 
tially carried out. The winter came on long before 
Hubbard was ready to turn back, the provisions were 
exhausted, game was scarce, and the fish failed to rise 
to the fly. On the return journey toward the coast 
Hubbard gave out and had to be left behind until aid 
could be brought. Wallace succeeded in finding some 
provisions which had been thrown aside on the inland 
trip and had returned within a few hundred feet of 
Hubbard’s tent, but without finding it. Elson, the 
half-breed, managed to reach a trapper’s camp and sent 
back a relief expedition, which picked up Wallace, and 
later found the body of Hubbard, who had died of 
starvation. 

Luslad, The. The only Portuguese poem that has 
gained a world-wide celebrity. It was written by Luiz 
de Camoens, appeared in 1572, and was entitled “Os 
Lusiadas,” the “Lusitanians,” i. e., the Portuguese — the 
subject being the conquests of that nation in India. It 
is divided into ten cantos, containing 1,102 stanzas. It 
has been translated into English, but it has never been 
popular out of Portugal. The Lusiad celebrates the 
chief events in the history of Portugal, and is remarkable 
as the only modern epic poem which is pervaded by any¬ 
thing approaching the national and popular spirit of 
ancient epic poems. Bacchus was the guardian power of 
the Mohammedans, and Venus or Divine Love of the Lusi- 
ans. The fleet first sailed to Mozambique, then to Melinda 
(in Africa), where the adventurers were hospitably 
received and provided with a pilot to conduct them 
to India. In the Indian Ocean, Bacchus tried to de¬ 
stroy the fleet; Venus, however, calmed the sea, and 
Gama arrived at India in safety. Having accomplished his 
object, he returned to Lisbon. Among the most famous 
passages are the tragical story of Inez de Castro, and the 
apparition of the giant Adamastor, who appears as the 
Spirit of the Storm to Vasco de Gama, when crossing the 
Cape. The versification of “The Lusiad” is extremely 
charming. The best edition of “The Lusiad” was pub¬ 
lished in Paris (1817), reprinted in 1819, and again, in 
1823. “The Lusiad” has been translated into Spanish, 
French, Italian, English, Polish, and German. 

Lusitania. The ancient name of Portugal; so called 
from Lusus, the companion of Bacchus in his travels. 
He colonized the country, and called it “Lusitania,” and 
the colonists “Lusians.” 

Lustrum. The solemn offering made for expiation 
and purification by one of the censors in the name of the 
Roman people at the conclusion of the Census. The 
animals offered in sacrifice were a boar, sheep, and bull. 
They were led round the assembled people on the Campus 
Martius before being sacrificed. As the census was 
quinquennial, the word “lustrum” came to signify a 
period of five years. 

Luther’s Postil Gospels. Advent, Christmas, and 
Epiphany sermons, first published in Latin in 1521, and 
dedicated to his protector, the Elector Frederick. Trans¬ 
lated immediately into German, Luther’s postils, i. e., 
homilies, on the Gospels are esteemed the best of his 
sermons. 

Lybius, Sir. A very young knight who undertook 
to rescue the lady of Sinadone. After many adventures 
with knights, giants, and enchanters, he entered the 
palace. Presently the whole edifice fell to pieces and a 
horrible serpent coiled round his neck. The spell being 
broken, the serpent turned into the lady of Sinadone 
herself, rejoicing in her rescue she wed the young knight. 
(Liblaux, a romance.) 

Lycidas. The name under which Milton celebrates 
the untimely death of Edward King, who was drowned 
in the passage from Chester to Ireland, August 10, 1637. 
He was the son of Sir John King, secretary for Ireland. 

. Lydia. Daughter of the King of Lydia, was sought 
m marriage by Alcestes, a Tracian knight; his suit was 
refused, and he repaired to the King of Armenia, who 
gave him an army, with which he laid siege to Lydia. 




LITERATURE 


369 


He was persuaded by the king’s daughter to raise the 
siege. The King of Armenia would not give up the 
project, and Alcestes slew him. Lydia now sets him all 
sorts of dangerous tasks to “prove his love,” all of which 
he surmounted. Lastly, she induced him to kill all his 
allies, and when this was done she mocked him . Alcestes 
pined and died, and Lydia was doomed to endless tor¬ 
ment in hell, where Astolpho saw her, to whom she told 
her story. (Orlando Furioso, bk. XVII.) 

Lyd'i-a Lan'guish. The heroine of Sheridan’s com¬ 
edy of “The Rivals,” distinguished for the extravagance 
of her romantic notions. 

Lyre. The name of the earliest known of all stringed 
instruments of music, invented, according to Egyptian 
tradition, by the god Mercury, and regarded among poets, 
painters, and statuaries as an emblem of Apollo and the 
Muses. It is supposed to have had, originally, only 
three strings; afterwards it had eleven. The lyre of 
Terpander and Olympus had only three strings; the 
Scythian lyre had five; that of Simonides had eight. It 
was played with a plectrum, or stick of ivory or polished 
wood, and sometimes with the fingers. It is said to have 
been primarily constructed of tortoise-shell. Amphion 
built Thebes with the music of his lyre. The very stones 
moved of their own accord into walls and houses. 
Ari'on charmed the dolphins by the music of his lyre, and 
when the bard was thrown overboard one of them carried 
him safely to Tae'narus. Hercules was taught music by 
Linus. One day, being reproved, the strong man broke 
the head of his master with his own lyre. Orpheus 
charmed savage beasts, and even the infernal gods, with 
the music of his lyre. 

Lyric. Literally, pertaining to the lyre. In poetry 
a name originally applied to w r hat was sung or recited 
with an accompaniment to the lyre, but it is now applied 
to odes, ballads, and other verses, such as may be set to 
music. Lyrics were originally employed in celebrating 
the praises of gods and heroes, and its characteristic was 
melodiousness. The Greeks cultivated it with effect, 
particularly Anacreon and Sappho, but among the 
Romans, Horace was the first and principal lyric poet. 
It has been said that all poets are singers and these singers 
are divided into three classes. First, the lyric poet, who 
can sing but one tune with his one voice. Second, the 
epic poet, who with his one voice can sing several tunes. 
Third, the true dramatist, who has many tongues and 
can sing all tunes. 

Mab, Queen. Romeo and Juliet, Shakespere. 

The origin of the name is obscure. By some it is derived 
from the Midgard of the Eddas. The name is given by 
the English poets of the Fifteenth and succeeding cen¬ 
turies to the imaginary queen of the fairies. 

Mabinogion. A series of Welsh tales, chiefly relating 
to Arthur and the Round Table. A MS. volume of some 
700 pages is preserved in the library of Jesus College, 
Oxford. 

Macbeth. The tale of Macbeth and Banquo was 
borrowed from the legendary history of Scotland, but 
the interest of the play is not historical. It is a tragedy 
of human life, intensely real, the soul, with all its powers 
for good or evil, deliberately choosing evil. The three 
witches in the desert place, in thunder, lightning, storm, 
strike the keynote of evil suggestion. The awfulness of 
soul destruction is felt in Macbeth and Lady Macbeth 
as in no other of Shakespere’s dramas. 

Mac-heath', Captain. A highwayman who is the 
hero of Gay’s “Beggar’s Opera.” 

Machiavel'ism. The name came from a writing by 
Machiavelli, under the title “De Principatibus ” (the 
Prince), a famous treatise, written probably to gratify 
the Medici, and in which are expounded those principles 
of political cunning and artifice, intended to promote 
arbitrary power, ever since designated “ machiavelism.” 

Mac-I'vor. Waverley, Scott. Fergas Mac-Ivor 
is a prominent character in the novel, and his sister, 
Flora Mac-Ivor, the heroine. They are of the family of 
a Scottish chieftain. 

Mac'reons, The Island of. Pantag'ruel, Rabe- i 
lais. The title is given to Great Britain, derived from 
a Greek word, meaning long-lived, “because no one 
is put to death there for his religious opinions.” Rabelais 
says the island “is full of antique ruins and relics of 
popery and ancient superstitions.” 

McFin'gal. The hero of Trumbull’s political poem 
of the same name; represented as a burly New England 
squire, enlisted on the side of the Tory party of the 
American Revolution, and constantly engaged in con¬ 
troversy with Honorius, the champion of the Whigs. 

Madasi'ma, Queen. An important character in 
the old romance called “Am'adis de Gaul”; her con¬ 
stant attendant was Elis'abat, a famous surgeon, with 
whom she roamed in solitary retreats. 


Madge Wildfire. The insane daughter of old Meg 
Murdochson, the gipsy thief. Madge was a beautiful but 
giddy girl, whose brain was crazed by her own downfall 
and the murder of her infant. 

Madoc. A poem by Southey; is founded on one of 
the legends connected with the early history of America. 
Madoc, a Welsh prince of the Twelfth Century, is repre¬ 
sented as making the discovery of the Western world. 
His contests with the Mexicans form the subject. 

Madrigal. Is a short lyric poem, generally on the 
subject of love, and characterized by some epigrammatic 
terseness or quaintness, and composed of a number of 
free and unequal verses, confined neither to the regularity 
of the sonnet, nor to the subtlety of the epigram. The 
madrigals of Tasso are noted in Italian poetry. 

Magi. The three “Wise Men” who followed the star 
to Bethlehem. The traditional names of the three 
Magi are Melchior, represented as an old man with a 
long beard, offering gold; Jasper, a beardless youth 
who offers frankincense; Balthazar, a black, or Moor, 
who tenders myrrh. 

Magic Rings. These are mentioned by Plato, Cicero, 
and other writers and supposed to make the wearer in¬ 
visible. 

3Iagic Staff. The story of the magic staff belongs 
to the days of legends and seems to be of French origin, 
but has found its way into other lands. This staff would 
guarantee the bearer from all the perils and mishaps 
incidental to travelers. According to earliest traditions 
the staff was a willow branch cut on the eve of All Saints’ 
Day. 

Magic Wands. These are found in many old tales 
or writings. In Tasso’s “Jerusalem Delivered” the 
hermit gave to Charles the Dane and Ubaldo a wand, 
which, being shaken, infused terror into all who saw it, 
and in Spenser’s Faery Queen the palmer who accom¬ 
panied Sir Guyon had a wand of like virtue. It was 
made of the same wood as Mercury’s caduceus. 

Magna'lia. The best-known in the long list of Cotton 
Mather’s works was his “Magnalia Christi Americana,” 
purporting to be an ecclesiastical history of New Eng¬ 
land, from its first planting in 1620 to the year 1698, 
but including also civil history, an account of Harvard 
College, of the Indian Wars, and the witchcraft troubles, 
and a large number of biographies. 

3Iagna'no. Hudibras, Butler. One of the leaders 
of the rabble that attacked Hudibras at a bear-baiting. 

Magnificat. In the ritual of the Roman Catholic 
Church, the name given to the “Song of the Virgin 
Mary,” derived from the opening invocation in the Latin 
Vulgate. 

3Iaidens’ Castle. An allegorical castle mentioned 
in Malory’s “History of Prince Arthur.” It was taken 
from a duke by seven knights, and held by them till Sir 
Galahad expelled them. It was called “The Maidens’ 
Castle,” because these knights made a vow that every 
maiden who passed it should be made a captive. 

3Iaid 3Iarian. A half mythical character, but the 
name is said to have been assumed by Matilda, daughter 
of Robert Lord Fitzwalter, while Robin Hood remained 
in a state of outlawry. The name is considered the foun¬ 
dation of the word marionettes, from Maid Marian’s 
connection with the Morris dance, or May-day dance, at 
which she was said to appear. 

Maid of Athens. Made famous by Lord Byron’s 
song of this title. Twenty-four years after this song was 
written, an Englishman sought out “ the Athenian maid,” 
and found a beggar without a vestige of beauty. 

3Iaid of Saragossa. Childe Harold, Byron. A 
young Spanish woman distinguished for her heroism 
during the defense of Saragossa in 1808-09. She first 
attracted notice by mounting a battery where her lover 
had fallen, and working a gun in his room. 

3Ial'aprop, 3Irs. A character in Sheridan’s “Ri¬ 
vals,” noted for her blundering use of words. 

3Ial-bec'co. “ Faery Queen,” Spenser. The hus¬ 
band of a young wife, Helinore, and himself a crabbed, 
jealous old fellow. 

3Ialen'grin. A character in Spenser’s “ Faery Queen,” 
who carried a net on his back “to catch fools with.” 
The name has grown to mean the personification of guile 
or flattery. 

3Ialepar'dus. The castle of Master Reynard the 
Fox, in the beast epic of “Reynard the Fox.” 

3Ialvoi'sin. Ivanhoe, Scott. One of the challeng¬ 
ing knights at the tournament (Sir Philip de Malvoisin). 
Sir Albert de Malvoisin was a preceptor of the Knights 
Templar. 

3Iambri'no. Poems, Ariosto, etc. A king of the 
Moors, who was the possessor of an enchanted golden 
helmet, which rendered the wearer invulnerable, and 
which was the object of eager quest to the Paladins of 
Charlemagne. This helmet was borne away by the 




THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS. 


knight Rinaldo. In "Don Quixote we are told of a 
barber who was caught in a shower of ram, and who, to 

B rotect his hat, clapped his brazen basin on his head. 

ion Quixote insisted that this basin was the helmet ol 
the Moorish king: and, taking possession of it, wore it 

Man'agarm. Prose Edda. The largest and most 
formidable of the race of giants. He dwells m the Iron- 
wood, Jamvid. Managarm will first fill himself with the 
blood of man, and then will he swallow up the moon. 
This giant symbolizes war, and the “ Iron wood in 
which he dwells is the wood of spears. 

Manfred. Subject of a poem by Byron, written under 
this title. Manfred sold himself to the prince of dark¬ 
ness, and received from him seven spirits to do his bid¬ 
ding. They^were the spirits of "earth, ocean, air, night, 
mountains, winds, and the star of his own destiny. 
Wholly without human sympathies, the count dwelt in 
splendid solitude among the Alpine Mountains. He 
loved Astarte, and was visited by her spirit after her 
death. In spirit form she told Manfred that he would 
die the following day: and when asked if she loved him, 
she sighed “Manfred,” and vanished. 

Mantali'ni. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. The 
husband of madame; he is a man-doll, noted for his 
white teeth, his oaths, and his gorgeous morning gown. 
This "exquisite” lives on his wife’s earnings, and thinks 
he confers a favor on her by spending. Madame Man- 
talini is represented as a fashionable milliner near Caven¬ 
dish Square, London. 

Marcel'lus. Hamlet, Shakespere. An officer of 
Denmark, to whom the ghost of the murdered king ap¬ 
peared before it presented itself to Prince Hamlet. 

Marchioness, The. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. 
A half-starved maid of-all-work, in the service of 
Sampson Brass and his sister Sally. She was so lone¬ 
some and dull, that it afforded her relief to peep at Mr. 
Swiveller even through the keyhole of his door. Mr. 
Swiveller called her the "marchioness,” when she played 
cards with him, "because it seemed more real and pleas¬ 
ant” to play with a marchioness than with a domestic. 
While enjoying these games they made the well-known 
“orange-peel wine.” 

Mariana in the Moated Grange. In Tennyson’s 
poem by this name, a young damsel who sits in the 
moated grange, looking out for her lover, who never 
comes. (2) In Shakespere’s “Measure for Measure” 
Mariana is a lovely and lovable lady, betrothed to 
Angelo, who, during the absence of Vincentio. the Duke 
of Vienna, acted as his lord deputy. Her pleadings to 
the duke for Angelo are wholly unrivaled. 

Marplot. "The busy body.” A blundering, good- 
natured, meddlesome young man, very inquisitive, too 
officious by half, and always bungling whatever he inter¬ 
feres in. Character found in comedies written by Mrs. 
Centlivre. 

Martin’s Summer, St. Halcyon days: a time of 
prosperity: fine weather. Mentioned by Shakespere 
in Henry VI., etc. 

Masora. A critical work or canon, whereby is fixed 
and ascertained the reading of the text of the Hebrew 
version of the Bible. 

Masques. Dramatic representations made for a 
festive occasion, with a reference to the persons present 
and the occasion. Their personages were allegorical. 
They admitted of dialogue, music, singing, and dancing, 
combined by the use of some ingenious fable into a whole. 
They were made and performed for the court and the 
houses of the nobles, and the scenery was gorgeous and 
varied. According to Holinshed’s Chronicle, the first 
masque performed in England was at Greenwich, in 
1512. Shakespere, as well as Beaumont and Fletcher, 
have frequently introduced masques into their plays. 
Milton himself made them worthier by writing "Comus.” 
H. W. Longfellow wrote the "Masque of Pandora,” 
taking the story from Hawthorne’s "Wonder Book.” 

Mauth Dog. Lay of the Last Minstrel, Scott. 
A black specter spaniel that haunted the guard-room of 
Peeltown in the Isle of Man. A drunken trooper entered 
the guard-room while the dog was there, but lost his 
speech, and died within three days. 

Mavournin. Irish for “darling.” 

May'eux. The name of a hunchback, who figures 
prominently in numberless French caricatures and ro¬ 
mances. 

Mazep'pa. Poem, Byron. Mazeppa in poem 
under same title was a Cossack of noble family who be¬ 
came a page in the court of the King of Poland, and while 
in this capacity intrigued with Theresia, the young wife 
of a count, who discovered the amour, and had the 
young page lashed to a wild horse, and turned adrift. 

Measure for Measure. Shakespere. There was 
a law in Vienna that made it death for a man to live with 


a woman not his wife; but the law was so little enforced 
that the mothers of Vienna complained to the duke of 
its neglect. So the duke deputed Angelo to enforce it: 
and, assuming the dress of a friar, absented himself 
awhile, to watch the result. Scarcely was the duke gone, 
when Claudio was sentenced to death for violating the 
law. His sister Isabel went to intercede on his behalf, 
and Angelo told her he would spare her brother if she 
would become his Phryne. Isabel told her brother he 
must prepare to die, as the conditions proposed by Angelo 
were out of the question. The duke, disguised as a friar, 
heard the whole story, and persuaded Isabel to "assent 
in words,” but to send Mariana (the divorced wife of 
Angelo) to take her place. This was done: but Angelo 
sent the provost to behead Claudio, a crime which "the 
friar” contrived to avert. Next day, the duke returned 
to the city, and Isabel told her tale. The end was, the 
duke married Isabel, Angelo took back his wife, and 
Claudio married Juliet. 

Meeting of the Waters. Title of a poem by Moore } 
better known under the name "Sweet Vale of Avoca.” 
“ The Meeting of the Waters ” forms a part of that beauti¬ 
ful scenery which lies between Rathdrum and Arklow, 
in the county of Wicklow, Ireland: and these lines were 
suggested by a visit to this romantic spot in the summer 
of 1807. 

Meg Mer'rilies. A prominent character in Scott’s 
"Guy Mannering,” a half-crazy gypsy or sibyl. 

Meis'tersingers. In Germany an association of 
master tradesmen, to revive the national minstrelsy, 
which had fallen into decay with the decline of the min¬ 
nesingers or love-minstrels (1350-1523). Their subjects 
were chiefly moral or religious, and constructed according 
to rigid rules. 

Meis'ter, Wilhelm. Hero and title of a philosophic 
novel by Goethe. The object is to show that man, de¬ 
spite his errors and shortcomings, is led by a guiding 
hand, and reaches some higher aim at last. This is con¬ 
sidered to be the first true German novel. 

Melis'sa. Orlando Furioso, Ariosto. The 
prophetess who lived in Merlin’s cave. Brad'amant gave 
her the enchanted ring to take to Roge'ro: so, assuming 
the form of Atlantes, she not only delivered Roge'ro, 
but disenchanted all the forms metamorphosed in the 
island, where he was captive. 

Mel'notte, Claude. Lady of Lyons, Bulwer. 
The son of a gardener in love with Pauline, “the Beauty 
of Lyons,” but treated by her with contempt. Beause- 
ant and Glavis, two other rejected suitors, conspired 
with him to humble her. 

Melyhalt. A powerful female subject of King Ar¬ 
thur’s court. Sir Galiot invaded her domain, but she 
forgave his trespass and chose him for her knight and 
chevalier. 

Menard. The Road to Frontenac, Merwin. The 

hero of the novel, a leader among Indians and white men 
during the making of New France. From Quebec he 
goes west, holding control of affairs in spite of treachery 
in both races. His companions are chiefly French, amid 
whom figure a Jesuit and two Indians, and the story 
contains much of that romantic charm peculiar to early 
French pioneer life, whence Longfellow and other poets 
and story-tellers have drawn inspiration. 

Mengtse. The fourth of the sacred books of China, 
so called from its author, Mengtse, Latinized into Men¬ 
cius. This great work was written in the Fourth Cen¬ 
tury B. C., and contains the wisdom of the age. These 
are some of its teachings: “Humanity, righteousness, 
propriety, knowledge, are as natural to man as his four 
limbs.” “Humanity is internal, righteousness is exter¬ 
nal.” In this same book Mencius taught that govern¬ 
ment is from God. but for the people whose welfare is 
the supreme good. The phrase "mother of Meng,” 
which has been borrowed from the Chinese, signifies "a 
great teacher.” 

Menteur’, Le(Fr. The Liar). Comedy by Corneille. 

The propensities of the leading character give the play 
its name and lead to the complications of the plot. This 
is generally considered Corneille’s best comedy and the 
most important before the time of MolRre. 

Merchant’s Tale, The. Chaucer. Is substantially 
the same as the first Latin metrical tale of Adolphus, and 
is not unlike a Latin prose tale given in the appendix of 
Wright’s edition of ASsop’s Fables. It is the story of 
the betrayal of an old husband by a young wife. The 
story is evidently of Oriental origin and very old. Boc¬ 
caccio and Chaucer may have borrowed it from the 
"Commedia Lydiae.” The well-known incident of the 
pear tree is found in all these sources. An interesting 
account of these sources has been given by the Chaucer 
Society Publications under "Origins and Analogues of 
the Tales.” Pope used this story as his basis for “.January 
and May.” 




LITERATURE 


371 


Merchant of Venice. Antonio, the merchant, in 
Shakespere’s play, signs a bond in order to borrow money 
from Shylock, a Jew, for Bassino, the lover of Portia. 
If the loan was repaid within three months, only the 
principal would be required: if not, the Jew should be 
at liberty to claim a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body. 
The ships of Antonio being delayed by contrary winds, 
the merchant was unable to meet his bill, and the Jew 
claimed the forfeiture. Portia, in the dress of a law 
doctor, conducted the defense, and saved Antonio by 
reminding the Jew that a pound of flesh gave him no 
drop of blood. 

Merlin. The name of an ancient Welsh prophet and 
enchanter. He is often alluded to by the older poets, 
especially Spenser, in his “ Faery Queen,” and also figures 
in Tennyson’s “Idylls of the King.” In the “History 
of Prince Arthur” by Malory, Merlin is the prince of 
enchanters and of a supernatural origin. He is said to 
have built the Round Table and to have brought from 
Ireland the stones of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain. 

Merlin’s Cave. In Dynevor, near Carmarthen, 
noted for its ghastly noises of rattling iron chains, groans, 
and strokes of hammers. The cause is this: Merlin set 
his spirits to fabricate a brazen wall to encompass the 
city of Carmarthen, and, as he had to call on the Lady 
of the Lake, bade them not slacken their labor till he 
returned; but he never did return, for Vivian held him 
prisoner by her wiles. 

Messiah, The. An epic poem in fifteen books, by 
F. G. Klopstock. The subject is the last days of Jesus, 
His crucifixion and resurrection. 

Midsummer Night’s Dream. Egeus promised his 
daughter, Hermia, to Demetrius. She loved Lysander 
and fled from Athens with her lover. Demetrius went 
in pursuit of her, followed by Helena, who doted on him. 
All four came to a forest and fell asleep. Oberon and 
Tita'nia had quarreled, and Oberon, by way of punish¬ 
ment, dropped on Titania’s eyes during sleep some love- 
juice, or “Love in Idleness,” the effect of which is to 
make the sleeper fall in love with the first thing seen 
when waking. The first thing seen by Titania was Bot¬ 
tom the weaver, wearing an ass’s head. In the mean¬ 
time King Oberon dispatched Puck to the lovers and 
with the juice Puck changed their vision and made all 
content. It has been suggested that in this play Shakes- 
pere may have borrowed hints from Chaucer. “The 
Tempest” and “Midsummer Night’s Dream” are called 
Sbakespere’s fairy plays. 

Milden'do. Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. The 
metropolis of Lilliput, the wall of which was two feet 
and a half in height, and at least eleven inches thick. 
The emperor’s palace, called Belfab'orac, was in the 
center of the city. 

Miles Standish. In “Courtship of Miles Standish,” 
a poem by H. W. Longfellow. From this poem the ro¬ 
bust figures of the Puritan captain, in his haps and mis¬ 
haps, and of John Alden and Priscilla, are now part of 
our national treasures. 

Miller, Daisy. Name of heroine and title of the 
story by Henry James. An American girl traveling in 
Europe, where her innocence, ignorance, and disregard 
of European customs and standards of propriety, put 
her in compromising situations and frequently expose 
her conduct to misconstruction. 

Minneha'ha. Hiawatha, H. W. Longfellow. 
The daughter of the arrow-maker of Daco'tah, and wife 
of Hiawatha. She was called Minnehaha from the 
waterfall of that name. 

Minnesangers, or Minnesingers. A name given 
to the German lyric poets of the Middle Ages, on account 
of love being the principal theme of their lays, the Ger¬ 
man word “minne” being used to denote a pure and 
faithful love. 

Miracle Plays. See “Mysteries.” 

Miranda. The Tempest, Shakespere. The 
daughter of Prospero the exiled Duke of Milan, and 
niece of Antonio, the usurping duke. She is brought 
up on a desert island, with Ariel, the fairy spirit, and 
Cal'iban, the monster, as her only companions. 

Mlr'i -am. A beautiful and mysterious woman in 
Hawthorne’s romance “The Marble Faun,” for love of 
whom Donatello commits murder, thus becoming her 
partner in crime. 

Miserere. A title given in the Roman Catholic 
Church to the fifty-first Psalm, usually called the “ psalm 
of mercy.” 

Morality, The. An old play in which the characters 
were the Vices and Virtues, with the addition after¬ 
wards of allegorical personages, such as Riches, Good 
Deeds, Confession, Death, and any human condition or 
quality needed for the play. These characters were 
brought together in a rough story, at the end of which 
Virtue triumphed. 


Morris Dance. Or the Moorish dance, was intro¬ 
duced into England in the reign of Edward III. It was 
a prominent feature of the May Day and other outdoor 
festivities. 

Morituri Salutamis. A “hymn to age,” written 
by H. W. Longfellow, for the jubilee reunion of Bowdoin’s 
Class of 1825. It contains a number of classic allusions, 
and an entire tale from the “Gesta Romanorum.” 

Mortality, Old. Old Mortality, Scott. A religious 
itinerant, who frequented country churchyards and the 
graves of the covenanters. He was first discovered at 
Gandercleugh, clearing the moss from the grey tomb¬ 
stones, renewing with his chisel the half-defaced inscrip¬ 
tions, and repairing the decorations of the tombs. 

Mu'alox. The Fair God, Lew Wallace. The 
old paba or prophet who assured Nenetzin that she was 
to be the future queen in her father’s palace. 

Muck'lebacket. The Antiquary, Scott. Name of 
a conspicuous family, consisting of Saunders Muckle- 
backet, the old fisherman of Musselcrag; Old Elspeth, 
mother of Saunders; Maggie, wife of Saunders; Steenie, 
the eldest son, who was drowned; Little Jennie, Saun¬ 
ders’ child. 

Munchau'sen, The Baron. A hero of most mar¬ 
velous adventures, and the fictitious author of a book 
of travels filled with most extravagant tales. The name 
is said to refer to Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von Mun¬ 
chausen, a German officer in the Russian Army, noted 
for his marvelous stories. 

Mussel Slough Affair. Octopus, Norris. The 
basis of plot for the novel and name given to an actual 
piece of history almost unknown in the East when the 
wheat-growers of the San Joaquin Valley came into 
conflict with the railroad which they believed was try¬ 
ing to defraud them of their land. 

My'steries and Miracle-plays. Were dramas 
founded on the historical parts of the Old and New Testa¬ 
ments, and the lives of the saints, performed during the 
Middle Ages, first in churches, and afterwards in the 
streets on fixed or movable stages. The mystery was 
a representation of any portion of the New Testament 
history concerned with a mysterious subject, such as the 
Incarnation, the Atonement, or the Resurrection. Mira¬ 
cles and mysteries were popular in France, Germany, 
Spain, Italy, and England. The fathers of the Reforma¬ 
tion showed no unfriendly feeling towards them. Luther 
is reported to have said that they often did more good 
and produced more impression than sermons. In the 
alpine districts of Germany, miracle-plays were com¬ 
posed and acted by the peasants. They at last began 
to partake to a limited extent of the burlesque, which 
had brought miracle-plays into disrepute elsewhere. 
In England, the greatest check they received was from 
the rise of the secular drama. The first miracle-plays 
were an expedient employed by the clergy for giving 
religious instruction to the people, and for extending 
and strengthening the influence of the Church. The 
earliest “Miracle” on record is the “Play of St. Cather¬ 
ine,” which was written about 1119, in French, and was 
a rude picture of the miracles and martyrdom of that 
saint. Some of the titles of these old plays are the 
‘‘Creation of the World,” the “Fall of Man,” the story 
of “Cain and Abel,” the “Crucifixion of Our Lord,” 
the “Massacre of the Innocents,” “The Play of the 
Blessed Sacrament,” the ’‘Deluge.” They were gen¬ 
erally written in mixed prose and verse. It was necessary 
to introduce some comic enlivenment, and this was done 
by representing the wicked personages of the drama as 
placed in ludicrous situations. The devil generally 
played the part of the clown or jester. 

Na'la. A legendary King of India, whose love for 
Damayanti and subsequent misfortunes have supplied 
subjects for numerous poems. 

Natty Bumppo. Called “Leather-stockings.” He 
appears in five of Cooper’s novels: (1) “The Deer- 
slayer”; (2) “The Pathfinder”; (3) “The Hawkeye,” 
in “The Last of the Mohicans”; (4) “Natty Bumppo,” 
in “The Pioneers”; and (5) as “The Trapper,” in “The 
Prairie,” in which he dies. 

Neae'ra. The name of a girl mentioned by the Latin 
poets, Horace, Virgil, and Tibullus; sometimes also 
introduced into modern pastoral poetry as the name of 
a mistress or sweetheart. 

Nejjen'the. A care-dispelling drug, which Polydam- 
na, wife of Tho'nis, King of Egypt, gave to Helen. A 
drink containing this drug “changed grief to mirth, 
melancholy to joyfulness, and hatred to love.” The 
water of Ardenne had the opposite effects. Homer 
mentions this drug nepenthe in his “Odyssey.” It is 
also mentioned in Poe’s “Raven.” 

Nest of Linnets. Title given to a story by F F. 
Moore, a sequel to his “Jessamy Bride,” and noted for 
the group of people collected. Richard Brinsley Sheri- 



372 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


dan may be called its hero, inasmuch as he is the lover 
of its heroine, Miss Linley, the famous singer, who be¬ 
came Sheridan’s first wife. The whole remarkable fam¬ 
ily to which she belonged give title to the book. Gar¬ 
rick Goldsmith, Sir Joshua, Mrs. Thrale, Dr. Johnson, 
Thomas Sheridan, elocutionist and lexicographer, and 
father of Richard, Burke, and others. 

Nestor. The name dates to ancient Grecian legend. 
Homer makes him the great counselor of the Grecian 
chiefs, and extols his eloquence as superior even to that 
of Ulysses. His authority was even considered equal 
to that of the immortal gods. Hence the name is often 
found in literature as an appellation denoting wisdom. 
Bryant has been called “The Nestor of Our Poets.” 

New Atlantis, The. An imaginary island in the 
middle of the Atlantic. Bacon, in his allegorical fiction 
so called, supposes himself wrecked on this island, where 
he finds an association for the cultivation of natural 
science and the promotion of arts. Called the “New” 
Atlantis to distinguish it from Plato’s Atlantis, an 
imaginary island of fabulous charms. 

Newcome, Colonel. A gallant, simple-hearted gen¬ 
tleman, a retired East Indian officer, in Thackeray’s 
novel “The Newcomes.” His unworldliness leads to 
the loss of his fortune, and he finally dies, poor and 
broken-hearted, in the Charter House hospital. 

New England Primer. A book quoted as specimen 
of literature for children in early American days. A 
copy of the New England Primer, published in Walpole, 
N. H., in 1814, contains an illustrated alphabet. The 
letter “L” is illustrated by a lion with one of its paws 
resting upon a lamb which is lying down, and the follow¬ 
ing lines: 

“ The Lion bold 
The Lamb doth hold.” 

New England Tragedies. Among the poems of 
H. W. Longfellow are the “New England Tragedies,” 
and the “Divine Tragedy.” These, it is said, are to be 
taken in c<?nnection with “The Golden Legend,” the 
whole forming one connected work of art, somewhat as 
do the successive Arthurian legends of Tennyson. 

New Jerusalem. The name by which in the Chris¬ 
tian faith, heaven, or the abode of the redeemed, is 
symbolized. The allusion is to the description in the 
twenty-first chapter of the Book of Revelation. 

New Pastoral. A poem by T. B. Read, truly Amer¬ 
ican in character like its companion poem, “The Wag¬ 
oner of the Alleghanies.” The “New Pastoral” con¬ 
sists of a series of sketches of rustic and domestic life, 
mostly of primitive simplicity, and so truthful as to be 
not less valuable as history than attractive as poetry. 

Nibelung, King. A king of the Nibelungen, a myth¬ 
ical Burgundian tribe, who gives name to the great 
mediaeval epic of Germany, the “Nibelungen Lied.” He 
bequeathed to his two sons a hoard or treasure beyond 
all price and incapable of diminution, which was won 
by Siegfried, who made war upon the Nibelungen and 
conquered them. 

Nibelungen Lied. A historic poem generally called 
the German “Iliad.” It is the only great national epic 
that European writers have produced since antiquity, 
and belongs to every country that has been peopled by 
Germanic tribes, as it includes the hero traditions of the 
Franks, the Burgundians and the Goths, with memor¬ 
ials of the ancient myths carried with them from Asia. 
The poem is divided into two parts, and thirty-two beds 
or cantos. The first part ends with the death of Sieg¬ 
fried, and the second part with the death of Kriemhild. 
The death of Siegfried and the revenge of Kriemhild 
have been celebrated in popular songs dating hack to 
the lyric chants now a thousand years old. These are 
the foundation of the great poem. 

Nick'leby, Mrs. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. 
The mother of the hero, Nicholas, a widow fond of talk¬ 
ing and of telling long stories with no connection. She 
imagined her neighbor, a mildly insane man, was in 
love with her because he tossed cabbages and other 
articles over the garden wall. She had a habit of intro¬ 
ducing, in conversation, topics wholly irrelevant to the 
subject under consideration, and of always declaring, 
when anything unanticipated occurred, that she had 
expected it all along, and had prophesied to that precise 
effect on divers (unknown) occasions. Nicholas Nick¬ 
leby has to make his own way in the world. He first 
goes as usher to Mr. Squeers, schoolmaster at Dotheboys 
Hall; but leaves in disgust with the tyranny of Squeers 
and his wife, especially to a poor boy named Smike. 
Smike runs away from the school to follow Nicholas, 
and remains his humble follower till death. At Ports¬ 
mouth, Nicholas joins the theatrical company of Mr. 
Crummies, but leaves the profession for other adven¬ 
tures. He falls in with the brothers Cherryble, who 
make him their clerk; and in this post he rises to be¬ 


come a merchant, and ultimately marries Madeline Bray. 

Nicknames by States. Names given to the inhab¬ 
itants of the different States by popular use: Alabama, 
lizards; Arkan'sas, tooth-picks; California, gold-hunt¬ 
ers; Colora'do, rovers; Connecticut, wooden nutmegs; 
Del'aware, musk-rats; Florida, fly-up-the-creeks; Geor - 
gia, buzzards; Illinois, suckers; Indiana, hoosiers; 
Iowa, hawk-eyes; Kansas, jay-hawkers; Kentucky, 
corn-crackers; Louisiana, creoles; Maine, foxes; Mary¬ 
land, craw-thumpers; Michigan, wolverines; Minne¬ 
sota, gophers; Mississippi, tadpoles; Missou'ri, pukes; 
Nebras'ka, bug-eaters; Neva'da, sage-hens; Aew 
Hampshire, granite boys; New Jersey, blues or clam- 
catchers; New York, knickerbockers; North Caroli na, 
tar-boilers and tar heels; Ohio, buck-eyes; Or'egon, 
web-feet and hard-cases; Pennsylvania, Pennanites 
and leather-heads; Rhode Island, gun-flints; South 
Caroli'na, weasels; Tennessee', whelps; Texas, beef- 
heads; Vermont, Green Mountain boys; Virginia, 
beadies; Wisconsin, badgers. 

Nine Worthies, The. Famous personages often 
alluded to, and classed together, rather in an arbitrary 
manner, like the Seven Wonders of the World, the 
Seven Wise Men of Greece, etc. They have been counted 
up in the following manner: 

( 1. Hector, son of Priam. 

Three Gentiles. •< 2. Alexander the Great. 

( 3. Julius Caesar. 

( 4. Joshua, Conqueror of Canaan. 

Three Jews. -<5. David, King of Israel. 

( 6. Judas Maccabaeus. 

( 7. Arthur, King of Britain. 

Three Christians. •< 8. Charlemagne. 

( 9. Godfrey of Bouillon. 

Noctes Ambrosia'nae. A series of convivial fable 
talk, full of humor, although local in subject. They 
hold a high place in genial or recreative literature. They 
were mostly written by “Christopher North,” the real 
John Wilson, and it is said that while Lockhart was 
writing “Vale'rius,” he was in the habit of taking walks 
with Professor Wilson every morning, and of supping 
with Blackwood at Ambrose’s, a small tavern in Edin¬ 
burgh. One night Lockhart said, “What a pity there 
has not been a short-hand writer here to take down all 
the good things that have been said”! and next day he 
produced a paper from memory, and called it “Noctes 
Ambrosianse.” That was the first of the series. 

North Americans of Yesterday. Name given to 
the Indians of North America by recent writers, among 
them F. S. Dellenbaugh in a work under same title. 
This work, a comparative study of North American 
Indian life and customs, is written on the theory that 
the races are of ethnic unity. 

Nourmahal'. Lalla Rookh, Moore. “Light of 
the Haram,” She was for a season estranged from the 
sultan, till he gave a grand banquet, at which she ap¬ 
peared in disguise as a lute-player and singer. The 
sultan was so enchanted with her performance, that he 
exclaimed, “If Nourmahal had so played and sung, I 
could forgive her all”; whereupon the sultana threw 
off her mask. 

Novum Organum. The noted work of Roger 
Bacon, showing his system of philosophy. It was pub¬ 
lished in the year 1620. 

Nuc'ta. Paradise and the Peri, Moore. The 

name given to the miraculous drop which falls from 
heaven, in Egypt, on St. John’s Day, and is supposed 
to stop the plague. 

Nun of Nidaros. Tales of a Wayside Inn, Long¬ 
fellow. The abbess of the Drontheim convent, who 
heard the voice of St. John while she was kneeling at 
her midnight devotions. 

Nut-Brown Maid. Reliques, Percy. The maid 

who was wooed by the “banished man.” The “ban¬ 
ished man” describes to her the hardships she would 
have to undergo if she married him; but finding that 
she accounted these hardships as nothing compared with 
his love, he revealed himself to be an earl’s son, with 
large hereditary estates in Westmoreland, and married 
her. 

O'bermann. The impersonation of high moral worth 
without talent, and the tortures endured by the con¬ 
sciousness of this defect. This name was given to the 
hero and imaginary author of a work of the same name 
by Etienne Pivert de Senancourt, a French writer. 

O'beron. King of the Fairies, whose wife was 
Titania. Shakespere introduces both Oberon and 
Titania in his “Midsummer Night’s Dream.” He and 
Titania, his queen, are fabled to have lived in India, 
and to have crossed the seas to Northern Europe to 
dance by the light of the moon. 

O'beron the Fay. A humpty dwarf only three feet 
high, but of angelic face, lord and king of Mommur. 



LITERATURE 


373 


Odyssey. Homer’s epic, recording the adventures 
of Odysseus (“Ulysses”) in his voyage home from Troy, 
The poem opens in the island of Calypso, with a com¬ 
plaint against Neptune and Calypso for preventing the 
return of Odysseus to Ithaca. Telemachos, the son of 
Odysseus, starts in search of his father, accompanied 
by Pallas in the guise of Mentor. He goes to Pylos, 
to consult old Nestor, and is sent by him to Sparta; 
where he is told by Menelaus that Odysseus is detained 
in the island of Calypso. In the meantime, Odysseus 
leaves the island, and, being shipwrecked, is cast on the 
shore of Phseacia. After twenty years’ absence Odys¬ 
seus returns to his home. Penelope is tormented by 
suitors. To excuse herself, Penelope tells her suitors 
he only shall be her husband who can bend Odysseus’s 
bow. None can do so but the stranger, who bends it 
with ease. Odysseus is recognized by his wife, and the 
false suitors are all slain and peace is restored to Ithaca. 

Offertory. In the Roman Catholic Church a form 
of words, in the first part of the Mass, by which the 
priest offers the elements previously to their consecra¬ 
tion. In the English communion service, the sentences 
read by the officiating clergyman, while the people are 
making their offerings. 

O'gier the Dane. One of the paladins of the Charle¬ 
magne epoch. Also made the hero of an ancient French 
romance, and the subject of a ballad, whose story is 
probably a contribution from the stores of Norman tra¬ 
dition, Holger, or Olger Danske, being the national hero 
of Denmark. He figures in Ariosto’s “ Orlando Furioso.” 

O’Groat'. A name often alluded to in early English 
parables or sayings coming from the legend of “John 
O’Groat’s House.” This ancient building was supposed 
to stand on the most northerly point in Great Britain. 
John of Groat and his brothers were originally from 
Holland. According to tradition, the house was of an 
octagonal shape, being one room with eight windows 
and eight doors, to admit eight members of the family, 
the heads of eight different branches of it, to prevent 
their quarrels for precedence at table, which, on a pre¬ 
vious occasion, had well-nigh proved fatal. 

Oldbuck, Jonathan. Antiquary, Scott. The char¬ 
acter whose whimsies gave name to the novel. He is 
represented as devoted to the study and accumulation 
of old coins, medals, and relics. He is irritable, sar¬ 
castic, and cynical from an early disappointment in 
love, but full of humor and a faithful friend. 

Old Man of the Sea. In the “Arabian Nights,” a 
monster encountered by Sindbad the sailor in his fifth 
voyage. After carrying him upon his shoulders a long 
time, Sindbad at last succeeds in intoxicating him, and 
effects his escape. The “Old Man of the Sea” was also 
made the title of a humorous and well-known poem by 
O. W. Holmes. 

Old Red Sandstone. One of the most noted of 
Hugh Miller’s famous writings on geological subjects. 
It revealed his discovery of fossils in a formation which, 
up to that time, had been deemed almost destitute of 
them. 

Oliver. As You Like It, Shakespere. Son and 
heir of Sir Rowland de Bois, who hated his youngest 
brother, Orlando, and whom be planned to murder by 
indirect methods. Orlando, finding it impossible to 
live in his brother’s house, fled to the forest of Arden, 
where he joined the society of the banished duke. Oli¬ 
ver pursued him, and as he slept in the forest, a snake 
and a lioness lurked near to make him their prey. Or¬ 
lando chanced to be passing, slew the two monsters 
and then found that the sleeper was his brother Oliver. 
Oliver’s feelings underwent a change, and he loved his 
brother as much as he had before hated him. In the 
forest, the two brothers met Rosalind and Celia. The 
former, who was the daughter of the banished duke, 
married Orlando; and the latter, who was the daughter 
of the usurping duke, married Oliver. 

Ollv'ia. Twelfth Night, Shakespere. A rich 
countess, whose love was sought by Orsino, Duke of 
Illyria; but having lost her brother, Olivia lived for a 
time in entire seclusion, and in no wise reciprocated the 
duke’s love. Olivia fell in love with Viola, who was 
dressed as the duke’s page, and sent her a ring. Mis¬ 
taking Sebastian (Viola’s brother) for Viola, she married 
him out of hand. 

Ophelia. Hamlet, Shakespere. Daughter of Po- 
lo'nius, the chamberlain. Hamlet fell in love with her, 
but after his interview with the Ghost, finds that his 
plans must lead away from her. During his real or 
assumed madness, he treats her with undeserved and 
angry rudeness, and afterward, in a fit of inconsiderate 
rashness, kills her father, the old Polonius. The terrible 
shock given to her mind by these events completely 
chatters her intellect, and leads to her accidental death 
by drowning. 


Organon. The name given to the first work on logic 
by Aristotle. He is said to have created the science of 
logic. The “Organon” has been enlarged and recast 
by some modern authors, especially by Mr. John Stuart 
Mill in his “System of Logic,” into a structure commen¬ 
surate with the vast increase of knowledge and exten¬ 
sion of positive method belonging to the present day. 

Orlando Furioso. An epic poem in forty-six cantos, 
by Ariosto, which occupied his leisure for eleven years, 
and was published in 1516. This poem, which celebrates 
the semi-mythical achievements of the paladins of 
Charlemagne, in the wars between the Christians and 
the Moors, became immediately popular, and has since 
been translated into all European languages, and passed 
through innumerable editions. 

Ormulum. The “Ormulum” is a collection of met¬ 
rical homilies, one for each day of the year, but the 
single existing copy gives the homilies for thirty-two 
days only. There are very few French words in the 
poem, but Scandinavian words and constructions abound. 
The writer, Orm, or Ormin, belonged to the East of Eng¬ 
land, and he and his brother Walter were Augustinian 
monks. He makes no use of rhyme, but his verses are 
smooth and regular. 

Osbald'i-stone. Rob Roy, Scott. A family name 
in the story which tells of nine of the members: (1) the 
London merchant and Sir Hildebrand, the heads of two 
families; (2) the son of the merchant is Francis; (3) the 
offspring of the brother are Percival, the sot; Thorn- 
cliffe, the bully; John, the gamekeeper; Richard, the 
horse-jockey; Wilfred, the fool; and Rashleigh, the 
scholar, by far the worst of all. This last worthy is 
slain by Rob Roy, and dies cursing his cousin Frank, 
whom he had injured. 

O’Shanter. See “Tam O’Shanter.” 

Osman. Sultan of the East, conqueror of the Chris' 
tians, a magnanimous man. He loved Yara, a young 
Christian captive. This forms the subject of a once- 
famous ballad. 

Osrick. A court fop in Shakespere’s “Hamlet.” He 
is made umpire by Claudius in the combat between 
Hamlet and Laertes. 

Osse'o. Hiawatha, Longfellow. Son of the Even¬ 
ing Star. When broken with age, he married Oweenee, 
one of ten daughters of a North hunter. She loved him 
in spite of his ugliness and decrepitude, because “all was 
beautiful within him.” As he was walking with his nine 
sisters-in-law and their husbands, he leaped into the 
hollow of an oak tree and came out strong and hand¬ 
some; but Oweenee at the same moment was changed 
into a weak old woman. But the love of, Osseo was not 
weakened. The nine brothers and sisters-in-law were 
transformed into birds. Oweenee, recovering her beauty, 
had a son, whose delight was to shoot the birds that 
mocked his father and mother. An Algonquin legend 
gave the foundation of the story. 

Othel'lo. A Moor of Venice, in Shakespere’s play of 
the same name. He marries Desdemona, the daughter 
of a Venetian senator, and is led by his ensign, Iago, a 
consummate villain, to distrust her fidelity and virtue. 
Iago hated the Moor both because Cassio, a Florentine, 
was preferred to the lieutenancy instead of himself, and 
also from a suspicion that the Moor had tampered with 
his wfife; but he concealed his hatred so well that 
Othello wholly trusted him. Iago persuaded Othello 
that Desdemona intrigued with Cassio, and urged him 
on till he murdered his bride. 

Othello’s Occupation’s Gone. A phrase much 
quoted from the play “Othello,” meaning “the task is 
ended,” or that one has retired from active work. 

Outre-Mer. A “Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea.” This 
title was given to the work by H. W. Longfellow, pub¬ 
lished in 1835, and written before European travel was 
much known to Americans. It is a, poetical prose 
work, not unlike the “ Sketch-Bookof Washington 
Irving. 

Pac'olet. In “Valentine and Orson,” an old ro¬ 
mance, a character who owned an enchanted steed, 
often alluded to by early writers. The name of Pacolet 
was borrowed by Steele for his familiar spirit in the 
“Tatler.” The French have a proverb, “It is the horse 
of Pacolet,” that is, it is one that goes very fast. 

Page. Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakespere. 
Name of a family of Windsor, conspicuous in the play. 
When Sir John Falstaff made love to Mrs. Page, Page 
himself assumed the name of Brook. Sir John told the 
supposed Brook his whole “course of wooing.” 

Page, Mrs. Wife of Mr. Page, of Windsor. When 
Sir John Falstaff made love to her, she joined with Mrs. 
Ford to dupe him and punish him. 

Page, Anne. Daughter of the above, in love with 
Fenton. Slender calls her “ the sweet Anne Page.” 



374 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Page, William. Anne’s brother, a schoolboy. 

Pale'mon. The Seasons, Thomson. The hero 
of an episode in Thomson’s “ Seasons,” represented as 
the owner of harvest fields in which the lovely young 
Lavinia coming to glean, Palemon falls in love with her, 
and wooes and wins her. (2) A character in Falconer’s 
“Shipwreck,” in love with the daughter of Albert, the 
commander. # . . 

PaTimpsest. A parchment on which the original 
writing has been effaced, and something else has been 
written. The monks and others used to wash or rub 
out the writing in a parchment and use it again. As 
they did not efface it entirely, many works have been 
recovered by modern ingenuity. Thus Cicero’s “De 
Republica” has been restored from an ancient manu¬ 
script which had been partly erased. There are relics 
of ancient learning of which even the mutilated mem¬ 
bers have an independent value, and this is especially 
true of Biblical manuscripts for criticism, and in a still 
broader sense, of all the remains of the ancient his¬ 
torians. 

Palinu'rus. The pilot of JSneas, in Virgil’s “iEneid ” 
who fell asleep at the helm, and tumbled into the sea. 
The name is employed as a generic word for a steersman 
or pilot, and sometimes for a chief minister. Thus, 
Prince Bismarck was called the palinurus of William, 
Emperor of Germany. 

Palla'dium. Something that affords effectual pro¬ 
tection and safety. The Palla'dium was a colossal 
wooden statue of Pallas in the city of Troy, said to 
have fallen from heaven. The statue was carried away 
by the Greeks, and the city burned. The Scotch had a 
similar tradition attached to the great stone of Scone, 
near Perth. Edward I. removed it to Westminster, 
and it is still framed in the Coronation Chair of England. 
Stories connected with the palladium of a nation or a 
family are common in literature, as “Luck of Eden- 
hall,” a poem by Longfellow. 

Pallet. A painter in Smollett’s novel of “Peregrine 
Pickle.” The absurdities of Pallet are painted an inch 
thick. 

Pame'la. Name of heroine and title of novel by 
Richardson. She is a simple country girl, and maid¬ 
servant of a rich young squire. She resists every temp¬ 
tation, and at length marries the young squire and 
reforms him. Pamela is very modest, bears her afflic¬ 
tions with much meekness, and is a model of maiden¬ 
hood. The story is told in a series of letters which 
Pamela sends to her parents. 

Pan'darus. A son of Lycaon, and leader of the 
Lycians in the Trojan War, celebrated by Homer in 
the “Iliad.” In medheval romances, and by Shakes- 
pere in “Troilus and Cressida,” he is represented as 
procuring for Troilus the love and good graces of Chry- 
seis — hence the word “pander.” 

Panegyric. An eulogistic harangue or oration, 
written or uttered in praise of a person or body of 
persons. 

Pan-jan'drum, The Grand. A sort of mythical 
nonentity invented by Foote, the comic dramatist. 
The word occurs in Foote’s farrago of nonsense, which 
he composed to test the memory of a person who said 
he had brought his memory to such perfection that he 
could remember anything by reading it over once. 

Pantag'ruel. A character in a famous romance by 
Rabelais. The name is said to have been given him 
because he was born during the drought which lasted 
thirty and six months, three weeks, four days, thirteen 
hours, and a little more, in that year of grace noted for 
having “three Thursdays in one week.” His father 
was Gargantua, the giant, who was four hundred four¬ 
score and forty-four years old at the time. He was 
chained in his cradle with four great iron chains, like 
those used in ships of the largest size. Being angry at 
this, he stamped out the bottom of his bassanet, which 
was made of weavers’ beams. When he grew to man¬ 
hood he knew all languages, all sciences, and all knowl¬ 
edge of every sort. 

Pantag'ruleon Law Case. Pantagruel, Rabelais. 
This case, having nonplussed all the judges in Paris, 
was referred to Lord Pantagruel for decision. After 
much “statement’’ the bench declared, “We have not 
understood one single circumstance of the defense.” 
Then Pantagruel gave sentence, but his judgment was 
as unintelligible as the case itself. So, as no one under¬ 
stood a single sentence of the whole affair, all were per- 
pectly satisfied. 

Pan-urge'. A celebrated character in Rabelais’ 
“Pantagruel,” and the real hero of the story; repre¬ 
sented as an arrant rogue, a drunkard, a coward, and a 
libertine, but learned in the tongues, an ingenious prac¬ 
tical joker, and a boon companion. He was the favorite 
of Pantagruel, who made him governor of Salmygondin, 


and finally set out with him in quest of the oracle of the 
Holy Bottle. 

Paradise and the Pe'ri. The second tale in Moore’s 
poetical romance of “ Lalla Rookh.” The Peri laments 
her expulsion from heaven, and is told she will be re¬ 
admitted if she will bring to the gate of heaven the 
“gift most dear to the Almighty.” After several fail¬ 
ures the Peri offered the “ Repentant Tear,” and the 
gates flew open to receive the gift. 

Paradise Lost. The poem by Milton under this 
name opens with the awaking of the rebel angels in 
hell after their fall from heaven, the consultation of their 
chiefs how best to carry on the war with God, and the 
resolve of Satan to go forth and tempt newly created 
man to fall. Satan reaches Eden, and finds Adam and 
Eve in their innocence. This is told in the first four 
books. The next four books contain the Archangel 
Raphael’s story of the war in heaven, the fall of Satan, 
and the creation of the world. The last four books 
describe the temptation and the fall of man, and tell 
of the redemption of man by Christ, and the expulsion 
from paradise. 

Paradise Regained. In this poem Milton tells of 
the journey of Christ into the wilderness after his bap¬ 
tism, and its four books describe the temptation of 
Christ by Satan. 

Pardoner’s Tale. Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. 

Three rioters agreed to kill Death, and were directed 
to a tree under which he was to be found. At the foot 
of the tree they came upon a treasure, which all coveted. 
The younger of the three went to buy wine and the 
other two conspired to kill him on his return. He 
poisoned the wine and was slain by his brothers, who 
soon died from effect of the poison. Thus all found 
Death under the tree. 

Pa'rian Chronicle. A chronological register of the 
chief events in the mythology and history of ancient 
Greece, found engraved on Parian marble. 

Pa'rian Verse. Ill-natured satire; so called from 
Archil'ochos, a native of Paros. 

Par'i-zade. A princess whose adventures in search 
of the Talking Bird, the Singing Tree, and the Yellow 
Water, are related in the “Story of the Sisters” in the 
“Arabian Nights’ Entertainments.” 

Parley, Peter. Name assumed by Samuel Griswold 
Goodrich, an American. Above seven millions of his 
books were in circulation in 1859. Several piracies of 
this popular name have appeared. 

Parody. A kind of writing in which the words of 
an author or his thoughts are, by some slight alterations, 
adapted to a different purpose. 

Parthen'ope. One of the three syrens. She was 
buried at Naples. Naples itself was anciently called 
Parthenope, which name was changed to “Neap'olis” 
(“the new city”) by a colony of Cumseans. 

Par'ting-ton, Mrs. An imaginary old lady whose 
laughable sayings have been recorded by an American 
humorist, B. P. Shillaber. 

Partlet. The hen in “The Nun’s Priest’s Tale,” and 
in the famous beast-epic of “Reynard the Fox.” 

Par'zi-val or Par'si-fal. The German name of 
Perceval, the hero and title of a metrical romance of 
the Twelfth Century, by Wolfram Von Eschenbach, 
and of a modern music drama by Richard Wagner. 
Parzival was brought up by a widowed mother in soli¬ 
tude, but when grown to manhood, two wandering 
knights persuaded him to go to the court of King Arthur. 
His mother consented to his going if he would wear the 
dress of a common jester. This he did, but soon achieved 
such noble deeds that Arthur made him a knight of the 
Round Table. Sir Parzival went in quest of the Holy 
Graal, which was kept in a castle called Graalburg, in 
Spain. He reached the castle, but having neglected 
certain conditions, was shut out, and, on his return to 
court, the priestess of Graalburg insisted on his being 
degraded from knighthood. Parzival then led a new 
life, and a wise hermit became his instructor. At length 
he reached such a state of purity and sanctity that the 
priestess of Graalburg declared him worthy to become 
lord of the castle. Lohengrin, “Knight of the Swan,” 
was the son of Parzival. 

Pastoral. Something descriptive of a shepherd’s 
life; or a poem in which any action or passion is repre¬ 
sented by its effects on a country life The character¬ 
istics of this poem are simplicity, brevity, and delicacy. 

Patient Griselda. A character in “Canterbury 
Tales,” by Chaucer. She was robbed of children, re¬ 
duced to poverty, and made to serve a rival, but bore 
all without complaint. 

Pat'tieson, Peter. An imaginary assistant teacher 
&t Gandercleuch, and the feigned author of Scott’s 
“Tales of My Landlord,” which were represented as 




LITERATURE 


375 


having been published posthumously by his pedagogue 
superior, Jedediah Cleishbotham. 

Pan-line'. The “ Lady of Lyons ” in Bulwer-Lyt- 
ton s play of this name. She was married to Claude 
Melnotte, a gardener’s son, who pretended to be a count. 

Paul and Virginia. A pair of child lovers in Ber- 
nardin de St. Pierre’s popular romance “Paul et Vir- 
ginie.” According to a tradition, or version, Paul and 
Virginia are brought up in the belief that they are brother 
and sister. Don Antonio is sent to bring her to Spain, 
and make her his bride. She is taken by force on 
board ship, but scarcely has the ship started, when a 
hurricane dashes it on rocks, and it is wrecked. Alham¬ 
bra, a runaway slave, whom Paul and Virginia had 
befriended, rescues Virginia, who is brought to shore 
and married to Paul. Antonio is drowned. 


Paul Pry. Paul Pry, John Poole. An idle, in¬ 
quisitive, meddlesome fellow, who has no occupation 
of his own, and is forever poking his nose into other 
people’s affairs. He always comes in with the apology, 
“I hope I don’t intrude.” 


Peeping Tom of Coventry. A tailor of Coventry, 
the only soul in the town mean enough to peep at the 
Lady Godiva as she rode naked through the streets to 
relieve the people from oppression. 

Peg-got'ty, Clara. The nurse of David Copperfield 
in Dickens’ novel of this name. Being very plump, 
whenever she makes any exertion some of the buttons 
on the back of her dress fly off. 

Peggotty, Dan’el. Brother of David Copperfield’s 
nurse. Dan’el was a Yarmouth fisherman. His nephew, 
Ham Peggotty, and his brother-in-law’s child, “little 
Em’ly,” lived with him. 

Peggotty, Em’ly. She was engaged to Ham Peg¬ 
gotty; but being fascinated with Steerforth she eloped. 
She was afterwards reclaimed, and emigrated to Aus¬ 
tralia. 


Peggotty, Ham. Represented as the very beau- 
ideal of an uneducated, simple-minded, honest, and 
warm-hearted fisherman. He was drowned in his at¬ 
tempt to rescue Steerforth from the sea. 

Pendennis. Name of title and hero of a novel by 
Thackeray, published in 1849 and 1850, was the 
immediate successor of “Vanity Fair.” Literary life 
is described in the history of Pen, a hero of no very 
great worth. 

Pendennis, Arthur. A young man of ardent feel¬ 
ings and lively intellect, but self-conceited and selfish. 

Pendennis, Laura. His sister has been considered 
one of the best of Thackeray’s characters. 

Pendennis, 3Iajor. A tuft-hunter, who fawns on 
his patrons for the sake of wedging himself into their 
society. 

Pendrag'on. A title conferred on several British 
chiefs in times of great danger, when they were invested 
with dictatorial power; thus Uter and Arthur were 
each appointed to the office to repel the Saxon invaders. 
The word means “chief of the kings.” 

Pennsylvania Farmer. A surname given to John 
Dickinson, a citizen of Pennsylvania. In the year 1768, 
he published his “ Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer 
to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies.” These were 
republished in London, with a preface by Dr. Franklin, 
and were subsequently translated into French. 

Penny-a-liner. A contributor to the local news¬ 
papers, but not on the staff. At one time these col¬ 
lectors of news used to be paid a penny a line on Eng¬ 
lish newspapers, and the appellation is still in use. 

Penny Dreadfuls. Penny sensational papers. 

Pen'tateuch. A name given by Greek translators 
to the five books of the Old Testament ascribed to 
Moses. The chief aim of the Pentateuch is to give a 
description of the origin and history of the Hebrew 
people up to the conquest of Canaan, and the theocracy 
founded among them. Tradition, as preserved in the 
earliest historical records, mentions Moses as the writer 
of the complete Pentateuch, such as it is now, with the 
exception of a few verses describing the last moments 
of the lawgiver, which have been ascribed to Joshua. 

Pepys* Diary. A writing which brought fame to 
Pe pys, the author, w r as written in short-hand, and de¬ 
ciphered and published in 1825. It extends over the 
nine years from 1660 to 1669, and is the gossipy chron¬ 
icle of that gay and profligate time. We have no other 
book which gives so life-like a picture of that extra¬ 
ordinary state of society. 

Peregrine Pickle. The hero and title of a novel by 
Smollett (1751). Peregrine Pickle is a savage, ungrate¬ 
ful spendthrift, fond of practical jokes, and suffering 
with evil temper the misfortunes brought on himself by 
his own wilfulness. 


Per'o-nel'la. The subject of a fairy tale, represented 
as a pretty country lass, who, at the offer of a fairy, 
changes places with an old and decrepit queen, and 
receives the homage paid to rank and wealth, but after¬ 
ward gladly resumes her beauty and rags. 

Pe-tru'chi-o. A gentleman of Verona, in Shakes- 
pere’s “Taming of the Shrew.” A very honest fellow, 
who hardly speaks a word of truth, and succeeds in all 
his tricks. He acts his assumed character to the life, 
with untired animal spirits, and without a particle of 
ill-humor. 

Pev'er-il, Sir Geof'frey. A country gentleman of 
strong High-church and Royalist opinions, in Sir Walter 
Scott’s novel “Peveril of the Peak.” 

Phsedo. An ancient and well-known work by Plato, 
in which the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is 
most fully set forth. It is in the form of a dialogue 
which combines with the abstract philosophical discus¬ 
sion, a graphic narrative of the last hours of Socrates, 
which, for pathos and dignity, is unsurpassed. 

Philax. Fairy Tales, D’Aunoy. Philax was 
cousin to the Princess Imsi. The fay Pagan shut them 
up in the “Palace of Revenge,” a palace containing 
every delight except the power of leaving it. In the 
course of a few years, Imis and Philax longed as much 
for a separation as at one time they had wished for a 
union. 

Philip. The Madness of Philip, Josephine Das- 
kam. A representation of the unregenerate child — 
“the child of strong native impulses who has not yet 
yielded to the shaping force of education; the child, 
therefore, of originality, of vivacity, of humor, and of 
fascinating power of invention in the field of mischief.” 

Philippic. A word used to denote any discourse or 
declamation full of acrimonious invective. It derives 
its name from orations made by Demosthenes against 
Philip of Macedon, in which the orator bitterly attacked 
the king as the enemy of Greece. 

Philistines. Meaning the ill-behaved and ignorant. 
The word so applied arose in Germany from the Charlies 
or Philisters, who were always quarreling with the 
students. Matthew Arnold applied the term Philistine 
to the middle class in England. 

Philo. The Messiah, Klopstock. A Pharisee, 
one of the Jewish sanhedrim, who hated Caiaphas, the 
high priest, for being a Sadducee. Philo made a vow 
that he would take no rest till Jesus was numbered 
with the dead. He commits suicide, and his soul is 
carried to hell by Obaddon, the angel of death. 

Philtra. Faery Queen, Spenser. A lady of large 
fortune, betrothed to Bracidas; but, seeing the fortune 
of Amidas daily increasing, and that of Bracidas getting 
smaller, she attached herself to the more prosperous 
younger brother. 

Phineas. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. The 
quaker, an “underground railroad” man who helped 
the slave family of George and Eliza to reach Canada, 
after Eliza had crossed the river on cakes of floating ice. 

Phyllis. In Virgil’s “Eclogues,” the name of a rustic 
maiden. This name, also written Phillis, has been in 
common use as meaning any unsophisticated country 
girl. 

Pickanin'ny. A young child. A West Indian negro 
word. 

Pickwick, Mr. Samuel. The hero of the “Pickwick 
Papers,” by Charles Dickens. He is a simple-minded, 
benevolent old gentleman, who wears spectacles and 
short black gaiters. He founds a club, and travels 
with its members over England, each member being 
under his guardianship. They meet many laughable 
adventures. 

Pied Piper of Hamelin. Old German legend. 
Robert Browning, in his poem entitled “The Pied Piper,” 
has given a metrical version. The legend recounts how 
a certain musician came into the town of Hamel, in the 
country of Brunswick, and offered, for a sum of money, 
to rid the town of the rats by which it was infested. 
Having executed his task, and the promised reward 
having been withheld, he in revenge blew again his 
pipe, and drew the children of the town to a cavern in 
the side of a hill, which, upon their entrance, closed 
and shut them in forever. 

Piers Plowman. The hero of a satirical poem of 
the Fourteenth Century. He falls asleep, like John 
Bunyan, on the Malvern Hills, and has different visions, 
which he describes, and in which he exposes the cor¬ 
ruptions of society, the dissoluteness of the clergy, and 
the allurements to sin. The author is supposed to be 
Robert or William Langland. No other writings so 
faithfully reflect the popular feeling during the great 
social and religious movements of that century as the 
bitterly satirical poem, “ The Vision of Piers Ploughman.” 



376 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


In its allegory, the discontent of the Commons with the 
course of affairs in Church and State found a voice. 

Pie'tro. The Ring and the Book, Browning. 
The professed father of Pompil'ia, criminally assumed 
as his child to prevent certain property from passing to 
an heir not his own. 

Pilgrim’s Progress. Written by Bunyan in the 
form of a dream to allegorize the life of a Christian, 
from his conversion to his death. His doubts are giants, 
his sins a pack, his Bible a chart, his minister Evange¬ 
list, his conversion a flight from the City of Destruction, 
his struggle with besetting sins a fight with Apollyon, 
his death, a toilsome passage over a deep stream, which 
flows between him and heaven. 

Pilot, The. Title of a sea-story by Cooper, which 
was called the “first sea-novel of the English language.” 
It was published in the year 1823 and soon translated 
into Italian, German, and French. It is founded on 
the adventures of John Paul Jones. 

Pinch, Tom. A character in Dickens’s “Martin 
Chuzzlewit,” distinguished by his guilelessness, his odd¬ 
ity, and his exhaustless goodness of heart. 

Pippa Passes. The title of a dramatic poem by 
Robert Browning. Pippa is a light-hearted peasant 
maiden, who resolves to enjoy her holiday. Various 
groups of persons overhear her as she passes by singing, 
and some of her stray words act with secret but sure 
influence for good. 

Platonic Love. Spiritual love between persons of 
opposite sexes. It is the friendship of man and woman, 
without mixture of what is usually called love. Plato 
strongly advocated this pure affection, and hence its 
distinctive name. 

Pocket. Great Expectations, Dickens. Name of 
a family prominent in the story. 

Pocket. A real scholar, educated at Harrow, and 
an honor-man at Cambridge, but, having married young, 
he had to take up the calling of “grinder” and literary 
fag for a living. Pip was placed in his care. 

Pocket, Mrs. Daughter of a city knight, brought 
up to be an ornamental nonentity, helpless, shiftless, 
and useless. She was the mother of eight children, 
whom she allowed to “tumble up” as best they could, 
under the charge of her maid Flopson. 

Pocket, Herbert. Son of Mr. Matthew Pocket, 
wonderfully hopeful, but had not the stuff to push his 
way into wealth. 

Pocket, Sarah. Sister of Matthew Pocket, a little 
dry, old woman, with a small face that might have been 
made of walnut-shell, and a large mouth. 

Poetical Romances. These romances, native to the 
French, group themselves about great names, some hav¬ 
ing Alexander, some Charlemagne, as their central figure. 
One cluster, the Arthurian, is of English growth, and 
possesses the highest interest of all. Translations and 
imitations of these French romances slowly came into 
popular favor with the English people. 

Po'lyglot. The word means, in general, an assem¬ 
blage of versions in different languages of the same 
work, but is almost exclusively applied to manifold 
versions of the Bible. Besides the Bible, many other 
works, or small pieces, have been published in polyglot. 
Of smaller pieces, the Lord’s Prayer has been the favor¬ 
ite, of which many collections have been published 
since the Fifteenth Century. Of these, the most com¬ 
prehensive, and the most valuable, is the well-known 
“ Mithridates ” of Adelung, which contains the Lord’s 
Prayer in more than 400 languages. 

Poor Richard. The assumed name of Benjamin 
Franklin in a series 9 f almanacs from 1732 to 1757. 
These almanacs contain maxims and precepts. 

Pop'injay. A butterfly man, a fop; so called from 
the popinjay or figure of a bird shot at for practice. 
The title is used by Scott in “Old Mortality”; by 
Shakespere in “Henry IV.,” and by others. 

Portia. Merchant of Venice, Shakespere. A 
rich heiress whom Bassanio loved and who defended 
Antonio. 

Pot-boilers. Articles written and pictures of small 
merit drawn or painted for the sake of earning daily 
bread. 

Potipliar Papers. A series of brilliant satiric 
sketches of society written by George W. Curtis in the 
year 1852, and afterward collected in book form. 

Pres'ter, John. The name given, in the middle 
ages, to a supposed Christian sovereign and priest of 
the interior of Asia, whose dominions were variously 
placed. He has been the subject of many legends and 
is mentioned by Shakespere in “Much Ado About 
Nothing.” 

Primrose, Rev. Charles. Vicar of Wakefield, 
Goldsmith. A clergyman, rich in heavenly wisdom, 
but poor indeed in all worldly knowledge. 


Primrose, Mrs. Deborah. The doctor s wife, full 
of motherly vanity, and desirous to appear genteel. 
She could read without much spelling, and prided her¬ 
self on her housewifery, especially on her gooseberry 
wine. 

Primrose, George. Son of the vicar. He went to 
Amsterdam to teach the Dutch English, but never once 
called to mind that he himself must know something 
of Dutch before this could be done. 

Primrose, Moses. Brother of the above, noted for 
giving in barter r good horse for a gross of worthless 
green spectacles with copper rims. 

Primrose, Olivia. The eldest daughter of thedoctor. 
Pretty, enthusiastic, a sort of Hebe in beauty. “She 
wished for many lovers,” and eloped with Squire Thorn¬ 
i- 

Primrose, Sophia. The second daughter^of Dr. 
Primrose. She was “soft, modest, and alluring.” 

Priscilla. Courtship of Miles Standish, Long¬ 
fellow. A Puritan maiden who is wooed by Captain 
Standish through the mediation of his friend, John 
Alden, who is in love with Priscilla. She prefers John 
Alden and marries him after the captain’s supposed 
death. The captain, however, appears at the close of 
the wedding service, and the friends are reconciled. 

Pros'pero. Tempest, Shakespere. Rightful Duke 
of Milan, deposed by his brother. Drifted on a desert 
island, he practiced magic, and raised a tempest in 
which his brother was shipwrecked. Ultimately Pros- 
pero “broke his wand,” and his daughter married the 
son of the King of Naples. 

Pynch'eon. The name of an ancient but decayed 
family in Hawthorne’s romance “The House of the Seven 
Gables.” There are: (1) Judge Pyncheon, a selfish, 
cunning, worldly man. (2) His cousin Clifford, a deli¬ 
cate, sensitive nature, reduced to childishness by long 
imprisonment and suffering. (3) Hepzibah, the latter’s 
sister, an old maid who devotes herself to the care of 
Clifford. (4) A second cousin, Phoebe, a fresh, cheerful 
young girl, who restores the fallen fortunes of the family 
and removes the curse which rested on it. 

Puss in Boots. The subject and title of a well- 
known nursery tale derived from a fairy story in the 
“Nights” of the Italian author Straparola, and Charles 
Perrault’s “Contes des F6es.” The wonderful cat se¬ 
cures a princess and a fortune for his master, a poor 
young miller, whom he passes off as the rich Marquis 
of Carabas. 

Quasimo'do. Notre Dame, Hugo. A misshapen 
dwarf one of the prominent characters in the story. He 
is brought up in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. 
One day, he sees Esmeralda, who had been dancing in 
the cathedral close, set upon by a mob, and he conceals 
her for a time in the church. When, at length, the 
beautiful gypsy girl is gibbeted, Quasimodo disappears 
mysteriously, but a skeleton corresponding to the 
deformed figure is found after a time in a hole under 
the gibbet. 

Quaver. The Virgin Unmasked, Fielding. A 

singing-master, who says, “if it were not for singing- 
masters, men and women might as well have been born 
dumb.” He courts Lucy by promising to give her 
singing-lessons. 

Queen La'be. Arabian Nights. The queen of 
magic, ruler over the Enchanted City. Beder, Prince 
of Persia is connected with her in the tale. She trans¬ 
forms men into horses, mules, and other animals. Beder 
marries her, defeats her plots against him, but is him¬ 
self turned into an owl for a time. 

Quickly, Mistress. Merry Wives of Windsor, 
Shakespere. A serving woman to Dr. Cains, a French 
physician. She is the go-between of three suitors for 
“sweet Anne Page,” and with perfect disinterestedness 
wishes all three to succeed. 

Quickly, Mistress Nell. Hostess of a tavern in East- 
cheap, frequented by Harry, Prince of Wales, Sir John 
Falstaff, and all their disreputable crew. 

Quid'nunkis. Title and name of hero in a fable 
found or written by Gay in 1726. This hero was a 
monkey which climbed higher than its neighbors, and 
fell into a river. For a few moments the monkey race 
stood panic-struck, but the stream flowed on, the mon¬ 
keys continued their gambols. The object of this fable 
is to show that no one is of sufficient importance to stop 
the general current of events or cause a gap in nature. 

Quilp. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A hideous 
dwarf, cunning, malicious, and a perfect master in 
tormenting. Of hard, forbidding features, with head 
and face large enough for a giant. He lived on Tower 
Hill, collected rents, advanced money to seamen, and 
kept a sort of wharf, containing rusty anchors, huge 
iron rings, piles of rotten wood, and sheets of old copper, 
calling himself a ship-breaker. He was on the point 




LITERATURE 


377 


of being arrested for felony, when he drowned himself. 

n , M rs. Wife of the dwarf, a young, obedient, 
;ty little woman, treated like a dog by her hus¬ 
band, whom she loved but more greatly feared. 

Quintessence. “The fifth essence/’ In the modern 
and general sense, an epithet applied to an extract 
which contains the most essential part of anything. It 
is quite an error to suppose that the word means an 
essence five times distilled, and that the term came from 
the alchemists. The ancient Greeks said there are four 
elements or forms in which matter can exist — fire, or 
the imponderable form; air, or the gaseous form; water, 
or the liquid form; and earth, or the solid form. The 
Pythagore'ans added r, fifth, which they call “ether,” 
more subtle and pure than fire, and possessed of an orbic¬ 
ular motion. This element, which flew upwards at 
creation, and out of which the stars were made, was 
called the “ fifth essence ”; quintessence, therefore, means 
the most subtle extract of a body that can be procured. 

Quintillians. These were the disciples of Quintillia, 
who was said to be a prophetess. These so-called hereti¬ 
cal Christians allowed women to become priests and 
bishops. 

Quintus Fixlein. Title of a romance by Jean Paul 
Richter and the name of the principal character. 
Quixote. See Don Quixote. 

Quixote of the North. Charles XII. of Sweden, 
sometimes called in derision the Madman, was also 
called the Quixote of the North. 

Quixotic. Like Don Quixote, or one who has foolish 
and impractical schemes — a would-be reformer. 

Quodling, The Rev. Mr. Peveril of the Peak, 
Scott. Chaplain to the Duke of Buckingham. 

Rad'igund. Faery Queen, Spenser. Queen of the 
fabled Amazons. Having been rejected by Bellodant 
“the Bold,” she revenged herself by degrading all the 
men who fell into her power by dressing them like 
women, and giving them women’s work. 

Ramona. Name of heroine and title of romance by 
Helen Hunt Jackson. Ramona saw the American 
Indian followed by “ civilization ” while retreating 
slowly but surely toward his own extinction, and had 
herself a share in the tragedy. Ramona is considered 
the great romance of Indian life. 

Rasselas. An imaginary prince hero of the romance 
by Dr. Johnson bearing same title. According to the 
custom of his country, Abyssinia, he was confined in 
paradise, with the rest of the royal family. This paradise 
was in the valley of Amhara, surrounded by high moun¬ 
tains. It had only one entrance, a cavern concealed 
by woods, and closed by iron gates. He escaped with 
his sister Nekayah and Imlac the poet, and wandered 
about to find what condition or rank of life was the 
most happy. After careful investigation, he found no 
lot without its drawbacks, and resolved to return to the 
“.happy valley.” 

Raud the Strong. Tales of a Wayside Inn, 
H. W. Longfellow. The viking who worshiped the 
old gods and lived by fire and sword. King Olaf went 
against him sailing from Dronthiem to Salten Fjord. 

Ra'venswood. Bride of Lammermoor, Scott. 
The lord of Ravenswood an old Scotch nobleman and 
a decayed royalist. His son Edgar falls in love with 
Lucy Ashton, daughter of Sir William Ashton, Lord- 
Keeper of Scotland. The lovers plight their troth, but 
Lucy is compelled to marry Frank Hayston, laird of 
Bucklaw. The bride, in a fit of insanity, attempts to 
murder the bridegroom and dies. Bucklaw goes abroad. 
Colonel Ashton, seeing Edgar at the funeral of Lucy, 
appoints a hostile meeting; and Edgar, on his way to 
the place appointed, is lost in the quicksands. A proph¬ 
ecy, noted as a curse, hung over the family and was thus 
fulfilled. 

Ran'dom. Roderick Random, Smollet. A young 
Scotch scapegrace in quest of fortune. At one time he 
revels in prosperity, again he is in utter destitution. 
He roams at random, in keeping with his name. 

Rappacci'ni. Mosses from an Old Manse, Haw¬ 
thorne. A doctor in whose garden grew strange plants 
whose juices and fragrance were poison. His daughter, 
nourished on these odors became poisonous herself, 
her lover, found an antidote which she took, but the 
poison meant life and the antidote meant death to her. 

Ray'mond. In Jerusalem Delivered by Tasso. 
Raymond was known as the Nestor of the Crusaders, 
slew Aladine, the king of Jerusalem, and planted the 
Christian standard upon the tower of David. 

Rebec'ca. Ivanlioe, Scott. Daughter of Isaac 
the Jew, in love with Ivanhoe. Rebecca, with her father 
and Ivanhoe, as prisoners, are confined in Front de 
Bceuf’s castle. Rebecca is taken to the turret chamber 
and left with the old sibyl, but when Brian de Bois 
Guilbert comes to her, she spurns him with heroic dis- 


I dain. Ivanhoe, who was suffering from wounds received 
in a tournament, is nursed by Rebecca. After escape 
and adventure, and being again prisoner, the Grand 
Master commands the Jewish maiden to be tried for 
sorcery, and she demands a trial by combat. The 
demand is granted, when Brian de Bois Guilbert is 
appointed as the champion against her; and Ivanhoe 
undertakes her defense, slays Brian, and Rebecca is set 
free. In contrast with this strong character, Rowena 
seems insignificant even when she becomes the bride of 
Ivanhoe. Scott is said to have named Rebecca from 
the beautiful Rebecca Gratz of Philadelphia, described 
to him by Washington Irving. 

Red-Cross Knight. The Red-Cross Knight is St. 
George, the patron saint of England, and, in the obvious 
and general interpretation, typifies Holiness, or the 
perfection of the spiritual man in religion. In Spenser’s 
“ Faery Queen” the task of slaying a dragon was assigned 
to him as the champion of Una. 

Red'-gaunt'let. One of the principal characters in 
Sir Walter Scott’s novel of the same name, a political 
enthusiast and Jacobite, who scruples at no means of 
upholding the cause of the Pretender, and finally accom¬ 
panies him into exile. His race bore a fatal mark 
resembling a horse-shoe which appeared on the face of 
Red-gauntlet as he frowned when angry. 

Red-Riding-Hood. This nursery tale is, with 
slight variations, common to Sweden, Germany, and 
France. In Charles Perrault’s “Contes des F6es ” it is 
called “Le Petit Chaperon Rouge.” 

Representative Men. In this work Emerson, more 
nearly than in any of his other works, gives expression 
to his system as a whole. The topics are, (1) Plato, the 
Philosopher; (2) Swedenborg, the Mystic; (3) Montaigne 
the Skeptic; (4) Shakespere, the Poet; (5) Napoleon, 
the Man of the World; (6) Goethe, the Writer. The 
mental portraits sketched under these six heads give 
us Emerson himself, so far as he is capable of being 
formulated at all. 

Republic, The. A work composed by Plato 400 
years before Christ. The “Republic” is not, as the 
title would suggest, a political work, like the “Politics ” 
of Aristotle. The principles and government of an 
ideal moral organism, of which the rulers shall be types 
of fully developed and perfectly educated men, is the 
real subject. In the “Republic” we find the necessity 
of virtue to the very idea of social life proved in the first 
book; then the whole process of a complete moral and 
scientific education is set forth. It has been said that 
the most complete record of the beliefs or opinions of 
Plato are found in this work. 

Reveries of a Bachelor. Name of a writing by 
D. G. Mitchell. This “Reveries” is a collection of 
sketches of life and character, painted in such a dream¬ 
like, delicate manner as to make the reader lose for the 
time being the full consciousness of his own reality. It 
has called forth a number of imitators more or less suc¬ 
cessful, no one of whom, however, is comparable to the 
original. 

Reyn'ard the Fox. The hero in the beast-epic, a 
celebrated epic fable of the Middle Ages, belonging to 
and terminating the series of poems in which “beasts” 
are the speakers and actors. It is written in Low- 
German, professedly by a Hinreck van Alckmer, and 
was printed in the year 1498. Before Jacob Grimm 
published the results of his laborious researches, it was 
believed that the poem printed at Liibeck in 1498 was 
the earliest literary embodiment, if not the direct source, 
of the fable. Grimm has shown that, in one form or 
another, the “beast-fable” goes back to the remotest 
antiquity, and is a common inheritance of the Aryan or 
Indo-Germanic races. According to many authorities 
this prose poem, in its present form, is a satire on the 
state of Germany in the Middle Ages. Reynard typifies 
the Church; his uncle, Isengrin the wolf, typifies the 
baronical element; and Nodel the lion, the regal. How¬ 
ever that may be, in the real fable, Reynard the Fox 
has a constant impulse to deceive and victimize every 
body, whether friend or foe, but especially Isengrin; 
and, though the latter frequently reduces him to the 
greatest straits, he generally gets the better of it in the 
end. The work now consulted by general readers is 
Goethe’s version which has been translated into English. 

Rhapsody means songs strung together. The term 
was originally applied to the books of the “Iliad” and 
“Odyssey,” which at one time were in fragments. Cer¬ 
tain bards collected together a number of the fragments, 
enough to make a connected “ballad,” and sang them 
as our minstrels sang the deeds of famous heroes. 

Rigolette'. The name of a female character in 
Eugene Sue’s “Mysteries of Paris.” It has acquired a 
proverbial currency, and is used as a synonym of “ gri- 
sette.” 



378 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Rinal'do. A character in Tasso’s “Jerusalem De¬ 
livered.” He belonged to the army of the Christians. 
He was the son of Bertoldo and Sophia, and nephew of 
Guelpho, but wao brought up by Matilda. The name, 
Rinaldo, is also found in Bojardo’s “Orlando Innamo- 
rato,” in Ariosto’s “Orlando Furioso,” and in other 
romantic tales of Italy and France. He was one of 
Charlemagne's Paladins, and cousin to Orlando. Flaving 
killed Charlemagne’s nephew Berthelot, he was banished 
and outlawed. After various adventures and disasters, 
he went to the Holy Land, and, on his return, succeeded 
in making peace with the emperor. . _ 

Ring and the Book, The. An epic by Robert 
Browning. It is founded on Italian history. Guido 
Franceschini, a Florentine Count of shattered fortune, 
married Pompilia, thinking her to be an heiress. Finding 
this a mistake the count treated Pompilia so brutally 
that she left him under the protection of Caponsacchi, 
a young priest, and, being arrested at Rome, a legal sepa¬ 
ration took place. Pompilia sued for a divorce, but, 
pending the suit, gave birth to a son. The count mur¬ 
dered Pomnilia, and Pietro and Violant6, her supposed 
parents, but, being taken red-handed, was brought to 
trial, found guilty, and executed. 

Rip Van Winkle. Sketch Book, Irving. An 
indolent, good-natured fellow, living in a village on the 
Hudson. While shooting among the Catskill Mountains 
he meets with a stranger whom he helps in carrying a 
keg over rocks and cliffs; with him he joins a party who 
are silently rolling ninepins. Rip Van Winkle drinks 
deeply of the liquor they furnish, and falls into a sleep 
which lasts twenty years, during which the Revolution¬ 
ary War takes place. After awaking, Rip returns to 
the village, finds himself almost forgotten and makes 
friends with the new generation. The name of the 
great actor, Joseph Jefferson, became so identified with 
this character that to the English-speaking world he 
was Rip Van Winkle. 

Robert the Devil. The hero of an old French met¬ 
rical romance of the Thirteenth Century, the same as 
Robert, first Duke of Normandy, who became an early 
object of legendary scandal. Having been given over 
to the Devil before birth, he ran a career of cruelties 
and crimes unparalleled until he was miraculously re¬ 
claimed, did penance, became a shining light, and mar¬ 
ried the emperor's daughter. In the Fourteenth Cen¬ 
tury the romance was turned into prose, and of the 
prose story two translations were made into English. 
There was also a miracle play on the same subject. The 
opera of “Robert le Diable” was composed by Meyer¬ 
beer, in 1826. 

Robin des Bois. In Germany, a mysterious hunter 
of the forest. Robin des Bois occurs in one of Eugene 
Sue’s novels “as a well-known mythical character whose 
name is employed by French mothers to frighten their 
children.” 

Robin Goodfellow. A domestic spirit. He is some¬ 
times called Puck, son of Oberon. He attends the Eng¬ 
lish fairy-courthe is full of tricks and fond of practi¬ 
cal jokes. He is also considered the same as Lob-lie- 
by-the-fire, in some tales. His character and achieve¬ 
ments are recorded in the well-known ballad beginning 
"From Oberon in Fairy-land.” Wright, in his “Essays 
on the Literature, Superstitions, and History of England 
in the Middle Ages,” suspects Robin Goodfellow to have 
been the Robin Hood of the old popular Morris dance. 

Robin Hood. A famous English outlaw whose ex¬ 
ploits are the subjects of many ballads, but of whose 
actual existence little or no evidence can be discovered. 
Various periods, ranging from the time of Richard I. 
to near the end of the reign of Edward II., have been 
assigned as the age in which he lived. He is usually 
described as a yoeman, and his chief residence is said to 
have been the forest of Sherwood, in Nottinghamshire. 
Of his. followers, the most noted are .Little John; his 
chaplain, Friar Tuck; and his companion, Maid Marian. 
The popular legends extol his personal courage and gen¬ 
erosity, and his skill in archery. Scott introduces Robin 
Hood in two novels — “Ivanhoe” and “The Talisman.” 
In the former he first appears at the tournament as 
Locksley the archer. 

Robinson Crusoe. A tale by Daniel Defoe. Robin¬ 
son Crusoe went to sea, was wrecked, lived on an unin¬ 
habited island of the tropics, and relieved the weariness 
of life by numberless contrivances. At length he met a 
oung Indian, whom he saved from death. He called 
im his “man Friday,” and made him his companion 
and servant. This story has been translated into more 
languages than any other English book. 

Rob Roy. The title and hero of a novel by Sir 
Walter Scott. It signifies “Rob the Red,” and was the 
sobriquet of a famous Scottish outlaw, Robert MacGre¬ 
gor, the chief of the clan MacGregor. 


Roderick Dhu. Lady of the Lake, Scott. An 

outlaw and chief of a band of Scots who resolved to 
win back what had been lost to the Saxons. In con¬ 
nection with Red Murdock he sought the life of the 
Saxon Fitz James. 

Roderigo. In Shakespere’s “Othello,” a Venetian in 
love with Desdemona. He, when the lady eloped with 
Othello, hated the “noble Moor.” 

Roger Drake. Name of hero and title of novel 
by H. K. Webster. “Captain of Industry” is the added 
appellation to name of hero, who is interested in the 
working of a copper-mine, the founding of a trust, the 
change from the old-fashioned trust to the simple plan 
of one monster corporation, and the deadly business 
fight for supremacy found in modern industrial struggles. 

Ro'land. The hero of one of the most ancient and 
popular epics of early French or Frankish literature, was, 
according to tradition, the favorite nephew and captain 
of the Emperor Charlemagne. In Italian romance he is 
called Orlan'do. He was slain in the valley of Ronces- 
valles as he was leading the rear of the army from Spain 
to France. The oldest version of the “ Song of Roland,” 
forming part of the “Chansons de Geste,” which treat 
of the achievements of Charlemagne and his paladins, 
belongs to the Eleventh Century. Throughout the 
Middle Ages, the “Song of Roland” was the most popu¬ 
lar of the many heroic poems. William of Normandy, 
when on his way to conquer England, had it sung at the 
head of his troops, to encourage them on their march. 
At the present day, the traditionary memory of the heroic 
paladin is still held in honor by the hardy mountaineers 
of the Pyrenees, amongst whose dangerous defiles the 
scene of his exploits and death is laid. Roland is the 
hero of Thdroulde’s “Chanson de Roland”; of Turpin’s 
“Chronique”; of Bojardo’s “Orlando Innamorato”; 
of Ariosto’s “Orlando Furioso.” 

Romance of the Rose. A poetical allegory, begun 
by Guillaume de Lorris in the latter part of the Thirteenth 
Century, and continued by Jean de Meung in the former 
half of the Fourteenth Century. The poet dreams that 
Dame Idleness conducts him to the palace of Pleasure, 
where he meets many adventures among the attendant 
maidens, Youth, Joy, Courtesy, and others by whom 
he is conducted to a bed of roses. He singles out one, 
when an arrow from Love’s bow stretches him fainting 
on the ground. Fear, Slander, and Jealousy are after¬ 
ward introduced. 

Romances. Songs. The French troubadours com¬ 
posed romances and sang them at the courts of the 
Norman kings. Richard I. was himself a troubadour. 
The subjects of the romances were generally the deeds of 
Charlemagne and his knights, or of King Arthur and his 
knights, and a little later tales of the Crusaders became 
popular. Old tales were retold, and the incidents were 
transferred to Eastern lands. From the time of Edward 
II. many of these tales were translated into English. 

Ro'me-o, In Shakespere’s tragedy of “Romeo and 
Juliet,” a son of Montague, in love with Juliet, the 
daughter of Capulet, who was the head of a noble house 
of Verona, in feudal enmity with the house of Montague. 

Rom'u-lus. The mythical founder of the city of 
Rome. His name is only a lengthened form of Romus, 
and he is, therefore, to be regarded as a symbolical 
representation of the Roman people. 

Rosetta Stone. A stone found at Rosetta in the delta 
of the Nile. It contains equivalent inscriptions in hiero¬ 
glyphics and in Greek letters. The meaning of the Greek 
text being known, the hieroglyphics were translated. 

Round Table, The. History of Prince Arthur, 
Sir T. Malory. A table made by Merlin for Uther the 
pendragon. Uther gave it to King Leodegraunce of 
Camelyard, and when Arthur married Guinevere (the 
daughter of Leodegraunce), he received the table with a 
hundred knights as a wedding present. The table would 
seat 150 knights, and each seat was appropriated. What 
is usually meant by Arthur’s Round Table is a smaller 
one for the accommodation of twelve favorite knights. 
King Arthur instituted an order of knighthood called 
“the knights of the Round Table,” the chief of whom 
were Sir Lancelot, Sir Tristram, and Sir Lamerock or 
Lamorake. The “Siege Perilous” was reserved for Sir 
Galahad, the son of Sir Lancelot by Elaine. . 

Roussillon, Alice. The heroine of the romance, 
“Alice of Old Vincennes” by Maurice Thompson. Her 
guardian was Gaspard Roussillon, a successful trader 
with the Indians. “Eat frogs and save your scalps” 
was the plan of the Latin Creoles. _ “ Papa Roussillon ” 
was a frog-eater and the ruling spirit in his little village. 
The English and their Indian allies arranged their 
attack on the fort at Vincennes, and the American flag 
was in danger. Alice, with the help of a crippled boy, 
Jean, stole the flag. No search or questioning could re¬ 
veal the whereabouts of either flag or thief. At the end of 



LITERATURE 


379 


the siege it was produced, much to the amazement of 
General Hamilton. Alice forgot her flag for a moment 
in the appearance of her lover, Beverly, whom she had 
mourned as dead, but Jean raised it on a staff from 
which the stars and stripes still float. 

Ruach. Pantagruel, Rabelais. The isle of winds, 
visited by Pantag'ruel and his companions. The people 
of this island live on wind, such as flattery, promises, 
and hope. The poorer sort are very ill-fed, but the 
great are stuffed with huge mill-draughts of the same 
unsubstantial puffs. 

Ru'be-zahl. The name of a famous spirit of the 
Riesen-Gebirge in Germany, corresponding to the Puck 
of England. He is celebrated in innumerable sagas, 
ballads, and tales, under the various forms of a miner, 
hunter, monk, dwarf, giant, etc. He is said to aid the 
poor and oppressed, and show benighted wanderers their 
road, but to wage incessant war with the proud and 
wicked. 

Rudge. Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. Barnaby, a 
half-witted lad, with pale face, red hair and protruding 
eyes, dressed in tawdry finery including peacock feathers 
in his hat, is the hero of the novel with his inseparable 
companion, a raven, also of much interest. Barnaby 
joined the Gordon rioters for the proud pleasure 
of carrying a flag and wearing a blue bow. He was 
arrested and lodged in Newgate, from whence he made 
his escape, with other prisoners, when the jail was burned 
but both he and his father being betrayed, were recap¬ 
tured, brought to trial, and condemned to death. By 
the influence of Gabriel Varden, the locksmith, the 
poor half-witted lad was reprieved. Mr. Rudge, the 
father of Barnaby, supposed to have been murdered the 
same night as Mr. Haredale, to whom he was steward. 
Rudge himself was the murderer both of Mr. Haredale 
and also of his faithful servant, to whom the crime was 
attributed. After the murder, he was seen by many 
haunting the locality, and was supposed to be a ghost. 
He joined the Gordon rioters. Mrs. [Mary] Rudge, 
mother of Barnaby, and very like him, “but where in 
in his face there was wildness and vacancy, in hers there 
was the patient composure of sorrow. 

Ruggle'ro. Orlando Furioso, Ariosto. A young 
Saracen knight born of Christian parents, who falls in 
love with Bradamante, a Christian Amazon, and sister 
to Rinaldo. After numerous adventures and crosses, 
they marry and found the house of Este. Ruggiero 
is noted for the possession of a hippogriff, or winged 
horse, and also a veiled shield, the dazzling splendor of 
which, when suddenly disclosed, struck with blindness 
and astonishment all eyes that beheld it. 

Rumpelstilz'chen. Old German Tales. Accord¬ 
ing to Grimm, this name is a compound, but the spirit 
represented is one familiar to all German children. The 
original story tells of him as a dwarf who spun straw 
into gold for a certain miller’s daughter. He has since 
done favors to many people and paid visits from his 
mountain home only known by the results of his help¬ 
fulness. 

Runes, the earliest alphabet in use among the nations 
of Northern Europe. The exact period of their origin is 
not known. They are found engraved on rocks, crosses, 
monumental stones, coins, medals, rings, brooches, and 
the hilts and blades of swords. There is no reason to 
believe that they were at any time in the familiar use 
in which we find the characters of a written language in 
modern times, nor have we any traces of their being used 
in books or on parchment. 

Ru'pert, Knight. Formerly in the villages of 
Northern Germany, a personage clad in high buskins, 
white robe, mask, and enormous wig, who at Christmas 
time distributes presents to the 'children. Like St. 
Nicholas, he keeps watch over naughty children. The 
horseman in the May pageant is in some parts of Germany 
called Ruprecht, or Rupert. 

Rustam. Persian Romances. He is the chief of 
the Persian mythical heroes, son of Zkl, King of India, 
and descendant of Benjamin, the beloved son of Jacob. 
He delivered King Caicaus from prison, but afterwards 
fell into disgrace because he refused to embrace the 
religious system of Zoroaster. Caicaus sent his son 
Asfendiar to convert him, and, as persuasion availed 
nothing, single combat was resorted to. The fight 
lasted two days, and then Rustam discovered that Asfen¬ 
diar bore a “charmed life,” The valor of these two 
heroes is proverbial, and the Persian romances are full 
of their deeds. “Schrab and Rustam ” form the subject 
of a poetical romance by Matthew Arnold. 

Ruy'dera. Don Quixote, Cervantes. A duenna 
who had seven daughters and two nieces. They were 
imprisoned for 500 years in a cavern in Spain. Their 
ceaseless weeping stirred the compassion of Merlin, who 
converted them into lakes in the same province. 


Sac'ri-pant, King. (1) King of Circassia, and a 
lover of Angelica, in Bojardo and Ariosto. (2) A per¬ 
sonage introduced by Alessandro Tassoni, the Italian 
poet, in his mock-heroic poem, entitled the “ Rape of 
the Bucket,” represented as false, brave, noisy, and 
hectoring. The name is quoted as a synonym with 
vanity and braggart courage. 

Sagas. The name given to those ancient tradi¬ 
tions which form the substance of the history and mythol¬ 
ogy of the Scandinavian races: the language in which 
they are written is supposed to be the old Icelandic. In 
the “Edda” there are numerous sagas. As our Bible 
contains the history of the Jews, religious songs, moral 
proverbs, and religious stories, so the “Edda” con¬ 
tained the history of Norway, religious songs, a book of 
proverbs, and numerous stories. The original “Edda” 
was compiled and edited by Sssmund Sigfusson, an Ice¬ 
landic priest and scald, in the Eleventh Century. It 
contains twenty-eight parts or books, all of which are 
in verse. Two hundred years later, Snorro Sturleson 
of Iceland abridged, rearranged, and reduced to prose 
the “Edda,” and his work was called “The Younger 
Edda.” In this we find the famous story called by the 
Germans the “ Nibelungen Lied.” Besides the sagas 
contained in the “Eddas,” there are numerous others, 
and the whole saga literature makes over 200 volumes. 
Among them are the “Volsunga Saga” which is a col¬ 
lection of lays about the early Teutonic heroes. The 
“Saga of St. Olaf ” is the history of this Norwegian king. 
“Frithjof’s Saga” contains the life and adventures of 
Frithjof of Iceland. Snorro Sturleson, at the close of 
the Twelfth Century, made the second great collection 
of chronicles in verse, called the “ Heimskringla Saga,” 
This is a most valuable record of the laws, customs, and 
manners of the ancient Scandinavians. 

Seasons. A well-known poem said to be the founda¬ 
tion of Thomson’s literary fame. Its description of the 
phenomena of nature during an English year is minute, 
and the poem has been much read by foreigners. 

St. Leon. The title of a novel by William Goodwin 
and the name of its hero, a man who becomes possessed 
of the elixir of life, and the secret of the transmutation 
of metals — acquisitions which only bring him mis¬ 
fortunes and much protracted misery. 

St. Nich'o-las. The patron saint of boys. He is 
said to have been Bishop of Myra, and to have died in 
the year 326. The young were universally taught to 
revere him, and the popular fiction which represents 
him as the bearer of presents to children on Christmas 
eve is well known. He is the Santa Claus (or Klaus) of 
the Dutch. 

St. Patrick’s Purgatory. The subject and locality 
of a legend long famous throughout Europe. The scene 
is laid in Ireland, upon an islet in Lough Derg. The 
punishments undergone here are analogous to those 
described by Dante in his “ Divina Commedia.” The 
story was made the subject of a romance in the Four¬ 
teenth Century: and, in Spain, in the Seventeenth Cen¬ 
tury, it was dramatized by Calderon. 

St. Swith'in. According to legend this saint was 
tutor to King Alfred and Bishop of Winchester, and 
many miracles are attributed to him, especially the 
rain of St. Swithin’s Day. 

Salmagundi. The name of a periodical started by 
Washington Irving, his brother, and James K. Paulding, 
in the year 1807. The object of the paper was the same 
as that of the “Spectator,” “to reform the town.” The 
publishers became tired of their venture before their 
subscribers did, and only twenty numbers were issued. 
The political pieces were full of humor, but were not in 
support of any party. The wit and satire were con¬ 
nected with things local and would not be thoroughly 
understood now, or appreciated. The writers touched 
upon the follies of fashionable life as well as other follies 
of their day. 

Salt-Box House. Title of book by J. D. Shelton 
and name given to an imaginary house supposed to stand 
in a Connecticut hill town more than a century ago. 
The life of the family to whom the house belonged is 
followed for three generations. The people, like most 
families of the same social station, had no sympathy 
with the war for colonial independence. They have little 
to do with political life, but in their every-day concerns, 
work and play, school and church, love and marriage, 
sickness and death, with their old-time customs, tradi¬ 
tions and habits of thought they are very interesting. 
Miss Mary, the last mistress of the Salt-Box House, is a 
most attractive old maid. 

Salt River. An imaginary river, up which defeated 
political parties are supposed to be sent to oblivion. 
The name and application said to have originated in the 
United States and in connection with a river of Ken¬ 
tucky. It is called an American cant or slang name. 




380 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Sam'bo. This term and the name Cuffey used to 
designate the negro race. Both used by Mrs. Stowe in 
her stories. 

Samian Letter, The. The letter Y used by Pytha¬ 
goras as an emblem of the paths of virtue and of vice. 

Samian Sage. Pythagoras, said to have been born 
at Samos. 

Sampson. Dominie. See Dominie Sampson. 

Samson Agonistes. The principal character in Mil¬ 
ton’s sacred drama, “Samson Agonistes” or “Samson 
the Combatant.” Samson blind and bound triumphs 
over his enemies. As in the Bible story, he grasps two 
of the supporting pillars and perishes in the general ruin. 

Sancho Panza. The esquire and counterpart of Don 
Quixote in Cervantes’ famous novel. He has much 
shrewdness in practical matters and a store of proverbial 
wisdom. He rode upon an ass which he dearly loved, 
and was noted for his proverbs. 

Sandals of Tlieramenes. Which would fit any foot. 
Theramenes, one of the Athenian oligarchy, was nick¬ 
named “the trimmer ” from the name of a sandal or boot 
which might be worn on either foot, because no depend¬ 
ence could be placed on him. The proverb, “He walks in 
the sandals of Theramenes ” is applied to those who speak 
fairly but do the things that promise to profit themselves. 

Sand'ford and Mer'ton. Harry Sandford and Tom¬ 
my Merton, the two heroes of Thomas Day’s once popu¬ 
lar tale for the young, the “History of Sandford and 
Merton” (1783-1789). 

Sanscrit. The ancient language of India, now ex¬ 
tinct, from which most of the languages there spoken 
are derived. It belongs to the Aryan or Indo-European 
group of tongues. It was declared by Sir William Jones 
to be more perfect than the Greek, more copious than 
the Latin, and more refined than either. The earliest 
existing work is the “Vedas.” These, and the “Pu- 
ranas,” are religious writings: but there are also Epic 
poems, dramas, and philosophical composition. 

Santa Claus. In fable he was first known as patron 
saint of children. The vigil of his feast is still held in 
some places, but for the most part his name is now asso¬ 
ciated with Christmas-tide. The old custom used to be 
for someone, on December 5th, to assume the costume 
of a bishop and distribute small gifts to “good children.” 
(See St. Nicholas.) 

Santia'go. The war cry of Spain; adopted because 
St. James (Sant Iago) rendered, according to tradition, 
signal service to a Christian king of Spain in a battle 
against the Moors. 

Sa'tan. One of the names of the Devil, and that by 
which in the Bible, in poetry, and in popular legends, 
he is often designated. Those medireval writers who 
reckoned nine kinds of demons, placed Satan at the head 
of the fifth rank, which consisted of cozeners, as magi¬ 
cians and witches. Milton represents him as the mon¬ 
arch of hell. His chief lords are Beelzebub, Moloch, 
Chemos, Thammuz,. Dagon, Rimmon, and Belial. His 
standard-bearer, Azaz'el. 

Sat'yrane. Faerie Queene, Spenser. A noble 
knight who delivered Una from the fauns and satyrs. 
The meaning seems to be that Truth, driven from the 
towns and cities, took refuge in caves and dens, where 
for a time it lay concealed. At length Sir Satyrane 
(Luther) rescues Una from bondage: but no sooner is 
this the case than she falls in with Archima'go, to show 
how very difficult it was at the Reformation to separate 
Truth from Error. 

Saun'ders, Clerk. The hero of a well-known Scot¬ 
tish ballad. 

Saun'ders, Richard. A feigned name under which 
Dr. Franklin, in 1732, commenced the publication of an 
almanac, commonly called “Poor Richard’s Almanac,” 
of which the distinguishing feature was a series of max¬ 
ims of prudence and industry in the form of proverbs. 

Saw'ney. A sportive designation applied by the 
English to the Scotch. It is a corruption of “Sandie,” 
the Scottish abbreviation of “Alexander.” 

Saw'yer, Bob. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. A 
drinking young doctor who tries to establish a practice 
at Bristol, but without success. Sam Weller calls him 
“Mr. Sawbones.” 

Scalds, or Skalds. Court poets and chroniclers of 
the ancient Scandinavians. They resided at court, were 
attached to the royal suite, and attended the king in all 
his wars. These bards celebrated in song the gods, 
the kings of Norway, and national heroes. Few com¬ 
plete Skaldic poems have survived, but a multitude of 
fragments exist. 

Scarlet Letter, The. Title of a romance by Nathan¬ 
iel Hawthorne. The heroine, Hester Prynne, was con¬ 
demned to wear conspicuously the letter “A” in scar¬ 
let, token of her sin as mother of her child, Pearl, whose 
father was not known. She was first exposed in dis¬ 


grace on a raised scaffold, then served a term in prison, 
and afterward gained a moderate support for herself 
and child by embroidering. She refused to reveal the 
name of the father, although she might then be allowed 
to lay aside the letter. He was always near, held an 
important position, and lived a life of wearing remorse. 
After his death Hester Prynne took her child to another 
country, but returned to spend her old age in seclusion 
and comfort in the same place that had witnessed her 
punishment. She always bore herself proudly but not 
defiantly and brought to herself such love and respect 
that the scarlet letter became a badge of honor. Roger 
Chillingworth, Hester’s husband, appeared as a learned 
foreign physician, visited her in prison but promised not 
to reveal his relation to her and devoted his life to learn¬ 
ing her secret. The characters in the story are intense 
and the analysis of motives subtle. 

Schah'riah. Arabian Nights. The Sultan of Persia. 
His reign was a despotism and his decrees absolute. 

Schehe'razade. Arabian Nights. The fabled re- 
later of the stories in these “Entertainments.” Among 
other decrees the sultan had decided upon a new wife 
for every day. Tradition or fable tells that Schehera¬ 
zade, wishing to free Persia of this disgrace, requested 
to be made the sultan’s wife. She was young and beauti¬ 
ful, of great courage and ready wit, had an excellent 
memory, knew history, was poet, musician, and dancer. 
Scheherazade obtained permission for her younger sister, 
Dinarzade, to sleep in the same chamber, and instructed 
her to say, “Sister, relate to me one of those stories.” 
Scheherazade then told the sultan (under pretense of 
speaking to her sister) a story, but always contrived 
to break off before the story was finished. The sultan, 
in order to hear the end of the story, spared her life till 
the next night. This went on for a thousand and one 
nights, when the sultan’s resentment was worn out, and 
his admiration of his sultana was so great that he re¬ 
voked his decree. 

Schle'mil, Peter. The title of a little work by Cham- 
isso (1781-1838), and the name of its hero, a man who 
sells his shadow to an old man in gray (the Devil) who 
meets him just after he has been disappointed in an ap¬ 
plication for assistance to a nobleman. The name has 
become a by-word for any poor, silly, and unfortunate 
fellow. 

Scourge of God. Attila, King of the Huns. A. P. 
Stanley says the term was first applied to Attila in the 
Hungarian Chronicles. It is found in a legend belonging 
to the Eighth or Ninth Century. 

Scrooge, Ebenezer. Christmas Carol, Dickens. 
The prominent character, made partner, executor, and 
heir of old Jacob Marley, stock-broker. When first in¬ 
troduced, he is a grasping, covetous old man, loving no 
one and by none beloved. One Christmas, Ebenezer 
Scrooge sees three ghosts: The Ghost of Christmas Past; 
the Ghost of Christmas Present; and the Ghost of Christ¬ 
mas To-come. The first takes him back to his young 
life, shows him what Christmas was to him when a school¬ 
boy, and when he was an apprentice. The second ghost 
shows him the joyous home of his clerk, Bob Cratchit, 
who has nine people to feed on what seems a pittance, 
and yet could find wherewithal to make merry on this 
day; it also shows him the family of his nephew, and 
others. The third ghost shows him what would be his 
lot if he died as he then was, the prey of harpies, the jest 
of his friends on ’Change. These visions wholly change 
his nature, and he becomes benevolent, charitable, and 
cheerful, and makes Christmas a happy day for many 
within his reach. 

Sed'ley, Mr. Vanity Fair, Thackeray. A 
wealthy London stock-broker, brought to ruin in the 
money market just prior to the battle of Waterloo. The 
old merchant tried to earn a living by selling wine, coals, 
or lottery-tickets by commission, but his bad wine and 
cheap coals found but few customers. Mrs. Sedley, wife 
of Mr. Sedley, a homely, kind-hearted woman, soured 
by adversity, and quick to take offense. Amelia Sedley, 
daughter of the stock-broker, educated at Miss Pinker¬ 
ton’s academy, and engaged to Captain George Osborne, 
son of a rich London merchant. After the ruin of Mr. 
Sedley George marries Amelia, and old Osborne disin¬ 
herits him. George is killed in the Battle of Waterloo. 
Amelia is reduced to great poverty, but is befriended by 
Captain Dobbin, and after many years of patience ana 
great devotion she consents to marry him. Joseph Sed¬ 
ley, vain, shy, and vulgar. He told of his brave deeds, 
and made it appear that he was Wellington’s right hand; 
so that he obtained the sobriquet of “ Waterloo Sedley.” 
He became the “patron” of Becky Sharp, who fleeced 
him of all his money, and in six months he died under 
suspicious circumstances. Interest in the novel is cen¬ 
tered on Amelia, an impersonation of virtue without 
intellect as contrasted with Becky Sharp, who is an im- 



LITERATURE 


381 


ersonation of intellect without virtue. The one has no 
ead, the other no heart. 

Se'lim. Bride of Abydos, Byron. The char¬ 
acter of Selim is bold, full of enterprise, and faithful. 
The story runs that Selim was the son of Abdallah and 
cousin of Zuleika. When Giaffir murdered Abdallah, 
he took Selim and brought him up as his own son. The 
young man fell in love with Zuleika, who thought he 
was her brother; when she discovered he was Abdallah’s 
son, she eloped with him. As soon as Giaffir discovered 
this he went after the fugitives, and shot Selim. Zuleika 
killed herself, and the old pacha was left childless. Selim, 
son of Akbar, in Arabian tales, marries Nourmahal, the 
“Light of the Harem.” 

Se'lith. The 31essiah, Klopstock. One of the 
two guardian angels of the Virgin Mary and of John the 
Divine. 

Sellock. Peveril of the Peak, Scott. A servant 
girl in the service of Lady and Sir Geoffrey Peveril of 
the Peak. 

Sene'na. Madoc, Southey. A Welsh maiden in 
love with Car'adoc. Under the assumed name of Mer- 
vyn she became the page of the Princess Goervyl, that 
she might follow her lover to America, when Madoc colon¬ 
ized Caer-Madoc. Senena was promised in marriage to 
another; but when the wedding day arrived, the bride 
was nowhere to be found. 

Sentimental Journey, The. By Laurence Sterne. 

It was intended to be sentimental sketches of his tour 
through Italy in 1764, but he died soon after completing 
the first part. 

Sejituagint. A Greek version of the books of the 
Old Testament; so called because the translation is sup¬ 
posed to have been made by seventy-two Jews, who, 
for the sake of round numbers, are usually called the 
“seventy interpreters.” It is said to have been made 
at the request of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, 
about 280 B. C. It is that out of which all the 
citations in the New Testament from the Old are taken. 
It was also the ordinary and canonical translation made 
use of by the Christian Church in the earliest ages; and 
is still retained in the churches both of the East and West. 

Sere'na. Faerie Queene, Spenser. Allured by the 
mildness of the weather, went into the fields to gather 
wild flowers for a garland, when she was attacked by 
the Blatant Beast, who carried her off in its mouth. 
Her cries attracted to the spot Sir Calidore, who com¬ 
pelled the beast to drop its prey. 

Ses'ame. In Arabian tales given as the talismanic 
word which would open or shut the door leading into 
the cave of the forty thieves. In order to open it, the 
words to be uttered were, “ Open, Sesame! ” and in order 
to close it, “Shut, Sesame! ” Sesame is a plant which 
yields an oily grain, and hence, when Cassim forgot the 
word, he substituted “barley,” but without effect. 
Sesame has come into general use in connection with 
any word or act which will open the way for accomplish¬ 
ment of the thing desired. ■ 

Seven Bibles, The, or Sacred Books. (1) The 
“Bible” of Christians. (2) The “Eddas ” of the Scandi¬ 
navians. (3) The “ Five Kings ” of the Chinese. (4) 
The “Koran” of the Mohammedans. (5) The “Tri 
Pitikes ” of the Buddhists. (6) The “Three Vedas” of 
the Hindfis. (7) “ Zendavesta ” of the Persians. 

Seven Sleepers, The. The tale of these sleepers is 
told in divers manners. The best accounts are those in 
the “Koran”; “The Golden Legends,” by Jacques de 
Voragine; the “De Gloria Martyrum,” by Gregory of 
Tours; and the “Oriental Tales,” by Caylus. Accord¬ 
ing to one version they were seven noble youths of Ephe¬ 
sus, who fled in the Decian persecution to a cave in 
Mount Celion, the mouth of which was blocked up by 
stones. After 230 years they were discovered, and 
awoke, but died within a few days, and were taken in a 
large stone coffin to Marseilles. Another tradition is, 
that Edward the Confessor, in his mind’s eye, saw the 
seven sleepers turn from their right sides to their left, 
and whenever they turn on their sides it indicates great 
disasters to Christendom. This idea was introduced by 
Tennyson in his poem, “Harold.” 

Seven Wise Masters is the title of a medkeval 
collection of novels, important both from its contents 
and its wide-spread popularity. The work is undoubted¬ 
ly of Oriental origin, yet neither the period when it was 
composed, nor how far it spread through the East, is 
known, but it existed in Arabic as a translation from 
Indian sources before the Eleventh Century. The work 
became known in literature, sometimes in a complete 
form, sometimes only particular novels were repro¬ 
duced, under all sorts of names, in verse and in prose. 
Latin versions began to appear about the beginning of 
the Thirteenth Century and parts have been translated 
into English. 


Seven Wise Men. The collective designation of a 
number of Greek sages, who lived about 620-548 B. C., 
and devoted themselves to the cultivation of practical 
wisdom. Their moral and social experience was em¬ 
bodied in brief aphorisms, expressed in verse or in prose. 

Sga'na'relle'. The hero of Molifere’s comedy “Le 
Mariage Force.” He is represented as a humorist of 
about fifty-three, who having a mind to marry a fashion¬ 
able young woman, but feeling a doubt, consults his 
friends upon this momentous question. Receiving no 
satisfactory counsel, and not much pleased with the 
proceedings of his bride elect, he at last determines to 
give up his engagement, but is cudgeled into compliance 
by the brother of his intended. 

Shallow. A braggart and absurd country justice in 
Shakespere’s “Merry Wives of Windsor,” and in the 
second part of “King Henry the Fourth.” 

Shalott', The Lady of. The heroine of Tennyson’s 
poem of the same name. She weaves into her web all 
the sights reflected in the mirror which hangs opposite 
her window; but when Sir Lancelot passes, she leaves 
her mirror and looks out of the casement at the knight 
himself, whereupon a curse comes upon her. She entered 
a boat bearing her name on the prow, floated down the 
river to Camelot, and died heart broken on the way. 

Shan'dy, Mrs. The mother of Tristram Shandy in 
Sterne’s novel of this name. She is the ideal of nonentity, 
a character individual from its very absence of individu¬ 
ality. 

Shan'dy, Tristram. The nominal hero of Sterne’s 
“The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent.” 

Shan'dy, Walter. The name of Tristram Shandy’s 
father in Sterne’s novel of this name, a man of an active 
and metaphysical, but at the same time a whimsical, 
cast of mind, whom too much and too miscellaneous 
learning had brought within a step or two of madness. 
The romance, “.Tristram Shandy,” is not built on a regu¬ 
lar plot. The hero has no adventures, and the story 
consists of a series of episodes which introduce the reader 
to the home-life of an English country family. This 
family is one of the most amusing. 

Sharp, Rebecca. The prominent character in 
Thackeray’s “.Vanity Fair,” the daughter of a poor 
painter, dashing, selfish, unprincipled, and very clever, 
who manages to marry Rawdon Crawley, afterwards 
his excellency Colonel Crawley, C. B. He was disin¬ 
herited on account of his marriage with Becky, then a 
poor governess, but she taught him how to live in splen¬ 
dor on no income. Lord Steyne introduced her to court, 
but her conduct with this peer gave rise to scandal, which 
caused a separation between her and Rawdon. She 
joins her fortunes with Joseph Sedley, a wealthy “.col¬ 
lector,” of Boggley Wollah, in India. Having insured 
his life and lost his money, he dies suddenly under very 
suspicious circumstances. Becky at last assumes the 
character of a pious, charitable Lady Bountiful, given 
to all good works. 

Shepherdess, The Faithful. A pastoral drama by 
John Fletcher. The “faithful shepherdess” is Corin, 
who remains faithful to her lover although dead. Milton 
has borrowed from this pastoral in his “Comus.” 

Shepherd of Banbury. The ostensible author of a 
work entitled “The Shepherd of Banbury’s Rules to 
judge of the Changes of Weather, grounded on Forty 
Years’ Experience, etc.,” a work of great popularity 
among the English poor. 

Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, The. The hero and 
title of a religious tract by Hannah More. The shepherd 
is noted for his homely wisdom and simple piety. 

Shepherd’s Pipe. Pan, in Greek mythology, was 
the god of forests, pastures, and flocks, and was the at¬ 
tributed inventor of the shepherd’s flute or pipe, a series 
of graduated tubes set together (open at one end and 
closed at the other), played by blowing across the open 
ends. 

Shepherd’s Calendar, The. Twelve eclogues in 
various metres, by Spenser, one for each month. Janu¬ 
ary: Colin Clout (Spenser), bewails that Rosalind does 
not return his love. February: Cuddy, a lad, complains 
of the cold, and Thenot laments the degeneracy of pas¬ 
toral life. March: Willie and Thomalin discourse of 
love. April: Hobbinol sings a song on Eliza. May: 
Palinode exhorts Piers to join the festivities of May, but 
Piers replies that good shepherds who seek their own 
indulgence expose their flocks to the wolves. June: Hob¬ 
binol exhorts Colin to greater cheerfulness. July: Mor- 
rel, a goat-herd, invites Thomalin to come with him to 
the uplands. August: Perigot and Willie contend in 
song, and Cuddy is appointed arbiter. September: Dig- 
gon Davie complains to Hobbinol of clerical abuses. 
October: On poetry. November: Colin, being asked by 
Thenot to sing, excuses himself because of his grief fm 
Dido, but finally sings her elegy. December: Colin 




382 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


again complains that his heart is desolate. Thenot is an 
old shepherd bent with age, who tells Cuddy, the herds¬ 
man’s boy, the fable of the oak and the briar, one of the 
best-known fables included in the calendar. 

Sheridan’s Ride. A lyric by T. B. Read, one of the 
few things written during the heat of the Civil War that 
is likely to survive. 

She Stoops to Conquer. This well-known comedy 
by Oliver Goldsmith is said to have been founded on an 
incident which actually occurred to its author. When 
Goldsmith was sixteen years of age, a wag residing at 
Ardagh directed him, when passing through that village, 
to Squire Fetherstone’s house as the village inn. The 
mistake was not discovered for some time, but all con¬ 
cerned enjoyed the joke. ‘?She Stoops to Conquer” is 
one of the gayest, pleasantest, and most amusing pieces 
of English comedy. 

Shin'gebis. In Longfellow’s ‘‘Hiawatha,” the diver 
who challenged the North Wind and put him to flight 
in combat. 

Shocky. The Hoosier School-master, Edw. 
Eggleston. The little lad from the poorhouse who 
adores the schoolmaster and early warns him of plans 
for upsetting his authority. He is also a small poet, 
not in rhyming, but in comprehension of things about 
him and in his way of looking at life, and he grows to be a 
helper in the “Church of the Best Licks,” founded by 
the school-master. He is brother to Hannah whom the 
master loves. Shocky and Hannah and their compan¬ 
ions in the story bring the speech and life of their people 
and their time into American literature. 

Shy'lock. A sordid, avaricious, revengeful Jew, in 
Shakespere’s “Merchant of Venice.” 

Siege Perilous, The. The Round Table contained 
sieges or seats in the names of different knights. One 
was reserved for him who was destined to achieve the 
quest of the holy graal. This seat was called “perilous,” 
because if any one sat therein except he for whom it was 
reserved it would be his death. This seat finally bore 
the name of Sir Galahad. 

Siegfried. The hero of various Scandinavian and 
Teutonic legends, particularly of the old German epic 
poem, the “Nibelungen Lied.” He is represented as a 
young warrior of physical strength and beauty, and in 
valor superior to all men of his time. He cannot easily 
be identified with any historical personage. 

Sikes, Bill. A brutal thief and housebreaker in Dick¬ 
ens’s novel “Oliver Twist.” He murders his mistress, 
Nancy, and in trying to lower himself by a rope from 
the roof of a building where he had taken refuge from 
the crowd, he falls and is choked in a noose of his own 
making. Sikes had an ill-conditioned savage dog, the 
beast-image of his master, which he kicked and loved, 
ill-treated and fondled. 

Silken Thread. Gulliver’s Travels. In the king¬ 
dom of Lilliput, the three great prizes of honor are “fine 
silk threads six inches long, one blue, another red, and a 
third green.” The thread is girt about the loins, and 
no ribbon of the Legion of Honor, or Knight of the Garter, 
is won more worthily or worn more proudly. 

Sind'bad the Sailor. A character in the “Arabian 
Nights,” in which is related the story of his strange 
voyages and wonderful adventures. 

Si'non. In Virgil’s “.Eneid” the cunning Greek, 
who, by a false tale, induced the Trojans to drag the 
Wooden Horse into Troy. 

Sleeping Beauty. The heroine of a celebrated nurse¬ 
ry tale which relates how a princess was shut up by 
fairy enchantment, to sleep a hundred years in a castle, 
around which sprung up a dense, impenetrable wood. 
At the expiration of the appointed time, she was delivered 
from her imprisonment and her trance by a gallant 
young prince, before whom the forest opened itself to 
afford him passage. Grimm derives this popular and 
widely diffused tale from the old northern mythology. 

Slender. A silly youth in Shakespere’s “Merry Wives 
of Windsor,” who is an unsuccessful suitor for the hand 
of “Sweet Anne Page.” 

Slick, Sam. The title and hero of various humorous 
narratives, illustrating and exaggerating the peculiarities 
of the Yankee character and dialect written by Judge 
Thomas C. Haliburton. Sam Slick is represented as a 
Yankee clockmaker and peddler, full of quaint drollery, 
unsophisticated wit, knowledge of human nature, and 
aptitude in the use of what he calls “soft sawder.” 

Slop, Dr. The name of a choleric and uncharitable 
physician in Sterne’s novel, “The Life and Opinions of 
Tristram Shandy, Gent.” 

Slough of Despond. Pilgrim’s Progress, Bun- 

yan. A deep bog, which Christian had to pass on his way 
to the Wicket Gate. Neighbor Pliable would not at¬ 
tempt to pass it, and turned back. While Christian was 


floundering in the slough, Help came to his aid, and as¬ 
sisted him over. 

Sly, Christopher. Taming of the Shrew, Shakes- 

{ >ere. A keeper of bears and a tinker, son of a ped- 
ar, and a sad drinker. 

Song of Roland. An ancient song recounting the 
deeds of Roland, the renowned nephew of Charlemagne, 
slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. At the battle of Hast¬ 
ings, Taillefer advanced on horseback before the invad¬ 
ing army, and gave the signal for onset by singing this 
famous song. (See Roland.) _ 

Songs of the Sierras. A collection of poems by 
Joaquin Miller, which made him known on two conti¬ 
nents within a year of their publication. The title ex¬ 
plains the chief subject of the songs. 

Spectator, The. A periodical famous in literature 
in which most of the articles were written by Addison 
or Sir Richard Steele. The first number was published 
in London in the year 1711, the last, No. 635, was issued 
in December, 1714. The most noted of Addison’s writ¬ 
ings is said to be the series of sketches in “The Spec¬ 
tator,” of which Sir Roger de Coverley is the central 
figure, and Sir Andrew Freeport and Will Honeycomb 
the side ones. Sir Roger himself is an absolute creation; 
the gentle yet vivid imagination, the gay spirit of humor 
and the keen shrewd observation mark it a work of 
pure genius. In this Addison has given a delicacy to 
English sentiment, and a modesty to English wit which 
it never knew before. Dr. Johnson says, “ to attain an 
English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant, but 
not ostentatious, one must give his days and nights to 
the volumes of Addison.” 

Sphinx. A Greek word, applied to certain symboli¬ 
cal forms of Egyptian origin. The most remarkable 
Sphinx is the Great Sphinx at Gizeh, a colossal form, 
hewn out of the natural rock. Immediately in front of 
the breast is a small naos, or chapel, formed of three 
hieroglyphical tablets. Votive inscriptions of the Ro¬ 
man period, some as late as the Third Century, were 
discovered in the walls and constructions. On the second 
digit of the left claw of the Sphinx, an inscription, in 
pentameter Greek verses, by Arrian, was discovered. 
Another metrical and prosaic inscription was also found. 
In Assyria and Babylonia, representations of Sphinxes 
have been found, and the same are not uncommon on 
Phenician works of art. 

Squeers. Name of a family prominent in Dickens’s 
“Nicholas Nickleby.” Wackford Squeers, master of 
Dotheboy’s Hall, Yorkshire, a vulgar, conceited, igno¬ 
rant schoolmaster, overbearing and mean. He steals the 
boys’ pocket money, clothes his son in their best suits, 
half starves them, and teaches them next to nothing. 
Ultimately he is transported for theft. Mrs. Squeers, a 
raw-boned, harsh, heartless virago, with no womanly 
feeling for the boys put under her charge. Miss Fanny 
Squeers, daughter of the schoolmaster. Miss Fanny falls 
in love with Nicholas Nickleby, but later hates him be¬ 
cause he is insensible to the soft impeachment. Master 
Wackford Squeers, overbearing, self-willed and pas¬ 
sionate. The picture of this family and their ways had 
great influence on the schools of England, by rousing the 
people to a knowledge of their management. 

Squire of Dames. A personage introduced by Spen¬ 
ser in the “Faerie Queen,” and whose curious adventures 
are there recorded. It is often used to express a person 
devoted to the fair sex. 

Steer'forth. David Copperfield, Dickens. The 

young man who led little Em’ly astray. When tired of 
his toy, he proposed to her to marry his valet. Steer- 
forth being shipwrecked off the coast of Yarmouth, 
Ham Peggotty tried to rescue him, but both were 
drowned. 

Sten'tor. A Grecian herald in the Trojan War, whom 
Homer describes as “great-hearted, brazen-voiced Sten- 
tor, accustomed to shout as loud as fifty other men.” 

Steph'a-no. (1) A drunken butler, in Shakespere’s 
“Tempest.” (2) A servant to Portia, in Shakespere’s 
“Merchant of Venice.” 

Stig'gins, Rev. Mr. A red-nosed, hypocritical 
“shepherd,” or Methodist parson, in Dickens’s “Pick¬ 
wick Papers,” with a great appetite for pineapple rum. 
He is the spiritual adviser of Mrs. Weller, and lectures .on 
temperance. 

Stone of Sar'dis. The Great Stone of Sardis, 
Stockton. In this stone the imaginary science of the 
future is joined to the actual science of to-day in an 
extremely plausible way. The North Pole is visited by a 
submarine vessel, a light is found capable of penetrating 
for miles into the interior of the earth, and finally the 
center of that earth is discovered to be an enormous 
diamond. 

Storm-and-stress Period. In the literary history 
of Germany, the name given to a period of great intel- 




LITERATURE 


383 


lectual convulsion, when the nation began to assert its 
freedom from the fetters of an artificial literary spirit. 
The period derives its name from a drama of Klinger 
(1753-1831), whose high-wrought tragedies and novels 
reflect the excitement of the time. 

Sur'name, The overname; either the name written 
over the Christian name, or given over and above it; an 
additional name. For a long time persons had no family 
name, but only one, and that a personal name. Plato 
parents to give happy names to their 
children; and the Pythagoreans taught that the minds, 
actions, and successes of men were according to their 
names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names 
at their exaltation to the pontificate, “a custom intro¬ 
duced by Pope Sergius.” In France it was usual to change 
the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of 
two sons of Henry II. of France. They were christened 
Alexander and Hercules; but at their confirmation, 
these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It is 
usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries 
to assume new names, to show they are about to lead a 
new life. 

Swallow Barn. The three novels, “ Swallow Barn,” 
“Horse-Shoe Robinson,” and “Rob of the Bowl,” besides 
their value as works of art, are all careful historical studies 
giving admirable pictures of life in the Southern States 
in the earlier days of the republic. They were written 
by John P. Kennedy, who is quoted in literature as 
next after Cooper among American novelists. 

Swiv'el-ler, Dick. A careless, light-headed fellow 
in Dickens’s novel of the “Old Curiosity Shop,” whose 
flowery orations and absurdities of quotation provoke 
laughter, but whose real kindness of heart enlists sym¬ 
pathy. 

Tab'ard. The name of the Inn at Southwark where 
the pilgrims in Chaucer’s “ Canterbury Tales ” assembled. 
It took its name from its sign, a tabard, or herald’s 
jacket. 

Tales of a Wayside Inn. Name given by Long¬ 
fellow to a collection of short poems arranged by himself 
and collected together much in the same form as Chau¬ 
cer’s “Canterbury Tales.” These “tales” were mostly 
gathered from old literatures and translated into Long¬ 
fellow’s own verse, only one, “ The Birds of Killingworth,” 
is said to be entirely original. Seven narrators are 
represented: the Landlord, the Student, the Spanish 
Cavalier, the Jew, the Sicilian, the Musician, and the 
Theologian. Four colonial tales are included in the work. 
“ Paul Revere’s Ride,” “Elizabeth,” “ Lady Wentworth,” 
and “The Rhyme of Sir Christopher.” 

Tal'mud is a Hebrew word meaning doctrine. It 
is the name applied to a work containing traditions 
respecting the usages and laws of the Jewish people. 
The law, among that people, was divided into the written 
and the unwritten. The written law embraced the five 
books of Mosesj the unwritten was handed down orally; 
the oral being, in fact, explanatory of the written. But, 
in time, the oral came, also, to be put in writing, and 
formed the text of the Talmud. This was first done, it 
is believed, about the year 200. There are two separate 
commentaries on this text, which are distinguished as 
the Babylonian and the Jerusalem. The Talmud of 
Jerusalem consists of two parts, the “Mishna” and the 
“Gemara.” The “Mishna” is more correct than the 
“Gemara,” which is filled with dreams and foolish dis¬ 
putations. The Talmud of Babylon, which is of higher 
authority among the Jews than that of Jerusalem, was 
composed by Rabbi Aser, who lived near Babylon; he 
did not live to finish it, but it was completed by his 
disciples about 500 years after Christ. 

Tam O’Shanter. The title of a poem by Burns, 
and the name of its hero, a farmer, who, riding home 
very late and very drunk from Ayr, in a stormy night, 
had to pass by the kirk of Alloway, a place reputed to 
be a favorite haunt of the Devil and his friends and emis¬ 
saries. On approaching the kirk, he perceived a light 
gleaming through the windows; but having got courage¬ 
ously drunk, he ventured on till he could look into the 
edifice, when he saw a dance of witches. His presence 
became known and, in an instant all was dark, and Tam, 
recollecting himself, turned and spurred his horse to the 
top of her speed, chased by the whole fiendish crew. It 
is a current belief that witches, or any evil spirits, have 
no power to follow a poor wight any farther than the 
middle of the next running stream. Fortunately for 
Tam, the River Doon was near and Tam escaped while 
the witches held only the tail of his mare, Maggie. It 
has been said of “Tam O’Shanter” that in no other 
oem of the same length can there be found so much 
rilliant description, pathos, and quaint humor, nor 
such a combination of the terrific and the ludicrous. 

Te Deum. A well-known hymn (so called from its 
first words) of the Roman Catholic Church, sung on all 


occasions of triumph and thanksgiving, and a theme upon 
which the most celebrated composers have exercised 
their musical genius. The hymn is one of the most simple 
and at the same time the most solemn and majestic in 
the whole range of the hymnology of the Roman Catholic 
Church. Its authorship is uncertain. 

Tann'hauser. A famous legendary hero of Germany, 
and the subject of an ancient ballad of the same name. 
The noble Tannhauser is a knight devoted to valorous 
adventures and to beautiful women. In Mantua, he 
wins the affection of a lovely lady, Lisaura, and of a 
learned philosopher, Hilario, with whom he converses 
frequently upon supernatural subjects. Enchanted by 
marvelous tales, he wishes for nothing less than to parti¬ 
cipate in the love of some beauteous elementary spirit, 
who shall, for his sake, assume the form of mortal woman. 
Hilario promises to grant even more than he has wished, 
if he will have courage to venture upon the Venusberg. 
Tannhauser ascends the mountain and, hearing of his 
departure, Lisaura dies. Tannhauser stays long on the 
enchanting mountain, but at last, moved to repentance, 
he obtains permission to depart. He hastens to Mantua, 
weeps over the grave of Lisaura, and thence proceeds to 
Rome, where he makes public confession of his sins to 
Pope Urban. The pope refuses him absolution, saying 
he can no more be pardoned than the dry wand which 
he holds can bud and bear green leaves. Tannhauser, 
flees from Rome, and vainly seeks his former preceptor, 
Hilario. Venus appears before him, and, lures him back 
to the mountain, there to remain until the day of judg¬ 
ment. Meanwhile, at Rome the dry wand bears leaves. 
Urban, alarmed at this miracle, sends messengers in search 
of the unhappy knight; but he is nowhere to be found. 
This Tannhauser legend is very popular in Germany, and 
is often alluded to by German writers. Tieck has made 
it the subject of a narrative, and Wagner of an opera 
which has gained great celebrity. 

Tar-tuffe'. A common nick-name for a hypocritical 
pretender to religion. It is derived from a celebrated 
comedy of the same name by Molifere, in which the hero, 
a hypocritical priest, is so called. 

Tea'zle, Lady. The heroine of Sheridan’s comedy, 
“The School for Scandal,” and the wife of Sir Peter 
Teazle, an old gentleman who marries late in life. She 
is represented as being “a lively and innocent, though 
imprudent, country girl, transplanted into the midst of 
all that can bewilder and endanger her, but with enough 
of purity about her to keep the blight of the world from 
settling upon her. 

Tea'zle, Sir Peter. A character in Sheridan’s play, 
“.The School for Scandal,” husband of Lady Teazle. 

Tempest, The. This has been called one of Shakes- 
pere’s fairy plays. The story of it runs: Prospero, 
Duke of Milan, was dethroned by his brother Antonio, and 
left on the open sea with his three-year old daughter, 
Miranda, in “a rotten carcass of a boat.” In this they 
were carried to an enchanted island, uninhabited except 
by a hideous creature, Caliban, the son of a witch. Pros¬ 
pero was a powerful enchanter, and soon had not only 
Caliban, but all the spirits of the region under his control, 
including Ariel, chief of the spirits of the air. Years 
afterward Antonio, Alfonso, Sebastian and other friends 
of the usurper came near the island. Prospero, by his 
magic, raises a storm which casts their ship on the shore 
and the whole party are spell-bound and brought to 
Prospero. Plots and counter-plots follow, bringing 
in Caliban and clowns, but all are made ridiculous ana 
defeated by Prospero and Ariel. 

Ten'son. A kind of poem among the troubadours 
which carries on a contention or dispute, apparently 
serious, and often concerning love. The tenson was 
usually recited by two persons in alternating stanzas. 
The greater number of these are found in early Italian 
and French literature. 

Ten Times One. A writing in story form by E. E. 
Hale. It is said that the inspiration of this story led to 
the founding of the “King’s Daughters” Society. 

Thaddeus of Warsaw. The hero and title of a 
novel by Jane Porter. 

Thang'brand. Tales of a Wayside Inn, H. W. 
Longfellow. King Olaf’s drunken priest, “.short of 
stature and large of limb,” who was sent to Iceland, 
found the people poring over their books, and sailed 
back to Norway to say to Olaf that there was “little 
hope of those Iceland men.” 

Thek'la. The daughter of Wallenstein, in Schiller’s 
drama of this name. She is an invention of the poet. 

Theodo'rus. The name of a physician, in Rabelais’s 
romance of “ Gargantua.” At the request of Ponocrates, 
Gargantua’s tutor, he undertook to cure the latter of 
his vicious manner of living, and accordingly purged 
him canonically with Anticyrian hellebore, by which 
medicine he cleared out all the foulness and perverse 



384 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


habit of his brain, so that he became a man of great honor, 
sense, courage, and piety. 

Thor'berg Skaft'ing. Tales of a Wayside Inn, 
H. W. Longfellow. The master-builder ordered by 
King Olaf to build a ship twice as long and twice as 
large as the “ Dragon” built by Rand the Strong, which 
was stranded. Thorberg built the ship, watching his 
workmen closely, and when she was ready for launching 
King Olaf and the workmen were amazed to see every 
plank down her sides cut with deep gashes and more 
amazed to find that Thorberg had done the deed. From 
these gashes he then chipped and smoothed the sides, to 
the delight of all; she was christened the “Long Ser¬ 
pent ” and the name of her builder recited in the Saga. 

Thorpe, Harry. The Blazed Trail, S. E. White. 
The hero of the novel a vigorous young man, who, as a 
“land-looker,” finds and takes up a valuable timber 
tract, against the crafty old corporation which seeks 
first to steal the timber, then to forestall him in buying 
it, and finally to ruin him. The true romance of the 
story is that of the forest and the titanic struggle of 
man against nature and against man. 

Three Kings, Feast of the. A famous mediaeval 
festival, identical with Epiphany. But the name is 
more particularly given to a kind of dramatic or 
spectacular representation of the incidents recorded in 
the second chapter of Matthew — as, the appearance of 
the wise men in splendid pomp at the court of Herod, 
the miraculous star, the manger at Bethlehem, the 
solemn and costly worship of the Babe — which was 
long very popular. 

Three Kings of Cologne, The. The three “.Wise 
Men” who followed the guiding star “from the East” to 
Jerusalem, and offered gifts to the babe Jesus. 

Thunderer, The. Name popularly given to the 
English newspaper, the “ London Times. ” The accepted 
version of the way in which the great journal got its name 
of “The Thunderer,” is that Captain Sterling, one of the 
“staff,” once wrote a sort of apology in reference to a 
mistaken assertion and used the phrase “.We thundered 
out.” This caught the public fancy, hence the name. 
Captain Sterling was a well-known figure in London 
political circles and was father of the more famous 
John Sterling, critic, essayist, and friend of Wordsworth, 
Coleridge, and De Quincey. 

Thyrsis. Corydon and Thyrsis are favorite names 
given to shepherds by writers of pastoral poetry. So 
also, Phyllis and Thestylis are names often applied to 
rustic maidens or shepherdesses. 

Tibbs or Tibs. A character in Goldsmith’s “Citizen 
of the World,” quoted as a “most useful hand.” He will 
write you a receipt for the bite of a mad dog, tell you 
an Eastern tale to perfection, and understands the busi¬ 
ness part of an author so well that no publisher can 
humbug him. 

Tigg, Mon'tague. Martin Chuzzlewit, Dickens. 

A clever impostor, who lives by his wits. He starts a 
bubble insurance office and makes considerable gain 
thereby. Having discovered the attempt of Jonas 
Chuzzlewit to murder his father, he compels him to put 
his money in the “new company,” but Jonas after¬ 
wards murders him. 

Ti'mon. Timon of Athens, Shakespere. The 

drama begins with the joyous life of Timon, and his 
hospitable extravagance, launches into his pecuniary 
embarrassment, and the discovery that his “professed 
friends ” will not help him, and ends with his flight into 
the woods, his misanthropy, and his death. Introduced 
into the play is “Timon’s Banquet.” Being shunned 
by his friends in adversity, he pretended to have recovered 
his money, and invited his false friends to a banquet. 
The table was laden with covers, but when the contents 
were exposed, nothing was provided but lukewarm water. 

Ti'ny Tim. Christmas Stories, Dickens. A 
striking character, the little son of Bob Cratchett, whose 
family were made happier by gifts from the converted 
Scrooge. (See Scrooge.) 

Tirzah'. Ben Hur, General Lew Wallace. A 

beautiful Jewish maiden, sister of Ben Hur. Their 
father had been a prince of Jerusalem, and died 
leaving a large estate. At the age of fifteen, Tirzah, 
with her mother, was imprisoned through the cruelty of 
Messala who coveted their property. They both be¬ 
came lepers and when released from prison were forced 
to live among the outcasts. They were healed by Jesus, 
Ben Hur, himself, witnessing the miracle. As soon as 
the change in their look had taken place he recognized 
them, and when the Jewish statutes had been complied 
with, Tirzah and her mother were united with their 
brother in their former home. 

Tippecanoe'. Name given to William Henry Har¬ 
rison during the political canvass which preceded his 
election, on account of the victory gained by him over 


the Indians in the battle which took place on the 6th 
of November, 1811, at the junction of the Tippecanoe 
and Wabash rivers. 

Toby, Uncle. A character in Sterne’s “Tristram 
Shandy.” A captain who was wounded at the siege 
of Namur, and was obliged to retire from the service. 
He is the impersonation of kindness, benevolence, and 
simple-heartedness; his courage is undoubted, his gal¬ 
lantry delightful for its innocence and modesty. 

Token, The. A collection of original articles, prose 
and poetry, by various contributors, issued first in the 
year 1824. This was the first “annual” that appeared 
in our country; it became popular and was continued for 
fifteen years under the supervision of “Peter Parley.” 

Tom, Dick, and Harry. An appellation very com¬ 
monly employed to designate a crowd or rabble. 

Tommy At'kins. Barrack-room Ballads, Kip¬ 
ling. The name is here used in its general meaning, a 
British soldier. The name came from the little pocket 
ledgers served out, at one time, to all British soldiers. 
In these manuals were to be entered the name, the age, 
the date of enlistment, etc. The War Office sent with 
each little book a form for filling it in, and the hypo¬ 
thetical name selected was “Tommy Atkins.” The 
books were instantly so called, and it did not require 
many days to transfer the name from the book to the 
soldier. 

Tom Saw'yer. Adventures of Tom Sawyer, 
Mark Twain. An “elastic” youth whose perform¬ 
ances delight both old and young readers. Queer enter¬ 
prises influenced by the old superstitions among slaves 
and children in the Western States give reliable pictures 
of boy-life in the middle of the Nineteenth Century. 

Tom the Piper. One of the characters in the 
ancient Morris dance, represented with a tabour, tabour- 
stick, and pipe. He carried a sword and shield, to 
denote his rank. 

Tom Thumb. In legendary history a dwarf no 
larger than a man’s thumb. He lived in the reign of 
King Arthur, by whom he was knighted. He was 
killed by the poisonous breath of a spider in the reign of 
the successor of King Arthur. Amongst his adventures it 
is told that he was lying one day asleep in a meadow, 
when a cow swallowed him as she cropped the grass. 
At another time, he rode in the ear of a horse. He crept 
up the sleeve of a giant, and so tickled him that he shook 
his sleeve, and Tom, falling into the sea, was swallowed 
by a fish. The fish being caught and carried to the 
palace, gave the little man his introduction to the king. 
The oldest version of this nursery tale is in rhyme. 

To'nio. Daughter of the Regiment, Donizetti. 
The name of the youth who saved Maria, the sutler- 
girl from falling down a precipice. The two fall in love, 
with each other, and the regiment consents to their 
marriage, provided Tonio will enlist under its flag. No 
sooner is this done than the marchioness of Berkenfield 
lays claim to Maria as her daughter, and removes her to 
the castle. In time, the castle is besieged and taken by 
the very regiment into which Tonio had enlisted, and, as 
Tonio had risen to the rank of a French officer, the 
marchioness consents to his marriage with her daughter. 

Top'sy. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. A 
young slave-girl, who never knew whether she had either 
father or mother, and being asked by Miss Ophelia St. 
Clare how she supposed she came into the world, replied, 
“I’spects I growed.” Topsy illustrates the ignorance, 
low moral development, and wild humor of the African 
character, as w r ell as its capacity for education. 

Touchstone. A clown in Shakespere’s “As You 
Like It.” 

Townley Mysteries. Certain religious dramas; so 
called because the MS. containing them belonged to 
P. Townley. These dramas are supposed to have been 
acted at Widkirk Abbey, in Yorkshire. 

Trad'dies. David Copperfleld, Dickens. A sim¬ 
ple, honest young man, who believes in everybody and 
everything and who is never depressed by his want of 
success. He had the habit of brushing his hair up on 
end, which gave him a look of surprise. Traddles was 
generally accompanied by “the dearest girl” and her 
numerous sisters. 

Tragedy and Comedy. The earliest regular tragedy 
written in English was the play of “Gorboduc” by 
Thomas Sackville. This was acted in the year 1562. 
The firat English comedy was “Ralph Royster Doyster,” 
acted in 1551, and written by Nicholas Udall. 

Triads. Three subjects more or less connected 
formed into one continuous poem or subject: thus the 
“Creation, Redemption, and Resurrection” would form 
a triad. The conquest of England by the Romans, 
Saxons, and Normans would form a triad. The Welsh 
triads, known in literature, are collections of historic facts, 



LITERATURE 


385 


mythological traditions, moral maxims, or rules of 
poetry disposed in groups of three. 

Trim, Corporal. Uncle Toby’s attendant, in 
Sterne’s novel, “The Life and Opinions of Tristram 
Shandy, Gent,” distinguished for his fidelity and affec¬ 
tion, his respectfulness, and his volubility. 

Tris'tram, Sir. One of the most celebrated heroes 
of mediaeval romance. His adventures form an episode 
in the history of Arthur’s Court, and are related by 
Thomas the Rhymer, as well as by many romancists. 

Trot'wood, Betsey. David Copperfleld, Dickens. 
A great-aunt to David whose daily trial seemed to be 
donkeys. A dozen times a day would she rush on 
the green before her house to drive off the donkeys and 
donkey-boys. She was a most kind-hearted woman, 
who concealed her tenderness under a snappish manner. 
Miss Betsey was the true friend of David Copperfleld. 

Troubadours were minstrels of Southern France in 
the Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth Centuries. They 
were the first to discard Latin and use the native tongue 
in their compositions. Their poetry was either about 
love and gallantry, or war and chivalry. In Northern 
France they were called Trouveres and the language 
employed was the Walloon. The troubadours were 
held in high esteem by the Court in England. They 
furnished literature for the readers, and so wielded 
potent influence over English thought and language. 

Trovato're. II Trovatore, Verdi. This opera 
is founded on a drama belonging to the Fifteenth Cen¬ 
tury. The story is that Trovatore, or the Troubadour, is 
Manrico, the supposed son of a gypsy but really a brother 
to the count. The princess Leono'ra falls in love with 
the troubadour, but the count is about to put Manrico 
to death, when Leonora intercedes on his behalf, and 
promises to give herself to him if he will spare her lover. 
The count consents; but while he goes to release his cap¬ 
tive, Leonora kills herself by sucking poison from a ring. 
When Manrico discovers this sad calamity, he dies 
also. 

Tuck, Friar. Ivanhoe, Scott. The father-con¬ 
fessor of Robin Hood and connected with Fountain’s 
Abbey. He is represented as a clerical Falstaff, very fat 
and self-indulgent, very humorous, and somewhat coarse. 
His dress was a russet habit of the Franciscan order. 
He was sometimes girt with a rope of rushes. Friar 
Tuck also appears in the “.Morris dance” on May- 
day. 

Tur'vey^drop. Bleak House, Dickens. A con¬ 
ceited dancing-master, who imposes on the world by his 
majestic appearance and elaborate toilette. He is repre¬ 
sented as living upon the earnings of his son, who has 
a most slavish reverence for him as a perfect “master of 
deportment.” 

Twelfth Night, a drama by Shakespere. The story 
is said to have come from a novelette written early in the 
Sixteenth Century. A brother and sister, twins, are 
shipwrecked. Viola dressed like her brother becomes 
page to the duke Orisino. The duke was in love with 
Olivia, and as the lady looked coldly on his suit, he sent 
Viola to advance it, but the wilful Olivia, instead of 
melting towards the duke, fell in love with his beautiful 
page. Sebastian, the twin-brother of Viola, was attacked 
in a street brawl before Olivia and thinking him to be 
the page she invited him in. The result was the marriage 
of Sebastian to Olivia and the duke to Viola. 

Twice-Told Tales. This name was given by the 
author, Nathaniel Hawthorne, to the tales included 
under its title, because some of them had been already 
published in the “ Token,” and other periodicals. They are 
mystical and though in prose form are the work of a 
poet. The tales are nearly all American in subject but 
treated from the spiritual rather than the practical side. 

Two Gentlemen of Vero'na, a drama by Shakespere, 
the story of which is taken from the “ Diana ” of Monte- 
mayor (Sixteenth Century). The plot resembles that of 
Twelfth Night, as Julia, disguised as a page, is a prominent 
figure. 

Ubal'do. Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. One of 
the older crusaders, who had visited many regions. He 
and Charles the Dane went to bring back Rinaldo from 
the enchanted castle. 

Ube'da. Don Quixote, Cervantes. A noted artist 
who one day painted a picture, but was obliged to write 
under it, “This is a cock,” in order that the spectator 
might know what was intended to be represented. 

U'lin. Tales of the Genii, Ridley. An enchant¬ 
ress, who had no power over those who remained faith¬ 
ful to Allah and their duty; but if any fell into error or 
sin, she had full power to do as she liked. Thus, when 
Misnar (Sultan of India) mistrusted the protection of 
Allah, she transformed him into a toad. 

Ul-ri'ca. A hideous old sibyl in Sir Walter Scott’s 
“Ivanhoe.” 


Ul'tima Thule. The extremity of the world; the 
most northern point known to the ancient Romans. 
Pliny and others say it is Iceland. 

U na. Faerie Queen, Spenser. The personifica¬ 
tion of truth. She goes, leading a lamb and riding on a 
white ass, to the court of Gloriana, to crave that one of 
her knights might undertake to slay the dragon which 
kept her father and mother prisoners. The adventure 
is accorded to the Red Cross Knight. Being driven by 
a storm into “Wandering Wood,” a vision is sent to the 
knight, which causes him to leave Una and she goes in 
search of him. In her wanderings a lion becomes her 
attendant. After many adventures, she finds St. George, 
“the Red Cross Knight,” but he is severely wounded. 
Una takes him to the house of Holiness, where he is care¬ 
fully nursed, and then leads him to Eden. 

Uncle Tom. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Stowe, Mrs. 
A negro slave of unaffected piety, and most faithful in 
the discharge of all his duties. His master, a humane 
man, becomes embarrassed in his affairs, and sells him 
to a slave-dealer. After passing through various hands, 
and suffering intolerable cruelties, he dies. 

Underground Railroad, The. A popular embodi¬ 
ment of the various ways in which fugitive slaves from 
the Southern States of the American Union were assisted 
in escaping to the North, or to Canada; often humor¬ 
ously abbreviated U. G. R. R. 

Un'dine. In French fable a water-nymph, who was 
exchanged for the young child of a fisherman living near 
an enchanted forest. One day, Sir Huldbrand took 
shelter in the fisherman’s hut, fell in love with Undine, 
and married her. By marrying a mortal she obtained 
a soul, and with it all the pains and penalties of the hu¬ 
man race. 

Ur'gan. Lady of the Lake, Scott. A human child 
stolen by the king of the fairies, and brought up in elf- 
land. He said to Alice Brand (the wife of Lord Rich¬ 
ard), “if any woman will sign my brow thrice with a 
cross, I shall resume my proper form.” Alice signed him 
thrice, and Urgan became at once “the fairest knight in 
all Scotland,” and Alice recognized in him her own 
brother Ethert. 

Urgan'da. In the romance of “Amadis de Gaul,” 
a powerful fairy sometimes appearing in all the terrors 
of an evil enchantress. 

U'ther. Son of Constans, one of the fabulous or 
legendary kings of Britain, and the father of Arthur. 

Uto'pia. The name of an imaginary island described 
in the celebrated work of Sir Thomas More, in which 
was found the utmost perfection in laws, politics, and 
social arrangements. More’s romance obtained a wide 
popularity, and the epithet “Utopian” has since been 
applied to all schemes for the improvement of society 
which are deemed not practicable. 

Val'en-tine. (1) One of the heroes in the old ro¬ 
mance of “Valentine and Orson,” which is of uncertain 
age and authorship. (2) One of the “Two Gentlemen of 
Verona,” in Shakespere’s play of that name. (3) A 
gentleman attending on the Duke in Shakespere’s 
“Twelfth Night.” (4) One of the characters in Goethe’s 
“Faust.” He is a brother of Margaret. 

Vale'rian or Vali'rian. Canterbury Tales, Chau¬ 
cer. The husband of St. Cecilia. Cecilia told him she 
was beloved by an angel, who constantly visited her; 
and Valirian requested to see this visitant. Cecilia re¬ 
plied that he should do so, if he went to Pope Urban to 
be baptized. This he did, and on returning home the 
angel gave him a crown of lilies, and to Cecilia a crown of 
roses, both from the garden of paradise. 

Valley of Humiliation. Pilgrim’s Progress, 
Bunyan. The place where Christian encountered Apoll- 
yon, just before he came to the “Valley of the Shadow 
of Death.” 

Van'ityFair. Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. (1) A 

fair established by Beelzebub, Apollyon, and Legion, for 
the sale of all sorts of vanities. It was held in the town 
of Vanity, and lasted all the year round. Here were sold 
houses, lands, trades, honors, titles, kingdoms, and all 
sorts of pleasures and delights. Christian and Faithful 
had to pass through the fair, which they denounced. 
(2) Thackeray gave the name, “Vanity Fair,” to the first 
of his famous works. It has been called “ A novel with¬ 
out a hero.” (See Sedley.) 

Veck, Toby. The Chimes, Dickens. A ticket- 
porter who went on errands and bore the nickname 
Trotty. One New Year’s Eve he had a nightmare and 
fancied he had mounted to the steeple of a neighboring 
church, and that goblins issued out of the bells. .He was 
roused from his sleep by the sound of the bells ringing in 
the new year. 

Veda. The technical name of those ancient Sanscrit 
works on which the first period of the religious belief of 
the Hindus is based. 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Veiled Prophet. Lalla Rookh, Moore. He as- 

sumed to be a god, and maintained that he nan been 
Adam, Noah, and other representative men. Having 
lost an eye, and being otherwise disfigured in battle, ne 
wore a veil to conceal his face, but his followers said it 
was done to screen his dazzling brightness. 

Ve'ni Crea'tor Spi'ritus. An ancient and very cele- 
brated hymn of the Roman Breviary, which occurs in 
the offices of the Feast of Pentecost, and which is used 
in many of the most solemn services of the Roman Catho¬ 
lic Church. Its author is not known with certainty. 

Ver'non, Die or Diana. Rob Roy, Scott. The 
heroine of the story, a high-born girl of great beauty and 
talents. She is an enthusiastic adherent to a persecuted 
religion and an exiled king. She is excluded from the 
ordinary wishes and schemes of other girls by being pre¬ 
destined to a hateful husband or a cloister, and by receiv¬ 
ing a masculine education, under the superintendence of 
two men of talent and learning. 

Version of the Scriptures. The common English 
version of the Scriptures, the most remarkable of Bible 
translations, was made by a company of forty-seven 
scholars who did their work at the request of^ King 
James I. The version was published in 1611. “Tyn- 
dale’s translation of the New Testament is the most im¬ 
portant philological monument of the first half of the 
Sixteenth Century, both as an historical relic, and as hav¬ 
ing more than anything else contributed to shape and 
fix the sacred dialect, and establish the form which the 
Bible must permanently assume in an English dress.” 

Vicar of Wakefield. The hero of Goldsmith’s novel 
of the same name, Dr. Primrose, a simple-minded, 
pious clergyman, with six children. He begins life with 
a good fortune, a handsome house, and wealthy friends, 
but is reduced to poverty without any fault of his own, 
and, being reduced like Job, like Job he is restored. (See 
Primrose.) 

Vin-cen'ti-o. The Duke of Vienna in Shakespere’s 
“Measure for Measure.” He commits his scepter to 
Angelo, under the pretext of being called to take an 
urgent and distant journey, and by exchanging the royal 
purple for a monk’s hood, observes incognito the condi¬ 
tion of his people. 

Vi'ola. Twelfth Night, Shakespere. A sister 
of Sebastian. They were twins, and so much alike that 
they could be distinguished only by their dress. When 
they were shipwrecked Viola was brought to shore by 
the captain, but her brother was left to shift for him¬ 
self. Being in a strange land, Viola dressed as a page, 
and, under the name of Cesario, entered the service of 
Orsino, Duke of Illyria. The duke greatly liked his 
beautiful page, and, when he discovered her true sex, 
married her. 

Violen'ta. All’s Well that Ends Well, Shakes¬ 
pere. A character in the play who enters upon the 
scene only once and then she neither speaks nor is spoken 
to. The name has been used to designate any young 
lady nonentity; one who contributes nothing to the 
amusement or conversation of a party. 

Vin'land. A name given, according to Snorro Stur- 
leson, by Scandinavian voyagers, to a portion of the 
coast of North America discovered by them toward the 
close of the Tenth Century, well wooded, and producing 
agreeable fruits, particularly grapes. It is thought to 
have been some part of the coast of Massachusetts or 
Rhode Island. 

Viv'ien or Viv'ian. Idylls of the King, Tennyson. 

She is also known as the Lady of the Lake, and according 
to early legends was of a high family. These legends 
tell that Merlin in his dotage, fell in love with her, and 
she imprisoned him in the forest of Brittany. She then 
persuaded Merlin to show her how a person could be 
imprisoned by enchantment without walls, towers, or 
chains, and after he had done so, she put him to sleep. 
While he slept, she performed the needful ceremonies, 
whereupon he found himself enclosed in a prison stronger 
than the strongest tower, and from that imprisonment 
was never again released. 

Volapuk. This so-called universal language was 
invented in 1879, by Johann Martin Schleyer, a Swabian 
pastor and later a teacher in Constance. Of the 
vocabulary, about one-third is of English origin, while 
the Latin and Romance languages furnish a fourth. 
The grammar is simplified to the utmost. 

Vulgate. Name given to a version of the Scriptures 
made in Latin, probably by St. Jerome, about the year 
380. This version was authorized by the Council of 
Trent in the year 1546. 

Walden. A record of the experiences of the author, 
Thoreau, while living near Walden Pond, on nine cents 
a day. He read Homer, watched the birds, bees, ants, 
and the animals that came within his range, describing 


the results of his acute powers of observation in a char¬ 
acteristic, quaint form. 

Wa' verley. Name of hero and title of novel by Scott. 
Waverley was captain of “Waverley Honour” and after 
an injury he resigned his commission, and proposed to 
Flora M’lvor, but was not accepted. Flora’s brother, 
Fergus M’lvor, introduced him to Prince Charles Ed¬ 
ward. He entered the service of the Young Chevalier, 
and in the battle of Preston Pans saved the life of Colonel 
Talbot. The colonel, out of gratitude, obtained the 
pardon of young Waverley, who then married Rose 
Bradwardine, and settled down quietly in Waverley 
Honour. The novel, Waverley, was the first of Scott’s 
historical novels, published in 1814. The materials are 
Highland feudalism, military bravery, and description 
of natural scenery. The chief characters are Charles 
Edward the Chevalier, the noble old baron of Brad¬ 
wardine, the simple faithful clansman Evan Dhu, and 
the poor fool Davie Gellatley. 

Waverley Novels. General name given to Scott’s 
historical novels. Those founded on English history 
are “Ivanhoe,” “Kenilworth,” “Peveril of the Peak,” 
“Betrothed,” “Talisman,” and “Woodstock.” Founded 
on Scotch history are “Waverley,” “Old Mortality,” 
“Monastery,” “The Abbott,” “Legend of Montrose,” 
“Fair Maid of Perth,” and “Castle Dangerous.” Treat¬ 
ing of continental history are “ Quentin Durward,” 
“Anne of Geirstein,” and “Count Robert of Paris.” 
Twelve others in the series, including “Rob Roy,” 
“Heart of Midlothian,” “Bride of Lammermoor,” are 
connected with historical events, but are more personal 
and deal mainly with Scottish character. 

Weird Sisters, The. Three witches, in Shakespere’s 
tragedy of “Macbeth.” 

Weller, Samuel. In Dickens’s celebrated “Pick¬ 
wick Papers.” A servant to Mr. Pickwick, to whom he 
becomes devotedly attached. Rather than leave his 
master, when he is sent to the Fleet, Sam Weller gets 
his father to arrest him for debt. He is an inimitable 
compound of wit, simplicity, quaint humor, and fidelity. 
“Tony Weller,” father of Sam; a coachman of the old 
school, who drives between London and Dorking. On 
the coachbox he is a king, elsewhere a mere London 
“cabby.” He marries a widow and his constant advice 
to his son is, “Sam, beware of the vidders.” Every¬ 
body was merry over Mr. Pickwick and Sam Weller, 
and everybody was eager to read this entertaining 
author. 

Westover Manuscripts. In the year 1728 Colonel 
Byrd set out with a party of commissioners to meet an¬ 
other party of commissioners from North Carolina, to 
survey and settle the boundary between North Carolina 
and Virginia. The other Virginia commissioners were 
Dandridge and Fitz-William. With them were two 
surveyors, a chaplain, and seventeen woodsmen and 
hunters. Colonel Byrd took notes of the journey. These 
important documents remained in manuscript until 1841, 
when they were printed under the title of “The West- 
over Manuscripts,” being so called from the estate of 
Westover, on the north branch of the James River, 
where the author lived. These journals of Colonel Byrd 
are remarkable for the freshness and vividness of their 
descriptions, and for a continued undercurrent of good- 
natured humor. He is particularly fond of indulging 
in a bit of fun at the expense of the North Carolinians. 
The journals abound in stories illustrative of Natural 
History. 

Whit'ting-ton, Dick. The hero of a famous old 
legend, in which he is represented as a poor orphan boy 
from the country, who went to London, where, after 
undergoing many hardships he obtained a penny and 
bought a cat. Shortly after, he sent his cat on a ven¬ 
ture in his master’s ship; and the King of Barbary, 
whose court was overrun with mice, gladly bought the 
cat at a high price. With this money Whittington 
commenced business, and succeeded so well that he 
finally married his former master’s daughter, was 
knighted, and became lord mayor of London. 

Wilfer. Name of a family prominent in “ Our Mutual 
Friend,” by Dickens. Reginald Wilfer, called by his 
wife R. W., and by his fellow-clerks Rumty. He was 
clerk in the drug-house of Chicksey, Stobbles, and Ve¬ 
neering. Mrs. Wilfer, wife of Mr. Reginald, a most ma¬ 
jestic woman, with an exalted idea of her own impor¬ 
tance. Bella Wilfer, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Wilfer, 
a wayward, playful, affectionate, spoilt beauty, so pretty, 
so womanly, and yet so childish that she was always 
captivating. She spoke of herself as “the lovely wo¬ 
man.” Bella married Johfi Harmon. Lavinia Wilfer, 
youngest sister of Bella, and called “The Irrepressible.” 

Winter’s Tale, The. Shakespere (1604). Leontes, 
King of Sicily, invites his friend PolixenSs to visit him, 
becomes jealous, and commands Camillo to poison him. 




Literature 


Camillo warns Polixenes, and flees with him to Bohemia. 
Leontes casts his queen, Hermione, into prison, where 
she gives birth to a daughter. Hermione is reported 
dead and the child is brought up by a shepherd, who 
calls it Perdita. Florizel sees Perdita and falls in love 
with her; but Polixenes, his father, tells her that she 
and the shepherd shall be put to death if she encourages 
the suit. Florizel and Perdita flee to Sicily, and being 
introduced to Leontes, it is soon discovered that Perdita 
is his lost daughter. Polixenes tracks his son to Sicily, 
and consents to the union. The party are invited to 
inspect a statue of Hermione, and the statue turns out 
to be the living queen. 

Worldly-Wiseman, Mr. One of the characters in 
Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress,” who converses with 
Christian by the way, and endeavors to deter him from 
proceeding on his journey. 

Wrayburn, Eugene. Our Mutual- Friend, 
Dickens. Barrister-at-law. He is an indolent, moody, 
whimsical young man, who loves Lizzie Hexham. After 
he is nearly killed by Bradley Headstone, he reforms, 
and marries Lizzie, who saved his life. 

Ya'hoo. A name given by Swift, in his satirical ro¬ 
mance of “Gulliver’s Travels,” to one of a race of brutes 
having the form and all the vices of man. The Yahoos 
are represented as being subject to the Houyhnhnms, or 
horses enddwed with reason. 

Yamoyden. A romantic poem having for its hero 
Philip, the celebrated Sachem of the Pequod Indians. 
The author, Sands, published the poem between the 
years 1817 and 1819. 

Yarpe. The Gray Horse Troop, Hamlin Gar¬ 
land. The resolute leader of the cowboy gang that 
undertook to drive the Tetongs from their reservation 
lands in the far West. The real hero of the story, Cap¬ 
tain Curtis, is in charge, and his rational management 
of the Indians, his fight against the political ring that 
would defraud his wards, and his courageous handling 
of a serious crisis show him to be a different power from 
that these cowboys generally met, when they shot up 
towns and raced the Tetongs across the hills, making of 
themselves a lynching party on federal territory. United 
States soldiers appear on the scene and Yarpe and his 
men depart. 

Yeast. A romance by Charles Kingsley. It was the 
outcome of his interest in the Chartist riots and disturb¬ 
ances, and gives concerning the sufferings of the poor 
some of the most powerful delineations found in English 
literature. 

Yemasse. An historical tale founded on personal 
knowledge of the American Indian character. It was 
written in the first half of the Nineteenth Century by 
Simms, of whom it has been said, ” He has done for the 
historical traditions of the Carolinas what Cooper did 
for those of the North and West. 

Ye'o. Westward Hoi Chas. Kingsley. A 
character in the novel prominent as a bold mariner, a 
true friend, a terrible foe. He was all his life a sailor, 
and made voyages to New Guinea for negro slaves which 
were sold in the West Indies. He joined in the search 
for fabulous wealth in New Spain, crossed the Isthmus 
of Panama, was pursued, and wandered in the woods of 
the isthmus for some months. “Westward Ho! ” is an 
historical novel, relating to Elizabethan English history. 

Yor'ick. (1) The King of Denmark’s jester, men¬ 
tioned in Shakespere’s “Hamlet.” Hamlet picks up his 
skull in the churchyard and apostrophizes it. (2) A 
humorous and careless parson in Sterne’s “Tristram 
Shandy.” 

Yule Clog. A great log of wood, sometimes the root 
of a tree, brought into the house with great ceremony 
on Christmas Eve, laid in the fireplace, and lighted with 
the brand of last year’s clog. While it lasted, there was 
great drinking, singing, and telling of tales. Sometimes 
it was accompanied by Christmas candles, but in the 
cottages the only light was from the ruddy blaze of the 
great wood fire. The Yule clog was to burn all night; 
if it went out, it was considered a sign of ill luck that 
would govern the ensuing year. 

Zano'ni. Hero of a novel so called by Lord Lytton. 
Zanoni is supposed to possess the power of communicat¬ 
ing with spirits, prolonging life, and producing gold, 
silver, and precious stones. 

Zeno'bia. Blithedale Romance, Hawthorne. A 
strong-minded woman, beautiful and intelligent, who 
was interested in playing out the pastoral of the life at 
Brook Farm. She is represented as disappointed in 
love; at last she drowned herself. 

Ze'phon. A “strong and subtle spirit” in Milton’s 
“Paradise Lost,” whom Gabriel dispatched with Ithuriel 
to find Satan. 

Zo'phi-el. In Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” an angelic 
scout. 


387 


FAMOUS POEMS, AUTHOR, AND 
FIRST LINE 

Abou Ben Adhem. Leigh Hunt. 

“Abou Ben Adhem, may his tribe increase.” 

Address to Light, . John Milton. 

“.Hail, holy light, offspring of Heaven, first¬ 
born.” 

Address to a Mummy,. Horace Smith. 

“And thou hast walked about (how strange a 
story).” 

Adonais,. Percy Bysshe Shelley. 

“ I weep for Adonais — he is dead! ” 

Advice of Polonius to Laertes, . . William Shakespere. 
“Give thy thoughts no tongue.” 

After the Curfew,. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“The play is over. While the light.” 

Afton Water,. Robert Bums. 

“Flow gently, sweet Afton, among thy green 
braes.” 

Alexander’s Feast,. John Dryden. 

“’Twas at the royal feast for Persia won.” 

Alexander Selkirk,. Wm. Cowper. 

“I am monarch of all I survey.” 

Alfred The Harper,. John Sterling. 

“Dark fell the night, the watch was set.” 

America,. S. F. Smith. 

“My country, ’tis of thee.” 

American Flag,. Joseph Rodman Drake. 

“When Freedom from her mountain height.” 

Annabel Lee,. Edgar Allen Poe. 

“It was many and many a year ago.” 

Answer to Passionate Shepherd, . . Sir Walter Raleigh. 
“If all the world and love were young.” 

Apostrophe to the Ocean,. Lord Byron. 

“There is a pleasure in the pathless woods.” 

Ariel’s Song,. William Shakespere 

“Come unto these yellow sands.” 

At Forty-five. Robert J. Burdette 

“Halt! cry the bugles down the columns’ length.” 

A Thing of Beauty,. John Keats. 

“A thing of beauty is a joy forever.” 

Auf Wiedersehen,. James Russell Lowell. 

“The little gate was reached at last.” 

Auld Lang Syne,. Robert Burns. 

“Should auld acquaintance be forgot.” 

Auld Robin Gray. Lady Anne Lindsay. 

“When the sheep are in the fauld, and the kye 
come hame.” 

Baby, The. George Macdonald. 

“Where did you come from, baby dear?” 

Baby Bye. Theodore Tilton. 

“Baby Bye, here’s a fly.” 

Ballad of Baby Bell,. T. B. Aldrich. 

“Have you not heard the poets tell.” 

Ballad of the Tempest,. James T. Field. 

“We were crowded in the cabin.” 

Bannockburn,. Robert Burns. 

“Scots, wha hae wi’ Wallace bled.” 

Barbara Fritchie,. John G. Whittier. 

“Up from the meadow T s rich with corn.” 

Barefoot Boy,. John G. Whittier. 

“Blessings on thee, little man.” 

Battle Hymn of the Republic, . . . Julia Ward Howe. 
“Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of 
the Lord.” 

Battle of Agincourt,. Michael Drayton. 

“Fair stood the wind for France.” 

Battle of Blenheim, . Robt. Southey. 

“It was a summer’s evening, old Kaspar’s work 
was done.” 

Beggar, The,. James Russell Lowell. 

“A beggar through the world am I.” 

Bells, The, . Edgar Allen Poe. 

“Hear the sledges with the bells.” 

Belshazzar,. Barry Cornwall. 

“Belshazzar is king, Belshazzar is lord.” 

Ben Bolt,. Thos. Dunn English. 

“O, don’t you remember sweet Alice, Ben Bolt?” 

Bingen on the Rhine,. Caroline Norton 

"A soldier of the legion lay dying in Algiers." 




































388 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Bill and Joe, . Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“Come, dear old comrade, you and I.” 

Blessed Damozel, The,. Dante Gabriel Rosetti. 

“The blessed damozel leaned out.” 

Blindness, Ode on,.. •. . • John Milton. 

“When I consider how my light is spent.” 

Blue and the Gray, The, ...... Francis Finch. 

“By the flow of the inland river.” 

Bonnie Doon.. . . . Robert Burns. 

“Ye banks and braes o’ bonnie Doon.” 

Boys, The,. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“Has there any old fellow got mixed with the 
boys?” 

Bridge of Sighs, The, . . .' .. Thomas Hood. 

“One more unfortunate.” 

Bridge, The. Henry W. Longfellow. 

“I stood on the bridge at midnight.” 

Brook, The. Alfred Tennyson. 

“I come from haunt of coot and hern.” 

Bugle Song,. Alfred Tennyson. 

“The splendor falls on castle walls.” 

Burial of Moses,.. . . Francis Alexander. 

“By Nebo’s lonely mountain.” 

Burial of Sir John Moore,. Charles Wolfe. 

“Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note.” 

Carmen Bellicosum, '. G. H. McMaster. 

“In their ragged regimentals.” 

Casabianca,. Felicia Hemans. 

“The boy stood on the burning deck.” 

Cataract of Lodore,. Robert Southey. 

“How does the water come down at Lodore?” 

Cato’s Soliloquy. Joseph Addison. 

“It must be so — Plato, thou reason’st well.” . 

Celestial Music,. William Shakespere. 

“How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this 
bank!” 

Chambered Nautilus,. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“This is the ship of pearl which poets feign.” 

Charge of the Light Brigade. Alfred Tennyson. 

“Half a league, half a league.” 

Charles XII.,. Samuel Johnson. 

“ On what foundation stands the warrior’s pride? ” 

Child Musician, The,. Austin Dobson. 

“He had played for his lordship’s levee.” 

Children, The,. Charles M. Dickinson. 

“When the lessons and tasks are all ended.” 


Children’s Hour,. H. W. Longfellow. 

“Between the dark and the daylight.” 

Choir Invisible, The. George Eliot. 

“O, may I join the choir invisible.” 

Christmas Hymn,. Alfred Domet. 

“It was the calm and silent night.” 

Christmas Hymn,. Charles Wesley. 

“Hark, the herald angels sing.” 

Christmas Bells,. II. W. Longfellow. 

“I heard the bells on Christmas Day.” 

Clear the Way,. Charles Mackay. 

“Men of thought, be up and stirring.” 

Closing Scene, The,. Buchanan Read. 

“ Within the sober realm of leafless trees.” 

Closing Year,. George D. Prentiss. 

“ ’Tis midnight’s holy hour,— and silence now.” 

Cloud, The,. Percy Bysshe Shelley. 

“ I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.” 

Cornin’ Through the Rye,. Robert Burns. 

“Gin a body meet a body.” 

Concord Bridge,. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

“By the rude bridge that arched the flood.” 

Contentment. Edward Dyer. 

“My mind to me a kingdom is.” 

Cover Them Over,. Will Carleton. 

“Cover them over with beautiful flowers.” 

Cowper’s Grave,. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 

“It is a place where poets crowned may feel the 
heart’s decaying.” 

Cradle Song. Alfred Tennyson. 

“Sweet and low, sweet and low.” 

Crossing the Bar. Alfred Tennyson. 

“Sunset and evening star and one clear call for 

_ I } 

me. 


Cry of the Children, . . . Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 
“Do you hear the children weeping, O, my 
brothers? ” 

Curfew must not Ring Tonight, . . . Rose H. Thorpe. 
“England’s sun was slowly setting.” 

Culprit Fay,. Joseph Rodman Drake. 

“’Tis the middle watch of a summer’s night.” 

Cupid Grown Careful, ......... George Croly. 

“There was once a gentle time.” 

Cry of the Dreamer,. John Boyle O'Reilly. 

“I’m tired of planning and toiling.” 

Daffodils,. William Wordsworth. 

“I wandered lonely as a cloud.” 

Death of the Flower,. William Cullen Bryant. 

“The melancholy days have come.” 

Death of the Brave, . . William Collins. 

“How sleep the brave, who sink to rest.” 

Deserted Village, The,. Oliver Goldsmith. 

“Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain.” 

Destruction of Sennacherub,. Lord Byron. 

“The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the 
fold.” 

Dirge. Sir Walter Scott. 

“Soldier rest, thy warfare o’er.” 

Domestic Peace,. Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 

“Tell me, on what holy ground.” 

Dorothy Q.,. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“Grandmother’s mother, her age, I guess.” 

Dream Ship, The,. Eugene Field. 

“When the world is fast asleep.” 

Drifting,. Thomas B. Read. 

“My soul to-day is far away.” 

Driving Home the Cows,. Kate Osgood. 

“Out of the clover and blue-eyed grass.” 

Dying Christian to His Soul. Alexander Pope. 

“Vital spark of heavenly flame.” 

Each and All, . Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“Little thinks in the field yon red-cloaked clown.” 


Easter Flowers,. Phillips Brooks. 

“O garden by the city gate.” 

Elegy in a Country Churchyard, .... Thomas Gray. 
“The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.” 

End of Life, The, . Philip James Bailey. 

“We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not 
breaths.” 

End of the Play, .... William Makepeace Thackeray. 
“The play is done — the curtain drops.” 

Erl King. Goethe. 

“ Who rideth so late through the night wind wild.” 

Eve of St. Agnes, . John Keats. 

“St. Agnes’ Eve,— Ah, bitter chill it was.” 

Evening Cloud. John Wilson. 

“A cloud lay cradled near the setting sun.” 

Evelyn Hope,. Robert Browning. 

“Beautiful Evelyn Hope is dead.” 

Evening in Paradise. John Milton. 

“Now came still Evening on, and Twilight gray.” 

Evening, Ode to,. Joseph Addison. 

“The spacious firmament on high.” 

Evening Prayer,. James Edmonston. 

“Saviour breathe an evening blessing.” 

Fairies, The,. William Allingham. 

“Up the airy mountain.” 

Family Meeting,. Charles Sprague. 

“We are all here! father, mother, sister, brother.” 

Farewell,. Charles Kingsley. 

“My fairest child, I have no song to give you.” 

Fare Thee Well,. Lord Byron. 

“Fare thee well, and if forever.” 

Fire of Driftwood. Henry W. Longfellow. 

“We sat within the farmhouse old.” 

First Snow Fall,. James Russell Lowell. 

“The snow had begun in the gloaming.” 

Five,. Julia C. R. Dorr. 

“ ‘But a week is so long,’ he said.” 

Flight of Youth,. Richard Henry Stoddard. 

“There are gains for all our losses.” 

For ’a That,. Robert Burns- 

“Is there for honest poverty.” 







































































LITERATURE 


Friends Together,. Caroline Norton. 

“We have been friends together.” 

Good-bye, My Lover, Good-bye,. T. II. Allen. 

“My ship goes sailing down the bay.” 

Good Times Coming. Chas. MacKay. 

“There’s a good time coming, boys.” 

Good Night and Good Morning, . . . Lord Houghton. 
“ A fair little girl sat under a tree.” 

Graves of a Household, The, ..... Felicia Hemans. 
|f‘They grew in beauty side by side.” 

Grecian Urn, Ode on a,. John Keats. 

“Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” 

Hamlet’s Address to His Father’s Ghost, 

William Shakespere. 

“Angels and ministers of grace defend us.” 

Hamlet’s Soliloquy,. William Shakespere. 

“To be or not to be, that is the question.” 

Hannah Binding Shoes,. Lucy Larcom. 

“Poor lone Hannah, at the window, binding 
shoes.” 

Here and There,. Susan Coolidge. 

“We sit beside the lower feast.” 

Highland Mary,. Roht. Burns. 

“Ye banks and braes and streams around.” 

High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire, . Jean Ingelow. 
“The old mayor climbed the belfry tower.” 

Hohenlinden, . Thomas Campbell. 

“Oh Linden, when the sun was low.” 

Home, Sweet Home, ...... John Howard Payne. 

“ ’Mid pleasures and palaces, though I may 
roam.” 

Horatius. Lord Macaulay. 

“Lars Porsena of Clusium.” 

Hour of Death,. Felicia Hemans. 

“Leaves have their time to fall.” 

House Where I Was Born,. Thomas Hood. 

“I remember, I remember.” 

How They Brought the Good News, . Robert Browning. 

“I sprang to the stirrup and Joris and he.” 

Hymn Before Sunrise, .... Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 

“Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star? ” 
Hymn on the Morning of the Nativity, . John Milton. 
“It was the winter wild.” 

II Penseroso,. John Milton. 

“Hence vain deluding joys.” 

I'm Growing Old,. John G. Saxe. 

“My days pass pleasantly away.” 

I Love My Love. Charles Mackay. 

“That is the meaning of the song.” 

Inchcape Rock,. Robert Southey. 

“No stir in the air, no stir in the sea.” 

Ingratitude,. William Shakespere. 

“Blow, blow, thou winter wind.” 

Ivy Green,. Charles Dickens. 

“Oh, a dainty plant is the ivy green.” 

Jerusalem, the Golden,. Gerald Massey. 

“Jerusalem, the golden, I weary for one gleam.” 

John Anderson.. Robert Burns. 

“John Anderson, my jo, John.” 

John Gilpin, . William Cowper. 

“John Gilpin was a citizen.” 

King’s Guest, The,. Harriet Prescott Spofford. 

“ ‘Thou shalt die,’ said the priest to the king.” 

Knee-deep in June,. James Whitcomb Riley. 

“Tell you what I like the best.” 

Ladder of St. Augustine, .... Henry W. Longfellow. 
“St. Augustine, well hast thou said.” 

L’Allegro,. John Milton. 

“Hence, loathed melancholy.” 

Landing of the Pilgrims. Felicia Hemans. 

“The breaking waves dashed high.” 

Land o’ the Leal. Caroline Oliphant. 

“I’m wearin’ awa’, John.” 

Last Leaf,. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“If I should live to be.” 

Light Out of Darkness,. William Cowper. 

“God moves in a mysterious way.” 

Little Boy Blue,. Abby Sage Richafdson. 

“Under the haystack, Little Boy Blue.” 


389 

Little Boy Blue. Eugene Field. 

“The little toy dog is covered with dust.” 

Little While, A,. A. H. Bonar. 

“Beyond the smiling and the weeping.” 

Lochinvar,. Sir Walter Scott. 

“The young Lochinvar is come out of the West.” 

Lord Ullin’s Daughter. Thomas Campbell. 

“A chieftain to the highlands bound.” 

Lost Chord,. Adelaide Proctor. 

“Seated one day at the organ.” 

Lost Leader, The. Robert Browning. 

“Just for a handful of silver he left us.” 

Lotus Eaters, The,. Alfred Tennyson. 

“ ‘Courage!’ he said, and pointed toward the 
land.” 

Love of Country. Sir Walter Scott. 

“Breathes there the man with soul so dead.” 

Love’s Immortality,. Robert Southey. 

“They sin who tell us love can die.” 

Lucy Gray,. William Wordsworth. 

“Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray.” 

Lux Benigna,. Cardinal Newman. 

“Lead kindly light, amid the encircling gloom.” 

Lycidas, ... John Milton. 

“Yet once more, O ye laurels, and once more.” 

Maid of Athens,. Lord Byron. 

“Maid of Athens, ere we part.” 

Man With the Hoe. Edwin Markham. 

“Bowed with the weight of centuries, he leans.” 

Marco Bozarris,. Fitz-Greene Halleck. 

“At midnight in his guarded tent.” 

Maud Muller,. John G. Whittier. 

“Maud Muller on a summer’s day.” 

Meeting of the Waters,. Thomas Moore. 

“There is not in the wide world a valley so 
sweet.” 

Melrose Abbey,. Sir Walter Scott. 

“If thou wouldst view fair Melrose aright.” 

Mercy. William Shakespere. 

‘ ‘The quality of mercy is not strained.” 

Mighty Fortress, A,. Martin Luther. 

“A mighty fortress is our God.” 

Miller’s Daughter,. Alfred Tennyson. 

“It is the miller’s daughter.” 

Milton,. John Dryden. 

“Three poets, in three distant ages born.” 

Mind Alone Valuable,. William Shakespere. 

“For ’tis the mind that makes the body rich.” 

Morte d’Arthur,. Alfred Tennyson. 

“So all day long the noise of battle roll’d.” 

Mother and Poet, .... Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 
“Dead! one of them shot by the sea in the east.” 

Music, . William Collins. 

“When music, heavenly maid, was young.” 

Musical Instrument, A, . . Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 
“What was he doing, the great God Pan.” 

My Ain Countree. Mary Demarest. 

“I’m far frae my hame.” 

My Mind, a Kingdom. Sir Edward Dyer. 

“My mind to me a kingdom is.” 

My Native Land — Good-Night,. Lord Byron. 

“Adieu, adieu! my native shore.” 

Nathan Hale,. Francis Finch. 

“To drum beat and heart beat.” 

Not as I Will,. Helen Hunt Jackson. 

“ Blindfoldeefcand alone I stand.” 

Ocean, The,. Lord Byron. 

“Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — 
roll!” 

Ode on Immortality,. William Wordsworth. 

“There was a time when meadow, grove, and 
stream.” 

Oh, Sleep,. Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 

“Oh, Sleep! it is a gentle thing.” 

Old Arm Chair, The,. Eliza Cook. 

“I love it — I love it, and who shall dare.” 

Old Aunt Mary’s. James Whitcomb Riley. 

“Wasn’t it pleasant, O brother mine?” 

Old Ironsides,. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“Aye, tear her tattered ensign down.” 



































































390 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Old Oaken Bucket,. Samuel Woodworth. 

“How dear to my heart are the scenes of my 
childhood.” 

Old Minstrel, The. . ... Sir Walter Scott. 

“The way was long, the wind was cold.” 

Old, Old Song, The. Charles Kingsley. 

“When all the world is young, lad.” 

Old Song, An,. Joanna Baillie. 

“The bride she is winsome and bonny.” 

One Hoss Shay. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

“Have you heard of the wonderful one hoss shay? 

On the Loss of the Royal George, . . William Cowper. 
“Toll for the brave I ” 

On Virtue, . Alexander Pope. 

“Know then this truth, enough for man to know.” 

Opportunity. John J. Ingalls. 

“Maker of human destinies am I.” 

Order for a Picture, . Alice Cary. 

“O good painter, tell me true.” 

Other World, The,. Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

“It lies around us like a cloud.” 

Paradise and the Peri,. Thomas Moore. 

“One morn a Peri at the gate.” 

Passionate Shepherd to His Love, Christopher Marlowe. 
“Come live with me and be my love.” 

Picket Guard,. Ethel L. Beers. 

“All quiet along the Potomac, they say.” 

Pictures of Memory. Alice Cary. 

“Among the beautiful pictures.” 

Pied Piper of Hamlin,. Robert Browning. 

“ Hamlin’s town ’s in Brunswick.” 

Planting the Apple Tree, . . . William Cullen Bryant. 

“Come let us plant the apple tree.” 

Power of Poetry to Confer Fame, . . Edmund Spenser. 
“The day I wrote her name upon the strand.” 

Prayer,. James Montgomery. 

“Prayer is the soul’s sincere desire.” 

Prisoner of Chillon,. Lord Byron. 

“My hair is gray but not with years.” 

Proud Miss MacBride, .. John G. Saxe. 

“O terribly proud was Miss MacBride.” 

Rabbi Ben Ezra. Robert Browning. 

“Grow old along with me.” 

Raven, The,. Edgar Allen Poe. 

“Once upon a midnight dreary.” 

Recessional. Rudyard Kipling. 

“Lord of our fathers, known of old.” 

Red Cross Knight,. Edmund Spenser. 

“A gentle knight was pricking on the plain.” 

Rhodora,. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

“In May when sea-winds pierce our solitude.” 
Rime of the Ancient Mariner, .... S. T. Coleridge. 
“It is an ancient mariner.” 

Ring Out, Wild Bells. Alfred Tennyson. 

“Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky.” 

Rock Me to Sleep, ........ Elizabeth A. Allen. 

“ Backward, turn backward, O time in thy flight.” 

Robert of Lincoln. Robert Browning. 

“Merrily swinging on brier and weed.” 

Rosary of Years,. Father Ryan. 

“Some reckon their age by years.” 

Rule Britannia... Thompson. 

“When Britain first at heaven’s command.” 

Sandpiper, The. Celia Thaxter. 

“Across the narrow beach we flit.” 

Sands of Dee,. Charles Kingsley. 

“O Mary, go and call the cattle home.” 

Seven Ages of Man. William Shakespere. 

“All the world’s a stage.” 

Sheridan’s Ride,. . T. B. Read. 

“Up from the south at break of day.” 

Sir Galahad,. Alfred Tennyson. 

“My good blade carves the casques of men.” 

Skipper Ireson’s Ride,. John G. Whittier. 

“If all the rides since the birth of time,” 

Skylark, To a,. William Wordsworth. 

“Up with me, up with me, into the clouds.” 

Skylark, The,. James Hogg. 

“Bird of the wilderness.” 

Skylark, Toa. Percy Bysshe Shelley. 

“Hail to thee, blithe spirit.” 


Sleep.. • Edward Young. 

“Tired Nature’s sweet restorer, balmy sleep. 

Sleep. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 

“Of all the thoughts of God that are.” 

Soldier’s Dirge, .. William Collins. 

“How sleep the brave who sink to rest.” 

Song from Cymbeline, . William Shakespere. 

“Hark! hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings.” 

Song of Doubt, A,. Josiah Gilbert Holland. 

“The day is quenched and the sun is fled.” 

Song of Faith, A, . Josiah Gilbert Holland. 

“Day will return with a fresher boon.” 

Song of Pippa. Robert Browning. 

“The year’s at the spring.” 

Song of the Camp.. Bayard Taylor. 

“Give us a song,’ the soldier cried.” 

Song of the Chattahoochee. Sidney Lanier. 

“Out of the hills of Habersham.” 

Song of the Fairy,. William Shakespere. 

“Over hill, over dale.” 

Song of the Shirt,. Thomas Hood. 

“With fingers weary and worn.” 

Song of Seven,.. Jean Ingelow. 

“There’s no dew left on the daisies and clover.” 

Songs of Innocence.. William Blake. 

“Piping down the valleys wild.” 

Sonnet to Milton,. William Wordsworth. 

“Milton! thou should’st be living at this hour.” 

Soul and Body,. William Shakespere. 

“Poor soul, the center of my sinful earth.” 

Soul’s Errand. Sir Walter Raleigh. 

“Go, soul, the body’s guest.” 

Spare the Tree,. George P. Morris. 

“Woodman, spare that tree.” 

Stanzas for Music. Lord Byron. 

“There’s not a joy the world can give like that 
it takes away.” 

Stars, The,. Lord Byron. 

“Ye stars! which are the poetry of heaven.” 

Stirrup Cup, The,. John Hay. 

“My short and happy day is done.” 

Sweet Content,. Thomas Decker. 

“Art thou poor, yet hast thou golden slumbers?” 

Tenting on the Old Camp Ground,. Kittridge. 

“We are tenting to-night on the old camp 
ground.” 

Thanatopsis,. William Cullen Bryant. 

“To him who in the love of nature holds.” 

To a Mountain Daisy, . . .. Robert Burns. 

“Wee, modest, crimson-tipped flower.” 

To a Mouse. Robert Bums. 

“Wee, sleekit, cow’rin’, tim’rous beastie.” 

To a Waterfowl. William Cullen Bryant. 

“Whither midst falling dew.” 

To Celia,. Ben Jonson. 

“Drink to me only with thine eyes.” 

To Mary in Heaven,. Robert Bums. 

“Thou ling’ring star, with less’ning ray.” 

To Night,. Percy Bysshe Shelley. 

“Swiftly walk o’er the western wave.” 

True Woman. William Wordsworth. 

“She was a phantom of delight.” 

Two Angels,. H. W. Longfellow. 

“Two angels, one of life and one of death.” 

Vagabonds, The,. J. T. Trowbridge. 

“We are two vagabonds, Roger and I.'* 

Valley of Silence, The. Father Ryan. 

“In the hush of the valley of silence.” 

Village Preacher, The. Oliver Goldsmith. 

“Near yonder copse where once the garden 
smiled.” 

Waiting,. John Burroughs. 

“Serene I fold my hands and wait.” 

When Malindy Sings, .... Paul Lawrence Dunbar. 
“G’way an’ quit dat noise, Miss Lucy.” 

We are Seven. William Wordsworth. 

“A simple child that lightly draws its breath.” 

Yankee Girl. John G. Whittier. 

“She sings by her wheel at the low cottage door.” 




























































































I 































I 





















I 

































































WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE 

















BIOGRAPHY 


Aaron, son of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of 
Levi, and the elder brother of Moses and Miriam. He 
appeared with Moses before Pharaoh, and was the first 
high priest of Israel, his sons being also consecrated to 
the priesthood. He shared the sin of Moses at Meribah, 
as well as its punishment, his death taking place shortly 
afterwards on Mount Hor. 

Abbey, Edwin Austin, R. A., was born in 1852, and 
began his art studies at the Academy of Fine Arts in 
Philadelphia. He stood in the foremost rank of painters 
of historical and subject pictures. All his works show 
his fine decorative instinct, and are painted with a rich, 
glowing palette. They are remarkable for the correct¬ 
ness of all archaeological detail. He acquired great fame 
as an illustrator of Shakespere, whose plays also sup¬ 
plied him with the subjects for some of his most success¬ 
ful pictures. Principal works: Richard III. and Lady 
Anne, King Lear’s Daughters, Hamlet, the decorative 
panels illustrating the Quest of the Holy Grail, in the 
Boston Public Library, Coronation of King Edward VII., 
Columbus in the New World. Died, 1911. 

Abbot, Ezra, LL.D., D.D., born in 1819. Amer¬ 
ican critic, very precocious as a child, graduated 
at Bowdoin College, and settled at Cambridge, gaining 
considerable reputation as a biblical critic. He con¬ 
tributed to periodicals, and also wrote several critical 
works, and in support of Unitarianism; the best known 
is that on “.The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel.” Died, 
1884. 

Abbott, Lyman, clergyman, author, editor “The 
Outlook”; born in Roxbury, Mass., December 18, 1835; 
graduated University of New York, 1853; practiced 
law; ordained Congregational minister, 1860; pastor 
Terre Haute, Ind., 1860-65; New England Church, New 
York, 1865-69; resigned pastorate, 1869, to devote him¬ 
self to literature. Edited “Literary Record ” of Harper’s 
Magazine; associate editor “The Christian Union” with 
Henry Ward Beecher, whom he succeeded as pastor of 
Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, May, 1888; resigned, 
November, 1898. Author: Jesus of Nazareth; Old 
Testament Shadows of New Testament Truth; A Lay¬ 
man’s Story; How to Study the Bible; Illustrated Com¬ 
mentary on the New Testament; Dictionary of Religious 
Knowledge (with late T. J. Conant); A Study in Human 
Nature; In Aid of Faith; Life of Christ; Evolution of 
Christianity; The Theology of An Evolutionist; Chris¬ 
tianity and Social Problems; Life and Letters of St. Paul; 
The Life that Really Is; Problems of Life; Life and 
Literature of the Ancient Hebrews; The Rights of Man; 
Henry Ward Beecher; The Other Room; The Great 
Companion; Christian Ministry; Personality of God; 
and Industrial Problems. 

Abd-ul-Hamid II., formerly Sultan of Turkey, 

was born in 1842, the second son of Sultan Abd-ul- 
Medjid. He was proclaimed Sultan in succession to 
his brother Murad V., who was deposed in consequence 
of his mental incapacity (August 31, 1876), and died 
on August 29, 1904. The succession to the throne, 
according to Turkish custom, vests in the senior male 
descendant of the house of Othman, sprung from the 
Imperial Harem. The Sultan does not marry, but from 
the inmates of the Harem selects a certain number who 
are known as ladies of the palace, the others occupying 
positions subordinate to them. All children born in the 
Harem are held to be of legitimate and equal birth. 
The eldest son of the Sultan only succeeds when there 
are no uncles or cousins of greater age than himself. 
Abd-ul-Hamid has several children. He was forced to 
abdicate the throne in May, 1909. 

Abelard, or Abailard (ab'-a-lard), Pierre, a French 
philosopher and ecclesiastic, was born in the year 1079, 
at Palais, near Nantes, in Brittany. He was celebrated 
for his learning and genius, and opened a school in Paris 
in 1103, where he taught philosophy with great success. 
His romantic love for Heloise, and the misfortunes which 
followed in consequence of his unhappy passion, have 
added greatly to his celebrity. He died at the priory of 
St. Marcel, near Ch&lons, in 1142. He was at first in¬ 
terred by the monks of Cluni in their monastery, but his 
remains were afterwards removed to the Paraclete (a 
monastery in Champagne, which Abelard had himself 
founded, and which was then a convent presided over by 


Hdloise); finally they were deposited, together with 
those of Heloise, in the cemetery of Pfcre la Chaise. 

Abraham (a'bra-ham ), the progenitor of the Hebrew 
nation, descendant of Shem, born about 1996 B. C., in 
Mesopotamia, died at the age of 175 years, and was buried 
in the Cave of Machpelah. Isaac and Ishmael were his 
sons by Sarah and Hagar, the latter being a slave. 

Abruzzi, Duke of the, prince of Royal House of 
Italy, was born in 1873; scientist, explorer, aeronaut, 
sportsman, litterateur; traveled round world as a youth; 
ascended Mount St. Elias, Alaska, 1896; his Arctic ex¬ 
pedition of 1899 penetrated nearest to North Pole up to 
that time; in 1906, he ascended the topmost height in 
the Ruwenzori Range, East Africa, for which he was 
eulogized by King Edward. 

Abu Bekr (a'bu ba'ker ), father-in-law and successor 
of Mohammed, born in 573, was elected Caliph over Ali, 
son-in-law of Mohammed, and the contest caused a 
schism in the Church, which still exists. Died, 634. 

Adams, Charles Francis, born in 1807; son of 
J. Q. Adams; spent his childhood in Europe, and, 
returning to America, graduated at Harvard College, 
1825. He was educated for the law, but, adopting 
politics, eventually joined the coalition now known 
as the Republican party, and was appointed minister 
to England, 1861-68. He was arbitrator for America 
for the settlement of claims under the Treaty of Wash¬ 
ington, 1871, and continued to take an active interest 
in political life. He wrote biographies of his father and 
grandfather. Died, 1886. 

Adams, Charles Francis, history writer; born in 
Boston, May 27, 1835; graduated at Harvard, 1856 (LL. 
D., 1895); admitted to bar, 1858; served in Union Army 
through Civil War; brevetted brigadier-general, United 
States Army, 1865. Became identified with railway 
interests; appointed member board of railway com¬ 
missioners of Massachusetts, 1869; president Union Pacific 
Railway, 1884-90; president Massachusetts Historical 
Society, 1895. Author: Chapters on Erie and Other 
Essays; Railroads, their Origin and Problems; Notes 
on Railway Accidents; Massachusetts, Its Historians 
and Its History; Three Episodes of Massachusetts His¬ 
tory; Life of Charles Francis Adams; Richard Henry 
Dana, a Biography; A College Fetich; Lee at Appomat¬ 
tox, and other papers. 

Adams, Henry, author; born in Boston, February 
16, 1838; graduate Harvard, 1858; private secretary to 
his father, who was American Minister at London, 1861- 
68; assistant professor history Harvard, 1870-77; editor 
“ North American Review,” 1870-76. Author: Essays in 
Anglo-Saxon Law; Historical Essays; Life of Albert 
Gallatin; John Randolph; Documents Relating to New 
England Federalism; History of United States (9 vols.); 
etc. 

Adams, Henry Carter, professor political economy 
and finance, University of Michigan, since 1887; born 
in Davenport, la., 1851; graduate Iowa College, 1874; 
lecturer in Cornell and University of Michigan, 1880-87, 
also in Johns Hopkins, 1880-82; director division trans¬ 
portation, 11th census; statistician, Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission, 1887-1911; president American 
Economic Association, 1895-97. Author: Outline of 
Lectures on Political Economy; State in Relation to 
Industrial Action; Taxation in the United States; Pub¬ 
lic Debts; The Science of Finance; Statistics of Rail¬ 
ways; and Economics and Jurisprudence. 

Adams, John, born in 1735; second President of the 
United States; graduated at Harvard, and was admitted 
to the bar, 1758. He was one of the delegates at the 
Congress at Philadelphia, 1774, and throughout encour¬ 
aged the movement for independence, in which, as chair¬ 
man of the board of war, he took an active part. He 
was commissioner to the Court of France, 1778, and was 
sent on an embassy to England, 1779. He was elected 
Vice-President of the Union in 1789, and succeeded 
Washington as president in 1797, but in 1801 failed to 
gain reelection, and then retired from public affairs. 
Died, 1826. 

Adams, John Quincy, born in 1767; son of Presi¬ 
dent John Adams, and sixth President of the United 
States, studied at Leyden and Harvard, and was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in i 791. He entered the diplomatic 




394 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


service, and was successively American minister in Hol¬ 
land, England, and Prussia, and as a senator (1803-1808) 
he supported Jefferson’s Embargo Act. From 1806-1809 
he occupied the chair of rhetoric at Harvard College. 
After holding various offices, in 1825 he was elected Presi¬ 
dent of the United States, and being returned to Congress 
in 1830, became a vigorous supporter of the Abolitionists. 
Author of “Letters on Silesia,” “Lectures on Rhetoric,” 
and a poem “Dermot MacMorrogh.” Died, 1848. 

Adams, Maude, actress; born (Kiskadden) in Salt 
Lake City, November 11, 1872; her mother (stage name 
“Adams”) was leading woman of stock company there. 
Appeared on stage in child’s parts; went to school; joined 
E. H. Sothern Company, New York, at 16; ingenue role 
in the “Midnight Bell ”; afterward in Charles Frohman’s 
Stock Company; later supported John Drew; pro¬ 
nounced success in “Little Minister,” 1897-98; also in 
“ L’Aiglon,” “Peter Pan,” “What Every Woman 
Knows,” “Chantecler,” and in Shakesperian roles. 

Adams, Oscar Fay, author, lecturer upon literature 
and architecture; born in Worcester, Mass., 1858; gradu¬ 
ated at New Jersey State Normal School. Author: Hand¬ 
book of English Authors; Handbook of American Authors; 
Through the Year with the Poets (12 vols. edited); 
Post-Laureate Idyls; Chapters from Jane Austen (edited); 
Morris’s “Atalanta’s Race,” with Notes (edited); Dear 
Old Story Tellers; The Poets’ Year (edited); The Story 
of Jane Austen’s Life; The Presumption of Sex; Diction¬ 
ary of American Authors (5th edition enlarged); The 
Archbishop’s Unguarded Moment, and Other Stories; 
Some Famous American Schools. American editor of 
The Henry Irving Shakespere. 

Adams, Samuel, one of the leading men of the 
American Revolution; born in Boston, Mass., 1722. He 
displayed on all occasions an unflinching zeal for popular 
rights, and was, by the patriotic party, placed in the 
legislature in 1766. Adams was a member of the first 
Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence in 
1776; took an active part in framing the Constitution of 
Massachusetts, and was for several years president of the 
senate of that State. He held the office of lieutenant- 
governor from 1789 to 1794, and of governor from that 
time till 1797. Died, 1803. 

Addams, Jane (Miss), head resident of Hull House; 
born in Cedarville, Ill., September 6, 1860; graduated at 
Rockford College, 1881; spent two years in Europe, 
1883-85; studied in Philadelphia, 1888; in 1889 opened 
with Miss Ellen Gates Starr, Social Settlement of Hull 
House, Chicago; inspector of streets and alleys in neigh¬ 
borhood of Hull House three years; writer and lecturer on 
social and political reform. At the Progressive National 
Convention held, at Chicago in August, 1912, Jane 
Addams made a speech seconding the nomination of 
Theodore Roosevelt for president. Author: Democracy 
and Social Ethics; Newer Ideals of Peace; The Spirit 
of Youth and the City Streets; Twenty Years at Hull 
House; A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil. 

Addison, Joseph, born in 1672, passed from Charter- 
house school to Queen’s College, Oxford, and graduated 
at Magdalen College in 1693. He spent four years travel¬ 
ing on the Continent, returning in 1703, and in 1704, “The 
Campaign,” a poem celebrating the victory of Blenheim, 
brought him into favor. In 1709 he was sent to Ireland 
as secretary to the Lord Lieutenant. He contributed 
largely to the “Tatler” and “Spectator” from their 
commencement, and wrote 274 numbers for the latter. 
In 1713 he brought his tragedy of “Cato” before the 
public, and at Drury Lane it proved an unprecedented 
success. In 1716 he married the Countess Dowager of 
Warwick, and the following year was appointed secretary 
of state. Died at Holland House in 1719. 

Adler, Felix, educator, lecturer; born in Alzey, Ger¬ 
many, August 13, 1851; studied under Hebrew rabbi; 
graduated at Columbia, 1870; studied at Berlin (Ph. D.); 
professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature at Cornell, 
1874—76; established, 1876, New York Society for Ethi¬ 
cal Culture, to which he gives regular Sunday discourses. 
Professor of political and social ethics, Columbia Uni¬ 
versity, member of editorial board of International 
Journal of Ethics. Author: Creed and Deed; The 
Moral Instruction of Children; Life and Destiny; Mar¬ 
riage and Divorce; Religion of Duty. 

^Eschines, born 389 B. C., celebrated Athenian orator. 
Failing in an attack on Demosthenes, was twice sent on 
an embassy to Philip of Macedonia, and retired to Rhodes 
where he founded a school. Died, 314 B. C. 

^Eschylus ( es'-ke-lus ), an eminent Greek tragedian, 
born at Athens, 525 B. C. Of seventy-six tragedies 
which he wrote, fifty were crowned. Seven of them 
only remain; viz, “Prometheus Bound,” “The Seven 
Chiefs before Thebes,” “The Persians,” “Agamemnon,” 
“The Choephori,” “.The Eumenides,” and “The Sup¬ 
pliants.” In his old age, Aeschylus retired to the 


court of Hiero, King of Sicily. The oracle having 
predicted that the fall of a house should prove fata.1 to 
him, he went to reside in the fields, and was killed, it is 
said, by a tortoise which an eagle dropped upon his 
head. Died, 456 B. C. 

^Esop ( e'-sop ). A celebrated fabulist, said to have 
been born at Phrygia, about 620 B. C. He was as deformed 
in body as accomplished in mind, and was originally a 
slave at Athens and at Samos. Having gained freedom 
by his wit, he traveled through Asia Minor and Egypt, 
and attached himself to the court of Croesus, King of 
Lydia. Sent by that monarch upon an embassy to 
Delphi, he so offended the inhabitants by the keenness 
of his sarcasms, that they hurled him from a rock into 
the sea about 564 B. C. His history appears to be alto¬ 
gether legendary. 

Agassiz, Alexander, naturalist; born in Neuch&tel, 
Switzerland, December 17, 1835; graduated at Harvard, 
1855; Lawrence Scientific School, B. S., 1857; on coast 
survey of California, 1859; assistant in zoology, Harvard, 
1860-65; developed and was superintendent, 1865-69, 
Calumet & Hecla copper mines, Lake Superior; curator 
Museum Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, 1874-85; 
afterward engaged in zoological investigation. Appointed 
director Museum Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, 1902; 
appointed by Emperor William III. of Germany member 
Order of Merit, 1902; member of Academy of Sciences, 
Paris; president of National Academy of Science. Author, 
“Explorations of Lake Titicaca,” “List of the Echino- 
derms,” “Three Cruises of the Blake.” “Revision of the 
Echini,” “Pacific Coral Reefs,” “Coral Reefs of the 
Maldives,” “Panamic Deep Sea Echini,” etc. Died, 
1910. 

Agassiz, Louis Johann Rudolph, born 1807; emi¬ 
nent naturalist, was the son of a Swiss Protestant clergy¬ 
man. He studied medicine and graduated at Munich, 
but devoted himself principally to ichthyology, and was 
employed to classify and arrange the collection brought 
from Brazil by Martius and Spix. In 1846, he came to 
America, where he was well received, and accepted the 
chair of zoology and geology at the University of Cam¬ 
bridge (Harvard College). In 1865, he visited Brazil, 
and on his return placed the large collection he had made 
in the museum of Cambridge. He wrote numerous very 
valuable works, and was to the last a disbeliever in the 
Darwinian theory of evolution. Died, 1873. 

Agricola ( a-grick'-o-la ) (Cnseus Julius), a Roman 
governor of Britain under Vespasian, born A. D. 37. He 
subjected Scotland and Ireland; reduced the Britons; 
and, by his able government, preserved these territories 
to the Romans. Domitian, jealous of his success, 
recalled him; and Agricola withdrew to his estate, where 
he died in 93. His life, written* by his son-in-law, 
Tacitus, is extant, and is considered a model of biographi¬ 
cal writing. 

Aguesseau, Henri Francois d% born in 1668; orator 
and advocate, took part in the contest between the Pope 
and the Gallican Church, 1699; was made procureur- 
general in 1700, and defended the Gallican Church against 
the Ultramontane Party. After the death of Louis XIV. 
was appointed chancellor in 1717, but was twice deprived 
of the seals, retiring from Paris, 1722, but was finally 
restored in 1727. He was a great scholar and jurist. 
Died, 1751. 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, general, born in Imus, a 
village near Cavite, Luzon, May, 1870; educated at 
St. Thomas by the Dominicans. He is short of stature, 
with a Japanese cast of countenance. During the 
rebellion of the Filipinos against Spain he was in constant 
fear of assassination, as the Spanish Government offered 
a reward of $25,000 for his head. He was the chief of 
the insurgents and a capable man; acting as a dictator, 
he assumed sovereign power. In March, 1901, was cap¬ 
tured by General Fred. Funston, a Kansas volunteer, 
after being in constant flight. 

Alaric (al'-ar-ick). Two kings of the Visigoths have 
borne this appellation. Alaric I., after having despoiled 
several provinces of the Roman Empire, in the reign of 
Honorius, twice besieged Rome itself. At first he con¬ 
tented himself with levying heavy contributions; when 
he again invaded it, he plundered the city, and destroyed 
its noblest monuments. In 406, he extorted from Hono¬ 
rius the province of Spain, and a part of Gaul, and 
established the kingdoms of the Visigoths. He died 
in 410, while making preparations for the conquest of 
Africa and Sicily. Alaric II., eighth King of the Visi¬ 
goths, came to the throne in 484. Besides Spain, he 
possessed Languedoc, Provence, and various other tracts 
of country. Alaric held his court at Toulouse. Clovis I., 
King of the Franks, jealous of his power, carried war 
into the south of Gaul. A great battle was fought near 
Poitiers, in which Alaric fell by the hand of Clovis. 



BIOGRAPHY 


395 


Albertus Magnus, born 1193, a man of great sanctity 
and learning, was appointed Bishop of Ratisbon, and 
assisted at the General Council of Lyons in 1274. He 
left numerous works, and among his scholars was the 
famous Thomas Aquinas. Died, 1280. 

Albuquerque, Alfonso d’ ( al-boo-kair'-ka ), a Portu¬ 
guese Viceroy of the Indies, born in 1453, made his first 
expedition to the East in 1503, and in 1508 became 
governor of the Indies. After a just and humane rule, 
he died at Goa, 1515. 

Alcibiades (al-se-bi'-a-deez). A famous Athenian gen¬ 
eral, born at Athens about 450 B. C., and educated in 
the house of his uncle Pericles. He held joint command 
with Nicias over the expedition against Sicily; but, 
during his absence, being accused of impiety, he fled to 
Sparta, and then to Persia. Recalled to Athens, he 
forced the Lacedeemonians to sue for peace, and made 
several conquests, but again losing his popularity, he 
withdrew to the court of Pharnabazus, the Persian 
satrap, in Phrygia. His treacherous host, instigated by 
Lysander, King of Sparta, set fire to the place where 
Alcibiades lived, and in seeking to escape, he was assas¬ 
sinated, B. C. 404. 

Alcott, Louisa May, born in 1832, an American 
author. She began early to write, but met with no 
marked success till the publication of “Little Women’’ 
in 1868. She wrote many other books, the material for 
her first volume, “Hospital Sketches,” being gathered 
during her experience as nurse in the military hospital 
at Washington, where she went in 1862. Died, 1888. 

Alcuin, English theologian, especially noted as the 
coadjutor of Charlemagne in his educational reforms. 
At the invitation of that emperor he left England, and 
settled in France, where he founded several schools; but 
on being made Abbot of Tours he abandoned the court 
and devoted himself to theology. Born, 735, died, 804. 

Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth, United States Senator 
from Rhode Island, from 1881 to 1911; born in 
Foster, R. I., November 6, 1841; academic education; 
is engaged in mercantile pursuits. President of Provi¬ 
dence Common Council, 1872-73 ; member Rhode 
Island Legislature 1875-77, and its speaker, 1876-77; 
member of Congress, elected for terms 1879-83, but 
resigned to take seat in senate; Republican. He was 
chairman of Committee on Finance, and Republican 
leader in senate. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, American poet and editor; 
born in 1836. While engaged in the office of a New 
York merchant he began to write verses, the success of 
which soon induced him to enter on a literary career. 
His first volume, miscellaneous poems, was published in 
1855, and was called “The Bells”; afterwards, he 
published “Babie Bell,” several other volumes of poems, 
and “The Story of a Bad Boy.” Mr. Aldrich was an 
industrious contributor to our best periodicals, and was 
also on the editorial staff of the “Home Journal, ” 1856-59, 
and “Every Saturday.” In 1881 he became editor of 
the “Atlantic Monthly,” but resigned in 1890. Died, 
1907. 

Alembert (a-lon-bare') , Jean le Rond d’, a celebrated 
man of letters and a mathematician, the natural son of 
Madame de Tencin and the poet Destouches; was born 
in 1717. He was the friend of Voltaire, and acquired 
high esteem by his works, which fill eighteen volumes. 
His treatises on dynamics and fluids at once established 
for him a reputation in science. Died, 1783. 

Alexander I., Paulovich, born in 1777; Emperor of 
Russia and King of Poland. He succeeded to the throne 
in 1801, and showed himself a brave and judicious mon¬ 
arch. He entered into a treaty with England, Austria, 
and Sweden to resist the encroachments of France, but 
was defeated at the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and 
Friedland, and compelled to make peace with Napoleon 
at Tilsit. In 1812 war again broke out, and on the con¬ 
clusion of peace in 1814 Alexander visited England and 
Poland. He was succeeded on the throne by his brother 
Nicholas. Died, 1825. 

Alexander II., Nicholavich, Emperor of Russia, 
born in 1818; succeeded his father as czar in 1855. He 
married in 1841 Marie, daughter of the Grand Duke 
Louis II., of Hesse-Darmstadt. He terminated the 
Crimean War soon after his accession by the Treaty of 
Paris. Though trained by his father to a military life, 
he devoted himself to the internal affairs of his country, 
improved the popular education, and emancipated the 
Russian serfs. He waged war successfully on Turkey in 
1877-78. He was assassinated in the streets of St. 
Petersburg in 1881. 

Alexander III., of Macedon, surnamed “TheGreat,” 
born in 356 B. C., son of Philip. He was educated partly 
by Aristotle, and early gave proofs of skill and courage. 


A revolt of Thebes at the commencement of his reign 
was promptly quelled with great severity; then crossing 
the Hellespont, he marched against the Persians, whom 
he repeatedly defeated, conquering Phoenicia and Egypt. 
After the final defeat of Darius at Gaugamela, and the 
capture of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, Alexander 
commenced the conquest of India, but after crossing the 
Indus and penetrating almost as far as the Ganges, he was 
compelled to return to Babylon, but paused at Susa to 
celebrate his marriage with the daughter of Darius. He 
died at Babylon after a reign of about thirteen years; 
his body was embalmed and taken to Alexandria, which 
city had been founded by him and named in his honor. 
Died, 323 B. C. 

Alexander VIII. (Pope), Pietro Ottoboni, born in 

1610, Bishop of Brescia, and afterwards of Frascati; he 
became pope in 1689, and succeeded in reforming many 
abuses and re-establishing friendly relations with France. 
He placed in the Vatican the fine collections of books and 
manuscripts left him by the Queen of Sweden. Died, 
1691. 

Alexander Nevski, Saint, born in 1219, Prince of 
Novgorod. A brave soldier, his surname of “Nevski” 
was given him after a signal victory over the Swedes on 
the banks of the Neva. He submitted to Batu Khan, 
the Tartar Chief, who confirmed him in his dominions, 
and also bestowed upon him the sovereignty of Southern 
Russia. Died, 1263. 

Alexis ( a-lex'-is ), 3Iikhailovitch, a Russian emperor, 
born in 1629, came to the throne in 1645, and died in 
1676. He was the progenitor of Peter the Great. In his 
reign the laws of the kingdom were first printed, various 
manufactories established, Moscow beautified, and many 
new cities built. 

Alfieri (al-fe-a'-re) , Vittorio, a Piedmontese count, 
born in 1749. This distinguished poet is the author 
of several esteemed tragedies, sonnets, and other works 
of fancy. He is equally celebrated for his “liaison” 
with the Countess of Albany. Died, 1803. 

Alfonso I., of Asturias and Leon, born in 693; a wise 
and brave king, who, elected in 739, succeeded in expel¬ 
ling the Moors from Galicia, Leon, and Castile. He also 
established towns, built churches, and generally improved 
the internal condition of his country. Died, 756. 

Alfonso X., of Leon and Castile, born in 1221, suc¬ 
ceeded to the throne in 1252; aspired to be Emperor of 
Germany, and in 1257 divided the election with Richard 
of Cornwall. In 1272 he again unsuccessfully attempted 
to gain the imperial crown. He was driven from the 
throne by his son Sancho. He was the most learned 
ruler of his time. Died, 1284. 

Alfonso XIII., King of Spain, born in 1886, son of 
Alfonso XII. He acceded to the throne in his own 
right in 1902; married, 1906, Princess Ena of Batten- 
berg, niece of King Edward VII. 

Alfred the Great, born in Wantage, Berks, 849, the 
youngest son of Ethelwulf, King of the West Saxons, 
succeeded on the death of his brother Ethelred to a throne 
threatened by invasion from without and dissension 
within. His first care was to drive off the Danes, whom 
he is said to have encountered in fifty-six battles by land 
and sea. The great victory of Edington (878) led to the 
peace of Wedmore, and Alfred was thus for a time free 
to devote himself to the peaceful reforms for which his 
name is renowned. Prominent amongst these are the 
establishment of social order, the encouragement of 
learning, and the founding of a national fleet. Alfred 
died in 901, esteemed as a religious and industrious man, 
and a wise and learned king. 

Alger, Russell Alexander, senator, capitalist; born 
in Lafayette township, Medina County, O., February 
27, 1836; orphaned at 12 years of age and for seven 
years worked on farm, earning money to defray expenses 
at Richfield (O.) Academy during winters. Taught 
school two winters; admitted to bar, 1859; began prac¬ 
tice in Cleveland; removed to Michigan, January 1, 1860; 
began lumbering in a small way; enlisted, September 
2, 1861, and served as captain and major Second Michi¬ 
gan, lieut.-colonel Sixth Michigan, colonel Fifth Michigan, 
cavalry; brevetted brigadier-general and major-general 
volunteers. In lumber business after war; head of 
Alger, Smith & Co., and Manistique Lumbering Company, 
which owns and operates extensive timber tracts and 
mills in Michigan and Minnesota. Was Governor of 
Michigan, 1885 and 1886; a leading candidate for pres¬ 
ident in Republican National Convention, 1888; one 
term Commander-in-Chief of G. A. R.; Secretary of War 
of United States, 1897-99, resigned; appointed United 
States senator, September 27, 1902, to succeed James 
McMillan deceased, and elected February, 1903, for term 
expiring 1907. Author: “The Spanish-American War,” 
1901. Died, 1907. 




396 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Alison, Sir Archibald, born in 1792, son of a clergy¬ 
man. He was educated at the University of Edin¬ 
burgh, and called to the Scottish bar, becoming deputy 
advocate in 1822. But he is best known as an historian, 
his great work being “The History of Europe from the 
French Revolution to the Restoration of the Bourbons.” 
He died in 1867. 

Allen, Ethan, an officer of the American Revolution, 
born in 1737. He captured Forts Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point at the opening of the war. His troops were mostly 
from Vermont, and were called “Green Mountain Boys.” 
Died, 1789. 

Allen, James Dane, author; born in Kentucky, 
1849; graduate of Transylvania University; taught in 
Kentucky University; later professor of Latin and 
higher English, Bethany, West Virginia, College; since 
1886, given entire attention to literature. Author: 
“Flute and Violin,” “The Blue Grass Region and Other 
Sketches of Kentucky,” “John Gray, a novel;” “The 
Kentucky Cardinal,” “Aftermath,” “A Summer in Ar- 
cady,” “The Choir Invisible,” “.The Reign of Law,” 
“The Mettle of the Pasture.” 

Allen, Viola, actress; born in the South; daughter 
Leslie Allen, character actor, of old Boston family, 
and Sarah (Lyon) Allen, English woman of good de¬ 
scent; went to Boston when three years old; educated 
in Boston and at Wykham Hall, Toronto, and boarding 
school in New York. Made debut, Madison Square 
Theater, New York, in Esmeralda, at age of 15; after 
few months joined John McCullough Company, play¬ 
ing Virginia, Desdemona, Cordelia, etc. Subsequently 
played leading classical, Shakesperean, and comedy roles 
with Lawrence Barrett, Tommaso Salvini, Joseph Jeffer¬ 
son, and William J. Florence. Leading lady at Boston 
Museum for a season; also at Empire Theater in 1893, 
and four years following, creating and playing roles in 
“Liberty Hall,” “Scfwing the Wind,” "The Masquera¬ 
ders,” “Under the Red Robe,” etc. Starred, 1898, as 
Gloria Quayle in “The Christian,” by Hall Caine, and, 
in 1900, produced “In the Palace of the King,” by F. 
Marion Crawford and Lorimer Stoddard; starred, in 1902, 
as Roma in Hall Caine’s “The Eternal City.” In 1903, 
under management of her brother, began series of 
Shakesperean revivals, producing first “Twelfth Night,” 
in which she played “Viola” with success; in subse¬ 
quent seasons, she appeared as Hermione and Perdita 
in “A Winter’s Tale.” 

Allison William B., a distinguished American 
legislator, born in Ohio, 1829; educated at Western 
Reserve College and practiced law till 1857; emigrated 
to Iowa; served in the Civil War; was sent to Congress 
while that struggle was going on, and remained in Con- 

E ress as representative and senator from that time until 
is death in 1908, save in 1872-73. His influence was 
marked and salutary on the legislation of his day. 

Almanzor ( cd-man'-zor ) (surnamed the Victorious). 
The second caliph of the Abbassidian Dynasty, succeeded 
his brother, Abul Abbas, in 754. He exterminated the 
race of the Ommaiades, and in 762 founded the city of 
Bagdad, which became the capital of his empire. Sev¬ 
eral other Mohammedan princes, famed for their mar¬ 
tial achievements, also bore this name. He died in 775. 

Alma-Tadema, Laurence, born in Friesland in 
1836; painter; studied at the Royal Academy of 
Antwerp, and was afterwards pupil and assistant of 
Baron Henry Leys. He settled in England, where his 
pictures found a ready welcome. He was elected A.R.A. 
in 1876, and R. A. in 1879. Among his numerous works 
are “Phidias and the Elgin Marbles” (1868), “A Roman 
Emperor” (1871), “The Sculpture Gallery” (1875), 
“Sappho” (1881), and “.The Roses of Heliogabalus ” 
(1888). Died, 1912. 

Alstroemer (al-stro'-mer), Jonas, a Swede, born, 1685, 
remarkable for the great commercial improvements which 
he introduced into his native country. Of very humble 
origin, he was for a time unable to surmount the ob¬ 
stacles by which poverty depressed him. He visited 
England; and having minutely noticed the sources of 
its manufacturing prosperity, returned to Sweden, and 
obtained permission to establish a manufactory at 
Alingsas, in West'Gothland, his birthplace. So exten¬ 
sive and successful were the manufacturing and agricul¬ 
tural resources which he introduced into Sweden, that 
the state, in acknowledgment of his merit, conferred on 
him a patent of nobility, made him chancellor of com¬ 
merce, and erected a statue to his honor on the Stock¬ 
holm Exchange. Died, 1761. 

Alva, Ferdinando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of, 
born in 1508, Spanish governor of the Netherlands under 
Philip II. of Spain, and notorious for the merciless 
manner in which he exercised his dictatorial power. 
Under his rule more than 18,000 persons were sent to 


the scaffold, and a revolt, headed by the Prince of Orange, 
broke out, which, after nearly forty years of war, re¬ 
sulted in the independence of the provinces. Alva was 
recalled in 1573, but he was soon given the command 
of Portugal, which he quickly conquered. Though his 
pride and cruelty were excessive, he was undoubtedly 
the greatest general of his age. Died, 1582. 

Alvarado, Alonzo, one of the Spanish conquerors of 
Mexico under Cortez, and of Peru under Pizarro; he was 
defeated and made prisoner by Almagro. He afterwards 
joined De Castro (1542), and was lieutenant-general of 
the army which suppressed the rebellion of Gonzalo 
Pizarro in 1548. Died, 1554. 

Alvarado, Pedro d’, one of the Spanish conquerors 
of Mexico; he took part in the expedition and victories 
of Cortez, and was entrusted with the command of the 
city of Mexico, and afterwards made governor of Guate¬ 
mala and Honduras. He explored California, and was 
killed in 1541, soon after his return from an expedition 
against Xalisco. 

Amaral, Antonio Caetano do, born in 1747; a 

learned Portuguese historian and author of the valuable 
“Memoirs on the Forms of Government and Customs of 
the Nations that Inhabited Portugal.” Died, 1819. 

Amasis, or Amosis ( a-ma'-sis , a-mo'-sis), an Egyp¬ 
tian who, from a common soldier, rose to be a king of 
Egypt. He made war against Arabia, and died before 
the invasion of his country by Cambyses, King of Persia. 
Cambyses caused his body to be dug up, insulted, and 
burnt. 

Amaziah (am-a-zi'-d), the son of Joash, whom 
he succeeded as eighth King of Judah. He adhered 
to the worship of the true God, but permitted 
some idolatrous observances. Having arrogantly chal¬ 
lenged Jehoash, King of Israel, to battle, the armies 
met at Beth-she-mesh, where Amaziah was defeated, 
himself taken prisoner, and subsequently his city and 
palace were plundered. Fifteen or sixteen years after¬ 
wards he fled from conspirators, by whom he was over¬ 
taken and assassinated. Flourished in Eighth or Ninth 
Century. 

Amboise, George d’, born in 1460, a French cardinal 
and minister of state. He was successively Bishop of 
Montauban, Archbishop of Narbonne and of Rouen, 
and after acquiring considerable popularity as prime 
minister under Louis XII., was made cardinal and 
appointed legate in France, where he effected great 
reforms among the religious orders. Died, 1510. 

Ambrose, St. ( am'brdz ), a doctor in the Latin Church 
of the Fourth Century, was born at Treves, 340. Con¬ 
secrated archbishop of Milan, 374. Ambrose was repeat¬ 
edly, in the discharge of his duty to the Church, brought 
into direct conflict with the highest secular authority. 
He rebuked Valentinian, defied Maximus, and after the 
massacre of Thessalonica, compelled the great Theo¬ 
dosius to a humiliating penance before admitting him 
to Christian communion. To him is ascribed the noble 
hymn, “Te Deum Laudamus.” No father of the Church 
has a fame more wide, more beautiful, or more deserved. 
Died, 397. 

Amerigo Vespucci, born in Florence, 1451, was an 
Italian navigator who visited Brazil in 1503. He had 
previously made several voyages of exploration, and 
claimed priority over Cabot and Columbus in reaching 
the mainland, named in his honor America, but the best 
authorities consider this claim to be unfounded. Died 
in Seville, 1512. 

Ames, Fisher, born in 1758; American lawyer and 
politician, who sat in the Massachusetts Convention, and 
was afterwards a member of Congress, and famed for his 
eloquence. He retired from public life with Washing¬ 
ton, devoting himself to literary pursuits; declined 
presidency of Harvard College in 1804. Died, 1808. 

Ames, James Barr, dean Harvard Law School, 
1895-1910; born in Boston, June 22, 1846; graduate of 
Harvard, 1868 (1871 A. M.); Harvard Law School, 1872 
(LL. D.j University City of New York, University of 
Wisconsin, 1898; University of Pennsylvania, 1899; 
Northwestern, 1903; Williams, Harvard, 1904). Taught 
in private school, Boston, 1868-69; tutor in French and 
German, Harvard, 1871-72; instructor in history, 1872- 
73; associate professor of law, 1873-77, professor of law, 
1877-1910, Harvard. Compiled collections of cases on 
torts, pleading, bills and notes, partnership, trusts, 
suretyship, admiralty and equity jurisdiction; author 
of numerous articles in Harvard Law Review and other 
law reviews. Died, 1910. 

Amherst, Jeffrey, Lord, born in 1717; British 
general, served on the Continent and in America, where 
he succeeded Abercrombie as commander-in-chief. Here 
he was remarkably successful, and after many victories, 
Montreal surrendered and Newfoundland was recovered 






BIOGRAPHY 


397 


from the French. He was raised to the peerage in 
1776, and was appointed field marshal in 1796. Died, 
1797. 

Ampere, Andre Marie, born in 1775; a distinguished 
electrician, who may be considered the father of electro¬ 
magnetics. He first attracted attention by a treatise 
on the “Theory of Probability, ” published in 1802, and 
obtained a post as teacher, and ultimately as professor, 
at the polytechnic school in Paris. In 1820, Orsted’s 
discovery of the effect of voltaic currents upon magnetic 
needles was brought to his notice, and Ampere verified 
and completed this, and showed also the mutual effect 
of currents upon each other, from which he deduced a 
new theory of magnetism. The Royal Academy of 
Sciences recognized his services, and gave his name to 
one of the electro-magnetic units. Ampere’s last great 
work was the classification of the sciences, but this he 
did not live to finish. Died, 1836. 

Amphlctyon ( am-fik'-te-on ). One of the heroes of 
ancient Greece, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. On the 
dominions of his father being divided between him and 
his brother Helenus, Amphictyon reigned over Ther¬ 
mopylae, in the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Century before 
Christ. In 1497 B. C., he invaded Athens, which he 
consecrated to Minerva, and governed it as sovereign 
during ten years. 

Amundsen, Roald, explorer, discoverer of the South 
Pole, was born in Borge, Norway, 1872. Studied at 
Christiania; student of medicine two years; qualified at 
public school for sailors, Christiania, as first officer. At 
the age of twenty-five he became mate with the Belgica 
Antarctic expedition. In June, 1903, he sailed in the 
Gjoa and after two years located the North magnetic 
pole and the Northwest passage. In June, 1910, in Nan¬ 
sen’s famous ship, the Fram, he led the Norwegian Ant¬ 
arctic expedition which resulted in the discovery of the 
South Pole December 14, 1911. On August 20, 1912, he 
presented to the king of Norway the flag which he had 
carried to the South Pole. Made a member of the 
French legion of honor in 1912. Received gold medal 
from the national geographic society in 1913. Has 
announced arctic cruise in 1914. Author: “The North¬ 
west Passage,” “The South Pole.” 

Anacreon (an-ack'-re-on). A celebrated Greek lyric 
poet, born at Tens in Ionia, about 563 B. C. He 
was patronized by Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, 
and Hipparchus, the tyrant of Athens. He died 
at Abdera, suffocated by a grape-stone while in the 
act of drinking. His poems are chiefly devoted to the 
praises of love, pleasure, and wine. They were ad¬ 
mirably translated by Moore. 

Anaxagoras (an-ax-ag'-o-ras ), a Greek philosopher of 
the Ionian school, born at Clazomense, 500 B. C. He 
studied under Anaximenes, and, after traveling through 
all the known parts of the globe in search of knowledge, 
established himself at Athens, where he opened the first 
school of philosophy. He introduced the dualistic ex¬ 
planation of the universe, distinguishing sharply be¬ 
tween mind and matter. Pericles, Socrates, and Euripi¬ 
des were among his pupils. He was condemned to die for 
alleged impiety, a sentence which was changed to exile, 
whereupon he retired to Lampsacus, and there continued 
to teach philosophy until his death, 428 B. C. 

Anaximander {an-ax-e-man’-der ), a philosopher and 
famous mathematician of the Ionian school,- born in 610 
B. C. He was the first who noticed the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, and taught that the moon is indebted for her 
light to the sun, and that the earth is round. He con¬ 
structed a sphere to represent the heavenly divisions, 
and is said to have invented geographical charts and the 
gnomon. He also believed in a multitude of worlds. 
He died 546 B. C. 

Andersen, Hans Christian, the son of poor parents, 
was born in 1805 at Odense in Funen; he early showed 
a strong inclination for the stage, and at fourteen 
went to Copenhagen, where he obtained an engagement 
at the theater royal. His voice soon broke down, but 
through the kindness of Conference Councillor Collin he 
was admitted to the grammar school at Slagelse. His 
first prose work, a book of travels, was published in 1828, 
and was followed by others, as well as novels and poems. 
He is best known for his fairy tales, which are full of 
charm. Died, 1875. 

Anderson, Mary, born in 1859, at Sacramento, Cali¬ 
fornia; well known as an actress of great beauty and 
considerable dramatic taste; at 16 years of age made 
her debut at Louisville, Ky., as Juliet. She met with great 
success both in the United States and in London. 

Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, author; born at Albion, 
Dane County, Wisconsin, of Norwegian parentage, Jan¬ 
uary 12, 1846; graduate of Luther College, Decorah, 
Iowa, 1866; A. B., University of Wisconsin, 1885 (LL. D., 


1888); professor of Greek and modern languages, Albion 
(Wis.) Academy, 1866; instructor of languages, 1869-75, 
professor of Scandinavian languages and literature, 
1875-83, University of Wisconsin; United States minis¬ 
ter to Denmark, 1885-89; married July 21, 1868, to Bertha 
Karina Olson. Editor and publisher of “ Amerika ” since 
October, 1898. Author: “Norse Mythology, Viking 
Tales of the North,” “America Not Discovered by Colum¬ 
bus,” “.The Younger Edda,” “.First Chapter of Norwegian 
Immigration, 1821-1840”; also many translations of 
Norse books, and author of several works in Norwegian. 

Anderson, Robert, born in 1805; an American gen¬ 
eral, who served under Lincoln in the Black Hawk War, 
and distinguished himself in the Mexican War (1846-48), 
in the battle of El Molino del Rey. On the outbreak of 
the Civil War he was appointed to the defense of Charles¬ 
ton Harbor, and held Fort Sumter for two days against 
the Confederates; failing health prevented his taking 
further part in the war. Died, 1871. 

Andre, John, born in 1751; a British soldier who 
served in the war with America, and rose to the rank 
of major. He conducted the negotiations with Benedict 
Arnold for the betrayal of West Point, but being dis¬ 
covered in disguise, was arrested and put to death as a 
spy. His remains lie in Westminster Abbey, where a 
cenotaph was erected to his memory. Died, 1780. 

Andrea, Pisano, born in 1270; an Italian architect 
and sculptor, who produced many fine works in Florence, 
his greatest being the bronze figures in relief for the 
baptistery of St. John’s. Died in 1345. 

Andreani ( an-dra-a'-ne ), a distinguished engraver, 
who flourished in the Seventeenth Century. He obtained 
engravings worked by other hands, which he disposed 
of as his own. He engraved on wood in a peculiar style, 
known as “ chiaro-oscuro,” of which, however, he was 
not the inventor. One of his productions, “The Triumph 
of Julius Caesar,” from Andrea Mantegna, the original 
of which is at Hampton-Court, is cut on ten blocks of 
wood, and dated 1598. Andreani died at an advanced 
age,in 1623. 

Andrew, Saint, one of the twelve apostles, who be¬ 
fore his call was a disciple of John the Baptist. He was 
the means of bringing his brother, Simon Peter, to 
Christ, and is said to have preached the Gospel in various 
countries, and to have been at last crucified at Patrse in 
Achaia. 

Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, chancellor University 
of Nebraska, 1900-09, chancellor emeritus since 1909; 
born in Hinsdale, N. H., January 10,1844; served private 
to second lieutenant of Union Army in Civil War; 
wounded at Petersburg, August 24, 1864, losing an eye; 
graduate of Brown University, 1870; Newton Theological 
Institution, 1872-74; Principal Connecticut Literary Insti¬ 
tution, Suffield, Conn., 1870-72; pastor First Baptist 
Church, Beverly, Mass., 1874-75; president Denison Uni¬ 
versity, Granville, O., 1875-79; professor homiletics, 
Newton Theological Institution, 1879-82; professor his¬ 
tory and political economy, Brown University, 1882-88; 
professor political economy and finance, Cornell, 1888-89; 
president Brown University, 1889-98; superintendent 
schools, Chicago, 1898-1900; member of international 
monetary conference, Brussels, 1892, Loyal Legion. 
Author: “Institutes of Constitutional History, English 
and American,” “Institutes of General History,” “Insti¬ 
tutes of Economics,” “An Honest Dollar,” “Wealth and 
Moral Law,” “History of the United States,” “History 
of the Last Quarter Century in the United States,” 
“.History of United States in Our Own Times.” 

Andros, Sir Edmund, born in 1637; an English 
officer who served in the wars with the Dutch, and after¬ 
wards went as governor to various provinces of North 
America. He was recalled in 1698 from Virginia, but 
was afterwards appointed lieutenant-governor of Guern¬ 
sey. Died, 1714. 

Angell, James Burrill, educator, diplomat; born 
in Scituate, R. I., January 7, 1829; graduate of Brown 
University, 1849; professor modern languages and litera¬ 
ture, Brown, 1853-60; editor Providence Journal, 
1860-66; president of University of Vermont, 1866-71; 
president University of Michigan, 1871-1909, president 
emeritus since 1909; United States Minister to China, 
1880-81, acting as commissioner in negotiating important 
treaties; member Anglo-American International Commis¬ 
sion on Canadian Fisheries, 1887; chairman Canadian- 
American Commission on Deep Waterways from Lakes 
to Sea, 1896; appointed minister to Turkey, 1897, but 
resigned, 1898. Author numerous addresses and articles 
in leading reviews. 

Angelo, 3Iichael de Buonarotti, a distinguished 
painter, sculptor, architect, and poet of Italy. He was 
born in 1475, in the territory of Arezzo, in Tuscany. 
At an early age he became the pupil of Domenico Ghir- 



m 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


landajo, a celebrated artist of his day. He soon dis^ 
played such uncommon merit, that Lorenzo de’ Medici 
took him into his service. His mastery over the grand 
and terrible has never been equaled; and his correct 
design and knowledge of anatomy has not been attained 
by other artists. Several editions of his poetry have 
been published. Michael Angelo discontinued painting 
in his 75th year, and terminated his brilliant career at 
Rome, at the advanced age of 89, in 1564. He was 
splendidly interred in that city by Cosmo, Duke of Tus¬ 
cany, but his remains were subsequently, by command 
of that prince, removed to Florence, and deposited be¬ 
neath a magnificent monument, embellished with three 
statues, representing painting, sculpture, and archi¬ 
tecture. 

Anjou, Counts and Dukes of ( an-joo '), a powerful 
French family, connected with the regal house of Valois 
which maintained a considerable share of independence 
until the reign of Louis XI. One of its members, Fulke, 
became King of Jerusalem, 1131; and his son, Geoffroy, 
founded the royal house of Plantagenet. The second 
house of Anjou was a branch of the royal family of 
France. The title of Duke d’Anjou was also borne by 
several sons of kings of France, and lastly by a grandson 
of Louis XIV., who became Philip V. of Spain. 

Anna Comnena (kom-ne -na ), the daughter of Alexius 
Comnenus I., by his wife Irene, was born at Constanti¬ 
nople, in 1083. She devoted herself to the study of litera¬ 
ture and philosophy, and was esteemed the most learned 
woman of her age. After the death of her father, she 
conspired to depose her brother, and to place the crown 
upon the head of her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius. 
Her plot being discovered, she lost all her influence at 
court, and employed the last ten years of her life in 
composing a history of her father’s reign, called the 
“Alexiad.” Died, 1148. 

Anne of Austria, the eldest daughter of Philip III. 
of Spain, was born in 1601, and married Louis XIII., 
King of France, in 1615. Upon the death of her consort, 
in 1643, she was declared queen-regent, during the mi¬ 
nority of her son. She placed unbounded confidence in 
Cardinal Mazarin, whose rule was so unpopular that a 
civil war ensued, which compelled the queen and her 
son to fly from Paris, and to solicit the aid of the great 
Conde. In 1661, the young king assumed the reins of 
government, and Anne retired, to pass the remainder 
of her life in religious exercises. She died from the effects 
of a cancer in her breast, in 1666. 

Anne of Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XI., married 
Peter Beaujeu, Duke of Bourbon, and constable of 
France. She acted as regent of the kingdom during the 
minority of her brother, Charles VIII. Born, 1462, 
died in 1522. 

Anne Boleyn, the second queen of Henry VIII., was 
born in 1507. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas 
Boleyn, and a maid of honor to Queen Katherine, whom 
Henry divorced, that he might raise Anne to the throne; 
she became the mother of Queen Elizabeth. The fickle 
king caused her to be decapitated in May, 1536. 

Anne of Brittany, the daughter and heiress of Duke 
Francis II., was born in 1476. In 1491 she was united 
to Charles VIII., King of France, and governed the 
kingdom during the expedition of that prince to Italy. 
After his death, she married Louis XII. in 1499, over 
whom she exercised great influence. She died in 1514. 

Anne of Cleves, the fourth wife of Henry VIII., to 
whom she was married in 1540. She was the daughter 
of John, third Duke of Cleves. The match was pro¬ 
jected by Cromwell, and was partly the cause of that 
minister’s ruin. Henry put her aside, settled on her a 
liberal annuity, with which she was well satisfied, and 
she spent the remainder of her days in England, where 
she died in 1557. 

Anne, Queen of England, was the second daughter 
of King James II., by his first wife, Anne Hyde, and was 
born in 1665. In 1683, she married Prince George, 
brother to the King of Denmark, by whom she had a 
number of children, all of whom died young. Anne 
ascended the throne on the 8th of March, 1702. She 
established a fund, known as “Queen Anne’s Bounty,” 
for the augmentation of the livings of the poor clergy. 
During her reign (which was made illustrious by the mili¬ 
tary triumphs of the Duke of Marlborough), Sir George 
Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel conquered the fortress 
of Gibraltar, a possession which Spain has never been 
able to regain; and the legislative union of Scotland 
with England was effected. The glorious galaxy of 
writers, in almost every branch of learning, who flour¬ 
ished in her time, has caused it to be considered the 
Augustan age of British literature. She died on the 
1st of August, 1714. 

Annunzio, Gabriele d’, the pseudonym of the Italian 


poet Gaetano Rapagnetta; was born in* 1864, on a boat 
in the Adriatic; educated in a college at Prato, near 
Florence, and studied in Rome. He was elected, in 
1898, a deputy in the Italian Parliament. His first vol¬ 
ume of verse, “Primavera,” appeared in 1879, and was 
followed by “In Memoriam,” 1880; “Canto Novo,” 
1882; “Intermezzo di Rime,” 1883. His “Odi No- 
velli” reached their ninth edition in 1899. “Terra Ver- 
gine” appeared in 1882. Of his numerous novels, the 
first, “II Piacere,” obtained ten editions between 1889 
and 1898. He then turned to the drama, with “Un 
Sogno d’ un Mattino di Primavera,” “Gioconda,” “Fran¬ 
cesca da Rimini,” produced by Signora Duse at the 
Adelphi in 1903, and “Piu che 1’ Amore,” produced at 
Rome, November, 1906. 

Anselm, Saint, born in 1033; Archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury during the reigns of William Rufus and Henry I., 
to which post he was summoned from his position as 
Abbot of Bee in Normandy. He was a man of great 
piety and intellectual power, and firmly resisted the 
efforts of the king to despoil the Church of her dignity 
or revenues. He died at Canterbury in 1109 and was 
canonized in the reign of Henry VII. 

Anthony the Great, St. ( an'to-ne ), the founder of 
monastic institutions, was born A. D. 251 near Heraclea, 
in Upper Egypt. In 285, having sold all his property 
and given the proceeds to the poor, he withdrew into 
the desert whither a number of disciples were attracted 
by his reputation for sanctity; and thus was formed the 
first community of monks. He afterwards went to 
Alexandria to seek the honor of martyrdom amid the 
persecutions there raging against the Christians; but, 
as his life was spared, he again returned to the desert, 
and died at the great age of 105. 

Anthony, Susan Brownell, reformer; born in Adams, 
Mass., February 15, 1820; educated in school maintained 
by father for his own and neighboring children, Batten- 
ville, N. Y., and 1837-38 at Friends’ Boarding School, 
West Philadelphia. Taught school from age of 15 to 30; 
aided, 1852, in organizing the first State woman’s temper¬ 
ance society; active in anti-slavery and woman’s rights 
work; organizer and secretary of Women’s National 
Loyal League during Civil War. After war, was entirely 
devoted to the woman suffrage movement; founded, 
1868, “The Revolution,” exclusively woman’s rights 
paper; managed it several years; in 1869 organized, 
with Mrs. Stanton, National Woman Suffrage Associa¬ 
tion; joint author with Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton 
and Mrs. Matilda Joslyn Gage of “The History of Woman 
Suffrage” (3 volumes), and of Volume IV. with Mrs. 
Ida Husted Harper; contributed to leading magazines 
and lectured in England and throughout the United 
States. Died, 1906. 

Antigonus, Cyclops or “one-eyed,” a distinguished 
general of Alexander the Great, on whose death he be¬ 
came Governor of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, and 
after defeating and slaying Eumenes, and waging other 
successful wars, assumed the title of king. His am¬ 
bitious schemes united his rivals, and he was slain in 
battle at Ipsus, 301 B. C. 

Antioehus ( an-tl'o-kus ), a favorite royal name in 
ancient Syria, no less than eleven of her kings bearing it. 
The most noted was Antioehus III., the Great, contem¬ 
porary with Hannibal, 223 B. C., and Antioehus IV., 
his son. 

Antipater, born about 400 B. C.; a Macedonian, the 
friend and minister of Philip and Alexander the Great; 
during the absence of the latter was appointed regent 
of Macedonia and Greece, and in that capacity defeated 
the Greeks. On the death of Alexander, Antipater re¬ 
ceived the government of Macedonia. Died, 319 B. C. 

Antipater of Idumea, father of Herod the Great; 
took part in the disputes between Hyrcanus II. and Aris- 
tobulus II. He assisted in placing Hyrcanus on the 
throne of Judaea 63 B. C., and contrived to get the power 
in his own hands. He was afterwards appointed Procu¬ 
rator of all Judaea. Died, 43 B. C. 

Antoinette (an-twa-net') , Marie, Archduchess of 
Austria, was born at Vienna, November 2, 1755. She 
was the daughter of the Emperor Francis I. and Maria 
Theresa, and was given in marriage to the Dauphin, son 
of Louis XV., in 1770, being then 14 years of age. Her 
beauty and amiable conduct gained universal admira¬ 
tion. Her consort having ascended the throne as Louis 
XVI., during the troubles which occurred in the latter 
ears of his reign she became the object of popular 
atred. She was confined in the same prison with her 
husband for some time, but afterwards separated from 
him and detained in the Conciergerie, whence, after 
much suffering, she was carried before a Revolutionary 
tribunal in October, 1793, by judgment of which she 
suffered by the guillotine on the same day. 





BIOGRAPHY 


399 


Antommarchi (an-to-mar'-ke) , Doctor, a celebrated 
anatomist, born in 1780 in Corsica. When Napoleon 
was a captive he was selected to attend the deposed 
emperor. He remained with him in his last moments, 
and refused to sign the document prepared on the ex¬ 
amination of the corpse by the English surgeons. He 
died in 1838. 

Antoni'nus Pius, Titus, adopted son and successor 
of Hadrian, Emperor of Rome, was born in 86. His 
reign of twenty-three years was powerful and prosperous. 
He died in 161. 

Antony, Mark. See Mark Antony. 

Apelles (a-pel'-leez) , a celebrated Greek painter, born 
in the island of Cos, according to Pliny, but by some 
writers said to have been a native of Ephesus. During 
the reign of Philip, father to Alexander the great, Apelles 
visited Macedon. The monarch became his patron and 
friend, as did Alexander after him. The latter would 
not permit any one else to paint his portrait. His most 
famous works are ‘5Venus asleep,” and ‘‘Venus Anad- 
omene.” He died in the island which is supposed to 
ave been his native place. 

Apollodorus of Damascus, a great architect of the 
Second Century, worked at Rome for the Emperor Tra¬ 
jan, and built the forum and column which bear that 
monarch’s name, but his greatest work was a huge bridge 
over the Danube at its confluence with the Alt. He 
was banished and put to death by Hadrian. 

Apollonius ( a-pol-lo'-ne-us ), called the Rhodian 
(Apollonius Rhodius), was born in Alexandria, B. C., 
230. He presided over an academy at Rhodes, was an 
eminent rhetorician, and wrote a poem, in four books, 
on the expedition of the Argonauts, and other poems. 
This name was also borne by a mathematician of Perga 
in Pamphylia, who lived in 240 B. C.; by a Roman senator, 
and Christian martyr, who suffered in 186; and by a 
sophist, a stoic, and a Pythagorean philosopher. 

Apollos ( a-pol'-los ), a Jew born in Alexandria, and 
converted in the time of the Apostles to Christianity. 
In the year 54, being at Ephesus, and famed for elo¬ 
quence and Scriptural knowledge, he preached the gos¬ 
pel in the absence of St. Paul. At Corinth he preached 
with great success, and was there promoted to the dig¬ 
nity of a bishop. 

Aquinas ( a-kwi'-nas ), St. Thomas d’, popularly 
called the ‘‘Angelic Doctor,” was a descendant from the 
counts of Aquino, in Calabria. He was born in 1227, 
and in 1323 Pope John XXII. enrolled his name in the 
calendar of saints. His writings, which are very highly 
esteemed among Catholics, gave rise to a sect called 
Thomists. Died, 1274. 

Arago ( &r-a-go'), Dominique, a celebrated French 
hilosopher; was born February 26, 1786. In 1806, 
e was engaged, with Biot, in measuring an arc of me¬ 
ridian. His subsequent life was distinguished by an 
ardent and successful devotion to science; he was also 
eminent as a liberal politician. He died in October, 1853. 

Arbaces ( ar-ba'-seez ), a general of the Medes, who 
served under Sardanapalus, King of Assyria. Disgusted 
with the effeminacy of that monarch, Arbaces took 
arms against him, and compelled him to fly to Nineveh, 
where he committed suicide, when Arbaces ascended 
his throne, which he filled for twenty-eight years. 

Arc, Joan of, a celebrated heroine, otherwise called 
the Maid of Orleans, was born at Domremy, on the bor¬ 
ders of Lorraine, January 6, 1412. She was the daughter 
of humble peasants, and in her earlier years is said to 
have tended horses, and rendered other menial services 
as the servant at a small inn. In her eighteenth year, 
however, professing to have a divine mission to be the 
saviour of her country, she got herself- introduced to the 
Dauphin Charles, headed his troops, and infusing courage 
into his dispirited adherents, restored his fallen fortunes 
in a most incredibly short period, and secured to him 
the crown of France. Eventually she fell into the hands 
of the Burgundians, and having been delivered over by 
them to the English and their French partisans, the 
latter caused her to be condemned to the flames as a 
heretic and sorceress, in 1431. 

Archelaus, a Cappadocian, the distinguished general 
of Mithridates VI., flourished in the First Century B. C. 
After defeating Nicomedes III. at Amnias, 88 B. C., he 
sailed to Greece, captured Delos and other towns, and 
induced Achaia, Lacedemon, and Boeotia to form an 
alliance with Mithridates against Rome. Sulla besieged 
him in the Piraeus, and compelled him to withdraw his 
forces. Returning to the contest with a still larger 
army, Archelaus was again defeated and forced to retire, 
when, acting upon instructions received from Mithri¬ 
dates, he concluded peace with Sulla, but upon terms 
unsatisfactory to the king, and he finally deserted to the 
Romans, after which little is known of him. 


Archimedes (ar-ke-me'-deez) , a renowned mathema¬ 
tician, whose astonishing skill in mechanics was such 
that some of the greatest real triumphs of antiquity may 
be ascribed to him. His inventions amazed his contem¬ 
poraries : the lifting of weights by means of pulleys, and 
the endless screw, are among them. A Roman historian 
celebrates the warlike engines produced by the skill of 
Archimedes. His mind ever fruitful of extraordinary 
resources, when Syracuse was besieged by Marcellus, he 
constructed a burning-glass, on a scale of such magnitude 
that by means of it the enemy’s fleet was fired. Eventu¬ 
ally the city being taken, he was found among the slain. 

Argand, Aime', born in 1755, a chemist of Geneva, 
inventor of the Argand lamp, which he brought out in 
England in 1782. The patent was also claimed by a 
Frenchman, Ambroise Lange, and finally taken out in 
France in their joint names, the priority of invention 
being conceded to Argand. The French Revolution, 
however, deprived him of all profit from his patent. 
Died, 1803. 

Ariosto ( ar-e-os'-to ), Ludovico, a famous Italian 
poet. He was born at Reggio in 1474, and educated at 
Ferrara. His writings were numerous, but his ‘‘Orlando 
Furioso” is the work which established his fame. Died, 
1533.. 

Aristides ( ar-is-ti' -deez ), an Athenian patriot whose 
unbending integrity gained for him among his country¬ 
men the name of The Just. He distinguished himself at 
Marathon, Salamis, and Platsea. After gaining great 
honor for virtuous conduct, he died poor, 468 B. C. 
There were also, an orator of Adriani in Mysia, a Chris¬ 
tian philosopher in Athens, a painter of Thebes, a histo¬ 
rian mentioned by Plutarch as of Miletus, and a Greek 
musician, who bore the same name. 

Aristophanes ( a-ris-tof-a-neez ). The most cele¬ 
brated of the ancient Athenian writers of comedy, con¬ 
temporary with Socrates and Plato. He wrote fifty- 
four comedies, of which eleven only remain. In one of 
them, ‘‘.The Clouds,” Socrates (or rather the philosophy 
of the age) is held up to ridicule. The date of his death 
is not known. 

Aristotle ( ar'-is-tot-l ), a distinguished philosopher, 
born at Stagira in Thrace, 384 B. C. When twenty 
years of age, he had the advantage of being placed under 
Plato, who pronounced his eulogy by describing him to 
be ‘‘the mind” of his academy. His growing fame 
caused Philip of Macedon to make him tutor to his son 
Alexander. That prince is said to have profited from 
his sage counsel to restore towns that he had ruined. 
Pursued by envy, Aristotle was accused of impiety, and 
retired to Chalcis, where he died 322 B. C. 

Arius ( a'-ri-us ), a presbyter in the Church of Alexan¬ 
dria, who lived in the Fourth Century. His doctrine 
was that the Father and Son were essentially distinct. 
That the latter was created out of nothing by the will of 
the former. For this he was excommunicated and ban¬ 
ished, but having been recalled, was about again to enter 
the Church from which he had been exiled, when he sud¬ 
denly expired. The sect called Arians are named after 
him, but they do not adopt all his opinions. 

Arkwright, Sir Richard, born in 1732; a Lanca¬ 
shire barber, renowned as the inventor of the spinning- 
frame. Of humble birth, he exhibited considerable 
mechanical skill, joined with the greatest industry. In 
1767 he attempted to solve the problem of perpetual 
motion, and soon after, with the help of a clock maker 
named Kay, his spinning inventions began to take shape. 
He then entered into partnership with a firm of stock¬ 
ing manufacturers, and his invention was patented in 
1769, and though many difficulties arose, from infringe¬ 
ments of the patent, the hostility of the work-people, 
and disputes to his claim as the inventor of his machines, 
Arkwright was enabled to rise from poverty, and was 
chosen to present a congratulatory address to George III. 
in 1786, on which occasion he was knighted. Died, 1792. 

Armour, Jonathan Ogden, capitalist, packer; born 
in Milwaukee, Wis., November 11, 1863; entered Yale 
but did not complete course, yielding to request of 
father that he should return to Chicago and relieve him 
of some of his business cares. Now president of Corpo¬ 
ration of Armour & Co., packers, and director in other 
corporations. 

Arnheim or Amira, George, Baron von, born in 
1581, a distinguished general and politician, who took part 
in the Thirty Years’ War, serving successively under Gus- 
tavus Adolphus, Wallenstein, and the Elector of Saxony. 
After gaining the decisive victory of Liegnitz (1634) he 
retired to his estates, but was seized and imprisoned by 
the King of Sweden; he escaped, however, but died soon 
after. Died, 1641. 

Arnold, Benedict, born in 1741; American general, 
a brave but unprincipled man. At fifteen he enlisted in 
the English army, but soon deserted, and adopted a 



400 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


mercantile life. In the Anglo-American War Arnold 
took an extremely active part, his skill and gallantry 
being especially exhibited in the siege of Quebec and the 
victories of Ridgefield and Bemis. Meanwhile a party 
hostile to him had been growing up; his due promotion 
was deferred, several serious charges were brought 
against him, the fortunes of the Americans grew worse 
and worse, and he became affected with the prevalent 
spirit of desertion. Accordingly he entered into nego¬ 
tiation with the British commander, and treacherously 
asked and obtained the command of West Point, with 
the intention of surrendering it to the enemy; the cap¬ 
ture of Andrd betrayed his duplicity, and the traitor fled 
in disgrace to the English army at New York. Here he 
was appointed brigadier-general, and after serving 
against his countrymen, retired to London. Died, 1801. 

Arnold, Sir Edwin, born in 1832, died, 1904; jour¬ 
nalist and poet; educated at King’s College, London, and 
Oxford, where he won the Newdigate Prize in 1853. He 
was for several years principal of the Government San¬ 
skrit College at Poonah, Bombay Presidency, but resigned 
his post in 1861, when he first became connected with 
the London “Daily Telegraph,” for which he continued 
to write, finally being appointed editor. His “Light of 
Asia” (1879) achieved extraordinary popularity, and 
obtained him a high place among the poets of the day. 

Arnold, Matthew, born in 1822, eldest son of Dr. 
Arnold of Rugby, was educated at Winchester, Rugby, 
and Balliol College, Oxford, and was a distinguished 
critic, poet, scholar, and theologian. He was elected 
Fellow of Oriel College in 1845, and in 1851, after having 
been for some time private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 
he was appointed Lay Inspector of Schools under the 
Committee of Council on Education, in which capacity 
he twice visited the Continent for the purpose of collect¬ 
ing information, and which appointment he resigned in 
1886. His poetic activity was manifested in early life; 
for ten years (1857-1867) he held the chair of poetry 
at Oxford, and among his productions may be noted 
his Newdigate prize poem “Cromwell” (1843), “The 
Strayed Reveller,” and a volume of “New Poems” pub¬ 
lished in 1869. As a critic he holds a very high place. 
His later works were chiefly theological, being attempts 
to grapple with the supernatural aspects of Christianity 
from a rationalistic standpoint. “St. Paul and Protes¬ 
tantism” (1870), “Literature and Dogma” (1873), and 
“God and the Bible” (1875), are among his writings. 
Died, 1888. 

Arnold, Thomas, D. D., born in 1795, was educated 
at Winchester, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 
1815 he became Fellow of Oriel, obtaining in that year 
the Chancellor’s Prize for the Latin, and in 1817 for the 
English essay. After taking holy orders, he passed nine 
years at Laleham, near Staines, in literary occupations, 
and in preparing young men for the universities. Ap¬ 
pointed head master of Rugby School in 1828, he raised 
that institution beyond all precedent, both by the remark¬ 
able success of his pupils and by the introduction of new 
branches of study into the Rugby course. He was of 
the Broad Church school of thought, and a vigorous 
opposer of the then new Tractarian movement. In 1841 
he was appointed professor of modern history at Oxford. 
The best known of Dr. Arnold’s works are his edition of 
“Thucydides,” his “History of Rome” (unfinished), and 
his sermons delivered in the chapel of Rugby School. 
Died, 1842. 

Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus, wife and suc¬ 
cessor of Mausolus, to whose memory she erected a 
splendid monument, which has given to similar erec¬ 
tions the name of “mausoleum.” 

Artevelde, Jacob van, popular Flemish leader in the 
Fourteenth Century, assisted Edward III. in his French 
wars, and fpr nine years was practically ruler of Flanders. 
He determined to convert his country into a kingdom, 
and offered the crown to the Prince of Wales. This led 
to a tumult in which Artevelde was slain, 1345. 

Arthur, Chester. Alan, born in 1830; twenty-first 
President of the United States; took a leading part in 
the Civil War, and from 1871-78 was collector of the 
port of New York City. When Garfield was elected 
president, he was vice-president, and on the former’s 
assassination succeeded to the presidency. Died, 1886. 

Arthur, Julia, actress; born in Hamilton, Ont., 
May 3, 1869, of Irish and Welsh parentage; real name, 
Ida Lewis, stage name being taken from her mother’s 
maiden name of Arthur. At 11, played in amateur 
dramatic club, taking part of Gamora in “The Honey¬ 
moon ” and of Portia in “The Merchant of Venice”; 
three years later made professional d^but as the Prince 
of Wales in Daniel Bandmann’s presentation of “Rich¬ 
ard III.”; remained three seasons with that company; 
studied violin music and dramatic art in England; 


first New York success at Union Square theater in 
“The Black Masque”; later in A. M. Palmer’s company 
in several roles, notably in “Mercedes,” 1893; London 
d^but, February 1, 1895, in Henry Irving’s company, 
playing roles next to Miss Terry; especially successful 
as Rosamond in “a Becket,” with Irving and Terry in 
United States, 1896. Now, Mrs. B. P. Cheney, Jr. 

Asbury, Francis, born in 1745; the “Pioneer 
Bishop,” an English Methodist preacher who undertook 
an evangelistic mission to America in 1771, by the wish 
of John Wesley. In 1784 he was ordained Bishop of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church of America. Thence¬ 
forth his life was devoted with untiring energy to the 
organization and extension of that Church. Died, 1816. 

Aslimole, Elias, born in 1617; astrologer and anti¬ 
quary, held the appointment of Windsor Herald, and 
published the “History of the Order of the Garter.” 
He left many works, and presented to the University of 
Oxford his valuable collection of coins, specimens, and 
manuscripts. Died, 1692. 

Aspasia ( as-pa'-se-a ), a beautiful Athenian courtesan. 
Socrates is said to have been one of her admirers. In 
order to marry her, Pericles repudiated his wife. An 
affront offered to Aspasia is said to have caused the 
Peloponnesian War. 

Asquith, Rt. Hon. H. H., Prime Minister of Eng¬ 
land since 1908, was born in 1852, and entered the Brit¬ 
ish Parliament in 1886. He was educated at Balliol 
College, Oxford, and was admitted to the bar, Lincoln’s 
Inn, 1876. In the course of the Home Rule debates, he 
rose rapidly to the first rank in the House. He was 
entrusted with the conduct of the Disestablishment of 
the Church of Wales bill in 1894. On the defeat of the 
Rosebery Ministry in June, 1895, he resumed practice at 
the bar. He was one of the most effective speakers on 
the Liberal side during 1903 on the Education question 
and the War Commission’s report, and during 1903, 
1904, and 1905, in opposition to Mr. Chamberlain’s 
fiscal policy. Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1905-08. He 
introduced minimum wage bill passed by the British 
House of Commons, 1912. 

Astor, John Jacob, capitalist; born in Rhinebeck, 
N. Y., July 13, 1864; son of William, grandson of Wil¬ 
liam B., and great-grandson of John Jacob Astor; B. S., 
Harvard, 1888; traveled abroad, 1888-91; 1891-1912 

manager of the family estates; built (1897) Astoria 
Hotel, New York, adjoining Waldorf Hotel, which 
was built by William Waldorf Astor, his cousin, 
the two now forming one building under the name of 
Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, one of the largest and probably 
most costly hotels in the world. Was colonel, staff of 
Governor Levi P. Morton, and in May, 1898, commis¬ 
sioned lieutenant-colonel of United States Volunteers; 
presented to the government a mountain battery for 
use in war against Spain, said to have cost over $100,000. 
After assisting Major-General Breckinridge, Inspector- 
General U. S. A., in inspection of camp and troops 
at Chickamauga Park, Ga., assigned to duty on staff 
of Major-General Shafter, and served in Cuba in opera¬ 
tions ending in surrender of Santiago. Invented a 
bicycle brake, a pneumatic road improver, and an im¬ 
proved turbine engine. Author: “A Journey in Other 
Worlds,” etc. Died, 1912. 

Astor, William Waldorf, capitalist, author; born 
in New York, March 31, 1848; son of John Jacob and 
Charlotte Augusta (Gibbes) A.; great-grandson of John 
Jacob, founder of the Astor fortune. Educated by pri¬ 
vate tutors, finishing in Europe; entered office of the 
Astor Estate, 1871; succeeded his father, 1890, as head 
of the Astor family, with personal fortune estimated at 
about $100,000,000. Member of New York Legislature, 
1878-81; United States minister to Italy, 1882-85; 
removed to England, 1890; became owner “Pall Mall 
Gazette” and “Pall Mall Magazine,” 1893. Author: 
“Valentino, a Story of Rome”; “Sforza,”an historical 
romance of the Sixteenth Century in Italy, etc. Has for 
many years lived in England. 

Atahualpa, the last of the Incas of Peru, succeeded 
his father, Huayna Capac, in 1525, on the throne of 
Quito, while his half-brother, Huascar, although the 
rightful heir, obtained only the kingdom of Peru. The 
two brothers engaged in a struggle for supremacy, in 
which Huascar was defeated. The Spaniards under 
Pizarro, taking advantage of these internal dissensions, 
invaded Peru, and by an act of deliberate perfidy ob¬ 
tained possession of the person of Atahualpa, and at¬ 
tempted to compel him to acknowledge the King of 
Spain as master, and to embrace the Christian religion. 
His refusal was made a pretext for a massacre and the 
imprisonment of their king, whom the Spaniards in¬ 
duced to raise an enormous treasure in the hopes of 
regaining his throne. After a mock trial, however, he 
was condemned and strangled at the stake, 1533. 




BIOGRAPHY 


401 


Athanasius ( a-tha-na'-shus ), Saint, was born in 
Egypt about the year 296, entered the Church at an 
early age, and was chosen bishop of Alexandria in 326. 
He is esteemed one of the most eminent among the an¬ 
cient fathers of the Church. He was a violent opponent 
of Arius; and his earnest advocacy of the Catholic 
faith, more particularly of the doctrine of the Trinity, 
subjected him to much persecution from the emperors 
Constantine and Julian, by both of whom he was several 
times exiled, but he finally closed his days in tranquil¬ 
lity in 373, in the forty-eighth year of his prelacy. His 
works are numerous, but consist chiefly of invectives 
against his enemies, and controversial treatises against 
Arianism. The more important of his writings are his 
“Apologies,” “Two Books on the Incarnation,” “Con¬ 
ference with the Arians,” “The Life of St. Anthony,” 
“The Abridgment of the Holy Scriptures,” “Letters to 
Those that Lead a Monastic Life,” and “Letters to 
Serapion.” 

Athelstan ( dth'el-stan ), or ^Ethelstan, one of the 
ablest of the Anglo-Saxon kings, born about 895, suc¬ 
ceeded his father, Edward the Elder, 925. In 937 he 
gained a great victory at Brunanburh, over the Danes, 
Scots, etc., and reigned over all the island except Cum¬ 
bria, Wales, Cornwall, and Scotland, which were tribu¬ 
tary to him. Died without issue, 940. 

Athenagoras ( ath-e-nag'-o-ras ), a Christian philoso¬ 
pher, born in Athens, who lived toward the close of the 
Second Century. His conversion to Christianity has 
been likened to that of St. Paul. Writing against the 
Christians, in order to render his attacks more formid¬ 
able, he referred to the Scriptures, and by reading them 
was converted to the true faith. A “Discourse on the 
Resurrection of the Dead” and his “Apology for Chris¬ 
tians ” were much admired. 

Attila ( at'te-la ), a king of the Huns, who lived in the 
Fifth Century. He styled himself “The Scourge of 
God,” and devastated Lombardy. The city of Venice 
was founded by those who fled before him. On his 
death, in 453, his body was buried in three coffins, made 
of silver, gold, and /iron. The captives who dug his 
grave were put to death. 

Atwood, George, F. R. S., a distinguished mathe¬ 
matician, and author of many valuable scientific works, 
born in 1746, and died in 1807. 

Atwood, Thomas, born in 1765, was the son of a 
coal merchant. He commenced his musical education 
in the choir of the Chapel Royal under Dr. Nares. The 
celebrated Mozart, under whom he studied, thought 
highly of his talents. In 1796 he was appointed 
organist of St. Paul’s. He wrote coronation anthems 
for George IV. and William IV. Died in 1838. 

Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit, born in 1782; 
French composer, was intended for a business career, 
and it was not until he met with Scribe, in 1822, that 
his long course of successful composition commenced. 
“La Muette de Portici,” or “Masaniello,” as it is called 
in England, was brought out in 1828. He produced 
many other works which enjoy a European reputation, 
his last being “Le Reve d’Amour” (1870), composed 
shortly before his death. Died, 1871. 

Aubigne, Jean Henri Merle d’, born in 1794; 
Swiss theologian and writer, studied at Geneva and 
Berlin, and became professor of Church history at Geneva 
in 1830. He was author of “The History of the Refor¬ 
mation of the Sixteenth Century,” and other works. 
Died, 1872. 

Audubon, John James, born in 1780; a celebrated 
American naturalist of French descent; a pupil of the 
great painter David; from his childhood he was devoted 
to natural history, but it was not until 1830 that the 
first of the four volumes of his great work, “The Birds 
of America,” appeared. This magnificent collection of 
plates, which was sold for $1,000 a copy, was quickly 
followed by explanatory letterpress under the title of 
“.American Ornithological Biography.” Audubon also 
projected a similar work on the “Quadrupeds of Amer¬ 
ica,” but much of this work was done by his sons, John 
and Victor. Died, 1851. 

Auerbach, Berthold, born in 1812; German npv- 
elist, was a native of the Black Forest; his reputation 
was established by the publication, in 1843, of his “Vil¬ 
lage Tales from the Black Forest,” and this was followed 
by a number of other popular novels. Among his earlier 
works were a translation of Spinoza’s writings, and an 
essay on modern Jewish literature. He died at Cannes 
in 1882, shortly after the publication of “Brigitta.” 

Augustine, Saint, one of the fathers of the Christian 
Church, was born at Tagaste in Africa, in 354. In his 
youth he was favorable to the Manichean doctrines. 
Subsequently he became Bishop of Hippo, and wrote 
with great force against all whom he deemed heretics. 
He died in 430, Another St. Augustine (or St. Austen), 


called the “Apostle of the English,” was sent with a 
party of forty monks by Pope Gregory I. to preach the 
Gospel in England in 597, where he was advanced to 
be first Archbishop of Canterbury. The exact date of 
his death is not known. 

Augustulus, Romulus, the last of the Roman em¬ 
perors in the West, was the son of Orestes, who, after 
deposing Julian Nepos, advanced him to the throne. 
Odoacer, a barbarian, raised a mutiny against him, and 
having put Orestes to death, compelled Augustulus to 
resign his imperial dignity. He was then dismissed 
with his family, and allowed 6,000 pieces of gold annually 
for his maintenance in the castle of Lucullus in Campania. 

Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, a 
Roman emperor, born 63 B. C., was the son of Caius 
Octavius and Atia, niece of Julius Caesar, by whom he 
was adopted when but four years of age. He was in 
Epirus when Julius Caesar was assassinated, but speedily 
returned to claim his inheritance. Connected with 
Antony and Lepidus, Octavianus shared the guilt which 
stains the name of the triumvirate. His colleagues put 
aside, at the age of 36 he became emperor, with the 
title of Augustus. His reign was fortunate, good laws 
were framed in it, and the arts flourished under his 
protection. He died, A. D. 14. 

Aurelianus, Claudius or Lucius Domitius, Em¬ 
peror of Rome, born in 212, the son of a peasant; en¬ 
tered the Roman army, his exploits in which attracted 
the notice of the emperors Valerian and Claudius, and 
on the death of the latter in 270, he was proclaimed 
emperor. His short reign was a series of brilliant vic¬ 
tories: the Goths and Vandals were subdued, the 
Alemanni, who threatened Rome itself, were extermi¬ 
nated, Palmyra was sacked, and in the splendid triumph 
of Aurelian were led captive Tetricus, the ex-emperor 
of Gaul, Britain and Spain, and Zenobia, the renowned 
Queen of the East. A formidable rebellion at home was 
crushed with terrible sternness, and the emperor’s 
severity made him feared even by his friends, who, as 
they deemed in pure self-defense, conspired against him 
and put him to death, 275. 

Aurelius, Antoninus Marcus, born in 121 A. D.; 
Emperor of Rome, was the adopted son of Antoninus 
Pius, to whose throne he succeeded in 161, and took as 
associate Lucius Verus. Most of his reign was disturbed 
by wars with the Germans. Aurelius was distinguished 
for his love of truth and his adhesion to the Stoic school 
of philosophy, and his “Meditations” still exist, and 
give a trustworthy record of his private opinions. Died, 
180. 

Aurungzebe (aw-rung-ze'-be), Emperor of Hindustan, 
known as the Great Mogul, was born in 1618. The 
third son of Shah Jehan, he affected devotion in early 
life but subsequently, at the call of ambition, he deposed 
his father and put to death his two brothers and nephew. 
As emperor, his career was brilliant. He conquered 
Golconda, Visapour, and Bengal. His sons disturbed 
his latter days by attempting to depose him. He died 
in 1707. 

Austen, Jane, novelist: born in 1775, at Steventon, 
Hampshire, England, of which parish her father was rector. 
Her principal productions are “Pride and Prejudice” 
(composed 1796, published 1813),“ Sense and Sensibility ” 
(1811), and “Emma” (1816). They are distinguished 
for originality, naturalness, and fidelity of delineation, 
qualities in which the literature of her time was most 
deficient. Her family moved successively to Bath and 
Chawton, and she died at Winchester in 1817, and was 
buried in the cathedral. 

Austin, Alfred, born in 1835; critic, journalist, and 
satirical poet, was educated for the bar, but resigned 
that profession for literature. As a strong Conserva¬ 
tive, is one of the editors of the “National Review.” 
He succeeded Tennyson as poet-laureate. 

Averrhoes, the great Arabian philosopher, born 
about 1126, of good birth, and a pupil of Aven- 
pace and Avenzoar. He devoted his life to the study 
of Aristotle. He was banished for awhile from Cordova, 
and his views were condemned by the University of 
Paris in 1240. Died, 1198. 

Avery, Elroy McKendree, author; born in Erie, 
Monroe County, Mich., July 14, 1844; graduate of Uni¬ 
versity of Michigan, Ph. B., 1871; served in Civil War; 
mustered out at close as sergeant-major of 11th Michigan 
Volunteer Cavalry. Principal of high school. Battle 
Creek, Mich., 1869, and high and normal schools, Cleve¬ 
land, O., 1871-79. Member of Cleveland City Council, 
1891-92; of Ohio Senate, 1893-97; member of many his¬ 
torical and economic societies. Author: “Elementary 
Physics,” “Elements of Natural Philosophy,” “Physical 
Technics,” “Teachers’ Hand Book of Natural Philoso¬ 
phy,” “Elements of Chemistry,” “Teachers’ Hand Book 
of Chemistry,” “Complete Chemistry,” “First Principles 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of Natural Philosophy,” *1 Words Correctly Spoken,” 
"Columbus and the Columbia Brigade,” ‘ School Phys¬ 
ics,” "First Lessons in Physical Science,” "School Chem¬ 
istry,” ".The Town Meeting,” “History of the United 
States and Its People,” 16 vols. , , , 

Avicenna, Ibn Sina, born in 980; the celebrated 
Arab physician, a native of Bokhara, was author of the 
world-famed "Book of the Canon of Medicine. Died, 
1037. 

Baba, Ali, was elected Dey of Algiers in 1710, after 
the revolution in which Ibrahim Dey was killed. At 
great sacrifice of life, Baba liberated Algiers from the 
dominion of Turkey, and its independence was main¬ 
tained until the French invasion in 1830. Died, 1718. 

Bach, Johann Sebastian (bdk), an eminent German 
musical composer, born in 1685, became court organist 
at Weimar, and finally director of music at the school 
of St. Thomas, Leipzig. Bach was almost unrivaled as 
an organist. His works are thoroughly original, pro¬ 
foundly scientific, and most difficult of execution. 
Died, 1750. . , „ 

Bacon, Augustus Octavius, United States senator 
from Georgia; born in Bryan County, Georgia, October 
20, 1839; graduate of University of Georgia, 1859; law 
department of same, 1860. Served as regimental ad¬ 
jutant and staff captain in Confederate States Army ; 
in law practice in Macon since 1866; member several 
Democratic State conventions (president, 1880); dele¬ 
gate Democratic National Convention, 1884; several 
times candidate for Democratic nomination for gov¬ 
ernor of Georgia; presidential elector, 1868; member, 
1870-82, 1892, and 1893, speaker, 1873-74 and 1877-81, 
Georgia House of Representatives; Democrat. Elected 
to the United States Senate, 1894; reelected, 1900, 1907 
and 1913. 

Bacon, Francis ( ba'fcn ), Lord Verulam, and Viscount 
St. Albans, one of the greatest of modern philosophers, 
was born in London in 1561. Entering parliament in 
1593, he was knighted in 1603, and in 1613 became 
attorney-general and privy-councillor. The office of 
Lord Keeper was given him in 1617, and he was soon 
afterwards made Lord Chancellor. But from this time 
dates the beginning of his miserable fall. Complaints 
were made of his venality as a judge, which on inquiry 
by a parliamentary committee were verified; Bacon 
then made full confession, was deprived of his offices, 
fined, and imprisoned during the royal pleasure. He 
was ultimately pardoned, but continued to live in retire¬ 
ment, devoting himself to his favorite studies. The 
great aim of this extraordinary man was to reform the 
methods of philosophy: he recalls men from blindly 
following authority to the observation and examination 
of nature. His "Essays” were published in 1597, but 
his greatest works are the "Novum Organum ” (1620), 
and the "De Augmentis Scientiarum” (1623). Died, 
1626. 

Bacon, Roger, an English scientist and publicist of 
the Thirteenth Century, the most learned^ of his day, is 
reputed to have advocated the change since made in 
the calendar, to have invented gunpowder, and is known 
to have manufactured magnifying glasses. His great 
work, "Opus Majus,” urges philosophical reform, and 
is a marvel of learning and prophecy. 

Baer, George F„ railway official, lawyer; born in 
Somerset County, Pennsylvania, September 26, 1842; 
educated at Somerset Institute, Somerset Academy, and 
Franklin and Marshall College. At 13 entered office of 
"Somerset Democrat”; worked at printing trade over 
two years, and with his brother became owner of that 
paper in 1861. His brother went to the war and he con¬ 
ducted the paper; also studied law, principally at night. 
Raised volunteer company August, 1862; elected cap¬ 
tain, joined Army of Potomac at Second Bull Run and 
took part in all engagements up to and including Chan- 
cellorsville, when he was detailed as adjutant-general 
second brigade; resumed legal studies and was admitted 
to bar, 1864. Removed to Reading, 1868, gained large 
practice at Berks County bar; counsel for Philadelphia 
& Reading, 1870, and later a director, but resigned 
because unable to agree with president McLeod’s policy. 
For years confidential legal adviser in Pennsylvania of 
J. Pierpont Morgan; took prominent part in reorgani¬ 
zation of Philadelphia & Reading R. R., 1893; elected 
April, 1901, president of Philadelphia & Reading Railway 
Co., Philadelphia & Reading Coal & Iron Co., and Central 
R. R. Co., of New Jersey; took leading part for railway 
anthracite operators in negotiations and proceedings 
connected with the anthracite coal strike situation, 1902. 

Bailey, Joseph Weldon, United States senator, 
1901-13; born in Copiah County, Mississippi, October 6, 
1863; admitted to bar, 1883; presidential elector, 1884; 
removed to Texas, 1885, and began practice of law at 
Gainesville; presidential elector at large, 1888; member 


of Congress from 1891-1901; caucus nominee of his party 
for speaker and minority member; Committee on Rules 
of 55th Congress. 

Bailey, Liberty Hyde, director of College of Agricul¬ 
ture at Cornell since 1903; born in South Haven, Mich., 
March 15, 1858; graduated at Michigan Agricultural Col¬ 
lege, 1882, M. S., 1886; assistant to Asa Gray, Harvard, 
1882-83; professor of horticulture and landscape gardening 
at Michigan Agricultural College, 1883-88; professor of 
horticulture, Cornell, 1888-1903. Author: “Survival of 
the Unlike,” "Evolution of our Native Fruits,” "Lessons 
with Plants,” " Botany, an Elementary Text for Schools,” 
"Principles of Fruit Growing,” "Principles of Vegetable- 
Gardening,” "Plant-Breeding,” “Garden-Making,” “Hor¬ 
ticulturist’s Rule-Book,” "Principles of Agriculture,” 
"Nursery-Book,” "Forcing-Book,” "Pruning-Book,” 
"Practical Garden-Book,” “.The Nature-Study Idea,” 
"Outlook to Nature,” etc. Editor: "Cyclopedia of 
American Horticulture,” four volumes; "Rural Science 
Series,” "Garden-Craft Series,” "Cyclopedia of Agri¬ 
culture,” contributor to technical journals and popular 
magazines. 

Bajazet I., born in 1347; Emperor of the Turks, son 
of Murad I., whom he succeeded in 1389; began his reign 
with a series of conquests, crossing the Danube and finally 
defeating Sigismund of Hungary and his army of 100,000 
men. Ill health alone prevented his crossing the Alps, 
and he next turned to the conquest of Constantinople. 
Bought off for the moment, he was diverted' from the 
ultimate accomplishment of his design by war with Tam- 
berlaine the Great, by whom, in 1402, he was totally 
defeated and taken prisoner, dying shortly afterwards 
in 1403. 

Balboa ( bal-bo'-a ), Vasco Nunez de, a Spaniard, and 
one of the first Europeans to visit the West Indies, was 
born 1475. He established a colony on the Isthmus of 
Panama, and discovered the Pacific Ocean. He was 
accused of treasonable designs, and put to death by^the 
Spanish governor of Darien, Pedrarias Davila, in 1517. 

Baldwin I., younger brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, 
whom he succeeded as King of Jerusalem, 1100; reigned 
eighteen years. Died, 1118. 

Baldwin I., son of Baldwin VIII., Count of Flanders, 
born 1171, succeeded his father, 1195; joined the Crusade, 
he led the successful attack on Constantinople, and was 
crowned first Latin Emperor, 1204; defeated and cap¬ 
tured by the Bulgarians, 1205. Died, 1206. 

Baldwin, James Mark, psychologist; born in Colum¬ 
bia, S. C., January 12, 1861; graduate of Princeton, 1884; 
A. M., 1887; Ph. D., 1889; Sc. D., Oxford University, 
England, 1900; studied in Leipzig, Berlin and Tubingen; 
Instructor of French and German at Princeton, 1886; 
professor of philosophy, Lake Forest University, Illinois, 
1887-89; same, Toronto University, 1889-93; professor 
psychology, Princeton, 1893-1903; professor philosophy 
and psychology, Johns Hopkins, 1903-09, National Uni¬ 
versity of Mexico, 1909. Author: "German Psychology 
of To-day” (translated), ".Hand Book of Psychology,” 
" Elements of Psychology,” "Mental Development in the 
Child and the Race,” "Social and Ethical Interpretations 
in Mental Development,” "Story of the Mind,” “Frag¬ 
ments in Philosophy and Science,” “Development and 
Evolution.” Editor-in-chief, “Dictionary of Philosophy 
and Psychology.” His various books have been trans¬ 
lated into French, German, Italian, and Spanish. Edi¬ 
tor: "Psychological Review,” "Princeton Contributions 
to Psychology,” "Library of Historical Psychology.” 

Balfe, Michael William, born in 1808; musical 
composer; as a boy showed great musical talent, and at 
the age of 16, going to London, he was engaged in the 
Drury Lane orchestra. W T hile there he attracted the 
attention of an Italian nobleman, Count Mazzara, who 
took him to Italy to study music. After singing at Paris 
in the Italian Opera under Rossini, Balfe returned to 
Italy and produced in 1830 several operas. In 1835, he 
went to England as a vocalist and composer of opera, and 
after five years of successful composition he produced 
two operas in Paris. In 1843, his most popular work, 
"The Bohemian Girl,” appeared at Drury Lane, to be 
followed by several other operas before the fertility of 
Balfe’s genius was checked by a fatal attack of bron¬ 
chitis. Died, 1870. 

Balfour, Right Hon. A. J., English statesman and 
author, was born in 1848. Educated at Eton and 
Trinity College, Cambridge; was private secretary 
to Lord Salisbury 1878-80, and went with him to 
Berlin, in 1878; member of the so-called "Fourth 
Party”; president local government board 1885-86; 
secretary for Scotland, with a seat in the cabinet, and 
vice-president committee of council on education for 
Scotland, 1886-87; chief secretary for Ireland, 1887-91, 




BIOGRAPHY 


403 


and carried the Crimes Act through Parliament; created 
the congested districts board for Ireland, 1890; first 
lord of the treasury and leader of the house on the death 
of W. H. Smith, 1891, and again in 1895-1906. On the 
retirement of Lord Salisbury in 1902, he became prime 
minister and lord privy seal, retaining the office of first 
lord of the treasury. He introduced the education act, 

1902. When Chamberlain made his fiscal proposals, 

1903, Balfour, holding that the country was not ripe 
for the taxation of food, committed himself and the 
government only to a policy of retaliation. At the end 
of 1905 he and his cabinet resigned. Author of “A 
Defense of Philosophic Doubt,” “Essays and Ad¬ 
dresses” and “The Foundations of Belief, being Notes 
Introductory to the Study of Theology.” 

Ballinger, Richard A., lawyer, cabinet-officer; born 
at Boonesboro, Iowa, July 9, 1858; preparatory educa¬ 
tion at University of Kansas and Washburn College; 
graduated at Williams College, 1884; studied law; 
practiced in State of Washington; United States court 
commissioner, 1890-92; judge of superior court, Jeffer¬ 
son County, Wash., 1894-97; mayor of Seattle, 1904-06; 
commissioner General Land Office, 1907-09; secretary 
of the interior, 1909-11. Author: “Ballinger on Com¬ 
munity Property,” “Ballinger’s Annotated Codes and 
Statutes of Washington.” 

Ballou, Hosea, born in 1771; an American preacher 
and founder of the “Universalists.” He attained con¬ 
siderable celebrity in the United States. Died, 1852. 

Balmez, James Lucian (bal'meth ), a Spanish theo¬ 
logian, born in 1810, is the author of a valuable work 
entitled “Protestantism and Catholicism Compared in 
their Effects on the Civilization of Europe,” which has 
been translated into several languages, and is one of the 
most elaborate contributions to modern theological 
literature. Died, 1848. 

Balzac, Honore' de, born in 1799; French novelist, 
was intended for the law, but left the legal profession for 
literature, and under various assumed names produced 
rapidly. In 1826 he entered into partnership with a 
printer, but their publications were not successful; and 
Balzac, depending solely upon his pen for a livelihood, 
endured the greatest privations. He obtained no public 
recognition till the appearance of his “Physiologie du 
Mariage,” but afterwards he continued to write with 
increasing success. In 1850 he married a Russian lady, 
and after visiting Russia returned to Paris in broken 
health, and shortly afterwards died (1850). His col¬ 
lected works are included in forty-five volumes. 

Bancroft, George, American historian and diplo¬ 
matist, was born at Worcester, Mass., 1800. He gradu¬ 
ated at Harvard College, 1817; proceeded to Gottingen 
University, where he took the degree of LL.D., 1820; 
returned home and opened a school at Northampton. 
In 1845, he became secretary of the navy in the cabinet 
of Mr. Polk. In 1846, he was sent to Great Britain as 
minister plenipotentiary, remaining in that country till 
1849. In 1867, he received the appointment of minister 
at the Prussian court. His principal works are 
“ History of the United States,” and “ History of the 
Revolution.” Died, 1891. 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe, historian; born in Gran¬ 
ville, O., May 5, 1832. Entered bookstore of his brother- 
in-law, Geo. H. Derby, Buffalo, N. Y., 1848, and in 1852 
went to establish a branch in San Francisco; collected 
for Pacific coast history 60,000 volumes, and with aid of 
a staff of collaborators, published an historical series of 
39 volumes, covering the western part of North America; 
also “The Book of the Fair,” “The Book of Wealth,” etc. 

Baner ( b&'-ner ), John, a Swedish commander of a 
distinguished family, born in 1596. He was so much 
addicted to literary studies that Gustavus Adolphus 
styled him his “learned general.” He gained many 
victories; was revered for his humanity; and, having 
acquired a high reputation, died at Halberstadt in 1641. 

Barbarossa, Horukand Khair-ed-Din. The name 
given to two brothers of Roumelian extraction, whose 
naval exploits against the Christian powers in the Medi¬ 
terranean were famous in the early Sixteenth Century. 
After gaining possession of Algiers, Horuk was slain in 
battle against the Spaniards, but his brother, entering 
the service of the Turkish Sultan, defeated the Spaniards, 
and afterwards the Genoese fleet, ravaged the coasts of 
Italy, took Tunis, and in 1538 decisively defeated the 
combined fleets of the Pope, Venice, and Spain. Died, 
1546. 

Barham, Bichard Harris (better known by his 
literary nom de plume of Thomas Ingoldsby), an Eng¬ 
lish poet and humorist, born 1788, entered holy orders, 
and became celebrated by his popular lyrics, published 
under the title of the “Ingoldsby Legends.” Died, 1845. 

Barker, George Frederick, professor physics, Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania, 1873-1900, later emeritus pro¬ 


fessor; born in Charlestown, Mass., July 14, 1835; 
graduate Sheffield Scientific School, Yale (Ph. B.), 1858; 
M. D., Albany, 1863; was assistant in chemistry and 
later professor physiology, chemistry, and toxicology, 
Yale; taught in other colleges; United States Commis¬ 
sioner, Paris Electrical Exhibition, 1881; delegate to 
electoral congress and vice-president jury of awards; 
received decoration commander Legion of Honor of 
France; United States Commissioner Electrical Exhi¬ 
bition, Philadelphia, 1884; on jury of awards World’s 
Columbian Exposition, 1893. Expert in poisons, crim¬ 
inal cases; expert in Edison, Berliner, and other patent 
suits. Member many American and foreign scientific 
societies. For several years associate editor “The Amer¬ 
ican Journal of Science.” Author: “Textbook of Ele¬ 
mentary Chemistry,” “Physics,” etc. Died, 1910. 

Barnabas, Saint, a teacher of Christianity, con¬ 
temporary with the apostles, was a Levite and a native 
of Cyprus. His original name is believed to have been 
Joseph; that of Barnabas, or, “Son of Consolation,” 
being subsequently conferred on him by the disciples. 
He was one of those who, after the resurrection, sold 
their property, and laid the price of it at the apostles’ 
feet. It was by him that St. Paul was presented to the 
other apostles, three years after his conversion. He is 
described by St. Luke to have been a good man, full of 
the Holy Ghost, and of faith. It is said that he was 
stoned to death by the Jews of Cyprus, where, it is added, 
in the reign of the Emperor Zeno, about 488, his body 
was discovered with the gospel of St. Matthew, written 
in Greek, upon his breast. 

Barnard, Edward Emerson, professor of astron¬ 
omy, University of Chicago, and astronomer Yerkes 
Observatory; born in Nashville, Tenn., December 16, 
1857; graduate of Vanderbilt University, 1887; as¬ 
tronomer Lick Observatory, California, 1887-95. His 
principal discoveries are the fifth satellite of Jupiter (1892), 
and sixteen comets; has also made many other discov¬ 
eries and done much work in celestial photography, mak¬ 
ing photographs of the Milky Way, the comets, nebulae 
etc. Received Lalande gold medal, French Academy 
of Sciences, 1892; Arago gold medal, same, 1893; gold 
medal Royal Astronomical Society of Great Britain, 1897; 
Janssen Gold medal, French Academy of Sciences, 1900; 
elected foreign associate Royal Astronomers Society, 
1898; member many American and foreign societies; 
contributor to many astronomical journals. 

Bamum, Phineas Taylor, born in 1810; an Amer¬ 
ican showman and proprietor of “the greatest show on 
earth.” He was engaged in several professions, made 
and lost several fortunes, and his show was twice de¬ 
stroyed by fire. He brought out Tom Thumb, and 
introduced Jenny Lind to the American public. He 
twice visited Europe, the latter time in 1889. Died, 1891. 

Barrett, John, diplomat; born in Grafton, Vt., 
November 28, 1866; graduate of Dartmouth College, 
1889. Taught Hopkins Academy, Oakland, Cal.; 
assistant editor Statistician, San Francisco; on editorial 
staff newspapers San Francisco, Tacoma, Seattle; as¬ 
sociate editor “Telegram,” Portland, Ore., 1891-94; 
American minister to Siam, 1894-98, settling by arbi¬ 
tration claims involving $3,000,000 and securing first 
exact interpretation foreign extra-territorial jurisdiction 
Asiatic countries; undertook special diplomatic and 
commercial investigations Japan, Siam, Corea, Siberia, 
and India; war correspondent in Philippines, 1898-99; 
elected honorary member American Asiatic Association 
for services in development American commercial and 
political interests in Asia; American plenipotentiary to 
International Conference American Republics, Mexico, 
1901-02; commissioner-general of foreign affairs for St. 
Louis Exposition, 1902-03; offered post American min¬ 
ister to Japan by President Roosevelt, but declined 
December 10, 1903; American minister to Argentina, 
1903-04; American minister to Panama, 1904-05; Amer¬ 
ican minister to Colombia, 1905-06; since 1906, director- 
general, Pan-American Union. Contributor of articles 
for magazines and reviews on Asiatic and Latin American 
subjects. Author: “ Admiral George Dewey,” and sev¬ 
eral books on foreign affairs. 

Barrie, J. 31., also known as “Gavin Ogilvy,” was 
born at Kirriemuir, Forfarshire, in 1860. He was edu¬ 
cated at Dumfries Academy, and graduated M. A. at 
Edinburgh University in 1882. After holding a journal¬ 
istic position in Nottingham he went to London and 
wrote for the “British Weekly,” “St. James’s Gazette,” 
“Speaker,” and “National Observer.” His first volume, 
“Better Dead,” appeared in 1887; “Auld Licht Idylls,” 
“When a Man’s Single” and “An Edinburgh Eleven” 
in 1888; “A Window in Thrums” in 1889; “My 
Lady Nicotine ” in 1890; “The Little Minister” in 1891; 
“Sentimental Tommy” and “Margaret Ogilvy, a Mem¬ 
oir,” in 1896; “Tommy and Grizel” in 1900, and in 




404 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


1902 "The Little White Bird.” Mr. Barrie’s work for 
the stage includes "Walker, London,” in 1892; "Jane 
Annie,” written with Conan Doyle, and brought 
out at the Savoy in 1893; "The Professor’s Love Story,” 
"The Little Minister,” 1897; “The Wedding Guest,” 
1900; "Quality Street,” ".The Admirable Crichton” and 
"Little Mary,” 1903; " Peter Pan,” 1904; “Alice Sit-by 
the-Fire,” 1905, and " What EveryWoman Knows,” 1908. 

Barrow, Isaac, born in 1630; scholar and divine, 
and the preceptor of Isaac Newton. He earned a great 
reputation at Cambridge, and afterwards chiefly studied 
natural science, divinity, and the classics. After some 
foreign travel he entered the Church, in 1660 obtained 
the professorship of Greek at Cambridge and in 1662 that 
of geometry at Gresham College. The latter appoint¬ 
ment he resigned to Newton, and was appointed by 
Charles II. to the mastership of Trinity College, after¬ 
wards being chosen vice-chancellor of Cambridge Uni¬ 
versity. He died a little later (1677), with the reputa¬ 
tion of being one of the best wits and profoundest scholars 
of his day. 

Barrows, Samuel June, congressman, clergy¬ 
man; born in New York, May 26, 1845; graduate of 
Harvard Divinity School (B. D.), 1875. Before gradua¬ 
tion had been stenographer and journalist; pastor First 
Church (Unitarian), Dorchester, Boston, 1876-80; ed¬ 
itor “Christian Register,” 1881-97; member Congress, 
tenth district, Mass., 1897-99; represented United 
States on International Prison Commission, 1896; cor¬ 
responding secretary Prison Association of New York, 
1900. Author: "Shaybacks in Camp,” ".Isles and 
Shrines of Greece,” "A Baptist Meeting House,” "The 
Doom of the Majority of Mankind,” "Crimes and Mis¬ 
demeanors in the United States,” etc. Died, 1909. 

Barrymore, Ethel, actress; born in Philadelphia, 
August 15, 1879; daughter of late Maurice and 
Georgiana (Drew) B.; niece of John Drew; educated at 
Convent of Notre Dame, Phila. Made d^but in John 
Drew’s Company, 1896; starring under management of 
Charles Frohman; married Russell G. Colt. 

Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, a famous French 
artist and sculptor; born in Alsace, 1834. In 1887, he 
received the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Chief among 
his works are the "Lion of Belfort,” the statue of La 
Fayette in Union Square, New York, and the colossal 
figure in New York Harbor of "Liberty Enlightening 
the World.” Died, 1904. 

Bartholdt, Richard, congressman; editor "St. 
Louis Tribune,” 1885-92; born in Germany, November 
2, 1855; came to United States in boyhood; classical 
education; learned printing trade; since then in journal¬ 
ism. Was member board of public schools, St. Louis, and 
its president, 1891; member Congress, Tenth Missouri 
district, since 1893. President Interparliamentary Union 
for Promotion of International Arbitration. 

Bartholomew, Saint, one of the twelve apostles of 
Jesus. He preached the gospel in the Indies, in Ethiopia, 
and elsewhere. His labors are said to have been termi¬ 
nated by a cruel death, by his being brutally flayed alive 
in Armenia. The correctness of this statement, however, 
has been doubted. The Church of Benevento and that 
of Rome boast of possessing some of his bones among 
their treasured relics. 

Barton, Clara, founder and organizer of National 
Red Cross in United States, president 1881-1904; born 
in Oxford, Mass., 1821; graduate of Clinton Liberal 
Institute, New York. Taught school ten years; organ¬ 
ized system of public schools, Bordentown, N. J. Dur¬ 
ing Civil War did relief work on battlefields and organ¬ 
ized search for missing men (for the carrying on of which 
work Congress voted $15,000); laid out grounds national 
cemetery, Andersonville, 1865; associated with inter¬ 
national Red Cross of Geneva and worked through entire 
Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71 ; distributed relief in 
Strassburg, Belfort, Montpellier, Paris, 1871; secured 
adoption of treaty of Geneva, 1882; first president 
American Red Cross (official); appointed to represent 
United States in all international conferences: Geneva, 
1884; Carlsruhe, 1887; Rome, 1892; Vienna, 1897; St. 
Petersburg, 1903; inaugurated American amendment of 
Red Cross, to provide relief for great calamities; distrib¬ 
uted relief, Johnstown flood, 1889; Russian famine, 1892; 
Armenian massacre, 1896; at request of President of 
United States, carried relief to Cuba, 1898; did personal 
field work, Spanish-American War; conducted Red 
Cross relief at Galveston, Tex., after great disaster, 
August, 1900; president National First Aid Association, 
1905-12. Held decorations or diplomas of honor from 
Germany, Baden, Austria, Servia, Turkey, Armenia, 
Switzerland, Spain, Russia, Belgium. Author: "History 
of Red Cross,” "America’s Relief Expedition to Asia 
Minor,” "History of the Red Cross in Peace and War,” 
"Story of Red Cross.” Died, 1912. 


Basil, St., commonly called the "Great”; was born 
in Cappadocia about A. D. 329. He studied at Antioch, 
Ceesarea, Constantinople, and Athens. Having gained 
distinction as a professor of rhetoric, he visited the 
monasteries of Egypt and Libya, and in consequence 
embraced the monastic life. He was ordained priest by 
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, and on the death of Euse¬ 
bius, was elected to his see. He was much engaged in 
theological controversy, and boldly defended his opinion 
against the Emperor Valens. He died about 380. A 
monkish order was named after this saint. 

Bazaine, Francois Achille, a marshal of France; 
born at Versailles; distinguished himself in Algiers, 
the Crimea, and Mexico; did good service as commander 
of the army of the Rhine, in the Franco-German War, 
but after the surrender at Sedan was shut up in Metz, 
surrounded by the Germans, and obliged to surrender, 
with all his generals, officers, and men; was tried by 
court-martial, and condemned to death, but was im¬ 
prisoned instead; made good his escape one evening to 
Madrid, where he lived to write a justification of his 
conduct, the sale of the book being prohibited in France. 
Born, 1811; died, 1888. 

Beauharnais, Eugene de ( bo-hH/nai ), son of Jose¬ 
phine, wife of Napoleon I., adopted by the latter; born 
in 1781; served with distinction in the Napoleonic Wars, 
and was appointed Viceroy of Italy. After Napoleon’s 
fall he retired to Munich, and married the daughter of 
the King of Bavaria. Died, 1824. 

Beauharnais, Hortense Eugenie de, daughter of 
Josephine; born in 1783; was married against ner will 
to Louis, youngest brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, from 
whom she separated in 1810, after he was driven from 
the throne of Holland. Her son by him was Napoleon 
III. Died, 1837. 

Beaumarchais (bo-mar'shay) Pierre Augustin 
Caron de, born in 1732; a man of many-sided genius, was 
the son of a watchmaker. His musical accomplishments 
procured him a place in the royal concerts, and he became 
rich by the fortunes of two widows whom he married, 
and by successful financial speculation. He made an¬ 
other fortune by supplying arms and provisions to the 
Americans during the war of Independence, and then 
turned to dramatic writing, producing several highly 
successful pieces. In 1793 he was accused of treason to 
the state, and fled to England. Returning to France, 
he was for some time imprisoned, and finally died (1799) 
in poverty. 

Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant, born in 

1818; a general of the Confederate Army. He took up 
the cause of the Southern States, on their secession, and 
captured Fort Sumter. He defeated McDowell at Bull’s 
Run, and afterwards commanded the army of the Mis¬ 
sissippi. His obstinate defense of Charleston is one of the 
remarkable episodes of the Civil War. Died, 1893. 

Beck, James M., lawyer; born in Philadelphia, 
July 9, 1861; graduate of Moravian College, Bethlehem, 
Pa., 1880; LL. D., Muhlenberg College, 1902; studied 
law in office of Albert A. Outerbridge; admitted to 
bar, 1884; United States attorney for Eastern District 
of Pennsylvania, 1896-1900; assistant attorney-general 
of United States, 1900-1903; resigned April 30, 1903; 
republican. Has argued many important cases in United 
States Supreme Court, including the Neely case, and the 
Lottery cases; argued the Northern Securities merger case 
before circuit judges. Has delivered public orations on 
many notable occasions. Spoke for the American bar 
at dinner given in the Temple, London, by the bench 
and bar of England. As master appointed by United 
States Court sold, April, 1902, the "Philadelphia Record ” 
for $3,000,000 — highest price ever brought by an 
American newspaper at public sale. In 1902 negotiated 
purchase of “Philadelphia Ledger” and the merging of 
it with "Philadelphia Times”; part owner of "Ledger” 
company; entered law firm of Shearman & Sterling, 
New York, 1903, and removed to that city; also member 
law firm of Beck & Robinson, Philadelphia. Solicitor 
Fairmount Park Art Association; trustee Moravian 
College. 

Becket, St. Thomas a ( ah-bek'U ), Archbishop of 
Canterbury; born in 1118; was the son of a London 
merchant, his mother being a convert from Moham¬ 
medanism. After entering the Church, Henry II. made 
him chancellor of England, and in 1162 he was elected 
to the primacy. Dissensions, however, soon broke out 
between the king and Becket, the latter asserting the 
independence of the Church, and refusing to sign the 
"Constitutions of Clarendon.” Becket, having been 
condemned and suspended from his office by parliament, 
escaped to France, and a war with the latter country 
followed. In 1170, an apparent reconciliation was 
entered into, and Becket returned to England. Shortly 
after his arrival he was assassinated by the supposed 



BIOGRAPHY 


405 


order of the king, on the steps of his own altar, 1170. 
The king denying all share in the murder was absolved; 
but in 1174 did penance at his tomb. Becket was canon¬ 
ized by Alexander III. in 1172. 

Beckford, William, born in 1759; an English mil¬ 
lionaire and distinguished author. When only twenty 
he published a clever satire, “Biographical Memoirs of 
Extraordinary Painters.” After some foreign travel 
he entered parliament, and published his great work, 
“The Romance of Vathek,” in the French language, a 
book which excited the widest admiration. The chief 
episodes of the remainder of his life were the erection, 
at enormous cost, of two vast mansions in England and a 
“fairy palace” in Portugal. Died, 1844. 

Bede, J. Adam, congressman, journalist; born on 
farm, Lorain County, O., 1856; educated in Ohio public 
schools; learned printer’s trade; taught school; did 
work as reporter on newspapers West and South. Origi¬ 
nally Republican, but supported Cleveland in 1888 and 
1892; appointed United States Marshal for district of 
Minnesota but resigned within a year; returned to 
Republican party on financial issue, 1896; campaigned 
in several States, 1896, 1898, 1900. Member Congress, 
eighth Minnesota district, 1903-09. 

Beecher, Henry Ward, Rev,, son of Lyman 
Beecher, an eminent New England Congregational 
preacher and theologian; born in 1813; entered the 
Congregational ministry in 1834, and in 1847 became 
pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, which place he 
held till his death. Beecher was considered by many 
as the most eloquent divine of the Nineteenth Century, 
and was scarcely less distinguished as a writer and lec¬ 
turer on popular subjects. Died, 1887. 

Beethoven ( ba'-td-ven ), Ludwig van, a very eminent 
German composer, born at Bonn in 1770. He studied 
under Haydn. His numerous symphonies, of which the 
finest are the “Battle Symphony,” and the “Pastoral 
Symphony ”; his operas, of which “ Fidelio ” is the most 
admired, and his other works, abounding in originality 
and genius, have imparted to him an unfading celebrity. 
Died, 1827. 

Belasco, David, dramatic author; born in San Fran¬ 
cisco, 1859; educated at Lincoln College, Calif. Author: 
(plays), “Zaza,” “The Heart of Maryland,” “The Wife,” 
“The Charity Ball,” “Lord Chumley,” “May Blossom,” 
“Men and Women,” “La Belle Russe,” “The Girl I Left 
Behind Me,” “.Valerie,” “Hearts of Oak,” “The Darling 
of the Gods.” “Du Barry,” “Sweet Kitty Bellairs,” 
“Adrea,” “The Return of Peter Grimm.” Manager of 
Mrs. Leslie Carter, David Warfield, and Blanche Bates. 

Belisarius ( bel-e-sar'-e-us ), a Roman general, who 
served the Emperor Justinian with skill, valor, and 
success. In his old age he is said to have become blind, 
and to have suffered much from poverty; but there are 
reasons for doubting the truth of these representations. 
Died, 565. 

Bell, Alexander Graham, scientist, inventor; born 
in Edinburgh, 1847; educated there and at London 
University; went to Canada, 1870, and to Boston, 1871, 
becoming professor of vocal physiology, Boston Univer¬ 
sity. Invented telephone, for which patent was granted, 
1876. Also inventor of photophone, induction balance, 
and telephone probe for painless detection of bullets in 
the human body. With C. A. Bell and Sumner Taintor 
he invented the graphophone, 1883. He is a regent of 
the Smithsonian Institution, an officer of the French 
Legion of Honor, and has received other distinguished 
honors. He is now interested in solving the problem of 
the aeroplane. 

Bellew, Harold, Kyrle-Money, actor; born in 
Calcutta, 1857; son of Rev. J. C. M. Bellew, chaplain 
cathedral at Calcutta; was cadet English Navy, serving 
seven years, then went to Australian gold fields; worked 
on Melbourne newspapers; returned to England; made 
stage debut at Theater Royal, Brighton; became leading 
man and star in London; came to United States as lead¬ 
ing man in Wallack’s Theater, New York, October, 1885; 
subsequently starred jointly with Mrs. James Brown 
Potter, taking leading roles with her in legitimate drama 
in all English-speaking countries. Headed exploration 
expedition in Northern Queensland, 1900-02, returning 
to stage at head of own company in United States, 
October, 1902. Author: “Yvonne,” “Iolande,” “Hero 
and Leander,” “Charlotte Corday,” and several adapta¬ 
tions. Died, 1911. 

Bellini, Giovanni, born about 1426; Venetian painter, 
son of Jacopo Bellini, himself a painter of note, and the 
teacher of Titian, who finished several of his works. He 
began by portrait painting; and he afterwards executed 
some great historical pieces for the hall of the Great 
Council of Venice, which were destroyed by fire in 1577. 
Died, 1516. 

Bellini, Vincenzo, born in 1802; an Italian musical 


composer, and a disciple of Rossini. The son of a Sicilian 
organist, he proceeded to the royal music school of Naples 
vvhere he produced his first opera. He attracted atten¬ 
tion with “II Pirata,” brought out at Milan and played 
successively in all the European capitals, and in 1831 
the production of his greatest opera, “La Somnambula,” 
established his high reputation. This was followed by 
the tragic opera “Norma,” and in 1835 by “I Puritani,” 
the composer’s last work. He died in 1835 and was 
buried in Pere la Chaise at Paris. 

Bellman, Karl Michael, born in 1740; a Swedish 
lyrical poet of considerable popularity. The nature of 
his verse is indicated by the name given to him — the 
Swedish Anacreon. Died, 1795. 

Belmont, August, banker; born in New York, Febru¬ 
ary 18, 1853; son of prominent banker of same name, 
now deceased; graduate of Harvard, 1874, and at once 
entered the bank; now head of August Belmont & Com¬ 
pany, American representatives of European banking 
firm of Rothschilds; is officer and director of many large 
railway, banking, manufacturing, and other corporations; 
chairman, board of directors, Interborough Rapid Transit 
Company. 

Bern, Joseph, born in 1795; a brave and skillful 
Polish general. He served as general of artillery in the 
Polish Revolution of 1830, and afterwards traveled in 
Europe. He joined Kossuth in 1848 in the revolt against 
Austria, and won several battles for the national cause. 
Later, he entered the service of the Turkish Sultan, adopt¬ 
ing the Mohammedan religion. Died, 1850. 

Bembo, Pietro, born in 1470; an eminent Italian 
cardinal, and a profound scholar. His early life he 
spent studying in one city and another, and he attained 
such a reputation for culture that when, in 1512, he went 
to Rome he was appointed one of the pontifical secretaries, 
and in 1539 he was created cardinal. He wrote prose 
and verse, both in Italian and Latin, and his composi¬ 
tions are most remarkable for their purity of style. 
Died, 1547. 

Benedict, St., a monk who founded the first religious 
order in the West; was born at Nursia, in the Duchy of 
Spoleto, in 480. At an early age he retired to a cavern 
to devote himself to study; this austerity gained him 
fame. By him the monastery of Monte Cassino, near 
Naples, was established in 529. One leading principle 
which he laid down was that the order should maintain 
themselves by the labor of their hands, which greatly 
conduced to their subsequent prosperity. He died in 543. 

Benjamin, Judah Philip, born in 1811; an Ameri¬ 
can politician, who later became a distinguished mem¬ 
ber of the English bar. He was born in the West Indies, 
and practiced as a barrister at New Orleans. He sat in 
the senate, and became attorney-general and secretary 
of state to the Confederate Government under Jefferson 
Davis. When the cause of the South was lost, he fled 
to England, and was, by influence, at once called to the 
English bar, where he gained a large and influential 
practice. Died, 1884. 

Bennett, James Gordon, proprietor of "New York 
Herald”; born in New York, May 10, 1841; son of 
journalist of same name; educated by private tutors; 
inherited “The Herald” and a large fortune, 1872; for 
a time issued a London edition and still publishes a 
Paris edition of “The Herald”; inaugurated publica¬ 
tion in England of storm warnings transmitted from the 
United States; sent Henry M. Stanley to Africa to find 
Livingstone, 1874-77; fitted out Jeannette polar expe¬ 
dition, 1879; established, 1883 (with John W. Mackay), 
the Commercial (Mackay-Bennett) Cable Company; is 
a prominent yachtsman; lives most of his time in Paris, 
but keeps active management of “The Herald ” by cable. 

Bentham, Jeremy (bent'ham), a distinguished Eng¬ 
lish writer on political economy and jurisprudence; was 
born in 1748, and died in 1832. 

Benton, Thomas H., an eminent American states¬ 
man, born in North Carolina in 1782; died in 1858, 
after holding a seat in Congress from Missouri for thirty 
years. He was a consistent Jackson Democrat in poli¬ 
tics. His “Thirty Years’ View” embraces a history of 
the government from 1820 to 1850, and is recognized 
as a standard authority. 

Berkeley, George, born in 1685, an English divine, 
famous for the keenness of his intellect and the great¬ 
ness of his nature. He was born in Ireland, and educated 
at Trinity College, Dublin. In 1709 he published his 
“Theory of Vision,” and in 1710 his “Principles of 
Human Knowledge,” proving the non-existence of mat¬ 
ter, a view which he afterwards elaborated. Going 
to England he made the acquaintance of the great 
literary men of the day, and in 1724 was made Dean of 
Derry. In 1725 he published “A Scheme for Convert¬ 
ing the Savage Americans to Christianity.” This scheme 
involved the erection of a college at the Bermudas, and 




406 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


the government granted a charter, and promised a grant 
in aid. Berkeley set out for the Bermudas, but the 
money not being forthcoming, the scheme had to be 
abandoned. In 1734, he was made Bishop of Cloyne, 
and in 1752 retired to Oxford. His last publication was 
a treatise on “The Virtues of Tar Water.” Died, 1753. 

Berlioz, Hector ( bair'le-o ), a French composer, was 
born at La Cote St. Andre, 1803, and died in 1869. 
His best productions are the symphonies “Harold ’ and 
“Romeo and Juliet.” 

Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, a marshal of 
France, under Napoleon I., born in 1764, was elected 
King of Sweden and Norway on the death of Charles 
XIII., assumed the throne under the title of Charles 
John XIV., and in 1813 commanded the united armies 
of Germany against Napoleon. Died in 1844, after a 
wise and prosperous reign. 

Bernard, St., born in 1091 of noble Burgundian 
birth; was educated at Paris University. He entered 
the Cistercian monastery at Citeaux, and there acquired 
a high reputation as a preacher. At the head of a band 
of monks he was sent to found a new monastery, which 
he established at Clairvaux, and from which his fame 
and influence spread far and wide. Kings, popes, and 
nobles all appealed to him for advice on the weightiest 
matters, and accepted his decisions. He procured the 
condemnation of several heterodox writers, including 
Abelard and Arnold of Brescia. His great work was 
the preaching of a new crusade in France and Germany. 
He excited the greatest enthusiasm, and prophesied the 
triumph of the expedition. But it failed notably, and 
Bernard died soon afterwards (1153). He was canon¬ 
ized in 1174, and bears the title of “The Last of the 
Fathers.” 

Bemardin de St. Pierre (der-sant-pe-are ). Jacques 
Henri, the admired author of “Paul and Virginia,” 
“Studies of Nature,” etc., was born at Havre in 1737. 
He became professor of morals at the normal school, 
and a member of the institute, and died in 1814. 

Bernhardt (Bernard), Rosine Sarah, French tragic 
actress, was born in Paris, October 22, 1845, of Jewish 
parents, but. by the will of her father, educated in a 
convent at Versailles and at the Paris Conservatoire. 
Appeared at the Theatre Frangais in 1862 as “Iphigenie,” 
but without success. In 1867 at the Odeon, in the role 
of the queen, in Victor Hugo’s “Ruy Bias,” she gained 
her first striking success. The war of 1870-71 inter¬ 
rupted her career, and she became, for a while, a nurse. 
She then won a position in the Theatre Frangais, the 
troupe of which she accompanied in 1879 to London, 
where her triumphs have been repeated in succeeding 
years, and where she married a M. Damala. She was 
left a widow in 1889. She broke her contract with the 
Frangais in 1880, and has since been touring, with great 
eclat in America, and in all the principal countries of 
Europe. She now directs a theater of her own in Paris. 
She is also a painter and sculptor. Her “Memoirs” 
were published by Heinemann in 1907. 

Bernini ( ber-ne'-ne ), Giovanni Lorenzo, known as 
the Cavaliere Bernini, was born in Naples in 1598. He 
was eminent as a painter, an architect, and a sculptor; 
and his merit entitled him to the rewards which he had 
the good fortune to receive from Louis XIV. His 
“Apollo and Daphne,” produced from a single block, 
when he was but 18 years of age, was considered a mas¬ 
terpiece, but his finest works are found in the colon¬ 
nade at Rome. He died in 1680. 

Bemouilli ( ber'-nool-ye ). James, a celebrated mathe¬ 
matician, was born in Basel in 1654. He died in 1705. 
John Bernouilli, brother to James, and not less cele¬ 
brated as a mathematician, was born in Basel in 1667. 
He died in 1748. Nicholas Bernouilli was born at Basel 
in 1687. He became a professor of mathematics at 
Padua. He died in 1759. Daniel Bernouilli, son of 
John, was born in Groningen in 1700. He studied 
mathematics, and became a professor of anatomy and 
botany. He died in 1782. John Bernouilli, brother of 
the last-named, born in Basel in 1710, was a professor 
of eloquence and mathematics. He died in 1790. 
James Bernoui lli , his son, a licentiate at law, was 
born in Basel in 1759. Though a lawyer by profes¬ 
sion, he studied mathematics with success. He died 
in 1789. 

Berosus (be-ro'-sus), an eminent historian, born in 
Babylon, was a priest in the temple of Belus, and flour¬ 
ished in the time of Alexander the Great, and in that 
of several of his successors. His writings are said to 
have strongly corroborated various parts of Scripture. 

Berthier ( bare'-te-a ), Louis Alexandre, Prince, a 
distinguished French general, bom 1753. He received 
honors from Bonaparte in acknowledgment of his great 
services, for though he won no battle himself, he 
largely contributed towards the gaining of many. On 


the return of Louis XVIII., Berthier sent in his 
adhesion, and was made captain of the guards of 
the restored monarch. When Napoleon reappeared, 
having escaped from Elba, Berthier withdrew to Bam¬ 
berg with his family, where he terminated his existence 
by throwing himself from a window, it was supposed, 
in a fit of apoplexy, in June, 1815. 

Berzelius, Johann Jakob, born in 1779, Swedish 
chemist, was professor for many years at Stockholm 
University, and acquired a great reputation by his 
memoirs and his invaluable work in chemical analysis 
and mineralogy. Died, 1848. 

Bessemer, Sir Henry, civil engineer and inventor, 
born at Charlton, Herts., in 1813; of his many inventions 
the chief is the process, named after him, of converting 
pig-iron into steel at once by blowing a blast of air 
through the iron while in fusion till everything extra¬ 
neous is expelled, and only a definite quantity of carbon 
is left in combination, a process which has revolutionized 
i the iron and steel trade all over the world, leading, as 
1 has been calculated, to the production of thirty times 
as much steel as before and at one-fifth of the cost per 
ton. Died, 1898. 

Bessey, Charles Edwin, professor of botany in 
Lmiversity of Nebraska since 1884; born on a farm, in 
Milton, Wayne County, O., May 21, 1845; graduate 
(B. Sc.) of Michigan Agricultural College, 1869; studied 
with Dr. Asa Gray at Harvard, 1872-73 and 1875-76; 
married, on December 25, 1873, Lucy Athearn, West 
Tisbury, Martha’s Vineyard, Mass. Professor of botany 
in Iowa Agricultural College, 1870-84 (acting president, 
1882); acting chancellor of University of Nebraska, 1888- 
91, 1899-1900 and 1907. Botanical editor of “American 
Naturalist” (Philadelphia), 1880-97; of “Science” 
(New York), since 1897; of Johnson’s Cyclopedia since 
1893. Author: “Geography of Iowa,” “Botany for 
High Schools and Colleges,” “The Essentials of Botany,” 
“Elementary Botanical Exercises,” “Elementary Bot¬ 
any,” “Plant Migration Studies,” also many scientific 
papers and reviews. Edited McNab’s “Morphology, 
Physiology, and Classification of Plants.” 

Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, was born on a farm in 
Highland county, Ohio, October 6, 1862; his father and 
brothers were soldiers in the Union Army; was gradu¬ 
ated at De Pauw University, Greencastle, Ind., in 
1885; was admitted to the bar in 1886, and then 
devoted himself to his profession; was married, first, 
to Katherine M. Langsdale, in 1887, who died in 
1900; second, in 1907, to Katherine Eddy, of Chicago; 
was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1899, 
for the term beginning March 4 following; was reelected 
in 1905. He is the author of “ The Russian Advance,” 
“The Young Man and the World,” and has been a fre¬ 
quent magazine contributor. 

Bewick, Thomas, born in 1753; English engraver, 
entered into partnership with a Newcastle wood en¬ 
graver, Ralph Beilby, with whom he published his 
“History of Quadrupeds,” which proved an immense 
success. After some more fine work, he produced “The 
History of British Birds,” and later, “lEsop’s Fables,” 
the two best examples of his art. Died, 1828. 

Bichat ( be'sha ), Marie Francois Xavier, born in 
1771; physiologist and anatomist, was adopted by 
Desault, whose works he edited, and after his death 
devoted himself to research in anatomy and surgery 
with such incessant industry as to undermine his consti¬ 
tution. He left numerous works of the highest value. 
Died, 1802. 

Biddle, John, born in 1615; religious controver¬ 
sialist, known as “the father of the English Unitarians”* 
was sent to prison for heresy, and his book was ordered 
by the House of Commons to be burnt. In 1648, for 
the publication of his “Confession of Faith,” he was 
condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted: 
he was released in 1652, only to be again imprisoned 
by order of the House of Commons. Cromwell subse¬ 
quently banished him to the Scilly Isles, but in 1662 he 
returned to London, and was again sent to prison, 
where he died (1662). 

Bierce, Ambrose, author, journalist; born in Ohio, 
1842; served as line officer during Civil War; brevetted 
major for distinguished services; went to California, 
1866; went to London, 1872, contributing to “ Fun” 
fables purporting to be translations from Zambri, the 
Parsee (published in volume, “Cobwebs from an Empty 
Skull,” 1874); returned to California and contributed to 
“Overland Monthly,” edited “Argonaut” and “Wasp”; 
for many years contributed to “ Prattle ” columns 
in San Francisco “Examiner.” Author: “ Cobwebs from an 
Empty Skull,” “The Monk and the Hangman’s Daugh¬ 
ter (with Dr. A. Danziger), “Black Beetles in Amber,” 
“Can Such Things Be?” “In the Midst of Life” (former 











BIOGRAPHY 


407 


title, “Tales of Soldiers and Civilians”), “Fantastic 
Fables,” “Shapes of Clay.” 

Biot, Jean Baptiste {be'o), an eminent French as¬ 
tronomer, optician, and natural philosopher, born in 
Paris, 1774. He is especially celebrated as the discov¬ 
erer of the circular polarization of light. Died, 1862. 

Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, born in 1786; English 
composer, early devoted himself to the composition of 
dramatic music; and in 1809 produced his “Circassian 
Bride,” which was a great success. In 1810 he became 
connected with Covent Garden Theater, and produced 
many operas during this time, including “The Lady of 
the Lake,” “.Guy Mannering,” and “The Slave.” In 
1825, Bishop broke his connection with Covent Garden 
to go to Drury Lane, and he was succeeded at the former 
theater by Weber. It "was in rivalry with Weber’s 
“Oberon” that Bishop produced the unsuccessful 
“Aladdin.” In 1840, his last dramatic piece, "The 
Fortunate Isles,” was produced at Covent Garden in 
honor of the queen’s wedding; in 1842,he was knighted; 
and in 1848 he became professor of music at Oxford. 
Died, 1855. 

Bismarek-Schonhausen, Otto Eduard, Prince 

Von {bis'-mark), one of the greatest statesmen 
of the Nineteenth Century, w T as born in Brandenburg, 
1815. After studying law at the universities of Got¬ 
tingen and Berlin, Bismarek-Schonhausen filled impor¬ 
tant diplomatic positions, and was nominated prime 
minister of Prussia in 1862. His reactionary policy 
gave great offense to, and provoked many collisions 
with, the Liberal party; and, ere long, he dissolved the 
Representative Chamber, and declared that the minis¬ 
try would act independent of popular suffrage. Bis- 
marck-Schonhausen instigated the war against Den¬ 
mark in 1864, -which resulted in the acquisition of the 
Schleswig-Holstein duchies by Prussia. The rivalry 
which had long existed between Austria and Prussia, 
as the leading German powers, was terminated by the 
latter kingdom seceding from the Bund in 1866, and 
forming an alliance with Italy against Austria. War 
was declared in June, and the result of a six weeks’ cam¬ 
paign was the exclusion of Austria from German coun¬ 
cils and interests. Bismarek-Schonhausen next set about 
annexing the smaller states of Hanover, Hesse, etc., 
and succeeded in negotiating a secret treaty, in August, 
1866, with the South German powers, by virtue of 
which their armies were placed under control of the 
King of Prussia. In 1867, Bismarek-Schonhausen was 
made chancellor of the German Confederation, and, in 
1870, brought about a coalition of the German powers 
against France, in consequence of a declaration of war 
having been declared by Napoleon III. against Prussia, 
on account of her interference in the succession to the 
Spanish Crown. The German armies crossed the Rhine 
in August, and, after defeating the French in several 
obstinately fought battles, compelled the capitulation 
of the French Emperor with his army at Sedan, and 
ultimately besieged Paris, which city capitulated in 
the early part of 1871. For his services in the success¬ 
ful carrying out of this war, which resulted in the eleva¬ 
tion of his master, William I., to the imperial Crown of 
Germany, Bismarek-Schonhausen was created a prince 
of the empire in May, 1871. Died, 1898. 

Bispham, George Tucker, lawyer, author; born in 
Philadelphia, May 24, 1838; graduate of University of 
Pennsylvania, 1858; law department, same, 1862; 
admitted to bar, 1861; practiced in Philadelphia; 
later admitted to bar of United States Supreme 
Court. One of solicitors of Pennsylvania Railroad 
Company; solicitor of Philadelphia Saving Fund Soci¬ 
ety, Girard Trust Company, and other corporations; 
professor of equity jurisprudence, law department, 
University of Pennsylvania. Author: “Principles of 
Equity,” and other books on law. Died, 1906. 

Bjoemstjema (byem'-sher-na) , Magnus, born in 
1779; Swedish general and diplomatist, served in the 
Finnish War; in 1809 was sent on a mission to France, 
and in 1812 arranged for the sale of Guadeloupe. He 
fought in the Danish War, and assisted at the negotia¬ 
tions which brought about peace with the transference 
of Norway to Sweden. In 1828 he was appointed min¬ 
ister in London. He left several works on political and 
fiscal matters. Died, 1847. 

Bjornson ( byem'son ), Bjomstjeme, born in 1832, 
the national poet of Norway. In early life an historical 
drama of his, called “Valborg,” was accepted by the 
Royal Theater, but its author withdrew the piece. In 
1856 the International Students’ Reunion at Upsala 
stimulated him again to an effort to produce a national 
poetry, free from foreign influences. He began with 
“Synnove Solbakken,” a story of peasant life, which 
was followed by “Arne” and many other pieces. In 
1858, he became director of the theater at Bergen, and 


produced quickly two dramas, TMellem Slagene” and 
“. Halte Hulda,” both treating of national subjects. 
“Marie Stuart ” and “Sigurd Slembe ” are both well- 
known plays, and he wrote, besides his dramas, a series 
of folk plays, an epic, and much beautiful lyric poetry. 
He received a government pension, but lived abroad. 
Died, 1910. 

Black, Frank Swett, governor of New York; 
born in Limington, Me., March 8, 1853; graduated at 
Dartmouth, 1875; was editor Johnstown, N. Y., "Jour¬ 
nal”; later reporter Troy, N. Y., “.Whig”; clerk in 
registry department, Troy post, office; admitted to bar, 
1879; member of Congress, 1895-97; governor of New 
York, 1897—99; practiced law in New York city from 
1898 to 1912. Died, 1913. 

Black, William, born in 1841; English novelist; 
spent some years in the study of art, but, regarding him¬ 
self as a failure in the artistic profession, he turned to 
literature. His first novel, “Love or Marriage,” was 
published in 1868. being followed in 1869 by “In Silk 
Attire,” and in 1871 by “A Daughter of Heth,” which 
was a pronounced success. “The Strange Adventures 
of a Phaeton” and “A Princess of Thule” were pub¬ 
lished soon after, and his reputation as one of the best 
novelists of the day was established. For four years 
he acted as assistant-editor of the “Daily News,” but 
abandoned journalism long before his death in 1898. 

Blackburn. Joseph Clay Styles, lawyer, legislator ; 
born in Woodford County, Ky., October 1, 1838; grad¬ 
uate of Centre College, Danville, Ky., 1857; admitted 
to bar, 1858; practiced in Chicago until Civil War broke 
out; served in Confederate States Army; after war, 
practiced law in Kentucky; member Kentucky legis¬ 
lature, 1871-75; member of Congress, 1875-85; United 
States senator, 1885-97; again elected, January, 1901, 
for term 1901-07; member of the Isthmian Canai 
Commission, 1907-10. 

Blaekmore, Richard Doddridge, born in 1825, 
modern British novelist; in 1852, was called to the bar, 
and practiced for a short time. Turning to literature, 
he produced his first novel, “ Clara Vaughn,” in 1864. 
His first distinct success was “ Lorna Doone, a Romance 
of Exmoor,” which reached many editions. Of his many 
subsequent books, perhaps the best was “The Maid of 
Sker.” Died, 1900. 

Blackstone {black'-ston), Sir William, A celebrated 
jurist, born in London in 1723. He was a judge, a mem¬ 
ber of parliament, and author of “Commentaries on the 
Laws of England.” At the bar, after seven years’ prac¬ 
tice, his prospects were so indifferent, that he retired to 
Oxford on his fellowship, and there gave public lectures 
on English law. Their success is supposed to have sug¬ 
gested to Mr. Yiner the propriety of establishing a pro¬ 
fessorship of law in the university, to which office Black- 
stone was elected, being the first Vinerian lecturer, in 
1758. Subsequently, having married, he vacated his 
fellowship, and was appointed principal of New-Inn Hall. 
That office, with his Vinerian professorship, he resigned 
in 1766. In 1770, he became one of the judges of the 
Common Pleas. Died, 1780. 

Blackwell, Elizabeth, M. D.; born in Bristol, Eng¬ 
land, February 3, 1821; emigrated to the United States 
in 1832; educated in private schools in Bristol and New 
York; taught school in Kentucky and the Carolinas; 
sought admission to several medical colleges, but was 
refused until she entered the medical school at Geneva, 
N. Y., 1847. First woman in United States to 
receive the degree of M. D. Established practice 
in New York, 1851; founded a hospital and, in 
1867, in conjunction with her sister. Dr. Emily 
Blackwell, organized Woman’s Medical College of New 
York Infirmary; lectured in England, 1858-59; regis¬ 
tered as a physician in England, 1859, and after 1869 
practiced in London and Hastings. Author: “Physical 
Education of Girls,” “Religion of Health,” “Counsel 
to Parents on Moral Education,” “Pioneer Work in 
Opening the Medical Profession to Women,” “The 
Human Element in Sex,” “Decay of Municipal Repre¬ 
sentative Institutions.” Died, 1910. 

Blaine, James Gillespie, “the Plumed Knight,” 
was born in Pennsylvania, 1830; removed to Maine, 
where he edited the “Portland Advertiser”; served 
four terms in the legislature; in Congress from 1862 to 
1876, and speaker for three years; prominent candidate 
for the Republican nomination for the presidency in 
1876, 1880, and 1892, and successful candidate in 1884, 
but was defeated for President. United States senator 
in 1877; secretary of state under Garfield; secretary of 
state under Harrison, but resigned just before the 
Republican Convention of 1892. Died, 1893. 

Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis {blong), a French historian 
and socialistic writer, born in Madrid, 1811, started as a 
journalist; founded the “Revue du Progres, and pub- 






408 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


lished separately in 1840, “Organization of Labor, 
which had already appeared in the “Revue,” a work 
which gained the favor of the working classes; was 
member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and 
eventually of the National Assembly; threatened with 
impeachment, fled to England; returned to France on 
the fall of the empire, and was elected to the Chamber 
of Deputies in 1871. Blanc wrote an elaborate and well- 
written “History of the French Revolution.” Died at 
Cannes, 1882. . TTTTT 

Blanche of Castile ( bldnsh ), Queen of Louis VIII. 
of France, and daughter of Alphonso IX., King of Cas¬ 
tile, was born about 1187. On the death of her hus¬ 
band, in 1226, she was declared Regent of France, in 
which capacity she displayed great energy and address. 
After carrying on the government during the absence of 
her son Louis IX. in the Holy Land, she died in 1252. 

Blashfleld, Edwin Howland, artist; born in New 
York, December 15, 1848; educated at Boston Latin 
School; studied at Paris, 1867, under Liion Bonnat, also 
receiving advice from Gerome and Chapu; exhibited at 
Paris Salon, yearly, 1874-79, 1881, 1891, 1892; also 
several years at Royal Academy, London; returned to 
United States in 1881; has exhibited genre pictures, 
portraits, and decorations. Among his paintings are 
“Christmas Bells ” and “ Angel with the Flaming Sword.” 
Decorated one of domes of Manufactures Building, 
World’s Columbian Exposition; Collis P. Huntington’s 
drawing room, and great central dome, Library of Con¬ 
gress. Has lectured on art at Columbia, Harvard, Yale, 
etc. Author: (with Mrs. Blashfleld) “ Italian Cities,” co¬ 
editor (with Mrs. Blashfleld and A. A. Hopkins): “Va¬ 
sari’s Lives of the Painters.” 

Blavatsky, Mme., a theosophist, born in Russia, 
1831, was a great authority on theosophy, the doctrines 
of which she professed she derived from the fountainhead 
in Thibet. Died, 1891. 

Blind, Karl, born in 1826, German revolutionist, 
began his agitation when still a student, and in 1847 was 
imprisoned for a short time. He took part in the rising 
of 1848, and then fled to Alsace, from whence the French 
Government sent him to Switzerland. He joined Struve 
in the second Black Forest insurrection, and was con¬ 
demned to a long term of imprisonment, but was lib¬ 
erated by the people. Being banished from France, and 
a fugitive from Germany, he went to Belgium, and after¬ 
wards to England, where he wrote industriously in 
support of his political ideas. It was Blind’s stepson 
who attempted Bismarck’s life in 1866. Died, 1907. 

Bloomfield, Robert ( bloom'feld ), an English poet; 
was born in 1766. Reared in humble life, his genius 
found development in the poem entitled the “Farmer’s 
Boy,” which attained very great popularity. Died, 1823. 

Bliicher, Gebhard Leberecht von, born in 1742. 
Prussian field marshal and Prince of Wahlstadt, first 
entered the Swedish, but soon passed to the Prussian 
army, in which he served during the Seven Years’ War. 
He went through the Polish campaign of 1772, and 
gained rapid promotion during the struggle with the 
French invaders begun in 1792. In the campaign of 
1814, Bliicher held high command, and though defeated 
by Napoleon, he beat Marshal Marmont, and entered 
Paris with the Allies. In the Waterloo campaign he 
commanded the Prussian army in Belgium, and was 
severely defeated by Napoleon at Ligny. However, by 
out-manoeuvring Grouchy, he was able to arrive at 
Waterloo in time to decide the victory for the Allies and 
pursue the routed French army. He then retired from 
active service and died four years later, 1819. 

Boccaccio (bok-kd-tshe-o) , Giovanni, a much-admired 
Italian novelist, born at Paris in 1313. His works are 
prized for their tenderness, but they often offend deco¬ 
rum. His most celebrated work is the Decameron, a 
collection of one hundred stories, supposed to have been 
recited in ten days by a company of ladies and gentle¬ 
men, who had withdrawn to the country to escape the 
plague which raged at Florence in 1348. He died in 
1375. 

Bodley, Sir Thomas, a diplomatist in the time of 
Queen Elizabeth, was born in Paris in 1545. The uni¬ 
versity library of Oxford -was rebuilt by him, and he 
bequeathed his fortune to support it. It has ever since 
been called the Bodleian Library. He died in 1613. 

Boerhaave (bo'-er-hdv ), a celebrated physician, born 
in 1668, in Voorhout near Leyden. He studied much, 
successfully labored in his profession, and -was univer¬ 
sally esteemed by his contemporaries. His writings, 
which are numerous, were much admired. He died in 
1738. 

Bogardus, James, born in 1800; American inventor 
of great fecundity, who worked for some time as a watch¬ 
maker and engraver in New York. Among his inven¬ 
tions were the ring-flyer for cotton spinning (1828); 


the eccentric mill (1829); the dry-gas meter (1832); 
a dynamometer, and a pyrometer (1848). In 1847 he 
built the first structure of cast iron in the United States. 
Died, 1874. 

Boileau-Despreaux ( boy-lo-da-pro '), Nicolas, a 
critic, poet, and satirist, who lived in the time of Louis 
XIV., was born in 1636. His “Art of Poetry,” his 
epistles, and his satires gained him the title of “Master 
of Parnassus.” He was the friend of Moli&re, La Fon¬ 
taine, and Racine. With the last he was appointed 
historiographer of France, and received a pension of 
2,000 livres. He died in 1711. His brothers Giles and 
James were also much esteemed writers. The former 
died in 1669; the latter in 1716. 

Bok, Edward William, editor of “The Ladies’ 
Home Journal” since 1889; vice-president “The Curtis 
Publishing Co.”; born in Helder, Holland, October 9, 
1863; came to the United States at the age of 6; edu¬ 
cated at Brooklyn public schools; stenographer with 
Western Union Telegraph Co.; Henry Holt & Co., 
1884-85; Scribner’s, 1885-88; Author: “.The Young 
Man in Business”; “Successward.” 

Boker, George Henry, born in 1823, American poet; 
his first published poem was “The Lesson of Life ” (1847), 
and this was followed by two tragedies, which were pro¬ 
duced on the stage. For ten years he was secretary of 
the Union League, Philadelphia, and his “Poems of the 
War” proved very popular. In 1871 he went as United 
States Minister to Constantinople. He published in 
1882 an elegy, “The Book of the Dead.” Died, 1890. 

Bolingbroke ( bol'- ing-brook), Henry St. John, Vis¬ 
count, an English statesman, born in Battersea in 1678. 
Having studied at Oxford, he entered parliament in 1701, 
and in 1704 became secretary of war. He afterwards 
became secretary of state for foreign affairs, and nego¬ 
tiated the Treaty of Utrecht. In 1712, he was raised to 
the peerage. On the accession of George I. he was 
impeached of high treason, when he fled the country, and 
became secretary of state to the first pretender. He 
was attainted, and his estate seized; but in 1723 he was 
permitted to return. His estates were restored, but he 
was not allowed to sit in parliament. He wrote against 
the ministry, and his productions were admired for their 
eloquence and vigor. He again withdrew to France in 
1735, but returned to England on the death of his father, 
and died in 1751. 

Bolivar, Simon, the founder and first president of 
the Republic of Colombia, known as “The Liberator of 
South America.” Born in Venezuela, 1783, he was 
educated in Madrid, and traveled in Europe and the 
United States. When the revolt against the Spanish 
yoke broke out in Venezuela, he joined it, but had to flee. 
In 1813 he returned, and, gathering a force together, 
defeated General Monteverde at Caracas. The tide then 
turned, and Bolivar fled to Jamaica, but he shortly re¬ 
turned, and after varying fortune in 1819 won the battle 
of Bojaca, resulting in the inauguration of the Republic 
of Venezuela in the same year, to which was afterwards 
united New Granada. In 1822 Bolivar went to help the 
Peruvians in their struggle for liberty, and was given the 
chief command. After a long campaign he won the 
great battle of Ayacucho. Upper Peru was constituted 
a separate republic with the title of Bolivia. As Presi¬ 
dent of Colombia he had to endure much factious hos¬ 
tility; but though he tendered his resignation more than 
once it was never accepted, the supreme power being 
confirmed in him in 1828. Died, 1830. 

Bonaparte, Charles Joseph, lawyer, born in 
Baltimore, June 9, 1851; grandson of Jerome Bonaparte, 
King of Westphalia; graduate of Harvard in 1871; 
Harvard Law School in 1874; since then in law practice 
in Baltimore; prominent in reform movements; Repub¬ 
lican presidential elector from Maryland, 1904; chairman 
council of National Civil Service Reform League; pres¬ 
ident of National Municipal League; member United 
States board of Indian commissioners, 1902-04; overseer 
at Harvard, 1891-1903; trustee Catholic University of 
America since 1904; awarded Laetare medal by Uni¬ 
versity of Notre Dame, 1903. Secretary of Navv, 
1905-1906; Attorney General of United States, 1906- 
1909. 

Bonapartes, The. The family to which the Em¬ 
peror Napoleon I. belonged came from Corsica. The 
father, Carlo Maria Bonaparte, born in 1746, was a lawyer 
and an adherent of Paoli, the insurgent. Died, 1785. 
The mother, Letizia Ramolino, born in 1750, was cele¬ 
brated for her beauty; and with the title, “Madame 
M&re,” lived in Paris during the rule of Napoleon. Died, 
1836. (1) Joseph, born in 1768, the eldest son, prac¬ 

ticed as an advocate, and married a merchant’s daughter 
at Marseilles. He was commissary-general to the army 
in Italy under Napoleon, and in 1797 was sent as ambas¬ 
sador to the pope. An able diplomatist, he negotiated 



BIOGRAPHY 


409 


the treaties of peace at Lundville (1801), and at Amiens 
(1802). When his brother was proclaimed Emperor, 
he was placed upon the throne of Naples, but being a 
merely nominal ruler, his good judgment and better 
instincts had no play. In 1808, he was transferred to 
the throne of Spain, where his position was still more 
unfortunate. He was twice compelled to flee from 
Madrid, and finally abandoned the throne after the battle 
of Vittoria. He was lieutenant-general of the empire 
during the 1814 campaigns and the Hundred Days; and 
after Waterloo he lived for some years in the United 
States as the Comte de Survilliers. He died in Florence 
in 1844, and left his highly interesting “Memoirs and 
Correspondence.” (2) Napoleon, the second son. (Na¬ 
poleon I.) (3) Lucien, born in 1775, in 1795 became 

commissary to the army of the North. In 1798, he was 
elected to the council of the Five Hundred, and played an 
important part in the revolution which destroyed the 
Directory and made Napoleon First Consul. After 
becoming minister of the interior, he went as ambassador 
to Madrid; but his marriage with Mme. Jouberthon 
brought about an estrangement between him and the 
emperor, and in 1804 he retired to his estates in Italy, 
as Prince of Canino, where he cultivated his tastes for 
literature and the fine arts. After the peace of Tilsit 
he was offered the crown of Italy, but he refused it; and 
in 1810 set out for the United States. Captured by a 
British cruiser, he was kept a prisoner in England till 
1814. After Waterloo he induced Napoleon to abdicate 
in favor of his son; and he himself retired to Italy. He 
wrote an epic, “Charlemagne.” Died, 1840. (4) Marie 

Anne Elisa, born in 1777, married Felix Pascal Bacciochi, 
and was created Princess of Piombino and Lucca, and 
Grand Duchess of Tuscany. She retired from France 
in 1815, and died in Trieste in 1820. (5) Louis, born in 

1778, the father of Napoleon III. He served in the 
Italian and Egyptian campaigns; and in 1802 he was 
compelled to marry Hortense Beauharnais, from whom 
he was afterwards separated. Under the empire he was 
created a prince and constable of France, and after 
occupying Holland he was proclaimed king of the country. 
He became extremely popular with the people, but 
offended the emperor, and in 1810 he abdicated, the 
country being absorbed in France. He spent most of hia 
life after Napoleon’s banishment in Italy, and wrote 
several books, of which the “Documents Historiques ” 
is the most important. Died, 1846. (6) Marie Pauline. 

(Pauline Borghese.) (7) Caroline Marie Annonciade, 
born in 1782, married Marshal Murat in 1800. Died, 
1839. (8) Jerome, born in 1784. He was given a com¬ 

mand in the navy, and while on the American station 
married a Miss Patterson, a marriage which he was forced 
to renounce by the emperor. In 1807 he was made king 
of Westphalia, and married a daughter of the King of 
Wiirttemberg, who became the mother of Prince 
Napoleon. In 1812 he proved so incapable a general 
during the Russian campaign that he was removed from 
command; but he commanded a division at Waterloo. 
After Napoleon’s abdication he lived in exile, until 1847. 
In 1850 Napoleon III. made him a marshal of France 
and he later became president of the senate. Died, 1860. 
Of the second generation: (1) Napoleon, son of Louis. 
(Napoleon III.) (2) Napoleon, Joseph, born in 1822, 
commonly known as Prince Napoleon, and son of Jerome 
Bonaparte. His early life was spent in travel, but after 
the 1848 revolution he was elected to the assembly. In 
1849, he held for a year the post of ambassador at 
Madrid; and in 1854 he commanded a division of the 
army in the Crimea. He threw up his command sud¬ 
denly, and in 1858 became president of the ministry for 
Algiers. In 1859, he held a command in Italy, and 
married the Princess Clotilde, a daughter of Victor 
Emmanuel. In 1861, he created a sensation in the senate 
by a fine oration in support of democratic principles, pro¬ 
voking a challenge from the Due d’Aumale. His loudly- 
expressed approval of the Polish revolution brought him 
into disgrace with the emperor more than once, and 
compelled his resignation of the presidency of the Com¬ 
missioners for the Universal Exhibition. After the fall of 
Napoleon III., and the death of Prince Louis Napoleon, 
he was recognized as head of the Napoleon family. In 
1883, he was imprisoned for a pronunciamento, and in 
1886 he was banished from France, and died in exile in 
1891. (3) Charles Lucien Jules, Prince de Canino, born in 
1803, the son of Lucien Bonaparte, a distinguished natur¬ 
alist; in 1822, married his cousin, Zenaide, the daughter 
of Joseph Bonaparte, and soon after went to America, 
where he devoted himself to the study of science, and 
published his valuable “American Ornithology.” In 
1828, he returned to Italy; in 1833 he published his 
“Italian Fauna,” and in 1847 he succeeded to the title 
of prince. He was for a short time active in Italian 
politics, but finally settled at Paris, where he died in 1857. 


His son, Lucien, born in 1828, is a cardinal. (4) Louis 
Lucien, born in 1813, the third son of Lucien Bonaparte. 
He passed his youth in scientific and linguistic study. 
In 1848, he was elected to the constituent assembly as 
deputy for Corsica, but the election was annulled. In 
1852, he was made a senator, and in 1860 grand officer 
of the Legion of Honor. He wrote a great deal, much 
of his work being translations. Died, 1891. (3) Pierre 

Napoleon, prince, born in 1815, fourth son of Lucien. 
After getting into disfavor in Italy and America, he went 
to Paris in 1848, and sat in the assembly. In 1849 
he served in Algeria, and finally settled in England. 
Died, 1881. Of the third generation: Prince Louis, 
better known as the Prince Imperial, born in 1856, the 
only child of Napoleon III. and the Empress Eugenie. 
He accompanied his father at the opening of the Franco- 
German War, but after Sedan he went to England. He 
entered the Woolwich Military Academy, and in 1879 
went to Zululand where he died the same year. 

Bonheur, Rosa ( bo-nor '), a French painter, born at 
Bordeaux, 1822; is unrivaled among her own sex for the 
minute and spirited delineation of the various forms of 
animal life. Her most celebrated pieces are “The 
Nivernais Ploughing,” “The Horse-Fair,” “The Three 
Musketeers,” and “Cows and Sheep in a Hollow Road.” 
Through the Empress Eug6nie, she received the Cross 
of the Legion of Honor. During the siege of Paris, her 
studio was spared. Died, 1899. 

Boone, Daniel (boon ), the pioneer of Kentucky, born 
in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, 1735, was one of the 
most successful of the enterprising American pioneers of 
the Eighteenth Century. He died in 1820. 

Booth-Tucker, Frederick St. George de Lautour, 
commissioner in Salvation Army; born in Monghyr, 
Bengal, India, March 21, 1853; educated at Chelten¬ 
ham College, England; passed Indian civil service 
examinations, 1874; studied in London until 1876; 
appointed to Punjab and held positions of assistant 
commissioner, magistrate, and treasury officer; resigned 
to join Salvation Army, 1881; inaugurated Salvation 
Army work in India, 1882; had charge thereuntil 1891; 
secretary for international work, Salvation Army, Lon¬ 
don, 1891-96; commander of Salvation Army forces in 
United States until 1904; returned to India as special com¬ 
missioner 1907. Author: “The Life of Catherine Booth,” 
“Life of General William Booth,” “In Darkest India 
and the Way Out,” “Favorite Songs of the Salvation 
Army,” “Monograph for the Paris Exposition on the 
Work of the Salvation Army in the United States,” etc. 

Bopp, Franz, a celebrated German philologist and 
Sanskrit scholar, born at Mayence, 1791; was professor 
of Oriental Literature and General Philology at Berlin; 
his greatest work, “A Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, 
Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and 
German. ” Died, 1867. 

Borden, Robert Laird, lawyer, legislator, was born 
at Grand Pr6, Nova Scotia, 1854; educated at Acacia 
Villa Academy, Horton. Began study of law in 1874; 
admitted to bar 1878; Q. C. 1891. Has had extensive 
practice in Supreme Court of Nova Scotia and in Supreme 
Court of Canada, and has been engaged in several cases 
before the judicial committee of the privy council; presi¬ 
dent of Nova Scotia Barristers’ society, 1893-1904; Hon. 
D. C. L., Queen’s University, Ontario, 1903; LL. D., 
St. Francois Xavier University, 1905; member for the 
city and county of Halifax, 1896-1900; member for Carl¬ 
ton, 1905; member for city and county of Halifax, 1908- 
12; took a leading part in many important debates 
between 1896 and 1900; in 1901, upon the resignation of 
Sir Charles Tupper, elected leader of Conservative party 
in the House of Commons. Elected premier of Canada 
in 1911. Privy councillor, 1912. 

Borghese ( bbr-ga'zd ). The name of a family of high 
position and great wealth in Rome. Camillo (1552- 
1621) became pope in 1605, under the title of Paul V. 
Prince Borghese, who married Pauline Bonaparte, sister 
of Napoleon, and separated himself from her on the fall 
of her brother, tvas born in 1775; died, 1832. 

Borgia, Cesare, born in 1476, Italian master of 
statecraft of great but evil fame, was the fourth son of 
Pope Alexander VI., by Rosa Vanozza, and was created 
a cardinal, though he divested himself of the office in 
later years to suit his purposes. He compassed the 
death of his brother Giovanni, who was Duke of Gandia, 
in order to gain complete ascendancy in the papal gov¬ 
ernment; and in 1498, having been sent as nuncio to 
Louis XII. of France, he was created Duke of Valen- 
tinois and married the daughter of Jean d’Albret, King 
of Navarre. After accompanying Louis XII.’s Italian 
campaign, he conceived the idea of a kingdom in Central 
Italy, and by force, treachery, and murder he had nearly 
succeeded in obtaining ascendancy throughout the Ro¬ 
man states, when the death of his father deprived him 



410 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of his great source of power. He was sent in 1504 a 
prisoner to Spain by Pope Julius II., but escaped, and 
joined the King of Navarre’s army against Castile. In 
this campaign he was killed in 1507. 

Borgia, Lucrezia, born in 1480, sister of the pre¬ 
ceding, and like him the possessor of an infamous repu¬ 
tation. Her father compelled her twice to marriage and 
divorce before she became the wife of the Duke of 
Bisceglia. After her third husband had been murdered 
by Cesare Borgia, she married Alfonso of Este, and 
passed her life in the court of Ferrara, cultivating litera¬ 
ture and art. Died, 1519. 

Borgiano ( bor-je-S.'-no ), Horazio, an artist of emi¬ 
nence, a painter of historical subjects, of portraits, and 
also an engraver, was born in Home in 1630. His style 
was considered masterly, and his “Dead Christ,” a com¬ 
position wholly his own, was especially admired. He 
died in 1681. 

Borglum, John Gutzon de la Mothe ( Gutzon 
Borglum”), sculptor, painter, born in Idaho, March 25, 
1867; educated at public schools, Fremont and Omaha, 
Neb., and St. Mary’s College, Kansas; studied art in 
San Francisco; went to Paris, 1890, worked and studied 
in AcadOnie Julien and Ecole des Beaux Arts. Exhib¬ 
ited as painter and sculptor in Paris Salon; in Spain, 
1892; in California, 1893-94; returned East; was in Lon¬ 
don and in Paris from 1896 until 1901; in New 
York since 1902. Exhibited in London and Paris, 1896- 
1901; held successful “one-man” exhibition in London; 
received gold medal sculpture at Louisiana Purchase 
Exposition; sculptor for work on Cathedral of St. John 
the Divine, New York. Work includes, in painting, 
figures and animals, portraits and mural painting; in 
sculpture figures and horses and groups in bronze; 
executed the gargoyles on the Princeton Dormitory, 
class of 1879 (about sixty devices). 

Borromeo, St. Carlo ( bor-rd-ma'-d ), cardinal and 
archbishop of Milan, a prominent member of the Council 
of Trent, contributed to the Tridentine Catechism, and 
was conspicuous by his self-sacrificing offices during a 
plague in the city of which he was the archbishop. 
Born in 1538, died in 1584. 

Bossuet ( bo-swa '), Jacques Benigne, born in Dijon, 
France, September 27, 1627; a distinguished orator and 
prelate of the Roman Catholic Church, bishop successively 
of Condom and of Meaux, and tutor to the Dauphin, the 
son of Louis XIV. Bossuet was the author of several 
controversial works, all in defense of the Roman Catholic 
doctrine; but his fame rests chiefly on his “Sermons,” 
which, of their kind, are of unrivaled eloquence, though 
they are too dramatic for the majority of English readers. 
Several of his compositions, written in the first instance 
for the use of the Dauphin, and especially his “Discourse 
on Universal History,” printed in 1681, long retained a 
high reputation. Died, 1704. 

Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Samuel John¬ 
son, born in Edinburgh, showed early a penchant for 
writing and an admiration for literary men. He fell in 
with Johnson on a visit to London in 1763, and conceived 
for him the most devoted regard; made a tour with him 
to the Hebrides in 1773, the “Journal ” of which he after¬ 
wards published; settled in London, and was called to 
the English bar; succeeded, in 1782, to his father’s estate, 
Auchinleck, in Ayrshire, with an income of £1,600 a 
year. Johnson dying in 1784, Boswell’s “Life” of him 
appeared seven years after, a work unique in biography, 
and such as no man could have written who was not a 
hero-worshiper to the backbone. He succumbed in the 
end to intemperate habits, aggravated by the death of 
his wife. Born in 1740, died in 1795. 

Bothwell ( both'-wel ), James Hepburn, Earl. The 
head of a powerful family in East Lothian. He became 
the second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, having 
compassed the death, as was generally believed, of 
Darnley, her first husband. By Mary he was created 
Duke of Orkney, but a confederacy of nobles having 
compelled him to leave Scotland, he engaged in piratical 
enterprises, was taken by the Danes, and died in con¬ 
finement in 1578. Born, 1536. 

Botta, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, born in 1766, 
Italian historian, studied medicine, and was imprisoned 
in 1792 as a revolutionary. He took an active part in 
the government of Piedmont, set up by Napoleon, but 
after the emperor’s overthrow he devoted himself 
entirely to literature. He wrote “The History of Italy 
between 1789 and 1814,” and a “History of the Ameri¬ 
can War of Independence.” Died, 1837. 

Botticelli ( bot-te-chel'-le ), Alessandro, born in 1447. 
Italian painter, in response to the invitation of Pope 
Sixtus IV. went to Rome and executed some fine paint¬ 
ings for the chapel of the Vatican. On returning to 
Florence he became a devoted follower of Savonarola. 
Died, 1515. 


Boughton, George Henry, 1834-1905; artist, a 

member of the National Academy of New York, and an 
associate of the Royal Academy after 1879. Among 
his paintings are “The Return of the Mayflower,” 
“Evangeline,” and “Milton visited by Andrew Marvell.” 

Bouguereau ( bog-ro') Adolphe Guillaume, born in 
1825; French painter. In 1855 his “Triomphe du 
Martyre” was bought by the state, and previously he 
divided the honors of the Grand Prix de Rome with 
Baudry. Two of his later pictures which are well-known 
are “The Youth of Bacchus ” and the “Adoration of the 
Magi and the Shepherds.” Died, 1905. 

Boulanger ( bo-lon-zha '), George Ernest Jean Marie, 
born in 1837, French general and politician, was made 
colonel during the siege of Paris, general of brigade in 
1880, and minister of war in 1886. He achieved great 
popularity, and was elected in 1889 by the Nord, Somme, 
Charente Inferieure, and a division of Paris. A threat 
of prosecution drove him into exile, and he committed 
suicide at Brussels in 1891. 

Bowles, Samuel, a distinguished American journalist; 
was born at Springfield, Mass., February 9, 1826, 
and from 1844 until his death in 1878 was editor of the 
“Springfield Republican,” founded by his father. Under 
his management the paper became one of the fore¬ 
most journals in the country, and is now noted for its 
comprehensive news, its literary taste, and its intelligent 
views of public affairs. In recent years it has labored to 
free the press from the bias of political party. Bowles is 
author of “Across the Continent” “Our New West,” 
and “The Switzerland of America.” 

Braddock, Edward, born in 1695, British general; 
served in the Peninsula and Germany, and in 1754 was 
appointed to the command of the forces in Virginia. In 
1755 he led an expedition against Fort Du Quesne, where 
his troops fell into an ambush and were routed, and him¬ 
self killed. 

Braddon, Mary Elizabeth, born in 1837, popular 
novelist, after contributing to the provincial press, suc¬ 
ceeded in getting a comedy, “ Loves of Arcadia,” accepted 
at the Strand Theater. In 1861 she produced a volume 
of poems, “Garibaldi,” and then turning to fiction, pub¬ 
lished rapidly “Lady Lisle,” “Lady Audley’s Secret,” 
“Aurora Floyd,” and “Henry Dunbar.” These books 
established her as one of the most popular novelists of 
the day, and later works, which she has published in 
large number, have not diminished her reputation. 

Bradlaugh, Charles, born in 1833, politician, after 
working in several humble capacities, enlisted in the 
army. In 1853 he entered a solicitor’s office; and then 
he achieved a great influence with working men as a 
Radical, and an antagonist of the Christian religion. His 
lectures in the Hall of Science, London, on social, political, 
and religious questions, were very popular; and in 1860 
he started the “National Reformer,” against which a 
futile government prosecution was instituted. In 1870, 
he secured a judicial decision in favor of affirmation in 
courts of law, but the expenses of the trial made him 
bankrupt. In 1872, he published his “Impeachment of 
the House of Brunswick,” and the question of perpetual 
pensions always formed one of his favorite subjects. In 
1880, he was returned for Northampton to Parliament, 
but refusing to take the oath, he was not allowed to take 
his seat until after the general election of 1885, although 
he was repeatedly returned by the constituency. After¬ 
wards he earned a high reputation in the House of Com¬ 
mons, and though a thorough Radical, opposed the 
advocates of socialism. In 1889, he visited India, his 
interest in Indian affairs having always been pronounced. 
Died, 1891. 

Brady, Cyrus Townsend, Protestant Episcopal 
clergyman, author; born in Allegheny, Pa., December 
20, 1861; graduate of United States Naval Academy, 
1883. Railroad service with the Missouri Pacific and 
Union Pacific roads for several years; studied theology 
under Bishop Worthington, Nebraska; ordained deacon, 
1889; priest, 1890. Was rector of Protestant Episcopal 
churches in Missouri and Colorado and archdeacon of 
Kansas until 1895, and archdeacon of Pennsylvania till 
1899; rector of St. Paul’s Church, Overbrook, Phila¬ 
delphia, 1899-1902, resigning to engage in literary work; 
chaplain of 1st Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry in 
Spanish-American War. Member of American Academy 
of Political and Social Science. Author: “For Love of 
Country,” “For the Freedom of the Sea,” “The Grip of 
Honor,” “Stephen Decatur,” “Recollections of a Mis¬ 
sionary in the Great West,” “American Fights and 
Fighters,” “Commodore Paul Jones,” “Reuben James,” 
“When Blades are Out and Love’s Afield,” “Under 
Tops’ls and Tents,” “Colonial Fights and Fighters,” 
“Hohenzollern,” “Woven With the Ship,” “In the 
Wasp’s Nest,” “Border Fights and Fighters,” “The 
Southerners,” “The Bishop,” “Sir Henry Morgan, Buc- 





BIOGRAPHY 


411 


caneer,” “.The Doctor of Philosophy,” ‘‘In the War 
with Mexico,” ‘‘The Corner in Coffee,” ‘‘The Records,” 
‘‘A Little Traitor to the South,” ‘‘A Midshipman in the 
Pacific,” ‘‘Indian Fights and Fighters,” ‘‘The Conquest 
of the Southwest,” ‘‘The Two Captains.” 

Brahe, Tycho (br&h), the most distinguished astron¬ 
omer of the Sixteenth Century, was born in 1546, and 
died in 1601. A native of Denmark, his active life was 
passed in Germany. 

Brahms, Johannes, born in 1833; German musical 
composer. Schumann early expressed the highest opin¬ 
ion of Brahms’ genius, but for many years he was not 
appreciated in Germany. In 1862 he went to Vienna, 
where he acquired a high reputation, and held several 
important musical posts. In 1868 he composed the 
‘‘Deutsches Requiem,” which, after the Franco-German 
War, was performed throughout Germany. His composi¬ 
tions have been very highly valued. Died, 1897. 

Brant, Joseph {brant). An Indian chief of the Mo¬ 
hawk nation, born in Ohio, about 1742, held a commis¬ 
sion in the British service, and fought against the Amer¬ 
ican colonists in the Revolution. He went, afterwards, 
to England, where he published the Gospel of St. Mark 
in Mohawk. Died, 1807. 

Breckenridge, John Cabell, born in 1821; American 
politician; in 1851 entered Congress, and in 1856 was 
elected vice-president under Buchanan. In 1860 he 
was a candidate for the presidency in the Southern 
interest, but was defeated by Lincoln; and having de¬ 
nounced Lincoln’s address as a declaration of war, he 
was expelled from the House of Representatives. He 
was given a command in the Confederate army. Died, 
1875. 

Brewer, David Josiah, associate justice in United 
States Supreme Court, 1889-1910; born in Smyrna, Asia 
Minor, June 20^ 1837; graduate of Yale, 1856; Albany 
Law School, 1858. Began practice, Leavenworth, Kan., 
1859; United States commissioner, 1861-62; judge in 
probate and criminal courts, Leavenworth County, 
1863-64; judge in district court, 1865-69; county attor¬ 
ney, 1869-70; justice supreme court, Kansas, 1870-84; 
judge circuit court of United States, 1884-89. Ap¬ 
pointed by President Cleveland, 1896, member 
Venezuelan Boundary Commission; member of British- 
Venezuelan Arbitration Tribunal, 1899; President of Uni¬ 
versal Congress of Lawyers and Jurists, Louisiana Pur¬ 
chase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. Author: ‘‘The Pew 
to the Pulpit,” ‘‘The Twentieth Century from Another 
View Point,” ‘‘American Citizenship.” Died, 1910. 

Brewster ( broo'stur ), Sir David, an English philoso¬ 
pher and author, born in 1781, and educated at Edin¬ 
burgh. From 1808 to 1829, he was editor of the ‘‘Edin¬ 
burgh Encyclopedia.” In 1815, he was elected F. R. S., 
and the next year invented the kaleidoscope. Among 
his chief works are a ‘‘Treatise on Optics” and ‘‘Mem¬ 
oirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Newton.” 
His researches on double refraction, and discovery of 
the law of the polarization of light are his chief titles 
to eminence. Died, 1868. 

Brian Boru, Boroihme {brl'an-bo-roo '), a celebrated 
Irish chief, King of Munster, afterwards sovereign of all 
Ireland, was born in 926, and died in 1014. He de¬ 
feated the Danes in many battles, his last victory being 
at Clontarf, where he was killed. He was equally dis¬ 
tinguished for his patronage of learning and piety. 

Bridget, St. ( brid'jet ), or St. Bride, the patroness of 
Ireland, born at Fochart, County of Armagh, who flour¬ 
ished in the beginning of the Sixth Century, was re¬ 
nowned for her beauty, and founded the monastery of 
Kildare, where she devoted herself to the education of 
young girls. 

Briggs, Charles Augustus, clergyman, theologian; 
born in New York, January 15, 1841; studied in Uni¬ 
versity of Virginia, 1857-60; Union Theological Semi¬ 
nary, 1861-63; University of Berlin, 1866-69. Pastor 
of Presbyterian Church, Roselle, N. J., 1870-74; profes¬ 
sor of Hebrew, 1875-1900, Biblical theology, 1890-1904, 
Theological Encyclopedia and Symbolics since 1904, 
Union Theological Seminary. Editor ‘‘Presbyterian 
Review,” 1880-90; was tried for heresy and acquitted 
by Presbytery of New York, 1892, but suspended by 
General Assembly, 1893; ordained priest by Protestant 
Episcopal bishop of New York, 1900. Author: ‘‘Bib¬ 
lical Study,” ‘‘American Presbyterianism,” “Messianic 
Prophecy,” “Whither? A Theological Question for the 
Times,” “The Authority of Holy Scripture,” “The 
Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch,” “The Bible, the 
Church, and the Reason,” “The Messiah of the Apostles,” 
“The Messiah of the Gospels,” “The Case of Dr. Briggs,” 
three parts, “General Introduction to the Study of 
Holy Scripture,” “The Incarnation of the Lord,” “New 
Light on the Life of Jesus,” “Ethical Teachings of Jesus.” 
Also (with F. Brown and S. R. Driver) New Hebrew 


Lexicon. Editor: “ International Theological Library,” 
“International Critical Commentary.” 

Bright, John, born November 16, 1811; an eminent 
orator and Radical statesman. Of Quaker parentage, 
he entered his father’s business at the age of 16. Though 
he had taken part in the Reform movement, he first 
became prominent along with his friend Cobden in the 
anti-corn law agitation; entered parliament for Durham, 
being afterwards returned for Manchester, and losing 
that seat through his opposition to the Crimean War. 
In 1857, he was returned for Birmingham, holding that 
seat till his death. He joined Mr. Gladstone’s govern¬ 
ment which disestablished the Irish Church, but opposed 
his Home Rule policy in 1886, dying in the unshaken 
conviction that it was a fatal error. As a master of 
really pure Saxon English, in all its power and pathos, 
Mr. Bright was never surpassed, and his speeches are 
worthy attentive study on that account alone. Died, 
March 27, 1889. 

Brock, Sir Isaac, a gallant British officer. In 1812, 
when an American army under General Hull invaded 
Canada, the measures adopted by Brock were so effectual 
that the Americans surrendered without striking a blow. 
He did not long enjoy the fame he had won. An affair 
occurred at Queenstown, in October the same year, in 
which he lost his life. 

Bronte, Charlotte, born in 1816; English author, 
the eldest of the three Bronte sisters. After some ex¬ 
perience as a governess she became engaged with her 
sisters in the writing of novels, and in 1846 published 
with them a small volume of poems under the names of 
Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. In 1847 she published 
the well-known story, “Jane Eyre.” Its success was 
instantaneous and complete. Although adversely and 
severely criticised, it was and is admitted to be one of 
the most remarkable of English novels. Her second 
story, “Shirley,” was published in 1849, and her third 
and last, “Villette,” in 1853. Another story, “The 
Professor,” which had been refused by the publisher 
before “Jane Eyre” had made its author famous, 
was published after her death. In June, 1854, she 
married the Rev. Mr. Nicholls, who had been for a time 
her father’s curate. But soon after her marriage, con¬ 
sumption, which had carried off her sisters and brothers, 
settled on her, and she died in her fortieth year (1855). 

Brooke, Rev. Stopford A., M. A., wa3 born in 1832. 
Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated 
(1856), winning the Downe prize and Vice-Chancellor’s 
medal for English verse. He was formerly chaplain to 
Queen Victoria and to the princess royal of Germany. 
From 1876 to 1894 Brooke was minister of Bedford 
Chapel, Bloomsbury; because he could not accept the 
orthodox views on miracles, he seceded from the Church 
of England, 1880. In 1895, however, after a lengthy 
illness, he found himself compelled to retire from his 
post. He is the author of several works, among which 
are “Life and Letters of the late F. W. Robertson,” a 
“Primer of English Literature,” “The Early Life of 
Jesus,” several volumes of sermons, a volume of poems, 
“History of English Poetry,” a work on “Early English 
Literature,” “The Old Testament and Modern Life,” 
and a book on Browning. 

Brougham, Henry, Lord Brougham and Vaux 

( broo'am ), born in Edinburgh in 1778, and educated at 
the high school and university of that city, was admitted 
to the Scotch bar in 1800. Excluded from promotion 
in Scotland by his liberal principles, he joined the Eng¬ 
lish bar in 1808, speedily acquired a reputation as a 
lawyer for the defense in Crown libel actions, and by 
his eloquence in the cause of Queen Caroline, 1820. 
Died, 1868. 

Brown, Henry Billings, associate justice of United 
States Supreme Court, 1890-1906; born in South Lee, 
Mass., March 2, 1836; graduate of Yale, 1856; studied 
law in private office; attended lectures at Yale and 
Harvard law schools. Deputy United States marshal, 
1861-63; assistant United States attorney for eastern 
district of Michigan* 1863-68; then for a few months, 
to fill a vacancy, judge State Circuit Court of Wayne 
County; practiced law in Detroit until 1875; United 
States judge for eastern district of Michigan, 1875-90. 
Compiler of Brown’s Admiralty Reports. 

Brown, John, an American slavery abolitionist, born 
in 1800, settled in Kansas, and resolutely opposed the 
project of making it a slave State. In the interest of 
emancipation, with a small band, he seized on the 
State armory at Harper’s Ferry in hope of a rising, en¬ 
trenched himself armed in it, was sffrrounded, seized, 
tried, and hanged in 1859. 

Brown-Sequard, Edward, born in 1818; American 
physician and physiologist, was appointed successively 
professor of pathology at Harvard, professor to the 
Faculty of Medicine at Paris, and succeeded Claude 




412 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Bernard in the chair of experimental medicine at the 
College of France. He published two important series | 
of lectures on the “Paralysis of the Lower Extremities” 
and on “Nervous Affections.” Died, 1894. 

Browne, Charles Farrar, a humorist and satirist, 
known by the pseudonym of “Artemus Ward,” was 
born in Maine, United States, in 1834. His first literary 
effort was as “showman” to an imaginary traveling 
menagerie. He traveled over America lecturing, carry¬ 
ing with him a whimsical panorama as affording texts 
for his numerous jokes, which he took with him to Lon¬ 
don, and exhibited with the same accompaniment with 
unbounded success. Browne spent some time among 
the Mormons, and defined their religion as singular, 
but their wives plural. Died, 1867. 

Browne, Sir Thomas, a physician and religious 
thinker, born in London in 1605, resided at Norwich 
for nearly half a century, and died there in 1682. He 
was knighted by Charles II.; Professor Saintsbury 
says, “the greatest prose writer perhaps, when all 
things are taken together, in the whole range of Eng¬ 
lish.” His principal works are “Religio Medici,” “In¬ 
quiries into Vulgar Errors,” and “ Hydriotaphia, or 
Urn-Burial, a Discourse of the Sepulchral Urns Found 
in Norfolk,” all of the very first importance in English 
literature. 

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett ( broun'lng ), one of 
the greatest of English poets, born in 1806; she 
married the poet Robert Browning, with whom she took 
up her residence in Italy. Her principal works are 
“Aurora Leigh,” “Lady Geraldine’s Courtship,” “Casa 
Guidi Windows,” “Poems Before Congress.” Died, 1861. 

Browning, Robert, an English poet, born in 1812; 
married Elizabeth Barrett in 1846; afterward resided 
in Paris and Italy. His poems are numerous and of 
much power, but notable for their obscurity. Died, 1889. 

Bruce, David, born in 1324; King of Scotland, and 
son and successor of Robert Bruce. The invasion of 
Scotland by Edward III. forced him to flee to France; 
but he returned during the war between France and 
England. He invaded England, but was defeated and 
taken prisoner. He was ransomed for £100,000. Died, 
1371. 

Bruce, Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, fought 
with great bravery in the war against the English, and in 
1315, being offered the crown of Ireland, he went to that 
country, maintaining his position with great success. 
He was killed in a battle against the English in 1318. 

Brummel, Beau, born in London, in 1778; in his 
day the prince of dandies, was patronized by the Prince 
of Wales, afterwards George IV.; quarreled with the 
prince; fled from his creditors to Calais, where, reduced 
to destitution, he lived some years in the same reckless 
fashion. He settled at length in Caen, where he died 
insane in 1840. 

Brutus, Deeimus Junius Albinus, one of the 
assassins of Julius Caesar. After the murder of the 
consul, he was besieged in Mutina by Mark Antony, 
but drove off the enemy. Crossing into Macedonia, 
he was betrayed into the hands of Antony and put to 
death (43 B. C.). 

Brutus, Lucius Junius, a Roman consul. Tar- 
quinius Superbus having put the father and brother 
of Brutus to death, Brutus feigned madness, until the 
rape of I.ucretia, when he excited the populace to insur¬ 
rection, and drove Tarquinius from the city. He and 
Collatinus were appointed consuls together, and in this 
capacity Brutus ordered the execution of his own sons 
for complicity in a conspiracy. He was killed by Tar¬ 
quinius’ son about 507 B. C. 

Brutus, Marcus Junius, born in 85 B. C.; the 
nephew of Cato of Utica, sided with Pompey against 
Caesar, and after the battle of Pharsalia retired to liter¬ 
ary pursuits. Caesar made him governor of Cisalpine 
Gaul, but he joined the conspirators who murdered the 
consul. After the assassination he collected troops in 
Macedonia, and assuming the title of imperator, rav¬ 
aged Rhodes and Lydia. In 42 B. C., he and Cassius 
were defeated by Octavius Caesar and Mark Antony, 
when Brutus committed suicide. 

Bruyere ( bru-yare '), John de la, a distinguished 
French writer, born in 1645. He wrote dialogues on 
quietism, and translated the characters of Theophrastus 
from the Greek. He died in 1696. 

Bryan, William Jennings, editor and publicist; 
born in Salem, Ill., March 19,1860; early education in pub¬ 
lic schools and Whipple Academy; graduate of Illinois 
College, Jacksonville, 1881; Union College of Law, Chi¬ 
cago, 1883. Practiced at Jacksonville, Ill., 1883-87; 
then at Lincoln, Neb.; member of Congress, 1891-95; 
received Democratic vote for United States senator in 
Nebraska Legislature, 1893; nominated in Democratic 
convention for United States senator, 1894, but was 


defeated in legislature by John M. Thurston; editor 
of Omaha “World-Herald,” 1894-96; delegate to 
Democratic National Convention, 1896; wrote the 
“silver plank” in its platform, made a notable speech, 
and was nominated for president of United States; 
traveled over 18,000 miles during campaign, speaking 
at almost every stopping place; received 176 electoral 
votes against 271 for William McKinley. In 1897-98 
he lectured on bimetallism; raised in May, 1898, the 
3d Regiment of Nebraska Volunteer Infantry for war 
against Spain, becoming its colonel. Nominated for 
president in 1900 by Democratic, Populist, and Silver 
Republican conventions; he made an active canvass, 
but was again defeated by William McKinley; after the 
election, he established a weekly political magazine, “The 
Commoner.” He was again nominated for president in 
1908, and, after a notable campaign, was defeated by 
W. H. Taft. In 1912 he took an active part in the 
Democratic National Convention, and was largely instru¬ 
mental in securing the nomination of Wilson for 
president. Became secretary of state under Wilson, 
1913. Author: “The First Battle,” “Under Other 
Flags,” also many articles in magazines and newspapers. 

Bryant, William Cullen, born in 1794; American 
poet and historian; when about nineteen published his 
poem, “Thanatopsis,” which attracted much attention; 
in 1825 he became editor of several periodicals in 
New York. Having several times visited Europe, he 
wrote his “ Letters of a Traveler in Europe and Amer¬ 
ica”; for more than thirty years he acted as editor of 
the “New York Evening Post,” and wrote much poetry, 
as well as many other prose works. Died, 1878. 

Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, was born in 1838: educated 
at Glasgow University and Trinity College, Oxford 
(Craven and Vinerian Scholar); Fellow of Oriel, 1862; 
Honorary Fellow of Trinity College; D. C. L., LL. D., 
F. R. S.; D. L., City of Aberdeen; member of Institute 
of France and of the Royal Academies of Turin, Stock¬ 
holm, Naples, and Brussels, and of the Royal Accademia 
of the Lincei at Rome; P. C.; called to the bar, Lincoln’s 
Inn, 1867; regius professor of civil law at Oxford Uni¬ 
versity, 1870-93; M. P. for Tower Hamlets, 1880-85, 
and for South Aberdeen, 1885-1907; under-secretary 
for foreign affairs for five months in 1886; chancellor 
of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1892-94, and March to May, 
1894; president of the Board of Trade, 1894-95; chief 
secretary for Ireland, 1905-07. He was appointed 
ambassador to the United States of America, December 
31, 1906, and resigned, 1912. He has taken a deep inter¬ 
est in the condition of the Eastern Christians and their 
emancipation from Turkish misrule. He strongly opposed 
the war in South Africa, and the Education Act of 1902. 
Author of “The Holy Roman Empire,” “Transcaucasia 
and Ararat,” “The American Commonwealth,” “Im¬ 
pressions of South Africa,” “Studies in History and 
Jurisprudence,” “Studies in Contemporary Biography.” 

Buchanan, James, fifteenth president of the United 
States, was born in Franklin County, Pa., April 23, 
1791; admitted to the bar, 1812; member of Congress, 
1821-31; minister to Russia, 1832-34; United States 
Senator, 1834-45; secretary of state, 1845-49; minister 
to England, 1853-56; signed Ostend Manifesto, 1854; 
president, 1857-61. His administration was, on the 
whole, unpopular. He died on June 1, 1868. 

Buck, Dudley, organist, composer; born in Hart¬ 
ford, Conn., 1839; studied at Trinity College, Leipzig 
Conservatory of Music, and at Dresden and Paris; for 
several years organist Music Hall, Boston; organist 
Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn; director and organist 
Apollo Club, twenty-five years; retired, 1903. Composer 
of orchestral, organ, and vocal music. Died, 1909. 

Buckle, Henry Thomas, born in 1821; historian. 
In 1857 the first volume of his “History of Civilization 
in Europe” appeared, and was very well received. The 
second volume, published in 1861, found, too, an appre¬ 
ciative public; in 1862 his health gave way, and he died 
the same year leaving his work uncompleted. 

Buckley, James Monroe, editor “New York Chris¬ 
tian Advocate,” 1880-1912; born in Rahway, N. J., 
December 16, 1836; educated at Pennington, N. J., 
Seminary, and one year at Wesleyan University; studied 
theology at Exeter, N. H.; joined New Hampshire 
conference, Methodist Episcopal Church, 1859; went 
to Detroit, 1863; Brooklyn, 1866; pastor in vicinity of 
New York until 1880. Author: “Oats or Wild Oats,” 
“Faith Healing,” “Christian Science and Kindred Phe¬ 
nomena,” “Christians and the Theater,” “The Land of 
the Czar and the Nihilist,” “Travels in Three Continents 
— Europe, Asia, Africa,” “History of Methodism in the 
United States,” “Extemporaneous Oratory for Profes¬ 
sional and Amateur Speakers,” “Supposed Miracles.” 

Buddha ( bod'da ), “the wise or enlightened,” is the 
sacred name of the founder of Buddhism, who appears 



BIOGRAPHY 


413 


to have lived in the Sixth Century B. C. He was 
born a Hindu, of an intensely contemplative nature, 
the son of a king, who did everything in his power to 
tempt him from a religious life, from which, however, 
in his contemplation of the vanity of existence nothing 
could detain him; retired into solitude at the age of 30, 
as Sakyamuni, i. e., solitary of the Sakyas, his tribe; 
consulted religious books, could get no good out of them, 
till, by-and-by, he abstracted himself more and more 
from everything external, when at the end of ten years, 
as he sat brooding under the Bo-tree alone with the 
universe, soul with soul, the light of truth rose full- 
orbed upon him, and he called himself henceforth and 
gave^himself out as Buddha. “Now,” he said to him¬ 
self, “I know it all,” as Mohammed in his way did after 
him, and became a preacher to others of what had proved 
salvation to himself, which he continued to do for forty 
years, leaving behind him disciples, who went forth with¬ 
out sword, like Christ’s, to preach what they, like Christ’s, 
believed was a gospel to every creature. 

Buffon ( boof'-fong ), Georges Louis Leclerc, Count 
de, an eminent French naturalist, a member of the French 
Academy, and of that of sciences; was born in 1707. 
His “Natural History,” which appeared in 1749, gave 
him fame, combining in an eminent degree reason, elo¬ 
quence, and research. Other works from his pen ob¬ 
tained great applause. He professed to be a materialist. 
In 1739, he was named Intendant of the Jardin Royal 
des Plantes. Died, 1788. 

Bull, Ole Bornemann, famous violinist; born in 
Bergen, in Norway, 1810; he secured great triumphs 
both throughout Europe and in America by his wonder¬ 
ful playing. He lost all his money in a scheme to found 
a colony of his countrymen in Pennsylvania, and had to 
take again to his violin to repair his broken fortunes. 
He afterwards settled down at Cambridge, Mass., and 
had also a summer residence in Norway, where he died 
in 1880. 

Buller, Sir Red vers, born in 1839; soldier, first saw 
service in the China War of 1860. In 1870 he took part 
in the Red River expedition, and in 1874 in the Ashantee 
War. In 1879 he was sent on special service to the Cape, 
held command of the Frontier Light Horse in the Kaffir 
War of 1878-79, and served with great gallantry in the 
Zulu War. He was present at Tel-el-Kebir, at El Teb 
and Tamai, and accompanied the Nile expedition of 
1884. In 1890, he succeeded Lord Wolseley as adjutant- 
general. Was prominent in the Boer War. Died, 1908. 

Billow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, born in 1755; 
Prussian general, obtained field marshal’s rank in 1813, 
and by the victory at Lukan saved Berlin from the 
French. His victories at Grossbeeren and Dennewitz 
over Oudinot and Ney respectively twice again saved 
the Prussian capital at critical moments. He was present 
at Leipzig, and in command of the right wing of the allies 
he occupied the low countries. In 1814 he marched into 
France, and he was in command during the Waterloo 
campaign. Died in 1816. 

Bunyan, John ( bun'yan ), author of the celebrated 
allegories, “Pilgrim’s Progress,” and “Holy War”; 
born in England, 1628, was when young dissipated, but 
in early manhood reformed and joined the Baptists, 
becoming so zealous as to invite persecution. He was 
sentenced to transportation on a charge of promoting 
seditious assemblies, but sentence was not enforced; 
was, however, imprisoned for more than twelve years, 
and during that time wrote his “Pilgrim’s Progress.” 
Died 1688. 

Burbank, Luther, naturalist, originator of new fruits 
and flowers; born in Lancaster, Mass., March 7, 1849; 
boyhood on farm; educated at Lancaster Academy; 
always devoted to study of nature, especially plant life. 
Moved to Santa Rosa, Cal., 1875; conducts Burbank’s 
Experiment Farms. Originator of the Burbank potato; 
gold, Wickson, apple, October purple, chalco, Amer¬ 
ica, and climax plums; giant, splendor, sugar, and 
stoneless prunes; a new fruit, the plumcot; peachblow, 
Burbank, and Santa Rosa roses; gigantic forms of 
amaryllis, tigridia, the Shasta daisy, giant and fra¬ 
grance callas; and various new apples, peaches, nuts, 
berries, and other valuable trees, fruits, flowers, grasses, 
grains, and vegetables. 

Burdett-Coutts, Angela Georgina, Baroness, 
born in 1814; the daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, suc¬ 
ceeded in 1837 to the great wealth of her grandfather, 
Mr. Thomas Coutts. The Shoe-black Brigade, the Nova 
Scotia Gardens, model lodging houses, and Columbia 
Market are of her foundation. The poor and the dis¬ 
tressed at home and abroad had a constant bene¬ 
factress in her; the east-end weavers, the Irish fishermen 
of Cape Clear, the Turkish peasantry after the Russo- 
Turkish War, are among those who received her help. 
In 1871, the queen made Miss Coutts a peeress, and 


in 1881 the baroness married William Ashmead-Bartlett. 
Died, 1906. 

Burg ess, John William, educator; born in Coners- 
ville, Giles County, Tenn., August 26, 1844; attended 
Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn.; graduate of 
Amherst, 1867. Admitted to bar, Springfield, Mass., 
1869; professor of English literature and political econ¬ 
omy, Knox College, 1869-71; studied history, public 
law and political science, Gottingen, Leipzig, Berlin, 
1871-73; professor history and political science, Am¬ 
herst, 1873-76; professor political science and consti¬ 
tutional law since 1876, dean faculty of political science 
1890-1912, Columbia University. Author: “Political 
Science and Comparative Constitutional Law ” (2 vol¬ 
umes), “The Middle Period,” “The Civil W T ar and the 
Constitution” (two volumes), “Reconstruction and the 
Constitution,” contributor to reviews on historical, 
political and legal topics. 

Burgoyne, John, General ( bur-goin '), an English 
officer in the American Revolution, was defeated and 
surrendered his army to General Gates at Saratoga, in 
1777. Born, 1722 ; died, 1792. 

Burke, Edmund, born in 1729; statesman and 
orator; an Irishman by birth; graduated at Trinity 
College, Dublin. Going to London, he attracted at¬ 
tention by his essays on the “Sublime and Beautiful,” 
and devoted himself to literature, founding in 1759 
“The Annual Register.” In 1761 he became private 
secretary to Hamilton, the new chief secretary for Ire¬ 
land ; and served Lord Rockingham in the same capacity 
when that nobleman became prime minister. He was 
returned to Parliament for Wendover, and his speeches 
on American affairs created a great sensation in the 
House of Commons. His position in political life was 
raised still higher by the pamphlets which he wrote on 
current questions. Returned for Malton, he produced 
in 1780 his great plan of economical reform; and in 1782 
he became paymaster under Lord Rockingham’s govern¬ 
ment. He again took office in the Duke of Portland’s 
coalition ministry, when he made his famous speech on 
the India bill. In the impeachment of Warren Hastings, 
Burke played a leading part, his opening speech extend¬ 
ing over four days. The outbreak of the French Revolu¬ 
tion was the occasion of one of his finest efforts of oratory. 
Burke’s attitude in this matter severed his friendship 
with Fox, and he seceded from the Whig party. In 1794, 
he retired from parliamentary life, though he continued to 
produce his pamphlets on political affairs. Died, 1797. 

Burleigh ( bur'le ), William Cecil, Lord, prime 
minister of England during the reign of Elizabeth; born 
in 1520, was regarded as one of the ablest statesmen of 
his time. Died, 1598. 

Burlingame ( bur'ling-am ), Anson, an American 
diplomatist; born in Chenango County, N. Y., 1820. 
He was elected member of Congress by the Republicans 
of the fifth district of Massachusetts, in 1854-56-58. 
In 1861, he was sent as minister to China, and, in 1867, 
appointed ambassador from China to the United States 
and to the great powers of Europe. In 1868 he visited 
this country at the head of a Chinese embassy, and con¬ 
cluded a liberal treaty between the United States and 
China, which was promptly ratified by the Chinese Gov¬ 
ernment. The embassy afterwards visited London, 
Paris, Berlin, and lastly St. Petersburg, where Burlingame 
suddenly died, February, 1870. 

Burne-Jones, Edward, born in 1833; painter, early 
fell under the influence of the pre-Raphaelite Brother¬ 
hood, and his paintings are marked by the mediaevalism 
and realism of that school. He was elected an associate 
of the Royal Academy in 1885. Died, 1898. 

Burnett, Frances Hodgson, author, playwright; 
born (Frances Eliza Hodgson), Manchester, England, 
November 24, 1849; family moved, 1865, to Knoxville, 
Tenn.; began writing for magazines, 1867; married Dr. 
L. M. Burnett, 1873; settled in Washington, 1875; ob¬ 
tained divorce, 1898; married second time, 1900, Stephen 
Townesend, English surgeon. Author (novels): “That 
Lass o’ Lowrie’s,” “Dolly, a Love Story,” “Kathleen,” 
“Surly Tim and Other Stories” 1877; “Haworth’s,” 
“Louisiana,” “A Fair Barbarian,” “Through One Ad¬ 
ministration,” “Little Lord Fauntleroy,” “Editha’s 
Burglar,” “Sara Crewe,” “Little Saint Elizabeth,” “Two 
Little Pilgrims’ Progress,” “The Pretty Sister of Jos£,” 
“A Lady of Quality,” “His Grace of Ormonde,” “The 
Captain’s Youngest,” “In Connection with the De ’Will¬ 
oughby Claim,” “The Making of a Marchioness,” "The 
Little Unfairy Princess,” “A Little Princess.” Plays: 
“Little Lord Fauntleroy,” “Phyllis,” “The Showman’s 
Daughter,” “Esmeralda,” “The First Gentleman of 
Europe,” “Nixie” (with Stephen Townesend), “A Lady 
of Quality” (with same). 

Burns, Robert, born in 1759; Scottish poet; was the 
son of an Ayrshire farmer, and with his brothers worked 



414 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


on the farm. His first volume of poems was published 
in 1786, and attracted much attention. Burns being 
invited to Edinburgh and made much of by literary so¬ 
ciety. At this time he was on the point of emigrating to 
Jamaica. In 1788 he married Jean Armour, and in 1789 
became an excise officer, as well as a farmer in Dumfries¬ 
shire. In 1791, farming not being profitable, he re¬ 
moved to Dumfries, where he continued his post in the 
excise, and wrote poems for the Edinburgh publishers. 
The irregularities which had marked his earlier life re¬ 
turned in his later days, and accelerated his death in 1796. 

Burnside, Ambrose Everett, born in 1824; general 
in the United States Army, early distinguished himself 
in border warfare, and in the Civil War was present at 
the battles of Bull Run, South Mountain, and Antietam. 
He was defeated by the Confederates at Petersburg, but 
held command of tbe ninth army corps under Grant 
until Lee’s surrender. Died, 1881. 

Burr, Aaron, born in 1756; a vice-president of the 
United States, distinguished himself in the War of Inde¬ 
pendence. In 1807 he was arrested on a charge of con¬ 
spiracy. It was supposed that he aimed to separate 
the Western States from the Union and annex them to 
Mexico, but he was acquitted. Going to Europe, he 
was ordered to leave England for endeavoring to pro¬ 
mote a filibustering expedition against Mexico. He re¬ 
turned to America in 1812, and spent the rest of his life 
in retirement. Died, 1836. 

Burroughs, John, essayist; born in Roxbury, N. Y., 
April 3, 1837; academic education; taught school about 
eight years; treasury clerk, 1864-73; national bank ex¬ 
aminer, 1873-84; since 1874 has lived on a farm, devot¬ 
ing his time to literature and fruit culture. Author: 
“Wake-Robin,” “Signs and Seasons,” “Pepacton,” 
“Riverby,” “Birds and Poets,” “Winter Sunshine,” 
“Locusts and Wild Honey,” “Fresh Fields,” “Indoor 
Studies,” “Whitman, a Study,” “The Light of Day,” 
“Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers,” “.Literary Values,” 
“Far and Near,” etc. 

Burrows, Julius C., former United States senator, 
lawyer; born in Northeast, Erie County, Pa., January 9, 
1837; academic education; entered law practice at Kala¬ 
mazoo, Mich.; officer in the Union Army, 1862-64; pros¬ 
ecuting attorney, Kalamazoo County, 1865-67; was 
appointed, 1867, supervisor internal revenue for Michi¬ 
gan and Wisconsin, declined; tendered office of solicitor 
of the treasury and declined; member Congress, 1873-75, 
1879-83, 1885-95; twice elected speaker pro tern; 
United States senator, 1895-99, unexpired term of 
Francis B. Stockbridge, deceased; reelected for term 
1899-1905, and reelected for term 1905-1911, by unani¬ 
mous vote of the legislature. 

Burton, Theodore E„ U. S. senator, lawyer; born 
in Jefferson, O., December 20, 1851; son of Rev. William 
and Elizabeth (Grant) Burton; graduate of Oberlin Col¬ 
lege, 1872; admitted to bar, 1875; since then in practice at 
Cleveland; member Congress, 1889-91, and 1895-1909, 
twenty-first Ohio district, Republican; United States 
senator, 1909. President Grant Family Association of 
the United States. Author: “Financial Crises and 
Periods of Industrial and Commercial Depression.” 

Butler, Benjamin Franklin, an American politician, 
born in New Hampshire, 1818; studied law and settled 
in Massachusetts, where he became recognized as the 
leading Democrat of New England. A delegate to the 
Charleston and Baltimore nominating conventions, he 
took a leading part in the movement which nominated 
Breckenridge and divided the party. He promptly 
entered the service at the outbreak of the Civil War, and 
had command of the departments of the Gulf and of the 
South Atlantic, acquiring no military fame but great 
notoriety for his arbitrary civil regulations. Elected to 
Congress by the Massachusetts Republicans in 1866 and 
1868, but defeated in 1874, he deserted that party, and 
in 1882 was elected governor by the Democrats; renomi¬ 
nated in 1883, he was defeated. Died, 1893. 

Butler, Nicholas Murray, educator; born Elizabeth, 
N. J., 1862; received degrees of A. B., A. M., and Ph. D. 
from Columbia, and LL. D. from many institutions. 
Since 1902 president of Columbia, where, since 1885, he 
has taught philosophy. Also president Barnard college, 
Teachers college and College of pharmacy. Member of 
many learned societies and associations. Selected in 
1912 by Republican national committee as candidate for 
vice-president in place of James S. Sherman, deceased. 
Editor: “Educational Review,” “Great Educators 

Series,” “Teachers’ Professional Library,” etc. Author: 
“The Meaning of Education,” “True and False Democ¬ 
racy,” “The American as He Is,” “Philosophy,” etc. 

Butler, Samuel, born in 1612; English satirist; in 
his seventeenth year became attached to the household 
of the Countess of Kent, when he frequently attended 
meetings at the house of a Sir Samuel Luke, a strict 


Puritan and Parliamentarian. The experiences of this 
time furnished him with the material for his famous work, 
“Hudibras,” the first part of which appeared in 1663, 
and achieved the widest popularity. Two other parts 
of the work appeared at intervals, but of Butler’s life 
during that time little is known. Died, 1680. 

Byron, George Gordon, sixth lord; an English 
poet; w T as born in London, 1788; son of Captain Byron 
of the Guards and Catherine Gordon of Gight, Aberdeen¬ 
shire. He spent his boyhood at Aberdeen, under his 
mother, and was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, 
spending, when at the latter, his vacations in London, 
where his mother had taken a house. He wrote “Hours 
of Idleness,” a poor first attempt, which called forth a 
severe criticism in the “Edinburgh Review,” and which 
he satirized in “English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,” 
and soon afterwards left England and spent two years 
in foreign travel; wrote first part of “Childe Harold,” 
“awoke one morning and found himself famous”; pro¬ 
duced the “Giaour,” “Bride of Abydos,” “Hebrew 
Melodies,” and other works. In his school days he had 
fallen in love with Mary Chaworth, but she had not re¬ 
turned his affection, and in 1815 he married Miss Mill- 
bank, an heiress, -who in a year left him never to return, 
when a storm raised against him, on account of his private 
life, drove him from England, and he never came back. 
On the Continent, he moved from place to place, finished 
“Childe Harold,” completed several short poems, and 
wrote “Don Juan”; threw himself into revolutionary 
movements in Italy and Greece. Died in 1824. His 
poems, from the character of the passion that breathed in 
them, made a great impression on his age. 

Cable, George Washington, author; born in New 
Orleans, October 12, 1844; educated in public schools. 
Served Fourth Mississippi Cavalry, Confederate States 
Army, 1863-65; clerk in cotton factor’s office; for a 
time reporter on “New Orleans Picayune,” 1865-79; 
wrote stories for “Scribner’s Monthly”; since 1879 
devoted to literature. Author: “Old Creole Days,” 
“The Grandissimes,” “Madame Delphine,” “The Creoles 
of Louisiana,” “Dr. Sevier,” “The Silent South,” “Bo- 
naventure,” “.The Negro Question,” “Strange True 
Stories of Louisiana,” “John March, Southerner,” 
“Strong Hearts,” “The Cavalier,” “Bylow Hill.” 
Founded, 1887, the Home-Culture Clubs — a system of 
small clubs designed to promote more cordial relations 
between divergent ranks of society. 

Cabot ( ka'-bot ), John, born in 1450; originally a 
Venetian pilot, settled in Bristol about 1472; obtained 
letters patent from Henry VII. to discover unknown lands; 
sailed with his sons in 1497, and sighted the coast of New¬ 
foundland or Labrador, and Florida. Died, about 1498. 

Caesar, Caius Julius, the greatest of Roman gen¬ 
erals. Elected consul 60 B. C.; formed a secret alliance 
with Pompey and Crassus known as the first trium¬ 
virate. Beginning the Gallic War in 58 B. C., he sub¬ 
dued in the course of one campaign both the Helvetii 
and the Germans under Ariovistus. Pompey having 
become his enemy through jealousy, Caesar crossed the 
Rubicon 49 B. C., and in a short time became master of 
Italy; having conquered all his enemies, and subdued 
Spain and Africa, he w^as made dictator for life, and re¬ 
ceived from the senate the title of Imperator. Although 
beloved by the masses, the patricians feared and hated 
him, and the result of a conspiracy of Cassius, Brutus 
and others w r as his assassination. 100-44 B. C. 

Caine, Hall, w r as born of Manx parentage in 1853, 
and commenced his career as an architect in Liverpool; 
then joined the staff of the “Liverpool Mercury,” and 
wrote for the “Academy” and the “Athenseum.” Re¬ 
sided with Dante Rossetti in London till the poet’s death 
in 1882. Published “Sonnets of Three Centuries,” 
“Recollections of Rossetti,” “The Shadow of a Crime,” 
“A Son of Hagar,” “The Deemster,” “The Bondman,” 
“The Scapegoat,” “The Manxman,” “The Christian,” 
“The Eternal City,” and “The Prodigal Son,” which 
w T as published in nine different languages on the same 
day. Many of his later novels have been dramatized 
successfully. He was elected to the Manx House of 
Keys in 1901. 

Calderon de la Barca, Don Pedro, born in 1600; 

Spanish dramatist, educated at the Jesuit College at 
Madrid, and the University of Salamanca. His mind 
early assumed a religious cast, first shown in the drama 
“La Devocion de la Cruz,” written at the age of 18. 
While serving against the Milanese in the Low Countries 
he wrote the “Siege of Breda,” and on the death of Lope 
de Vega, in 1635, became the leading poet in Spain. In 
1651 he took holy orders, and thenceforward wrote little 
else than sacred dramas, or “autos.” Died, 1681. 

Calhoun, John Caldwell, born in 1782; American 
lawyer and statesman, effected great reforms as secretary 
of war, in 1817 and in 1825 became Vice-President of the 











BIOGRAPHY 


415 


United States. He advocated slavery and the dissolu¬ 
tion of the Union. Died, 1850. 

Caligula ( ka-lig'-u-la ), the son of Germanicus and 
Agrippina, was born in^A. D. 12. He was named by 
Tiberius joint heir of the empire. He subsequently be¬ 
came sole emperor, and proved a great tyrant. In the 
course of a career of incestuous debauchery and degrad¬ 
ing voluptuousness, he conceived such a hatred to his 
subjects, that he openly expressed a wish that the Roman 
people had but a single neck, in order that he might 
extirpate them at a blow. He was murdered in 41. 

Calvin, John, born in Noyon, France, in 1509; 
educated at the colleges of La Marche and Montaigu, 
Paris, held some livings, but preferring the law, he did 
not proceed to priest’s orders. While studying law at 
Bourges he learned Greek, and on reading the New 
Testament became a Protestant. He removed to Paris, 
and wrote a commentary on Seneca’s “De Clementia,” 
but, forced by persecution to leave France, took refuge 
in Basel. In 1536 appeared his “.Institutes of the 
Christian Religion.” In conjunction with Farel he 
attempted to establish a kind of theocracy at Geneva, 
but they were expelled by the council in 1538, and 
retired to Zurich. Passing on to Strasburg, Calvin 
became pastor to the French refugees, married, and 

E ublished his “Romans.” In 1541, Calvin was invited 
ack to Geneva. The theocratic government was re¬ 
sumed, and here he labored till his death. Calvin did 
more than any other man towards formulating the 
doctrines of the Reformed Church. The opinions on 
predestination and election called “Calvinistic,” are 
rather those of his disciples than his own. Died, 1564. 

Cambaceres (kam-ba-sare'-ez) , Jean Jacques, Duke 
of Parma, was born in Montpellier in 1753. He was 
brought up to the legal profession, and became presi¬ 
dent of the French Convention in 1792. He voted for 
pronouncing Louis XVI. guilty, but denied the right of 
the Convention to proceed to the last extremity, and 
wished that the unfortunate monarch might be detained 
in prison, and only put to death in case of invasion. 
He was afterwards president of the Committee of Public 
Safety, and of the Council of Five Hundred. When 
Napoleon Bonaparte was named first, Cambact?r£s was 
made second consul. During the hundred days after 
Bonaparte’s return, he ■was president of the Chamber 
of Peers. He left France when the Bourbons were a 
second time restored, but -was permitted to return. 
Died, 1824. 

Cambyses (Jcam-by'-seez), the son of Cyrus, King of 
the Persians, succeeded his father in 529 B. C. He 
conquered Cyprus and Egypt. At Memphis, he caused 
the bull Apis to be slaughtered by his priests, and 
leaving Egypt to return to Persia, he died at Ecbatana 
of a wound he had received from his own sword when 
mounting his horse, in 522 B. C. 

Camoens, Luiz de ( kam'o-enz ), the greatest of Por¬ 
tuguese poets, -was born about 1524. After serving in 
an expedition against the Moors, in which he lost his right 
eye, he sailed for India, 1553, after which he wrote the 
“Lusiad” the great poem on which his fame rests. On 
his return from exile, he suffered shipwreck, and lost 
all his property excepting the manuscript of his epic. 
Died at Lisbon, in a hospital, 1580. 

Campbell, Alexander, founder of the sect known 
as the “Disciples of Christ”; born near Ballymena, in 
County Antrim, Ireland, September 12, 1788. He emi¬ 
grated to the United States in 1809. Though at first a 
Presbyterian, in 1812 he formed a connection with the 
Baptists, and for some time he labored as an itinerant 

S reacher. In 1826 he published a translation of-the 
few Testament, in which the words “baptism” and 
“baptist” gave place to “immersion” and “immerser.” 
By his discussions on public platforms, and his serial 
publications, as -well as his assiduity in preaching tours 
and training young men for the ministry, Campbell 
gradually formed a large party of followers, who began 
about 1827 to form themselves into a sect under the 
designation of “The Disciples of Christ.” In 1841, 
Campbell founded Bethany College in West Virginia, 
where he died, March 4, 1866. 

Camp'bell, Thomas, an English poet, born in 1777. 
His reputation rests mainly on his “Pleasures of Hope,” 
and “Gertrude of Wyoming.” As a writer of national 
songs he has never been surpassed. Died, 1844. 

Campbell-Bannerman, Rt. Hon. Sir Henry, 
prime minister of Great Britain, w r as born in 1836. 
Educated at Glasgow University and Trinity College, 
Cambridge (B. A. honors, 1858; M. A., 1861); financial 
secretary in war office, 1871-74 and 1880-82; secretary 
admiralty, 1882-84; chief secretary of Ireland, 1884-85; 
secretary for -war, 1886 and 1892-95; chosen leader of 
the Liberal Opposition in succession to Sir William 


Harcourt, February, 1899. Notwithstanding the differ¬ 
ences between Liberal Imperialists and other Liberals 
over the Boer War, a unanimous vote of confidence in 
his leadership was carried at a meeting of the Liberal 
party held at the Reform Club, July, 1901. Again 
received the solid support of the Liberal party in the 
House in 1903, 1904, and 1905. On the resignation of 
the Balfour administration in December, 1905, he was 
summoned by the king and formed a Liberal Cabinet 
himself becoming first lord of the treasury and prime 
minister; the general election which followed gave him 
a tremendous majority. Died, 1908. 

Canning, George (Jean'rang), an English statesman 
and orator, born in London, 1770. He commenced his 
career at the bar, but being brought into the House of 
Commons by Mr. Pitt, he abandoned the law for politics. 
In the Portland administration, Canning became secre¬ 
tary of state for Foreign Affairs, and largely contributed 
in that capacity to the overthrow of the plans of Napo¬ 
leon. In 1816, he was appointed president of the Board 
of Control of Indian Affairs, and, in 1822, foreign secre¬ 
tary for the second time. On the death of Earl of 
Liverpool, Canning became first minister of the Crown, 
and distinguished his government by the liberal tend¬ 
encies of his home and foreign policy. Died, 1827. 

Cannon, Joseph G., congressman, lawyer; born in 
Guilford, N. C., May 7, 1836; admitted to Illinois bar; 
State’s attorney. Vermilion County, Ill., 1861-68; 
member of Congress, 1873-91, and again in 1893-1903, 
12th Illinois district, and 1903-13, 18th district; chair¬ 
man of Committee on Appropriations, 55th, 56th, and 
57th Congresses; speaker of 58th, 59th, 60th and 61st 
Congresses. 

Canova ( kah-no'vah ), Antonio, one of the greatest 
of Italian sculptors, born at Possagno, in Venetia, 1757. 
Among his more celebrated works are the “Venus and 
Adonis,” “Cupid and Psyche,” “Mary Magdalen,” etc. 
The ruhng characteristic of his style is sentiment — 
sometimes, indeed, bordering on sentimentality. Died, 
1822. 

Canute the Dane ( k&-nut' ), or Cnut, called the 
Great, son of Sweyn, King of Denmark, w r as born in 
994. He invaded England, and after notable successes 
was chosen sole king in 1017. He married the queen of 
^Ethelred, after the latter’s death, and conquered Nor¬ 
way in 1028. His reign was that of a statesman and 
patriot. Died, 1035. 

Capet, Hugh ( k&'pa ), founder of the third, or Cape- 
tian dynasty of French monarchs, as Count of Paris, on 
the death of Louis V., last of the Carlovingians, usurped 
the throne, in possession of which he was confirmed by 
a confederacy of nobles. The race of Capet has given 
119 sovereigns to Europe, thirty-six kings to France, 
twenty-two to Portugal, five to Spain, eleven to Naples 
and Sicily, three to Hungary, and three to Navarre; 
three emperors to the East; seventeen dukes to Bur¬ 
gundy, thirteen to Brittany, two to Lorraine, and four 
to Parma. Died about A. D. 996. 

Capo-D’Istria ( ka-po-dis'-tre-a ), John, Count of, 
a Greek, who gained distinction as a diplomatist, born 
at Corfu in 1776. His father was a physician, and be¬ 
came governor of the seven Ionian islands when they 
were occupied by Russia. John, who had studied 
medicine at Venice, entered the service of Russia; and 
in 1813, in consideration of his meritorious labors, the 
Emperor Alexander made him minister for foreign 
affairs. In 1827, he was made president of the new 
Greek Government, where he fell by the hand of an 
assassin in 1831. 

Caraealla, a Roman emperor, son of Septimius 
Severus, born in Lyons; his reign (211-217) was a 
series of crimes, follies, and extravagances; he put to 
death 20,000 persons, among others the jurist Papinianus, 
and was assassinated himself by one of his guards. 

Carey, Henry Charles ( ka're ), an American polit¬ 
ical economist, born in Philadelphia, 1793, became prin¬ 
cipal partner in the great publishing firm of Carey & 
Lea, in that city, and was the first to establish the sys¬ 
tem of bookseller’s trade sales. His published works 
are voluminous, and well known in their relations to 
trade, finance, and political economy. Died, October 
13, 1879. 

Carlisle, John Griffin, lawyer; born in Campbell 
County, Kentucky, September 5, 1835; common school 
education; admitted to Kentucky bar, 1858; several 
terms in Kentucky Legislature; State senator, 1866-71; 
delegate at large, National Democratic Convention, 
1868; lieutenant-governor of Kentucky, 1871-75; 
member of Congress, 1877-91 (speaker, 1883-89); 
noted low tariff advocate; United States senator from 
Kentucky, 1890-93; secretary of treasury of United 
States, 1893-97; Democrat; affiliated with National 
(gold standard) Democrats, 1896; after 1897, in law 





416 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


practice, New York. Vice-president of Anti-Imperialist 
League (Boston). Died, 1910. 

Carlyle, Thomas ( [k&rliV ), an eminent English 
philosopher and historian, born in 1795, and whose 
writings have done much to impregnate English philos¬ 
ophy with the characteristic tendencies of the German 
school. His principal works are: “Sartor Resartus,” 
“History of the French Revolution,” “Hero Worship, 
and Other Essays,” “Latter Day Pamphlets,” “Life of 
Frederick the Great.” Died, February 5, 1881. 

Carnegie, Andrew, capitalist, manufacturer, philan¬ 
thropist; born in Dunfermline, Fifeshire, Scotland, 
November 25, 1835; came with family to United States, 
1848, settling in Pittsburgh; first work was as weaver's 
assistant in cotton factory, Allegheny, Pa.; became 
telegraph messenger boy in Pittsburgh office of Ohio 
Telegraph Company, 1851; learned telegraphy, entered 
employ of Pennsylvania Railroad, and became telegraph 
operator, advancing by promotions until he became 
superintendent of Pittsburgh division of Pennsylvania 
system; joined Mr. Woodruff, inventor of the sleeping 
car, in organizing Woodruff Sleeping Car Company, 
gaining through it nucleus of his fortune; careful 
investments in oil lands increased his means; during 
Civil War served as superintendent of military railways 
and government telegraph lines in the East. After the 
war he developed iron works of various kinds and estab¬ 
lished, at Pittsburgh, Keystone Bridge Works and Union 
Iron Works. Introduced into this country Bessemer 
process of making steel, 1868; was principal owner a 
few years later of Homestead and Edgar Thomson Steel 
Works, and other large plants, as head of firms of Car¬ 
negie, Phipps & Company and Carnegie Bros. & Company; 
interests were consolidated, 1899, in the Carnegie Steel 
Company, which, in 1901, was merged in the United 
States Steel Corporation, when he retired from business; 
married, 1887, Louise Whitfield, of New York. Has 
given libraries to many towns and cities in the United 
States and Great Britain, and large sums in other bene¬ 
factions, including $10,000,000 to establish universal 
peace; $10,000,000 to Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh; 
$5,200,000 to New York for the establishment of 
branch libraries; $22,000,000 to Carnegie Institution, 
Washington; $10,000,000 to Scotch universities; $5,000,- 
000 to fund for benefit of employes of Carnegie Steel 
Company, etc., total about $175,000,000, including 
over $50,000,000 for over 2,200 municipal library 
buildings, and $15,000,000 for college professors’ pension 
fund in United States, Canada, and Newfoundland. 
Author: “An American Four-in-Hand in Britain,” 
“Round the World,” “Triumphant Democracy,” “The 
Gospel of Wealth,” “Empire of Business.” Lord rector 
of St. Andrew’s University, 1903; LL. D., 1905. 

Carnot ( kar-no ), Leonard Sadi, son of Nicolas, 
founder of thermo-dynamics; in his “Reflexions sur la 
Puissance du Feu” enunciates the principle of Reversi¬ 
bility, considered the most important contribution to 
physical science since the time of Newton (1796-1832). 

Carpenter, Frank George, journalist; born in 
Mansfield, O., May 8, 1855; graduate of Wooster Uni¬ 
versity, 1877. Began newspaper work as legislative 
correspondent for “Cleveland Leader,” at Columbus, 
1879; spent 1881 in European and Egyptian travel; 
Washington correspondent “Cleveland Leader,” 1882; 
correspondent American Press Association, 1884; also, 
1887, correspondent for “New York World”; trip 
round the world for newspaper syndicate and “Cosmo¬ 
politan” magazine, 1888-89; newspaper tour to Mexico, 
1891; to Russia, Germany, and England, 1892; to 
China, Japan, and Corea, 1894; spent 1898 in South 
America, 25,000 miles of travel; spent 1900 in Philip¬ 
pines, China, Java, Australia, and New Zealand; made 
newspaper tour, 1902, to investigate American “com¬ 
mercial invasion” in England, France, Germany, Russia, 
Holland, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Denmark. Author: 
“Carpenter’s Geographical Readers — Asia, North 
America, South America, Europe, Australia, Our Col¬ 
onies and Other Islands of the Seas, Africa,” “Through 
Asia with the Children,” “ Through North America with 
the Children,” “South America — Social, Industrial, 
and Political.” Has written very many articles in lead¬ 
ing American journals and magazines. 

Carpenter, William Benjamin, born in 1813; 
physiologist, son of Dr. Lant Carpenter, wrote “Prin¬ 
ciples of General and Comparative Physiology,” etc., 
and in 1861, received the medal of the Royaf Society. 
Died, 1885. 

Carrel, Alexis, surgeon; born in France, 1873; L. B., 
university of Lyons, France, 1890, Sc. B., 1891, M. D., 
1900. Came to America, 1905; in charge of laboratory 
at McGill university, later at university of Chicago. 
Associate member, Rockefeller institute for medical 
research, since 1909. His researches in medicine have 


demonstrated that life in tissues may be prolonged after 
removal from the body; also that arteries, organs, limbs, 
etc., may be successfully transplanted. Received Nobel 
prize for medicine, 1912. 

Carrfcre, John Merven, architect; born of American 
parents in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, November 9, 1858; 
educated in Switzerland; graduate of Ecole des Beaux 
Arts, Paris, 1882; partner with Thomas Hastings in firm, 
Carrfere & Hastings, 1884-1911. The firm were archi¬ 
tects of the Ponce de Leon and Alcazar hotels. St. Augus¬ 
tine, Fla., the New York Public Library, Academy of 
Design, and many other noted buildings. Fellow Amer¬ 
ican Institution of Architects. Died, 1911. 

Carroll, Lewis, the pseudonym of the Rev. Charles 
Lutwidge Dodgson; born in 1832; humorist and 
author of “Alice in Wonderland,” “Through the Look¬ 
ing-glass,” “The Hunting of the Snark,” “Rhyme and 
Reason,” “A Tangled Tale,” “Sylvie and Bruno,” and 
other works. Died, 1898. 

Carson, Christopher, popularly kn()wn as Kit Car- 
son, an American frontiersman, born in Kentucky in 
1809. He was a saddler’s apprentice, trapper, hunter, 
guide in Fremont’s explorations, lieutenant in the rifle 
corps of the army (1847), and Indian agent. During the 
Civil War be rendered important services in the terri¬ 
tories, and was brevetted brigadier general. Died, 1868. 

Carteret, Philip, an English navigator, who made 
an expedition to the South Seas in 1766-69, and dis¬ 
covered Queen Charlotte’s Isles, and other islands, two 
of which he called Gower^and Carteret. 

Cartier, Sir George Etienne ( Jc&r-tya'), a Canadian 
statesman, born in 1814. He was deeply involved in the 
rebellion of 1837. In 1848, he was elected to the house 
of assembly, in 1856 was appointed provincial secretary, 
and soon became attorney-general. In 1857, he be¬ 
came leader of the Lower Canada section of the govern¬ 
ment, and in 1858, premier; he held a cabinet office 
for several years afterward. He was prominent in 
numerous governmental reforms. Died, 1873. 

Cartier, Jacques ( k&r-tya '), a French explorer, was 
born 1494. Employed by Francis I. to make explora¬ 
tions on the North American coast, in three successive 
expeditions, 1534-50; he completed the discovery and 
colonization of Canada. Died about 1557. 

Cartwright, Edmund, inventor of the power loom 
and the carding machine; born in Nottinghamshire; 
was bred for the Church. His invention, at first violently 
opposed, to his ruin for the time being, is now universally 
adopted; a grant of £10,000 was made him by parlia¬ 
ment in consideration of his services and in compensa¬ 
tion for his losses. Born, 1743; died, 1823. 

Caruso, Enrico, who is generally acknowledged to be 
the finest tenor of the present day, began life as an en¬ 
gineer, with no thought of singing until a friend assured 
him that there was a fortune in his voice. So he studied 
for a while, and made a first appearance in opera, some 
few years ago, in his native city, Naples. His success 
was immediate, and he now sings at all the greatest opera 
houses in the world, commanding fees of thousands of 
dollars per night. Caruso, who is immensely popular in 
society, is a most genial man. His greatest hobby is 
drawing, and he might have made a good deal of money 
as a caricaturist, judging by the remarkably clever pic¬ 
tures of himself and his friends which he is always ex¬ 
ecuting. Born at Naples, 1874. 

Casabianca, Louis, a French naval officer, born in 
Bastia about 1755, and in 1798, was captain of the flag¬ 
ship “L’Orient” in the expedition to Egypt. He was 
mortally wounded at the battle of the Nile, August 1, 
1798; the ship caught fire, his 10-year-old son would not 
leave him, and both were floating on the wreck of the 
ship’s mast when the final explosion took place. 

Cass, Lewis, born in 1782; American statesman and 
general, appointed governor of Michigan in 1813. He 
showed great prudence in his management of Indian affairs 
and in 1831, became secretary of war in the administra¬ 
tion of President Jackson. While representative of the 
United States in France, he protested vigorously and 
effectually against the terms of the quintuple treaty, 
and returning to America was elected to the senate in 
1845. In 1857, he became secretary of state, but about 
five years later withdrew from public life. Died, 1866. 

Castlereagh ( k&s'-sl-ra ), Robert Stewart, Lord, 
eldest son of the Marquis of Londonderry; was born in 
1769. At an early period he entered into public life, 
and was appointed keeper of the signet, or privy seal, in 
Ireland, in 1797; president of the board of control in 
1802; and secretary of war in 1805. A difference hav¬ 
ing arisen between him and his colleague, Mr. Canning, 
a duel was the consequence, and both quitted office. 
During Lord Liverpool’s administration, Lord Castle- 
reagh again became a member of the government as 
foreign secretary, and concluded the treaty of Paris in 






BIOGRAPHY 


417 


1814. He remained in office the remainder of his life, 
which was closed by suicide in 1822. 

Catherine I., Empress of Russia; born about 1685; 
was the outcast infant of a Livonian peasant-girl, and 
became nurse in the family of the Protestant minister of 
Marienburg. In 1701 she married a Swedish dragoon, 
who soon afterwards went with his regiment to Riga, 
and never returned. After the capture of Marienburg 
by the Russians, Catherine became the mistress first of 
General Bauer, with whom she lived at Moscow, sec¬ 
ondly of Prince Menschikoff, and finally, of Peter the 
Great, who first married her privately near Warsaw, 
and later publicly, in 1712, at St. Petersburg. She 
then embraced the Greek religion, and took the name of 
Catherine. On the death of Peter, in 1725, she was 
proclaimed Czarina. Her death was the result of in¬ 
temperance. Died, 1727. 

Catherine II., Empress of Russia; born in 1729; 
the Princess Sophia Augusta, daughter of the Prince of 
Anhalt-Zerbst, on her marriage in 1745, with Peter, 
nephew and heir of the Empress Elizabeth, assumed the 
name of Catherine Alexievna. Her refinement and love 
of study contrasted with her husband’s vulgarity and 
intemperance; neglected by him, she ingratiated herself 
with some of the nobles; her intrigues were discovered 
by Peter, and, on ascending the throne in 1762, he 
threatened to repudiate her, whereupon she imprisoned 
him and had him strangled. The subsequent murder 
of Ivan, the next heir, left Catherine in undisputed pos¬ 
session of the throne. As empress she seized the Crimea, 
and took part in the dismemberment of Poland. She 
promoted the welfare of Russia by encouraging litera¬ 
ture and commerce, but her reign was sullied by dis¬ 
graceful amours. Died, 1796. 

Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England; born in 
1485; daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella 
of Castile; married first Arthur, Prince of Wales, and 
subsequently his brother, afterwards Henry VIII. She 
was beautiful and virtuous, yet the king in 1527 sought 
a divorce on the ground that the marriage was uncanoni- 
cal. After much temporizing on the part of the pope, 
the marriage was in 1533 pronounced invalid by Cran- 
mer, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his sentence was 
ratified by act of parliament. Catherine spent the rest 
of her life in Kimbolton castle. Died, 1536. 

Catherine de’ Medici, born in 1519; great grand¬ 
daughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent, niece of Pope 
Clement VII., and queen to Henri II. of France, acted 
as regent during the minority of her second son, Charles 
IX.; her policy was to play off the parties of the Guises 
and the Condds against one another. She instigated the 
massacre of St. Bartholomew. Died,. 1589. 

Catherine Parr, born in 1512; daughter of Sir T. 
Parr; was married first to Edward Borough, secondly 
to Lord Latimer, and in 1543 became the sixth and last 
wife of Henry VIII. She was learned in theology and a 
zealous Protestant, and, according to Foxe, on one oc¬ 
casion only escaped death as a heretic by timely sub¬ 
mission to the king. She survived Henry, and in 1547 
married Lord Seymour of Sudeley, who was accused of 
hastening her death (in child-birth), by poisoning. Died, 
1548. 

Catiline (kat'-e-line) , Lucius Sergius, an ancient 
Roman, was descended from a patrician family, re¬ 
nowned for talent but degraded by crime. He gained 
the favor of Sulla, who advanced him to offices of great 
importance. He was a reckless sensualist. Having 
won for his paramour a member of a distinguished family, 
he married the daughter he had by her. He was charged 
with intriguing with a vestal, the sister of Cicero’s wife. 
After Sulla’s death, Catiline formed a conspiracy to 
murder the consuls and senators, and to assume the gov¬ 
ernment. His designs were discovered and exposed in 
an oration by Cicero, which gave the speaker lasting 
fame. He attempted to execute his plan, but a great 
battle ensuing, and victory inclining to the other side, 
he threw himself into the midst of the enemy and was 
slain, 62 B. C. 

Cavour, Camillo, Count dl ( kah-voor '), an eminent 
Italian statesman; born in 1810. In 1847, he took an 
active part in the promulgation of the liberal doctrines 
then agitating his country, and largely assisted in the 
establishment of the constitution granted by King Charles 
Albert in 1848. In 1850, he became minister of com¬ 
merce, and minister of finances the following year. In 
1852, he succeeded D’Azeglio as first minister, secured 
the liberty of the press, favored religious toleration and 
free trade, and during his seven years’ tenure of office 
brought about the regeneration of Italy by the treaty 
of Villa Franca in 1859. Died, 1861. 

Caxton, William ( k&ks'tun ), the founder of English 
printing, was born in 1422. During a residence in 
Flanders, he acquired the new typographic art, and on 


his return set up a press in the Almonry, Westminster, 
where he brought out the first printed book seen in 
England, the “History of Troy.” Died, 1491. 

Cenci, Beatrice ( chhi'che ), a noble Roman lady, 
whose tragic fate has served as the theme of one of 
Shelley’s best tragedies, lived in the Sixteenth Century. 
She became the victim of her father, Count Francesco 
Cenci, a notorious libertine. Failing in her appeal for 
protection from Pope Clement VIII., she, it has been 
said, conspired with other members of her family to 
murder the count. When brought to trial on this 
charge, she asserted her innocence, but was, neverthe¬ 
less, put to death, along with her relatives, in 1599. 
The fine portrait of Beatrice, by Guido Reni, in the 
Barberini gallery, Rome, is well known. 

Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, Spanish author; 
born at Alcald de Henares in 1547, belonged to an 
ancient Galician family, and was educated at the Univer¬ 
sity of Salamanca, where he spent his time chiefly in 
writing verses. After following Cardinal Acquaviva as 
chamberlain into Italy, he enlisted under Marc Antonio 
Colonna, and distinguished himself at the battle of 
Lepanto (1571), where he lost his left hand; in 1575, 
was captured by a corsair, and spent five years in slavery 
at Algiers. In 1588, he settled at Seville, and for the 
next ten years devoted his time mainly to writing 
dramas. In 1605, the first part of “Don Quixote” 
appeared, and the second followed ten years later. 
Among the other works of Cervantes are “Novel&s 
Exemplares,” “Viage al Parnaso,” and “Galatea.” 
Died, 1616. 

Chaffee, Adna Romanza, lieutenant-general, United 
States Army; born in Orwell, O., April 14, 1842; edu¬ 
cated in public schools. Entered army, July 22, 1861; 
first lieutenant, July 3, 1863, for gallantry at Gettys¬ 
burg; captain, March 31, 1865, for gallantry at Din- 
widdie Court House, Va.; major, March 7, 1868, for 
gallantry in engagement with Comanche Indians 
on Paint Creek, Tex.; lieutenant-colonel, February 
27, 1890, for gallantry in action against Indians in 
Texas and Arizona. Appointed brigadier-general, United 
States Volunteers, May 4, 1898; commanded third 
brigade, second division, fifth corps, Santiago campaign 
June to August, 1898; commanded second division, 
fifth corps, August to September, 1898; promoted 
major-general, United States Volunteers, July 8, 1898; 
commanded first division, fourth corps, November to 
December, 1898; chief of staff division of Cuba, Decem¬ 
ber, 1898, to May, 1900. Honorably discharged as 
major-general, April 13, 1899. Appointed brigadier- 
general of United States Volunteers, April 13, 1899. 
Assigned to the command of United States forces for 
the relief of United States Legation, Peking, June 24, 
1900; arrived at Peking, China, August 14, 1900; pro¬ 
moted to major-general of United States Volunteers, 
July 19, 1900; promoted to major-general of United 
States Army, February 4, 1901. Assigned to command 
division of the Philippines and appointed military gov¬ 
ernor, to take effect July 4, 1901; relieved October 
1, 1902, and assigned to command department of the 
East; detailed to general staff corps, October 2, 1903, 
and assigned to duty as assistant to chief of staff, Wash¬ 
ington; promoted to lieutenant-general of United States 
Army, January 9, 1904, and chief of staff until his 
retirement in 1906. 

Chalmers, Thomas, born in 1780; Scottish divine, 
educated at St. Andrews, where he taught mathematics 
after his ordination. In 1815, he became a minister at 
Glasgow, and at once attracted attention by his elo¬ 
quence. He was subsequently professor of moral phi¬ 
losophy at St. Andrews (1823) and of theology at Edin¬ 
burgh (1828). On the disruption of the Church of Scotland 
(1843) he joined the Free Church party, and became 
moderator of its assembly and principal of its college. 
His writings embrace a wide range of subjects, including 
natural science and political economy. Died, 1847. 

Chamberlain, Rt. Hon. Joseph, British statesman, 
was born in London, July, 1836; educated in private 
school and University College, London; joined the firm 
of Nettlefold, screw makers of Birmingham; was one 
of the leaders of the defeated unsectarian candidates for 
the school board of Birmingham in 1870, but in 1873 he 
was elected chairman, and was also a member of the 
town council (mayor, 1873). On the death of his 
father he retired from the firm, in order to devote all 
his energies to public life. To him was due the transfer 
of the gas and water works to the borough authorities, 
and he was the author of the improvement scheme 
which has entirely transformed the face of central Bir¬ 
mingham. In 1876, he entered parliament and took 
his seat below the gangway with the Radicals; presi¬ 
dent of Board of Trade, with cabinet rank, 1880-85, 
and passed a patents bill and a bankruptcy bill; presi- 



418 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


dent of Local Government Board in 1885, until his 
divergence of views on the Irish policy of Mr. Glad¬ 
stone caused his resignation (March, 1886); chief com¬ 
missioner to the Conference at Washington for the 
settlement of the dispute between the United States 
and Canada on the Fisheries question. Married Miss 
Endicott, November 15, 1888. In 1895, took office 
under Lord Salisbury as colonial secretary. The nego¬ 
tiations with the Transvaal, which ended in war, occu¬ 
pied him fully during 1899, and his South African policy 
was one of the main controversial features of the general 
election of 1900 and during 1901. He had charge in 
1900 of the measure for the constitution of the Austra¬ 
lian Commonwealth. In February, 1902, he was pre¬ 
sented with an address by the City of London Cor¬ 
poration. He presided over the 1902 Colonial Confer¬ 
ence. In November, 1902, he visited South Africa, and 
on his return received an address from the Lord Mayor 
and Corporation of London (March, 1903). In May, 
1903, he launched, at Birmingham, his scheme for the 
revision of the fiscal policy of the country and the 
adoption of a policy of preferential tariffs; and in 
September, believing that policy to be at that time 
unacceptable to the majority in the constituencies, he 
resigned in order to be free to devote himself to ex¬ 
plaining and popularizing his proposals. He began his 
campaign for this purpose at Glasgow on October 6, 
1903, and the tariff commission was afterwards set up 
on his initiative. His 70th birthday and completion of 
thirty years’ service as member of parliament for Birm¬ 
ingham were celebrated on July 7, 1906. He was returned 
unopposed for West Birmingham again in 1910. 

Chambers, Robert William, author, artist; born 
in Brooklyn, May 26, 1865; educated at Julien’s Acad¬ 
emy, Paris, 1886-93. First exhibited in salon, 1889; 
illustrations for “Life,” “Truth,” “Vogue,” etc. Author: 
“In the Quarter,” “The King in Yellow,” “The Red 
Republic,” “A King and a Few Dukes,” “The Maker 
of Moons,” “With the Band,” “The Mystery of Choice.” 
“Lorraine,” “Ashes of Empire,” “The Haunts of Men,” 
"The Cambric Mask,” “Outsiders,” “The Conspirators,” 
“Cardigan,” “The Maid-at-Arms,” “Outdoor Land,” 
“The Maids of Paradise,” “Orchard-Land,” “Forest- 
Land,” “Iole,” “The Fighting Chance,” “The Tracer of 
Lost Persons,” “The Firing Line.” Also “The Witch 
of Ellangowan,” a drama; and many magazine stories. 

Chamisso, Adalbert von, born at the Castle of 
Boncourt, in Champagne, France, 1781; a celebrated 
lyric poet of Germany, who, though born in France, 
was driven from that country by the Revolution of 
1790, and spent the greater part of his life in Prussia. 
He is best known by his “Peter Schlemihl, the Story 
of a Man Who Lost His Shadow,” which was published 
in 1814, and has been translated into most European 
languages. Died in Berlin, 1838. 

Champlain, Samuel de, a French naval officer of 
the Seventeenth Century. During the reign of Henry 
IV., of France, he visited many parts of America, and 
formed the first French establishments at Quebec and 
Montreal. He was made governor of Quebec, from 
which he was driven by the English, in 1631. When 
peace was restored, he was reinstated. He wrote an 
account of his “Voyages and Travels in New France, 
called Canada,” in 1632. Died in 1635. 

Chandler, William Eaton, lawyer; born in Con¬ 
cord, N. H., December 28, 1835; common school edu¬ 
cation; graduate of Harvard Law School, and admitted 
to the bar, 1855; became reporter of decisions of Su¬ 
preme Court, New Hampshire, 1859; member of New 
Hampshire Legislature, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1881; 
speaker, 1863-64; appointed solicitor and judge-advo¬ 
cate-general, navy department, March 9,1865; first assist¬ 
ant secretary of treasury, June 17, 1865; resigned, 
November 30, 1867; member of New Hampshire Con¬ 
stitutional Convention, 1876 and 1902; appointed 
solicitor-general of United States, March, 1881, but 
rejected by senate; secretary of the navy, April 12, 
1882, to March 7, 1885; United States senator, 1887- 
1901; president of Spanish Treaty Claims commission, 
1901-07. 

Channing, Edward, historian; born in Dorchester, 
Mass., June 15, 1856; graduate of Harvard, 1878; 
instructor, 1883; now professor of history at Harvard. 
Author: “The United States, 1765-1865,” “A Student’s 
History of the United States,” “Town and County Gov¬ 
ernment in the English Colonies of North America,” 
“Narragansett Planters,” “The Planting of a Nation in 
the New World,” etc. Collaborator with late Justin 
Winsor on “The Narrative and Critical History of 
America”; with Albert B. Hart in “Guide to Study of 
American History”; and with Thomas W. Higginson 
in “English History for American Readers.” 


Channing, William Ellery, an eminent American 
divine, and one of the most elegant writers this 
country has produced, was born in Newport, R. I., 
1780. In 1803, he became pastor of the Federal Street 
Church, Boston. During the Unitarian controversy, 
Dr. Channing was the head of the Liberal party, and 
took an active part in its defense. Among his most 
successful productions are his lectures on “Self-Culture,” 
and on the “Elevation of the Laboring Classes. ” His 
work on slavery, published in 1841, had also a wide cir¬ 
culation. Died, 1842. 

Charlemagne, i. e., Charles or Karl the Great, 

the first Carlovingian King of the Franks, son and 
successor of Pepin le Bref (the Short); born in 742; 
became sole ruler on the death of his brother, Carloman, 
in 771; he subjugated by his arms the southern Gauls, the 
Lombards, the Saxons, and the Avars, a,nd conducted 
a successful expedition against the Moors in Spain, with 
the result that his kingdom extended from the Ebro to 
the Elbe; having passed over into Italy in support of 
the pope, he was, on Christmas day, 800, crowned 
Emperor of the West, after which he devoted himself 
to the welfare of his subjects, and proved himself as 
great in legislation as in arms; enacted laws for the 
empire, called capitularies; reformed the judicial ad¬ 
ministration, patronized letters, and established schools; 
kept himself in touch and au c our ant with everything 
over his vast domain. He died and was buried at 
Aix-la-Chapelle in 814. 

Charles I., King of England, second son of James I., 
was born in Dunfermline in 1600. Failing in his suit 
for the infanta of Spain, he married Henrietta Maria, 
a French princess, a devoted Catholic, who had great 
influence over him, but not for good. He had for public 
advisors, Strafford and Laud, who cherished in him 
ideas of absolute power adverse to the liberty of the 
subject. Acting on these ideas brought him into col¬ 
lision with the parliament, and provoked a civil war, 
Charles himself being the first to throw down the gauntlet. 
He raised the royal standard at Nottingham, but in the 
end surrendered himself to the Scots’ army at Newark, 
and was delivered by them to the parliament. He was 
tried as a traitor to his country, condemned to death, 
and beheaded at Whitehall, January 30, 1649. 

Charles II., King of England, son of Charles I., 
born in St. James Palace, London, in 1630; was at The 
Hague, in Holland, when his father was beheaded. He 
assumed the royal title, and was proclaimed king by 
the Scots; landed in Scotland, and was crowned at 
Scone. Marching into England, he was defeated by 
Cromwell at Worcester, September 3, 1651, and fled to 
France. By the policy of General Monk, after Crom¬ 
well’s death, he was restored to his crown and kingdom 
in 1660, an event known as the Restoration. Charles 
II. was an easy-going man, and is known in history as 
the “Merry Monarch.” His reign was an inglorious 
one for England, though it is distinguished by the pass¬ 
ing of the Habeas Corpus Act, one of the great bul¬ 
warks of English liberty next to the Magna Charta. 
Died, 1685. 

Charles V. (I. of Spain), Emperor of Germany, eon 
of Philip, Archduke of Austria, was born in Ghent in 
1500, and became King of Spain in 1516, on the death 
of his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand, and Emperor 
of Germany in 1519, on the death of his paternal grand¬ 
father, Maximilian I., being crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle 
in 1520, and reigned during one of the most important 
periods in the history of Europe. The events of the 
reign are too numerous to detail; enough to mention 
his rivalry with Francis I. of France, his contention as 
a Catholic with the Protestants of Germany, the inroads 
of the Turks, revolts in Spain, and expeditions against 
the pirates of the Mediterranean. The ambition of his 
life was the suppression of the Protestant Reformation 
and the succession of his son Philip to the imperial 
crown, but he failed in both, and finally resigned in 
favor of his son, and retired into the monastery at St. 
Yuste, in Estremadura, near which he built a magnifi¬ 
cent retreat, where, it is understood, notwithstanding 
his apparent retirement, he continued to take interest 
in political affairs, and to advise in the management of 
them. Died, 1558. • 

Charles XII., King of Sweden, son of Charles XI., 
a warlike prince, ascended the throne at the age of 15. 
He had to cope with Denmark, Russia, and Poland 
combined against him; he foiled the Danes at Copen¬ 
hagen, the Russians at Narva, and Augustus II. of 
Poland at Riga; but being trapped in Russia, and 
cooped up to spend a winter there, he was, in July, 
1709, attacked by Peter the Great at Pultowa, and 
defeated, so that he had to take refuge with the Turks 
at Bender; here he was again attacked, captured, and 
conveyed to Demotica, but escaping, he found his way 



BIOGRAPHY 


419 


miraculously back to Sweden, and making peace with 
the czar, commenced an attack on Norway, but was 
killed by a musket-shot at the siege of Frederikshald. 
Charles XII. was “the last of the Swedish kings.” 
“His appearance among the luxurious kings and knights 
of the North” at the time, Carlyle compares to “the 
bursting of a cataract of bomb-shells in a dull ballroom.” 
Born in 1682, and died in 1718. 

Charles Martel, the illegitimate son of P4pin 
d’HQristal, Duke of Austrasia, was born about 690, 
died, 741; he became mayor of the palace during 
the reigns of Chilperic and Thierry IV., exercised the 
whole regal power, defeating the Saracens at Poitiers, 
in 732, in honor of which victory he was called Martel 
(the Hammer). On the death of Thierry in 737, Charles 
carried on the government as Duke of the Franks. His 
son, Pepin, was founder of the Carlovingian line of 
monarehs, taking their name from Charles Martel. 

Chase, Salmon Portland, an American jurist and 
statesman, was born in New Hampshire in 1808. He 
was sent to the House of Representatives and to the 
United States Senate from Ohio, and was elected gov¬ 
ernor of that State. Appointed secretary of the treas¬ 
ury by President Lincoln, at the outbreak of the Civil 
War, he conducted the finances with rare skill and suc¬ 
cess. Appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court in 
1864, he held this office at his death in 1873. 

Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of, born in 1708. 
English statesman, son of Robert Pitt; became member 
of parliament in 1735, attaching himself to the so-called 
patriotic party under the Prince of Wales; he attacked 
Walpole and Carteret successively, and after the retire¬ 
ment of the latter in 1744, supported the ministries of 
Pelham and Newcastle, and was made paymaster of the 
forces, a post which he lost owing to his anti-Hanoverian 
speeches. As secretary of state in 1756, and again in 
1757, under Newcastle, he carried on the war against 
France w r ith great vigor and success, but on the accession 
of George III. had to give place to his favorite, the Earl 
of Bute. Pitt’s health was now shattered, but he was 
carried down to the house to speak against the peace of 
Paris in 1762, and afterwards supported the repeal of 
the Stamp Act, an act which led to the revolt of the 
American colonies. In 1766 he was created Earl of Chat¬ 
ham, and from his place in the House of Lords continued 
to urge a policy of conciliation towards America. It was 
while thus engaged that he sank down in the fit of 
apoplexy from which he never recovered. Died, 1778. 

Chaucer ( tshaw'-ser ), Geoffrey, an English poet, 
commonly spoken of as the father of English poetry; 
born about 1340, of parents who appear to have been 
citizens of London, and who gave him a learned education. 
In his youth he served under Edward III. in the invasion 
of France, and was made prisoner by the enemy at the 
end of 1359, or early in 1360. He afterwards enjoyed 
court favor, and was employed on several embassies, 
visiting France and Italy in the course of his foreign 
missions. In the latter part of the reign of Richard II. 
he appears to have been involved in the disgrace thrown 
on the family of the Duke of Lancaster, his patron, and 
suffered from poverty; but on the accession of Henry 
IV., he was again taken into royal favor. The writings 
of Chaucer, in verse and prose, are extensive; and the 
“Canterbury Tales” is one of the noblest monuments of 
English poetry. Died October 25, 1400. 

Cheops, or Cheospes ( tshe'-ops , tshe-os'-peez ), a king 
of Egypt, who lived about 2800-2700, B. C. He 
built the great pyramid, and spent 1,060 talents in 
vegetables alone for the workmen engaged on it. He 
changed that government into a despotic tyranny which 
had previously been a limited monarchy, and died, after 
reigning fifty-six years, hated by his people. 

Cherubini, Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore 
(Jca-roo-be'ne), an eminent Italian composer, was born 
at Florence in 1760. He was naturalized in France, and 
settled in Paris, the scene of his greatest triumphs, where 
he composed operas, of which the chief were “Iphigenia 
in Aulis,” and “Les deux Journdes; or The Water- 
Carrier,” his masterpiece; also a number of sacred pieces 
and requiems, all of the highest merit. Died, 1842. 

Chesterfield ( tshes'-ter-feeld ), Philip Dormer Stan¬ 
hope, Earl of, was born in 1694, and educated at Cam¬ 
bridge. He represented St. Germans in the House of 
Commons, and in 1726 succeeded to the earldom. He 
was distinguished at the court of George II, and was 
sent ambassador extraordinary to Holland in 1728. 
He was made a knight of the garter in 1730, and re¬ 
ceived the appointment of lord steward of the household. 
He was found among the opponents of Sir Robert Wal¬ 
pole. In 1745, he was appointed lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, and afterwards became secretary of state. 
He is now more known by his “Advice to His Son,” 
than by his public services. Died, 1773. 


Choate, Joseph Hodges, lawyer, diplomat, ambas¬ 
sador of United States to England, 1899-1905; born in 
Salem, Mass.. January 24, 1832; graduate of Harvard, 
1852, and Harvard Law School, 1854. Admitted to Mass¬ 
achusetts bar, 1855; New York, 1856; settled in New 
York, 1856. Identified with many famous cases; one 
of the committee of seventy which broke up the Tweed 
ring, 1871; secured the reinstatement of General Fitz 
John Porter to his army rank, etc.; governor of New 
York Hospital since 1877 (chairman of committee of 
elections); noted as a public and after-dinner speaker. 
Author: “Addresses on Abraham Lincoln, Admiral 
Farragut, Rufus Choate,” etc. Elected bencher of the 
Inner Temple, England, April 10, 1905. 

Choate, Rufus ( chot ), an eminent American advo¬ 
cate, was born in 1799. After graduating at Dart¬ 
mouth College, he entered upon the study of law at 
Cambridge and in Washington. After practicing at 
Danvers, Salem, and Boston, successively, he was 
elected to the Senate in 1841, which he quitted in 1845. 
After the death of Daniel Webster, Choate became the 
recognized leader of the Massachusetts bar, and ac¬ 
quired quite a national reputation. As an advocate 
and orator, he may be classed with the most distinguished 
masters of modern eloquence. Died, 1859. 

ChoiseuI ( shwoi'-zeul ), Stephen Francis, Duke of, 
was born in 1719. He gained a high rank in the army, 
and was then employed as a diplomatist at Rome and 
Vienna, and honored with a peerage. He became prime 
minister of France, it was reported, through the influ¬ 
ence of Madame de Pompadour. In 1770, he was dis¬ 
missed from office, and exiled to one of his estates. 
He died in 1785. 

Christina, Queen of Sweden, born in 1626; succeeded 
her father, Gustavus Adolphus, in 1632. After her 
coronation in 1650, she fell under the influence of favor¬ 
ites, and ceased to interest herself in state affairs. She 
resigned the crown to her cousin, Charles Gustavus, 
in 1654, was baptized by the pope, and lived for some 
time at Paris. On the death of Charles Gustavus, in 
1660, she vainly endeavored to regain the throne. She 
died at Rome in 1689. 

Christy, Howard Chandler, illustrator, writer; 
born in Morgan County, Ohio, January 10, 1873; edu¬ 
cated at Duncan’s Falls, O.; went East in 1893; since 
then on New York illustrated periodicals; went to 
Cuba with second United States regulars and “Rough 
Riders”; saw the fighting before Santiago; his letters 
and illustrations published in Scribner’s Magazine, Har¬ 
per’s Magazine, Collier’s Weekly, and by R. H. Russell, 
publisher. Has charge of illustrating class at Cooper 
Institute. 

Chrysostom, St. John, one of the Greek fathers, 
born about 347; gave himself, from an early age, to a 
life of prayer and asceticism, and, in 398, was made 
Bishop of Constantinople by the Emperor Arcadius. 
He was renowned for his eloquence and almsgiving, and 
his zeal as a reformer made him many enemies, amongst 
them the Empress Eudoxia. He was summoned before 
a synod at Chalcedon, deposed, and banished, but an 
insurrection of the people led to his immediate recall. 
He was soon afterwards deposed again, and conveyed 
to the Taurus Mountains, whence he was ordered to 
proceed to Pityus, on the Euxine, but died on the 
journey at Comana in 407. 

Cicero, Marcus Tullius; born in Arpinum in 106 
B. C.; Roman orator and statesman, studied rhetoric 
under Milo and others; commenced pleading at the age 
of twenty-six, and offending Sulla by his successful 
defense of Roscius Amerinus, retired to Athens, where 
he studied under Antiochus; went as queestor to Sicily 
in 75, and on his return impeached Verres, a former 
governor; was sedile in 69, praetor in 66, and, in 64, was 
elected consul in opposition to Catiline. His vigor in 
putting down the conspiracy of the latter gained for 
him the title of “father of his country.” The measures 
passed by his enemy,' the tribune Clodius, obliged him 
to withdraw to Greece. After about sixteen months, 
he was recalled by the senate, and, in 52, went as gov¬ 
ernor to Cilicia. He sided with the senate and after¬ 
wards with Pompey against Caesar, but submitted to 
the latter after Pharsalia, and retiring to his Tusculan 
villa, wrote his “.De Natura Deorum,” and other philo¬ 
sophical works. His defense of Caesar’s murderers and 
the “philippic” orations directed against Marcus An- 
tonius led to his proscription on the formation of the 
second triumvirate. He was murdered by Antonius’s 
emissaries in 43 B. C. 

Cid Campeador, Ruy, or Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, 

hero of Spanish fiction, aided Sanchojof Castile against 
his brother, Alfonso, King of Aragon, but on the death 
of Sancho, acknowledged Alfonso as King of Castile. 
He lost the favor of Alfonso, and retired from his court, 




420 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


but obtained some aid from him in capturing the city of 
Valencia from the Moors (1094), which he ruled till his 
death. 

Cimabue, Giovanni, born in 1240; Italian artist, one 
of the restorers of the art of painting in Italy, which had 
fallen into neglect during the barbarism of the dark ages. 
The exhibition of his table of “The Virgin’’ for the 
Rucellai chapel in Santa Maria Novella was the occasion 
of a public festival. Except the “Madonna,” little of 
his work remains. Died, 1302. 

Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, ( sln-sin-nah'tus ), a 
famous Roman general, who, being made dictator, in 458 
B. C., to carry on the war against the jEqui and Volsci, 
was found engaged in ploughing his own farm. He 
gained a decisive victory, laid down the office, and 
returned to his simple life. In the year 439 B. C., he was 
again appointed dictator. Died about 430 B. C. 

Clark, Champ, congressman, lawyer; born in Ander¬ 
son County, Ky., March 7, 1850; educated in common 
schools, Kentucky University, Bethany College, and 
Cincinnati Law School; president Marshall College, 
West Virginia, 1873-74; has worked as hired hand on 
farm, clerk in country store, country newspaper editor; 
was city attorney of Louisiana, Mo., and later of 
Bowling Green, Mo.; prosecuting attorney of Pike 
County; presidential elector; member Congress, ninth 
Missouri district, 1893-95, and 1897-1915; chairman 
Democratic National Convention, St. Louis, 1904. 
Speaker of House of Representatives since 1911. 

Clark, Francis Edward, founder United Society 
Christian Endeavor; born of New England parentage, 
Aylmer, P. Q., September 12, 1851; graduate of Dart¬ 
mouth College, 1873; studied theology three years at 
Andover; became pastor Williston Church, Portland, 
Me., which from a small mission he built up to a large 
Congregational Church; founded, February, 1881, the 
Society of Christian Endeavor, which has extended 
throughout the world; pastor Phillips Church, South 
Boston, 1883-87; since then has devoted his time to 
the Christian Endeavor work as president United Society 
Christian Endeavor, president World’s Christian En¬ 
deavor Union, and editor of “The Christian Endeavor 
World.” Author: “Our Vacations,” “Our Business 
Boys,” “Looking Out on Life,” “Danger Signals,” 
“Young People’s Prayer Meetings,” “Ways and Means,” 
“Christian Endeavor Saints,” “Our Journey Around the 
World,” “The Mossback Correspondence,” “Fellow 
Travelers,” “The Everlasting Arms,” “The Great 
Secret,” "World-Wide Endeavor,” “A New Way Around 
an Old World,” “Training the Church of the Future.” 
“Christian Endeavor Manual,” Edited (with intro¬ 
ductory selections): “The Presence of God” (Bishop 
Jeremy Taylor), “Living and Loving” (Prof. A. Tho- 
luck), “The Kingdom Within” (Thomas a Kempis), 
“The Golden Alphabet ” (Master John Tauler); “Similes 
and Figures from Alexander Maclaren,” etc. 

Clark, William Andrews, ex-United States senator; 
born near Connellsville, Pa., January 8, 1839; educated 
at Laurel Hill Academy and other academies; studied 
law Mt. Pleasant, la., University; did not enter legal 
profession; taught school, Missouri, 1859-60; went to 
Colorado, 1862; to Montana, 1863; since then merchant, 
banker, mine-owner, manufacturer, having large inter¬ 
ests; president United Verde Copper Company, of Ari¬ 
zona, and numerous other large corporations; State 
orator, representing Montana at Centennial Exposition, 
1876; grand master Masons, Montana, 1877; major 
Butte battalion, leading it in Nez Percd campaign, 1878; 
president constitutional conventions, 1884 and 1889; 
commissioner from Montana to New Orleans Exposition, 
1884; Democratic candidate for delegate in Congress, 1888 
(defeated); nominated by Democrats for United States 
senator, 1890, and claimed election, but was denied seat; 
elected by legislature for term, 1901-07, United States 
Senate. 

Claxton, Philander P., United States commissioner 
of education since 1911; born in Tennessee, 1862; A. B., 
university of Tennessee, 1882, A. M., 1887; graduate 
student, Johns Hopkins, 1884-85; studied in Germany, 
1885-86; visited schools in Europe, 1897. Superinten¬ 
dent of schools, Kinston, N. C., 1883-84, Wilson, 1886-88, 
Asheville, 1888-93; professor of pedagogy and German, 
1893-96, professor of pedagogy, North Carolina normal 
and industrial college, 1896-1902; professor of education, 
university of Tennessee, 1902-11. 

Clay, Henry, born in 1777; American orator and 
statesman; was educated for the law, and in 1811, en¬ 
tered the House of Representatives, of which he was seven 
times elected speaker; and later, secretary of state and 
United States senator; supported the war with Great 
Britain on the right of search in 1812, and acted as 
plenipotentiary in the negotiations preceding the treaty 
of Ghent (1814); was author of the Missouri Compro¬ 


mise, restricting slavery to the Southern States (1821), 
and of the Omnibus bill, which postponed the Civil War 
for ten years. He was three times an unsuccessful can¬ 
didate for president. Died, June 29, 1852. 

Clemens, Samuel Langliorne (“Mark Twain ’), 
author, lecturer; born in Florida, Mo., November 30, 
1835; educated in common schools, Hannibal, Mo.; 
(M. A., Yale; L. H. D., Yale, 1901; LL. D., University 
of Missouri, 1902); apprenticed to printer at twelve; 
worked at trade; for a short time was Mississippi pilot; 
became, 1861, private secretary to his brother; city 
editor Virginia City (Nev.) “Enterprise,” 1862; alter¬ 
nated between mining and newspaper work until, be¬ 
coming noted as a humorist, he began lecturing and 
writing books; founded, 1884, publishing house of C. L. 
Webster & Co., failure of which involved him in heavy 
losses: paid its debts by proceeds of lectures and books; 
traveled extensively. Author: “The Jumping Frog,” 
“The Innocents Abroad,” “Autobiography and First 
Romance,” “The Gilded Age” (with late C. D. Warner); 
“Roughing It,” “Sketches New and Old,” “Adventures 
of Tom Sawyer,” “Punch Brothers, Punch,” “A Tramp 
Abroad,” “The Prince and the Pauper,” “The Stolen 
White Elephant,” “ Life on the Mississippi,” “The Adven¬ 
tures of Huckleberry Finn,” “A Yankee at the Court of 
King Arthur,” “The American Claimant,” “Merry Tales,” 
“The £1,000,000 Bank Note,” “Puddin’head Wilson,” 
“Tom Sawyer Abroad,” “Joan of Arc,” “Following the 
Equator,” “The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg,” “A 
Double-Barreled Detective Story,” “ Christian Science.” 
Died, 1910. 

Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt; born in 69 B. C.; cele¬ 
brated for her beauty; was the daughter of Ptolemy 
Auletes, by whose will she was left joint sovereign with 
her brother Ptolemy (51 B. C.). Expelled by the latter, 
she sought the assistance of Julius Csesar, who restored 
her to the throne in conjunction with a younger brother. 
She afterwards followed Ca?sar to Rome, and in 41 capti¬ 
vated M. Antonius, who rejected Octavia for her sake. 
A quarrel with Octavius ensued; the fleet of Antonius 
and Cleopatra was defeated at Actium, and they fled 
together to Egypt, where both committed suicide in 
30 B. C. 

Cleveland, Grover (Stephen Grover Cleveland), 
twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of the 
United States; born in Caldwell, Essex County, N. J., 
March 18, 1837; academic education; (LL. D., Prince¬ 
ton, 1897); married, June 2, 1886, Frances Folsom. 
Went to Buffalo, 1855, became clerk in a law office and 
■was admitted to bar, 1859; assistant district attorney 
Erie County, 1863-66; sheriff Erie County, 1870-73; 
established law practice; in 1881 was elected mayor of 
Buffalo. His veto of extravagant appropriations di¬ 
rected outside attention to him and led to his nomina¬ 
tion and election as governor the following year; in 
1884 elected President of United States as Democrat, 
over James G. Blaine, Republican, by majority of thirty- 
seven electoral votes; in 1888 again Democratic nomi¬ 
nee, but defeated by Benjamin Harrison; returned to 
law practice, locating in New York; in 1892 again 
elected president as Democrat, defeating President Harri¬ 
son; in 1896 the Democratic party having declared for 
the free coinage of silver in the platform of its national 
convention, Cleveland withheld his support from the 
ticket and platform. He took up his residence, after 
his second retirement from the White House, at 
Princeton, N. J., where he died, June 24, 1908. 

Clews, Henry, banker; born in Staffordshire, Eng¬ 
land ; intended for ministry, but left school at 15 to enter 
mercantile life in New York, whither his father had taken 
him for a visit; junior clerkship Wilson G. Hunt & 
Company, woolen importers; member firm Stout, Clews 
& Mason, 1858: later Livermore, Clews & Company; at 
outbreak of Civil War invited by secretary of treasury to 
become agent to sell government bonds; firm of Henry 
Clews & Company organized, 1877, its members pledging 
themselves never to take any speculative risk. Many 
years treasurer American Geographical Society; is also 
treasurer of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Animals; connected with many city institutions and 
financial corporations; frequent contributor to newspa¬ 
pers and magazines. Author: “Twenty-eight Years 
in Wall Street,” “The Wall Street Point of View.” 

Clinton, George, an American commander and 
statesman, born in 1739. He served in early life under 
General Amherst against the French, and afterwards 
studied law. During the struggle for independence 
in the North American Colonies, he sat in Congress, and 
was made a brigadier-general. With an inferior force, 
he succeeded in preventing Sir Henry Clinton from as¬ 
sisting General Burgoyne. Died, 1812. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, an English general, succeeded 
Sir William Howe as commander-in-chief in America, 



BIOGRAPHY 


421 


was born, 1738. His course was marked by bravery and 
good conduct, but not with success. After his return to 
England he was appointed governor of Limerick, and 
subsequently of Gibraltar, where he died in 1795. 

Clovis I., son of Childeric I., was born about 465, 
and is regarded as the real founder of the French mon¬ 
archy. He succeeded Childeric in 481. The victory of 
Soissons, which he gained in 486, over Syagrius, ren¬ 
dered him master of all the Roman possessions in the 
center of Gaul. Victorious when opposed to the Ger¬ 
mans at Tolbiac near Cologne, in 496, he is said to have 
made a vow of embx-acing Christianity, and to have kept 
his promise. He was baptized by St. Remigius, Arch¬ 
bishop of Rheims. Having conquered Alaric, King of 
the Visigoths, in 507, he gained most of the south prov¬ 
inces, but was himself overthrown near Arles, by Tfieo- 
doric, in 507. Died, 511. 

Cobden, Richard, an eminent British politician and 
reformer, was born at Dunford, in Sussex, in June, 1804. 
His early life was spent in connection with manufactur- 
• ing industry at Manchester; it was not until the year 
1837, when he unsuccessfully contested the borough of 
Stockport, that he became publicly known. In 1838, 
the anti-corn-law agitation commenced; and in the 
cause of free trade Cobden took the foremost rank, 
until the accomplishment of its principles, in 1846. 
Shortly afterwards a public subscription was raised, 
and the handsome sum of £75,000 was contributed, as 
a testimonial of his countrymen to the unwearied 
exertions of Cobden. He represented the West Rid¬ 
ing of Yorkshire until 1857; and, in 1860, succeeded, 
with M. Chevalier, in completing a free-trade treaty 
between France and Great Britain. He died on the 
2d of April, 1865. 

Cockran, William Bonrke, lawyer, orator; born in 
Ireland, February 28, 1854; educated in Ireland and 
France; came to the United States, 1871; taught in 
private academy; later, principal of a public school in 
Westchester County, N. Y.; then a lawyer, soon be¬ 
coming prominent in New York City politics; made 
noteworthy speeches at Democratic National conven¬ 
tions, 1884 and 1892, opposing the nomination of Cleve¬ 
land; member of Congress, 1887-89, and 1891-95, as 
Democrat. In 1896, became advocate of the gold 
standard and campaigned for McKinley. On issue of 
anti-imperialism, returned to Democratic party, 1900, 
and campaigned for Bryan. Was again elected to 
Congress, February 23, 1904, at a special election to 
fill a vacancy caused by the resignation of George B. 
McClellan; reelected, 1904 and 1906. 

Cockrell, Francis Marion, United States senator, 
1875-1905, lawyer; born in Johnson County, Mo., 
October 1, 1834; graduate of Chapel Hill College, 
Lafayette County, Mo., 1853; studied law and prac¬ 
ticed at Warrensburg; served in Confederate States 
Army, becoming brigadier-general. Democrat, chair¬ 
man of Senate committee on Engrossed Bills, and mem¬ 
ber of committees on Appropriations, Military Affairs, 
Rules, etc., and select committee on Pndustrial Expo¬ 
sitions. Interstate commerce commissioner, 1905-10. 

Cohen, Solomon Solis, physician; born in Phila¬ 
delphia, September 1, 1857; son of Myer David and 
Judith Simirah (da Silva Solis) Cohen; graduate (A. B.) 
of Central High School, 1872, A. M., 1877; graduate 
of Jefferson Medical College, 1883. Professor of clinical 
medicine and therapeutics, Philadelphia Polyclinic and 
College for Graduates in Medicine, 1887-1902; lecturer on 
clinical medicine, Jefferson Medical College, 1888-1902; 
professor of clinical medicine, Jefferson Medical College, 
since 1902. Author: “Therapeutics of Tuberculosis,” 
“Essentials of Diagnosis,” and other medical writings. 
Editor: “System of Physiologic Therapeutics”; was 
editor of “Philadelphia Polyclinic”; editor of depart¬ 
ment of “Treatment,” in “American Medicine”; one 
of the editors of “The American Hebrew.” Has con¬ 
tributed poems and occasional essays to “Century,” 
“Scribner’s,” “Lippincott’s,” “Arena,” etc.; also a 
translator of poems from the Hebrew. 

Coke, Sir Edward, born in 1552; judge and law 
writer, educated at Norwich grammar school and Cam¬ 
bridge; was called to the bar in 1578; early acquired a 
high reputation, and became solicitor-general in 1592, 
and attorney-general in 1594. He showed much harsh¬ 
ness in his prosecution of Essex, Raleigh, and others; 
but his loyalty gained him the chief justiceship of the 
common pleas, in 1606. In this position and that of 
chief justice of the king’s bench (1613), he opposed 
James I.’s claim to exercise prerogatives and was tem¬ 
porarily deprived in 1616. Entering parliament in 
1620, he there resisted the king’s encroachments; was 
imprisoned in the Tower in 1622, and in 1628 took the 
chief part in drawing up the Petition of Right. The 


remainder of his life was spent in compiling his “Com¬ 
mentaries upon Littleton.” Died, 1634. 

Colbert, Jean Baptiste, born in Rheims, 1619; a 
distinguished French statesman, minister of finance in 
the reign of Louis XIV. His whole life was devoted to 
financial and fiscal reforms, and to the encouragement 
of commerce and manufactures. To him tbe kingdom 
was indebted for the enlargement of its navy, for the 
acquisition of many of its foreign possessions, and for a 
large number of internal improvements. He instituted 
the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and also 
the Academies of Science and of Architecture. The 
Gardens of the Tuileries, the Hotel des Invalides, the 
facade of the Louvre, and several of the quays along the 
Seine, were all the work of Colbert. Died, 1683. 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, poet, essayist, and 
dramatist, was born in Devonshire, England, in 1772. 
He was sent to Christ’s hospital, and subsequently 
studied at Cambridge, where, in 1792, he obtained the 
prize for the best Greek ode. His works are many, and 
are generally distinguished by benevolence and piety. 
His “Sibylline Leaves” and “Biographia Literaria” 
found many admirers, and several of his poems were 
deemed beautiful. Died, 1834. 

Coligny, Gaspard de Chatillon, Sire de ( ko-lain- 
ye'), a noted French Huguenot, was born in 1517, and 
murdered in the St. Bartholomew Massacre, 1572. In 
early life he attained great distinction as a military 
leader, and was created admiral in 1552. After the 
accession of Charles IX., he became a Protestant, and 
on the breaking out of the civil war, he became, with 
the Prince de CondA the leader of the Huguenots. 

Colt, Samuel, an American inventor, born at Hart¬ 
ford, Conn., in 1814. He early conceived the idea of 
revolving fire-arms, and, in 1835, took out a patent for 
the weapon since known the world over as “Colt’s re¬ 
volver.” In 1848, he established a company for the 
working out of his patent, and built at Hartford one of 
the most extensive armories in the world. Died, 1862. 

Columbus, Christopher, discoverer of America, on 
October 12, 1492, after two months of great peril and, 
in the end, mutiny of his men; was born in Genoa, 1446. 
He went to sea at 14, and cherished, if he did not con¬ 
ceive, the idea of reaching India by sailing westward. 
He applied in many quarters for furtherance, and, 
after seven years of waiting, was provided with three 
small vessels and a crew of 120 men. First touching 
land at the Bahamas, he visited Cuba and Hayti, ana 
returned home with spoils of the land, and was hailed 
and honored as “King of the Sea.” He made three 
subsequent visits, and on the third had the satisfaction 
of landing on the mainland, which Sebastian Cabot and 
Amerigo Vespucci had reached before him; but he 
became at last the victim of jealousy, and charges were 
made against him, which so cut him to the heart that 
he never rallied from the attack, and he died at Valla¬ 
dolid, in 1506, broken in body and in soul. Carlyle, in 
a famous passage, salutes him across the centuries: 
“Brave sea-captain, Norse sea-king, Columbus, my hero, 
royalist sea-king of all.” 

Comstock, Anthony, secretary and special agent of 
New York Society for Suppression of Vice since May, 
1873; born in New Canaan, Conn., March 7, 1844; 
educated in district school and Wyckoff’s Academy, 
New Canaan, and 1860-61, high school, New Britain, 
Conn.; left school to earn living, 1861. His brother 
Samuel having been killed at Gettysburg, he volunteered 
to fill his place in regiment, enlisting in 17th Connecticut 
Volunteer Infantry, December, 1863; mustered out, 
July, 1865. Appointed, March 3, 1873, and since then, 
post-office inspector of New York; was prominent in 
Y. M. C. A. As secretary and special agent of New 
York Society for Suppression of Vice and post-office 
inspector, has brought about 3,500 criminals to justice 
and destroyed 140 tons of obscene literature and 
pictures, etc. Author: “Frauds Exposed,” “Gambling 
Outrages,” “Morals vs. Art,” “Traps for the Young.” 

Conde, Louis de.Bourbon, Prince of, born in 1530; 
joined the Huguenots after the death of Henri II., and, 
together with Coligny, became their leader during the 
reign of Charles IX. He was wounded at Dreux (1562), 
lost the battle of St. Denys (1567), and was killed at 
Jarnac (1569). 

Condo rcet ( kong-dor'-sa ), Jean Marie Antoine 
Nicholas Caritat, Marquis de, was born in 1743. 
He gained celebrity by his successful labors as a mathe¬ 
matician. His treatise on integral calculations, written 
when he was but twenty-two years of age, was eminently 
successful, and was considered to indicate a degree of 
knowledge seldom possessed at so early an age. He 
was the friend of D’Alembert and of almost all his illus¬ 
trious contemporaries, as well as one of the disciples of 
Voltaire. Being appointed governor of the dauphin 



422 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


by the constituent assembly, he was successively called 
to the legislative body and to the convention; but sub¬ 
sequently denounced as a partizan of the Girondists, 
he was outlawed in 1793, and shortly after was taken 
prisoner, when he poisoned himself, in 1794. 

Confucius (kon-fu'-se-us ), the Latinized name of 
Koung-Fou-Tseu, a celebrated Chinese philosopher, 
supposed to have been born in the year 551 B. C. From 
his youth he devoted his hours to the study of philosophy. 
A mandarin when but 17 years of age, he resigned his 
office on the death of his mother, according to custom, 
and withdrew to solitude, giving himself up to profound 
meditation. He afterwards established a school, and 
had many disciples. The King of Lu invited him to 
his court and appointed him his first minister. He 
endeavored to correct the manners of his countrymen 
by his sage maxims. He effected important reforms, 
but the intrigues of his enemies prevailed against him, 
and he was sent into exile. He wrote several very im¬ 
portant works, and died in 478 B. C. 

Connaught, Arthur William Patrick Albert, duke 
of, third son of Queen Victoria, was born in 1850. He 
entered the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich in 
1866 as a cadet; was made lieutenant in 1868, captain in 
1871, and general of brigade in 1880. In 1874 he was 
created duke of Connaught and Strathearn and earl of 
Sussex, and took his seat in the House of Lords. He 
served in the Egyptian expedition in 1882., became a 
general in 1893, and from 1893 to 1898 was in charge of 
the permanent camp at Aldershot. In 1896 he repre¬ 
sented Queen Victoria at the coronation of Nicholas II, 
and in 1903 was the representative of Edward VII at the 
coronation durbar at Delhi. He succeeded Lord Roberts 
as commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland in 1900, 
became field-marshal in 1902, and inspector-general in 
1904. In 1911 he became governor-general of Canada, 
succeeding Earl Grey. 

Constantine I. {Jeon'stan-tlri ), called The Great; born 
in 272, at Moesia, was son of Constantius Chlorus by 
Helena. On the death of his father at York, where he 
accompanied him, was proclaimed emperor by the 
troops; this title being challenged by Maximian, his 
father-in-law, and Maxentius, his brother-in-law, he 
took up arms against first the one and then the 
other, and defeated them. One day he saw a cross in 
the sky with the words, “By this Conquer,” in Greek; 
under this sign, known as the labarum, which he adopted 
as his standard, he accordingly marched straight to 
Rome, where he was acknowledged emperor by the 
senate in 312, and thereafter an edict was issued named 
of Milan, granting toleration to the Christians. He had 
still to extend his empire over the East, and having done 
so by the removal of Lucinius, he transferred the seat 
of his empire to Byzantium, which hence got the name 
of Constantinople, i. e., Constantine’s city. Constantine 
had himself baptized in 337 as a Christian, after having 
three years before proclaimed Christianity the state 
religion. Died, 337. 

Cook, Captain James, born in Marton, in the North 
Riding of Yorkshire, October 28, 1728; a celebrated 
English navigator, best known through his “Voyages 
Round the World.” He made three principal voyages, 
in the course of which he made many important dis¬ 
coveries, but was ultimately killed in a quarrel with the 
natives of Hawaii, though he had never acted so as to 
deserve anything but confidence from the natives with 
whom he came in contact. His kindly disposition, and 
his scrupulous justice and humanity, were, with his skill 
as a navigator, among his first recommendations. After 
his death, at Hawaii, one of the Sandwich Islands, Feb¬ 
ruary 14, 1779, many honors were paid to his memory, 
both in his own and in foreign countries. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, an illustrious American 
novelist, was born in Burlington, N. J., 1789. After six 
years experience of naval iife, Cooper retired from the 
sea in 1810, and took up his residence at Cooperstown, 
Otsego County, N. Y. About 1819 appeared his first work, 
Precaution.” In quick succession followed “The Spy,” a 
tale which at once secured for him a place in the first 
v> novelists; his almost unequaled sea stories, 
The Red Rover,” “Pilot,” and “Water-witch”; his 
famous Leather Stocking Series ” of Indian life and 
the “Pioneers,” “Last of the Mohicans,” 
Pathfinder,’ Deerslayer,” “Prairie,” etc. Cooper, 
after passing some years in Europe, died in 1851. His 
works have been translated into every European lan¬ 
guage, and have exhausted numberless editions. 

Copernicus, Nicolas, born in 1473 at Thorn, Prussia; 
founder of the modern system of astronomy, studied at 
Cracow and Bologna, and became professor of mathe¬ 
matics at Rome. Obtaining a canonry in the chapter 
of Frauenburg, he there wrote his work in Latin “ On the 


Revolution of the Celestial Orbs,” which he deferred 
publishing until a little before his death, in 1543, aware 
of the opposition it would arouse. 

Corday D’Armans, Marie Charlotte, born in 1768, 
at St. Saturnin, Normandy, of a noble Norman family; 
sympathized with the ideas of the French Revolution 
but was horrified at its excesses; visited Paris in July, 
1793, with the purpose, it is said, of assassinating Marat, 
or Robespierre; obtaining an interview with the former 
while in his bath, she stabbed him with a knife; was im¬ 
mediately apprehended and executed four days afterwards. 

Corelli, Marie, was born, 1864, the adopted child 
of the poet, Charles Mackay; educated in a French 
convent, and studied for a musical career. At an early 
age betrayed literary gifts, and the success of “A Ro¬ 
mance of Two Worlds” decided her course. Since then 
she has written a number of novels which have had 
large circulations. Persuaded Edward Morris, of Chi¬ 
cago, to purchase Harvard House, Stratford-on-Avon 
(which she had restored), and to present it to Harvard 
University, to which it now belongs. 

Corneille ( kor-nayV ), Pierre, born in 1606, in Rouen; 
French dramatist; was educated for the law, but the 
success of his first comedy, “Mdlite,” induced him to 
devote himself to literature. It was followed by other 
comedies, but from 1635 he preferred tragedy, producing 
“M6d6e,” “Le Cid ” (which established his fame), 
“Horace,” “Cinna,” “Polyeucte,” “La Mort de Pom- 
pde,” etc. “Le Menteur” was another successful com¬ 
edy. Died, 1684. 

Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus, was the 
wife of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, who was consul, 
177 B. C. By him Cornelia had twelve children, and 
was left, still in the prime of life, a widow. To her chil¬ 
dren she gave all her care, though only three reached 
maturity, but these owed to their mother the high dis¬ 
tinction which they gained in the commonwealth. A 
lady, after displaying her jewels, asked to see those of 
Cornelia, who, producing her sons, said, “These are 
mine.” Her hand was sought by the King of Egypt, but 
she withheld her consent. She encouraged her sons to be 
too ambitious, which eventually cost them their lives. 

Cornell, Ezra, an American philanthropist; born in 
1807, Westchester Landing, N. Y. He accumulated 
a large fortune and is best known as the founder of 
Cornell University. He began life as a mechanic and 
miller at Ithaca, N. Y., and subsequently became a 
contractor for the erection of telegraph lines. He died 
in Ithaca, in 1874. 

Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis, born in 1738; 
a prominent English statesman and general, celebrated 
as the general under whom the British forces were 
finally defeated (1781) in the American War of Inde¬ 
pendence. He was afterwards governor-general and 
commander-in-chief in India, where he greatly distin¬ 
guished himself by his victories over Tippoo Sahib; 
and still later (1798), he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 
and (1802), plenipotentiary of Great Britain to negotiate 
the Peace of Amiens. Appointed, in 1805, governor- 
general of India a second time; he died (1805) at Ghaze- 
pur, in the province of Benares, while on his way to as¬ 
sume the command of the troops. 

Corot {kd-ro'), Jean Baptiste Camille, born in Paris, 
1796; French painter, pupil of Michallon and Bertin, 
and founder of the impressionist school; began to ex¬ 
hibit in 1827, but did not produce his masterpieces, 
“ Dante and Virgil,” and “ Macbeth meeting the Witches,” 
till 1859. Died, 1875. 

Correggio ( kor-ra'-je-o ), Antonio Allegri da, an 
artist of great fame; was born at Correggio in 1494, in 
the duchy of Modena. He is regarded as the founder 
of the Lombard School, and was distinguished above 
all his rivals by the grace and beauty of his figures, and 
by the richness and harmony of his coloring. He painted 
“The Assumption of the Virgin,” for the cathedral church 
of Parma; and among his numerous productions are, 
the “Nativity,” the “Marriage of St. Catherine,” the 
“Holy Family,” etc. Died, 1534. 

Cortelyou, George Bruce, ex-secretary of the treas¬ 
ury; born in New York, 1862; graduated at Hempstead 
(L. I.) Institute and State Normal School, Westfield, 
Mass.; graduate of the law schools of Georgetown and 
Columbian (George Washington) universities; in 1883 
general law reporter; was principal of schools in New 
York from 1885 to 1889; entered the public service as 
private secretary to public officials; 1895, was appointed 
stenographer to President Cleveland; 1896, executive 
clerk; 1898, assistant secretary to President McKinley; 
1900, secretary to the president; reappointed by Presi¬ 
dent Roosevelt; was appointed secretary of the newly 
established Department of Commerce and Labor, 1903; 



BIOGRAPHY 


423 


1904, was elected chairman of the Republican National 
Committee, and conducted the campaign which resulted 
in the election of President Roosevelt. He entered the 
new cabinet, 1905, as postmaster-general, and on March 
4, 1907, was appointed secretary of the treasury. In 
1909, became president of New York Gas Co. 

Cortes, or Cortez ( kor'-tez ), Hernando, a Spanish 
adventurer; born in Medellin in Estremadura, in 1485. 
He was first destined for the law; but a passion for arms 
carrying him to the military profession, he went early 
in the Sixteenth Century, with Velasquez, to Cuba, and 
subsequently obtained the command of the expedition 
sent against Mexico. With seven hundred men under 
his command, he landed at Tobasco in 1519, and imme¬ 
diately burned his ships, that his followers might have 
no hope but in victory. He advanced to Mexico, where 
he was at first received with friendly demonstrations; 
but on his seizing Montezuma, the Mexican king, whom 
he subsequently put to death by fire, a struggle ensued, 
in which many thousands of lives were lost. He event¬ 
ually succeeded in putting down all opposition, and in 
overrunning Mexico. While effecting this he is be¬ 
lieved to have perpetrated the most enormous cruelties. 
He was rewarded with the title of marquis, and a grant 
of land; but subsequently, on his return to Spain, he 
found himself very much neglected. He died near 
Seville, in 1547. 

Corwin, Thomas, an American statesman; born in 
Kentucky in 1794; was admitted to the bar in 1818, 
and after serving some seven years in the State legis¬ 
lature, was elected to Congress in 1830, and to the United 
States Senate in 1845. In 1850, he was appointed sec¬ 
retary of the treasury, and, in 1861, minister to Mexico. 
Died in Washington in 1865. 

Cox, Kenyon, painter; born in Warren, O., October 
27, 1856; studied in Cincinnati and Philadelphia; in 
Paris under Carolus Duran and Gerome, 1877-82; re¬ 
turned to New York. Pictures are principally portraits 
and figure pieces; painted two decorations in Library 
of Congress, one in Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin College; 
one in Minnesota State capitol, one in Citizens’ building, 
Cleveland, O.. and frieze in court room, Appellate Court, 
New York, and other decorative pictures. He con¬ 
tributed to leading magazines on art subjects; part 
author of “Modern French Masters,” edited by J. C. 
Van Dyke, and of “The Nineteenth Century.” Author: 
“Mixed Beasts,” “Old Masters and New.” Died, 1911. 

Cox, Palmer, artist; born in Granby, Quebec, Can¬ 
ada, April 28, 1840; graduate of Granby Academy; 
lived in San Francisco, 1863-75, contributing to "Golden 
Era” and “Alta California”; since 1875, has lived in 
New York. His specialty is original humorous pictures 
illustrating his own books. Author: “Squibs of Cali¬ 
fornia, or Every-day Life Illustrated,” “Hans von Pel- 
ter’s Trip to Gotham,” “ How Columbus Found America,” 
“That Stanley,” “The Brownies, their Book,” “Queer 
People,” “Queer People with Wings and Stings,” “Queer 
People with Paws and Claws,” “Another Brownie 
Book,” “The Brownies at Home,” “The Brownies 
Around the World,” “The Brownies Through the Union,” 
“The Brownies Abroad,” “The Brownies in Fairyland” 
(cantata in two acts), “Palmer Cox’s Brownies” (spec¬ 
tacular play in three acts), “ The Brownies in the Philip¬ 
pines.” 

Craik, Dinah Maria, born in 1826; daughter of 
Mr. Muloch, a clergyman. Besides poems and essays, 
she wrote many novels, of which “John Halifax, Gen¬ 
tleman ” (1857) is the best known. Died, 1887. 

Cranmer, Thomas, born in 1489; Archbishop of 
Canterbury, obtained the favor of Henry VIII. by 
furthering his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and 
was appointed primate in 1533. He favored the Re¬ 
formed doctrines during the reign of Henry VIII., and 
in that of Edward VI. Protestantism was thoroughly 
established, and the “ Book of Common Prayer ” compiled 
(1549) under his guidance. He was committed to the 
Tower on the accession of Mary, condemned at Oxford 
for heresy in 1554, and after two years’ imprisonment, 
burnt there, openly rejecting the recantation of Protes¬ 
tantism which he had been induced to sign. 

Crassus, Lucius Licinius, the greatest Roman 
orator of his day, became consul in 95 B. C.; during his 
consulship a law was passed, requiring all but citizens 
to leave Rome, an edict which provoked the Social 
War. Born 140 B. C.; died 91 B. C. 

Crassus, Marcus Licinius, the triumvir with Pom- 
pey and Caesar; was avaricious, and amassed great 
wealth; appointed to the province of Syria, provoked 
out of cupidity war with the Parthians, in which he was 
treacherously slain; Orodes, the king, cut off his head, 
and poured melted gold into his mouth, saying as he 
did so, “Now sate thyself with the metal of which thou 
wert so greedy when alive.” (105-53 B. C.). 


Crawford, Thomas ( krau'furd ), an American sculp¬ 
tor, was born in New York, in 1814. He early mani¬ 
fested a taste for artistic studies, and, in 1834, repaired 
to Rome, where he entered the studio of Thorwaldsen. 
His principal works are the bronze statue of Beethoven, 
executed for the Boston Music Hall; the colossal eques¬ 
trian statue of Washington at the capitol, Richmond; 
and the marble and bronze statuary for the capitol, 
Washington. Died in London in 1857. 

Creasy, Sir Edward ( kre'se ), an English historian, 
born in 1812, is the author of the “Fifteen Decisive 
Battles of the World,” which has exhausted some ten 
editions; “The Rise and Progress of the English Con¬ 
stitution” (1856); and a “History of England,” the 
first volume of which was published in 1869. Died, 1878. 

Crispi, Francesco, born in 1819; Italian statesman, 
joined in the conspiracies w’hich led to the overthrow 
of the kingdom of the two Sicilies (1848); planned the 
second Sicilian revolt of 1859-60; fought under Gari¬ 
baldi; became a minister of state; represented Palermo 
in the first Italian Parliament, in which he was leader 
of the constitutional opposition. In 1877, he was 
appointed minister of the interior; in 1887, president of 
the council and premier, and resigned in 1891. Died, 1901. 

Crittenden, John Jordon (krU'-n-deri ), an American 
statesman, born in Kentucky in 1787. After having 
studied and engaged in the practice of the law, he, in 
1816, became a member of the Kentucky House of 
Representatives, and, in 1817, was elected to the United 
States Senate. In 1841, he became attorney-general in 
President Harrison’s administration; and, in 1848, was 
elected governor of Kentucky. He served as attorney- 
general in President Fillmore’s cabinet from July, 1850, 
till the accession of President Pierce. Throughout his 
political career, Crittenden’s name is identified with 
most of the measures introduced and advocated by his 
friend, Henry Clay. Died, 1863. 

Crompton, Samuel, inventor of the spinning-mule; 
born near Bolton, England, 1753; for five years he worked 
at his project, and after he got it into shape was tormented 
by people prying about him and trying to find out his 
secret; at last a sum was raised by subscription to buy 
it, and he got some £60 for it, by which others became 
wealthy, while he had to spend, and end, his days in 
comparative poverty, all he had to subsist on being a 
life annuity of £63, which some friends bought him. 
Died, 1827. 

Cromwell, Oliver, the Protector, son of Robert 
Cromwell, was born in Huntingdon in 1599, and edu¬ 
cated at the free school and at Cambridge, where he 
did not graduate; represented Huntingdon in the par¬ 
liament of 1628; always an advocate of puritanical 
views, first became seriously religious himself about 
1638; was member for Cambridge in the short and long 
parliaments, and soon made himself prominent by his 
zeal in the cause of liberty; on the outbreak of the 
civil war raised a troop of horse for the parliament; 
distinguished himself in the battles which followed, and 
was specially exempted from the Self-denying Ordi¬ 
nance (1645); joined the Independent party in oppo¬ 
sition to the Presbyterians, and by the ejection of 
members known as “Pride’s Purge,” secured the condem¬ 
nation and execution of Charles I. (1649). After reduc¬ 
ing Ireland to submission, he attacked the Scottish 
Royalists, defeating them at Dunbar (1650) and Worces¬ 
ter (1651). He dissolved the Long Parliament in 1653, 
and, after an unsuccessful attempt at constitutional 
government, assumed the title of Protector, and ruled 
as a military despot, enforcing order at home, and win¬ 
ning the respect of foreign countries. Died, 1658. 

Cromwell, William Nelson, lawyer, born, 1854; 
now senior of law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell; specialty 
is corporation law; organized, 1899, National Tube Com¬ 
pany (capital, $80,000,000); since then many other cor¬ 
porations; appointed assignee and reorganized Decker, 
Howell & Company, 1890, and later, Price, McCormick & 
Company, which had failed for several millions, and put 
both on paying basis: was officer, director, or counsel of 
more than twenty of the largest corporations in the 
United States, and one of the organizers of United States 
Steel Corporation. Engaged by Panama Canal Company 
of France, and was instrumental in securing passage of 
Panama Canal bill in Congress. He perfected the details 
of the transfer of Panama Canal to United States Gov¬ 
ernment. 

Crookes, Sir William, scientist, inventor; born in 
1832. Past-president of the Chemical Society; past-pres¬ 
ident of the Institution of Electrical Engineers; president 
of the British Association, 1898; vice-president of Roya 
Society, 1895-96; president of Society for Psychical 
Research, 1897; discoverer of thallium and of prop¬ 
erties of radiant matter; inventor of the radiometer, 
spinthariscope, and other instruments. Wrote “Manu- 



424 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


facture of Beet Sugar,” ‘‘Handbook of Dyeing,” ‘‘Man¬ 
ual of Practical Assaying,” ‘‘Select Methods in Chemical 
Analysis,” “The Wheat Problem,” etc.; editor of the 
“Chemical News." 

Cujas, Jacques (koo'zhds ), an eminent French jurist, 
born in 1522; became professor of the Roman law at 
Bourges and Valence. Among his numerous works are 
“Commentaries on Justinian’s Institutes,” and on the 
“Pandects and Decretals.” Cujas has been styled by 
Hallam the “greatest of all civil lawyers.” Died, 1590. 

Culberson, Charles A., United States senator from 
Texas; born in Dadeville, Ala., June 10, 1855; graduate 
of Virginia Military Institute, 1874; studied law at 
University of Virginia, 1876-77; settled in Texas, 1856; 
county attorney, Marion County; attorney-general of 
Texas, 1890-94; governor, 1894-98; delegate and 
chairman of Texas delegations to Democratic National 
conventions, 1896, 1904; elected United States senator, 
1899, to succeed Roger Q. Mills: reelected, 1905 and 
1911; minority leader of the United States Senate, 
60th and 61st Congresses. 

Cummins, Albert Baird, governor, lawyer; born 
in Carmichaels, Pa., February 15, 1850; academic edu¬ 
cation at Waynesburg, Pa.; admitted to bar; settled 
in practice at Des Moines, la.; member of Republican 
National Committee, 1S96-1900; governor of Iowa, 
1902-1908; United States senator since 1908. 

Curtis, William Eleroy, journalist; born in Akron, 
O., November 5, 1850; graduate of Western Reserve 
College, 1871. On staff of “Chicago Inter-Ocean,” 
1873-87; Washington correspondent for “ Chicago 
Record,” 1887-1901; “Chicago Record-Herald,” 
1901-11. Special commissioner from United States 
to Central and South American republics; executive 
officer of International American Conference, 1889-90; 
director of Bureau of American Republics, 1890-93; 
chief of Latin-American department and historical sec¬ 
tion at World’s Columbian Exposition, 1891-93; com¬ 
missioner of Columbian Exposition to Madrid, and 
special envoy to the Queen Regent of Spain and Pope 
Leo XIII., 1892. Author: “Tibbalses Folks,” “A 
Summer Scamper,” “The Life of Zachariah Crandler,” 
“Children of the Sun,” “Capitals of Spanish America,” 
“The Land of the Nihilist,” “Trade and Transporta¬ 
tion,” “Handbook to the American Republics,” “Guate¬ 
mala,” “Costa Rica,” “Ecuador,” “Venezuela: a Land 
Where It is Always Summer,” “The United States and 
Foreign Powers,” “The Existing Autographs of Colum¬ 
bus,” 1893 (American Historical Association); “Relics 
of Columbus,” “ Recent Discoveries Concerning the 
Early Settlement of America in the Archives of the 
Vatican,” “The Yankees of the East,” “To-day in 
France and Germany,” “Between the Andes and the 
Ocean,” “The True Thomas Jefferson,” "The Turk and 
His Lost Provinces,” “Denmark, Sweden, and Norway,” 
“The True Abraham Lincoln,” “To-day in Syria and 
Palestine,” “Modern India,” “Egypt, Burma, and the 
British East Indies.” Was member of many learned 
societies. Died, 1911. 

Curtiss, Glenn H., aeronaut, sportsman, manu¬ 
facturer, was bom at Hammondsport, N. Y., 1878; in 
1906, at Ormond Beach, Curtiss covered a mile on a 
motorcycle of his own construction in twenty-six and 
two-fifths seconds, the fastest mile ever traveled by a 
human being on earth; director of experiments of 
Aerial Experiment Association, 1907; winner of inter¬ 
national contest at Rheims, 1909, covering the course of 
12.42 miles in 15 minutes, 50 3-5 seconds, in a biplane of 
his own design; flew over Hudson River, Albany to 
New York, 1910; manufacturer of Curtiss motorcycle 
and member of Herring-Curtiss Co., engaged in manu¬ 
facture of aeroplanes. 

Curzon of Kedleston, Baron, English statesman 
and author; viceroy of India, 1899-1905. His term of 
office was extended. In June, 1905, difficulties over the 
new military scheme in India led to his resigning. The 
resignation was withdrawn at request of home author¬ 
ities, but in August, controversy again reached an 
acute stage, and Lord Curzon finally relinquished office. 
He remained in India to receive the Prince and Princess 
of Wales. The “Times” spoke of his work as “among 
the most brilliant and strenuous accomplished for the 
empire in our times,” and of his having infused into 
Indian civil administration a new spirit born of his own 
indomitable belief in reform and his own unshaken 
determination to carry it into practice. His wife died 
in 1906. Elected chancellor of Oxford University. 
March, 1907. 

Cuvier ( ku'-ve-a ), George Leopold Christian Fred¬ 
erick Dagobert, Baron, was born at Montb^liard in 
the duchy of Wiirttemberg in 1769. He devoted him¬ 
self to the study of natural history, and gained extra¬ 
ordinary celebrity. He was placed by Bonaparte in 


the most important offices in the department of public 
instruction. The additions he made to the general 
stock of knowledge gave him fame throughout the 
civilized world, and he was received with appropriate 
honors by scientists when he visited England in 1818, 
and in 1830. He died in 1832. 

Cyrus the Great, born about 590 B. C.; founder of 
the Persian Empire; was the son of Cambyses and 
Mandane, daughter of Astyages, King of Media. His 
early history is probably mythical; in 549 B. C., he 
excited the Persians against the Medes, defeated Asty¬ 
ages, and usurped his throne. He subsequently con¬ 
quered Lydia and Babylon, and marched against the 
Massegatse, governed by Queen Tomyris, by whom he 
was defeated and slain, 529 B. C. 

Cyrus the Younger, born in 424 B. C.; son of 
Darius, and governor of the western provinces of Asia 
Minor; after unsuccessfully plotting against his elder 
brother, Artaxerxes, he raised a large army, including 
about 12,000 Greek soldiers, with which he marched 
against him, but was defeated and slain at Cunaxa. 
Xenophon then conducted the retreat of the 10,000 
surviving Greeks. Died, 401 B. C. 

Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande, born in 1789; 
the inventor of photography by the daguerreotype 
process, by which the portrait was fixed on a plate of 
copper thinly coated with silver, by the successive 
action of the vapors of iodine, bromine, and mercury, 
in which invention he was associated with M. Niepce 
Daguerre. He was also celebrated as a dioramic painter; 
was named by the French Government as an officer of 
the Legion of Honor, and granted a pension of six thou¬ 
sand francs. Died, 1851. 

f . Dalzell, John, ex-congressman, lawyer; born in New 
York, April 19, 1845; removed to Pittsburgh, 1847; 
graduate of Yale, 1865; admitted to bar, 1867; has 
practiced ever since; for years one of the attorneys for 
the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for all its western 
lines; also attorney for many corporations in Allegheny 
County, Pa. Member of Congress since 1887; member 
of Committee on Rules and Committee on Ways and 
Means, 54th, 55th, 56th, 57th, 58th, 59th, 60th, 61st 
and 62d Congresses. 

Daniel, one of the Jewish prophets, is affirmed by 
Josephus to have descended from the royal family of 
Judah. While young, he was carried as a captive from 
Jerusalem to Babylon. There his talents caused him 
to be advanced to the rank of chief of the magi, or wise 
men, and to the government of the province; and his 
wisdom, courage, and skill in prophecy gave him great 
distinction. He is supposed to have died about 
year 534 B. C. 

Daniel, John Warwick, United States senator, 
1887-1910; born in Lynchburg, Va., September 5, 
1842; educated at Lynchburg College and Dr. Gessner 
Harrison’s University School; in Confederate States 
Army of Northern Virginia throughout war; became 
adjutant-general on General Early’s staff; studied law 
at University of Virginia, 1865-66. Member of Virginia 
house of delegates, 1869-70, 1871-72; of State senate, 
1875-81; presidential elector, 1876; defeated for gov¬ 
ernor of Virginia, 1881; member of Congress, 1885-87; 
member of National Democratic conventions, 1880, 
1888, 1892, 1896 (temporary chairman), 1900 and 1904. 
Author: “Attachments Under the Code of Virginia,” 
“Negotiable Instruments,” etc. Died, 1910. 

Dante Alighieri, Italian poet; was born in Florence, 
1265. Of his early days little is known, till, as related 
in his “Vita Nuova,” he first met “the lady of his heart, 
Beatrice.” According to Boccaccio, she was the daugh¬ 
ter of Folco Portinari, and married Simone de Bardi 
and to her Dante was passionately but platonically 
attached. She died in 1290, and shortly afterwards 
Dante married Gemma Donati, a daughter of one of 
the “Guelph” families. In 1289, he fought at Cam- 
paldino, and was present at the surrender of Caprona. 
After filling various minor offices, in 1300, he became 
one of the six priors of Florence. In 1301, he went as 
ambassador to Pope Boniface VIII., and never returned 
to his native town. Charles of Valois aided the Neri or 
Black Guelphs against their opponents, the Whites, of 
whom Dante was a supporter, and, in 1302, he was 
banished. He made many unsuccessful attempts to 
return, and spent the remaining years of his life wander¬ 
ing from town to town, finally settling in Ravenna, 
where he died in 1321. His most celebrated work is 
the “Divina Commedia,” and others are the “Vita 
Nuova,” the “Convito,” and the “ Canzoniere.” 

Danton ( ddn'ton ), George James, a French advo¬ 
cate, and notorious republican; was born in 1759. He 
took a leading part in dethroning Louis XVI., and was 
a prominent actor in the sanguinary scenes that followed. 
He became a formidable rival to his associate Robespierre, 




BIOGRAPHY 


425 


but was worsted in the strife, and suffered on the guillo¬ 
tine in 1794- 

D’Arblay, Frances Burney, English novelist; born 
in 1752, was the third child of Dr. Charles Burney. 
From the age of eighteen to twenty-six she worked at 
“Evelina,” which appeared anonymously in 1778, and 
won her fame, and the admiration and friendship of 
Dr. Johnson. “Cecilia” (1782) was equally successful; 
her works gained her a position at the court in 1786, 
and in her “Diary” she gives a graphic description 
of its decorous dullness. In 1793, she married General 
D’Arblay, a French refugee. Her later works are 
"Camilla” (1796), “The Wanderer” (1814), and the 
"Memoirs” of her father. Died, 1840. 

Darius, born about 558 B. C.; son of Hystaspes, de¬ 
throned Smerdis the usurper, and became King of 
Persia in 521. He captured Babylon after a siege of 
twenty months, conquered Thrace, and defeated the 
Scythians. He sent two armies to Greece to avenge 
the destruction of Sardis by the Athenians, the first of 
which was repulsed by the Thracians, and the second 
by the Athenians at Marathon in 490. He died in B. C. 
486, while organizing a third expedition. 

Darrow, Clarence S M .lawyer; born in Kinsman, O., 
April 18, 1857; educated in Ohio public schools; studied 
law; admitted to bar, 1875. Formerly attorney for 
Northwestern Railway. Has been identified with many 
prominent cases; of recent years, notably in cases against 
monopolies, including litigation against gas trust in 
Chicago; chief counsel for anthracite miners in the 
anthracite coal strike arbitration at Scranton and Phila¬ 
delphia, 1902-03, commission appointed by President 
Roosevelt. Elected Illinois Legislature, 1902. Active 
in political campaigns as Independent Democrat; twice 
married. Counsel in Debs strike case and large number 
of labor injunction and labor conspiracy cases on side of 
labor; platform speaker. Counsel for McNamara 
brothers in Los Angeles Times dynamite case, 1911. 
Author: “Persian Pearl” (essays), “Resist Not Evil,” 
“Farmington” (novel), “An Eye for an Eye,” various 
pamphlets on social and economic questions. 

Darwin, Charles Robert, an English naturalist; 
born in Shrewsbury, February 12, 1809; was the son of 
Dr. Robert Darwin and grandson of Dr. Erasmus Dar¬ 
win. He was educated at Shrewsbury School, and at 
the universities of Edinburgh and Cambridge. He early 
devoted himself to the study of natural history. In 1839, 
he married his cousin Emma Wedgwood, and hence¬ 
forth spent the life of a quiet country gentleman, en¬ 
grossed in scientific pursuits — experimenting, observ¬ 
ing, recording, reflecting, and generalizing. In 1859, 
his name attained its great celebrity by the publication 
of “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.” 
This work, scouted and derided though it was at first in 
certain quarters, may be said to have worked noth¬ 
ing less than a revolution in biological science. In it 
for the first time was given a full exposition of the theory 
of evolution as applied to plants and animals, the origin 
of species being explained on the hypothesis of natural 
selection. The rest of his works are largely based on 
the material he had accumulated for the elaboration of 
this great theory. He died April 19, 1882, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Darwin, Erasmus, a poet and physician; born in 
Elston near Newark, in 1731. He studied at Cam¬ 
bridge, obtained a doctor’s degree at Edinburgh, and 
settled at Lichfield as a physician. He was a man of 
great and varied talent, but some of his opinions were 
deemed extravagantly eccentric. His “Botanic Gar¬ 
den” was admired as a fine specimen of polished verse, 
and his “Zoonomia,” or “The Laws of Organic Life,” 
was admitted to be ingenious, though built upon an 
hypothesis which was repudiated as absurd. In 1781, 
removed from Lichfield to Derby, where he died, 1802. 

Davenport, Homer Calvin, cartoonist; born in 
Silverton, Ore., March 8, 1867; reared on farm in Oregon; 
never attended art schools; no school education; had 
been jockey, railroad fireman, clown in circus. Given 
employment, 1892, on “San Francisco Examiner”; 
taken to New York by W. R. Hearst, 1895; on “New 
York Journal,” 1895-1912; originated the Mark Hanna 
$-mark suit of clothes and the giant figure of the trusts 
in 1899; his work caused attempt to pass anti-cartoon 
bill in New York, 1897. Author: “Davenport’s Car¬ 
toons,” “The Bell of Silverton, and Other Short Stories 
of Oregon,” “The Dollar or the Man?” Died, 1912. 

David ( da'-vid ), the son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah; 
was born in Betblehem, and flourished in the Eleventh 
Century B. C. He watched the flocks of his father, 
when Samuel was sent by the Most High to Bethlehem, 
to anoint him King of Israel in the place of Saul whom he 
had rejected. War having broken out between the Israelites 
and the Philistines, he fought and vanquished the giant 


Goliath. Saul gave him the command of a body of 
men, but later conceived a great hatred of him. David 
was exposed to imminent danger, and compelled to seek 
a refuge among the Philistines. After the death of Saul, 
he was recognized as King of Israel, and defeated the 
Philistines, the Moabites, the Syrians, and the Ammonites. 
Many acts of weakness were committed by him, but he 
obtained forgiveness from the Almighty by exemplary 
penitence. He transported the ark to Jerusalem, and is 
the reputed author of many of the psalms. 

Davidson, Samuel, born in 1807 ; biblical critic ; 
was educated in Ireland at the Royal College of Belfast. 
He entered the Presbyterian ministry, and was called 
in 1835 to the chair of biblical criticism in his own 
college. In 1842 he became professor of biblical literature 
and Oriental languages in the Congregational College at 
Manchester. He was a member of the Old Testament 
Revision Committee. Died, 1899. 

Davis, Henry Gassaway, capitalist; born in Balti¬ 
more, November 16, 1823; educated in country schools, 
but being left fatherless went to work young; became 
superintendent of a plantation, then brakeman, con¬ 
ductor, and later agent at Piedmont, W. Va., of the 
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad; later merchant and a leading 
collier; projected and carried on to success the West 
Virginia Central & Pittsburgh Railway, which was sold 
to the Wabash, 1902; then built the Coal & Coke Rail¬ 
way of West Virginia, of 200 miles, of which he is president; 
also president Davis Trust company of Elkins, West 
Virginia, etc.; member house of delegates, West Virginia, 
1865; State senator, 1867-71; United States senator, 
1871-83, declining reelection; Democratic delegate to six 
Democratic National conventions; one of American del¬ 
egates to Pan-American congress; is member United 
States Permanent Pan-American Railway Commission; 
was candidate of Democratic party for vice-president, 
1904. 

Davis, Jefferson, born in 1808; American states¬ 
man and soldier, graduated at West Point in 1828, and 
served in the army for seven years. In 1845 he was 
elected to Congress, and was appointed colonel of the 
first regiment of Mississippi volunteers. In 1853 he was 
secretary of war, and from 1857-61 was again member 
of the senate. On February 9, 1861, he was unanimously 
elected “ President of the Confederate States of America.” 
War followed, and commenced with a Confederate vic¬ 
tory at Bull Run, but the South soon sustained serious 
reverses, then finances failed, and Grant’s defeat of Lee 
concluded the war. Davis was captured at Irwinsville, 
and conveyed to Fort Munroe, where he was imprisoned 
for two years. He was prosecuted in 1867 for treason, 
was discharged, and his name included in the general 
amnesty. Died, 1889. 

Davis, Richard Harding, novelist, journalist; 
born in Philadelphia, 1864; son of the late L. Clarke and 
Rebecca (Harding) Davis; served as war correspondent 
“London Times” and “New York Herald” in Turkish- 
Greek, Spanish-American, South African, and Russian- 
Japanese Wars. Author: “Soldiers of Fortune,” “Gal- 
legher and Other Stories,” “The Princess Aline,” "Our 
English Cousins,” “Van Bibber and Others,” “About 
Paris,” “The Rulers of the Mediterranean,” "Three 
Gringos in Venezuela,” “Cuba in War Time,” “A Year 
from a Correspondent’s Note-Book,” “Stories for Boys,” 
“Cuban and Porto Rican Campaigns,” “Cinderella and 
Other Stories,” “Dr. Jameson’s Raiders,” “Exiles,” 
“The King’s Jackal,” “The Lion and the Unicorn,” 
“West from a Car Window,” “Episodes in Van Bibber’s 
Life,” “With Both Armies in South Africa,” “In the 
Fog,” “Ranson’s Folly,” “Captain Macklin,” “The Bar 
Sinister,” “Kits and Outfits.” Plays: “Taming of 
Helen,” “Ranson’s Folly,” “The Dictator.” 

Davy, Sir Humphry, born in 1778; English chemist, 
was a native of Penzance. Two papers on nitrous oxide 
obtained him the post of assistant lecturer on chemistry 
to the Royal Institution, London, and in a few weeks he 
was raised to the chief lectureship. In 1803 he became 
a fellow, and in 1807 secretary of the Royal Society. 
His Bakerian lecture in 1806 gained him the 3,000 franc 
prize of the French Institute. In 1815 he invented the 
miner’s safety lamp. He was knighted in 1812, made a 
baronet and elected president of the Royal Society in 
1820. Failing health compelled him to leave England, 
and he died at Geneva in 1829, of paralysis. 

Dawson, Sir John William, geologistand naturalist; 
was born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, 1820. He studied in 
Edinburgh, and distinguished himself as a palaeontologist. 
Published, “Story of the Earth and Man,” “Origin of 
the World,” and “Geology and History.” Dawson 
I called in question the Darwinian theory as to the origin 
of species. For many years he was chancellor of McGill 
j University, and one of the most noted of Canadian edu- 
| cators. Died, at Montreal, 1899. 





426 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Day, James Roscoe, clergyman, educator; born in 
Whitneyville, Me., October 17, 1845; A. B., Bowdoin, 
1874, S. T. D., 1894; (D. D., Wesleyan, Conn., and Dick¬ 
inson College; LL. D., Northwestern University; D. C. 

L. , Cornell College, la.). Methodist Episcopal clergy¬ 
man in Bath, Portland, Boston, and New York, Chan¬ 
cellor Syracuse University since 1894. Elected bishop 
Methodist Episcopal Church, 1904, but declined. Is a 
vigorous writer and speaker, and well-known publicist. 

Day, William Rufus, jurist; born in Ravenna, O., 
April 17, 1849; graduate of University pf Michigan, 1870; 
studied in law department, same; admitted to bar, 1872; 
established in practice at Canton, O.; judge court of 
common pleas, 1886-90; elected as nominee of both 
political parties; appointed, 1889, judge United States 
District Court, northern district of Ohio, but because of 
failing health resigned before taking office; appointed 
assistant secretary of state, March, 1897; succeeded 
John Sherman as secretary of state, April 26, 1898, but 
in September, 1898, was succeeded by John Hay, be¬ 
coming chairman United States peace commissioners 
at Paris, at close of war with Spain; judge United States 
Circuit Court, sixth circuit, 1899-1903; associate justice 
United States Supreme Court since February, 1903. 

Decatur, Stephen, a United States naval com¬ 
mander, born in 1779. On various occasions he was 
distinguished by his skill and courage. In the war of 
1812, between England and America, he captured the 
“Macedonian” English frigate. In the year 1815, he 
was taken by the British, after maintaining a running 
fight for more than two hours. He died in 1820, being 
shot in a duel which he fought with Commodore Barron. 

Defoe (de-jo'), Daniel, a much admired English 
novelist; born in 1661, was the son of a butcher. In 
1688 he kept a hosier’s shop in Cornhill, but proving 
unsuccessful, he was obliged to depend upon his literary 
powers for a livelihood. He obtained, in 1695, the ap¬ 
pointment of accountant to the commissioners of glass 
duty, which office he held till that duty was repealed in 
1701. He was an active writer, but his “Robinson 
Crusoe,” the work for which he was most celebrated, 
did not appear till 1719. Among his productions may 
be mentioned “A Journal of the Plague in 1665,” by a 
supposed witness of it. He died in 1731. 

De Gogorza, Emma Eames, American prima donna 
soprano, was born at Shanghai, China, of American 
parentage, 1867. Made d6but at Paris grand opera, 1889; 
Covent Garden, London, in role of Marguerite in Faust, 
1891; sang in regular opera seasons in London and United 
States. Married Julian Story, well-known painter, in 
1891; married Emilo de Gogorza in 1911. 

Deland, Margaretta Wade, author; born (Camp¬ 
bell) in Allegheny, Pa., February 23, 1857; educated in 
private schools. Author: “John Ward, Preacher,” 
“The Old Garden and Other Verses,” “Philip and His 
Wife,” “Florida Days,” “Sydney,” “The Story of a 
Child,” “The Wisdom of Fools,” “Mr. Tommy Dove 
and Other Stories,” “ Old Chester Tales,” “ Dr. Laven- 
dar’s People,” “The Common Way.” 

Delcasse, Theophile, was born in Pamiers, March 
1, 1852; educated in Paris, and began his career as a 
journalist. He was elected to the chamber in 1889, for 
Foix; in 1893, became under-secretary for the colonies 
under MM. Ribot and Dupuy, and colonial minister in 
the Dupuy cabinet of May, 1894. He has always been 
a consistent advocate of colonial expansion. When M. 
Brisson formed his ministry in 1898, he entrusted for¬ 
eign affairs to M. Delcassd, and it fell to his lot to deal 
with the difficult position at Fashoda. He retained 
his portfolio in M. Dupuy’s ministry, after the defeat of 
the Brisson administration. In 1899, he negotiated the 
agreement with Great Britain as to the Nile Valley and 
Central Africa, and still remained foreign minister when 

M. Waldeck-Rousseau succeeded M. Dupuy, and when 
M. Combes, in 1902, succeeded M. Waldeck-Rousseau. 
He brought about the rapprochement with Italy, visited 
England with the president in 1903, and with Lord 
Lansdowne prepared the Anglo-French Agreement, 
signed April 8, 1904. The difficulty with Germany 
about Morocco caused his retirement in 1905. 

Del mas, Delphin Michael, lawyer; born in France, 
April 14, 1844; removed to California in boyhood; 
graduate of Santa Clara College, California, 1862; 
graduate of Yale Law School, LL. B., 1865. Admitted 
to California bar, 1866; practiced in San Jos6, Cal., 
1866—83 ; since then in San Francisco and New York. 
District attorney of Santa Clara County, Cal., 1868; 
regent of University of California, 1885; delegate-at- 
large of Democratic National Convention, St. Louis, 
1904. Author: “Speeches and Addresses.” 

Demetrius, surnamed Poliorcetes, King of Macedon, 
was defeated near Gaza by Ptolemy in 318. He deliv¬ 
ered Athens from Demetrius Phalereus, but the suc¬ 


cessors of Alexander defeated him at Ipsus (301). In 
294, he seized the throne of Macedonia, but was ex¬ 
pelled (287), and died in captivity (283 B. C.). 

Demosthenes, born about 385 B. C.; Greek orator, 
resolved to study rhetoric, though his lungs were weak, 
his pronunciation bad, and his gesture awkward. He 
persevered till he surpassed all other orators, and is 
noted for his “Philippics and Olynthiacs,” aimed 
against Philip of Macedon. On the advance of Anti¬ 
pater he fled, and poisoned himself in preference to 
falling into his enemies’ hands, 322 B. C. 

Deneen, Charles Samuel, governor; born in Ed- 
wardsville, Ill., May 4, 1863; educated in public schools 
at Lebanon, Ill., and McKendree College (graduated, 
1882); taught school about three years; studied law; 
admitted to bar. Elected to Illinois House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, 1892; served one term as attorney' for sani¬ 
tary district of Chicago, December, 1895-96; State's 
attorney of Cook County, Ill., 1896-1904; governor of 
Illinois, 1905-09, 1909-13. 

Depew, Chauncey Mitchell, an American lawyer; 
born in Peekskill, N. Y., April 23, 1834; was graduated 
at Yale College in 1856, and engaged in the presidential 
campaign for Fremont immediately afterward; studied 
law, and was admitted to the bar in 1858. He was 
appointed United States minister to Japan, and after 
holding the commission a month, declined, and began 
his career as a railroad official as attorney for the New 
York and Harlem Railroad. He was made attorney 
and director of the consolidated Hudson River and 
New York Central railroads in 1869; general counsel of 
the whole Vanderbilt system in 1875; second vice- 
president of the reorganized New York Central Railroad 
in 1882, and president, 1885-98. His political career, 
since 1866, embraces his unsuccessful candidacy as 
lieutenant-governor on the Liberal Republican ticket in 
1872; his election by the legislature as a regent of the 
State University in 1874; his candidacy for United 
States senator to succeed Thomas C. Platt, in which he 
withdrew his name after eighty-two days of balloting, 
in 1881; his declination of the United States senator- 
ship tendered by the Republicans of the legislature in 
1885; his candidacy for the presidential nomination in 
the national convention in 1888; and his election to 
the United States Senate, in 1899 and 1905. He has 
an international reputation as an unusually entertaining 
speaker, is constantly in request as a lecturer, and has 
delivered many addresses of large public importance. 

De Quincey, Thomas, English essayist; born in 
Manchester in 1785. His father, Thomas Quincey (not 
De Quincey), was a merchant, and left his family well 
provided for. De Quincey was first educated at Sal¬ 
ford and at Bath, and afterwards at Winkfield and 
the Manchester grammar school, from which he ran 
away, and subsequently went through the adventures 
and privations which he described in the “Confessions 
of an English Opium Eater.” In 1803, he went up to 
Worcester College, Oxford, which he left without a 
degree, and soon after became acquainted with Cole¬ 
ridge and Wordsworth, took a cottage at Grasmere, 
and became one of the famous Lake scholars. Here he 
remained for many years, occasionally visiting London 
and Edinburgh. In 1830, he removed his wife and 
eight children to the latter place, and lived there 
till his wife’s death, in 1837. He had acquired the 
habit of taking opium by using it to cure an attack of 
neuralgia, and so greatly did it grow upon him that he 
was known to take as many as 12,000 drops, equal to 
ten wineglasses, in a day. He was engaged in prepar¬ 
ing fourteen volumes of his works for the press within 
a few days of his death. Besides the “Opium Eater,” 
the following works may be mentioned: “Murder Con¬ 
sidered as One of the Fine Arts,” “Suspiria de Profun- 
dis,” “The English Mail Coach,” and “A Vision of 
Sudden Death.” „ Died, 1859. 

De Reszke, Edouard, operatic singer; born in 
Varsovie, Poland, December 22, 1856; studied under 
Ciaffei and Coletti; d£but, Theatre des Italiens, Paris, 
as the king in “Aida,” April 22, 1876; later, sang at 
Turin, Milan, and other European cities; London d^but 
as Indra in “Royal Italian Opera,” April 13, 1880, 
remaining there four seasons. Has since then appeared 
in grand opera in Europe and United States, taking 
basso roles. 

De Reszke, Jean, operatic singer; born in Varsovie, 
Poland, January 14, 1853; studied under Ciaffei, Cotogni, 
and Sbriglia; debut as baritone singer in Favorita, 
Venice, January, 1874; tenor d£but, Madrid, 1879; 
has appeared in leading roles in grand opera in Europe 
and United States. 

Descartes, Rene (da'-kart '), a great French philos¬ 
opher and mathematician, was born in Touraine in 1596. 
He early adopted the profession of arms, and served in 




BIOGRAPHY 


427 


the armies of the Dutch and Bavarians. In 1629, he 
settled in Holland, in which country he devoted him¬ 
self to his favorite studies of the natural and exact 
sciences. In 1637, he produced his celebrated discourse 
on the “Method of Reasoning, and of Investigating 
Scientific Truth and, in 1641, he published his “Medi- 
tationes de Prima Philosophia,” a work of the grandest 
metaphysical research and speculation, indoctrinating 
a new system of philosophy named after its author, 
“Cartesianism.” In 1644, appeared his theory of the 
world as expounded in the “Principia Philosophise.” 
In 1647, the French Government gave him a pension 
of 3,000 livres. In 1649, he proceeded to Sweden 
upon the invitation of Queen Christina, and died there 
the following year. 

De Soto, Hernando ( da-sd'-to ), a Spanish explorer; 
born about 1500, followed the path of Cortez and Pizarro, 
under the latter of whom he served in Peru. In 1539, 
he conducted an expedition from Florida, which resulted 
in the discovery of the Mississippi. Died in Louisiana 
in 1542. « 

Dewar, Sir James, F. R. S., Fullerian professor of 
chemistry, Royal Institution, London; was born in 
Kincardine, September 20, 1842; educated at Dollar 
Academy and Edinburgh University; M. A. and Hon. 
LL. D., Glasgow, St. Andrews, Aberdeen, and Edin¬ 
burgh; D. Sc., Oxford, Victoria, and Dublin. With 
Sir Frederick Abel he invented cordite, and he has dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his researches into the properties 
of matter at low temperatures, and into the nature 
and properties of atmospheric air. He was the first to 
liquefy and solidify hydrogen. Received French Acad¬ 
emy’s Lavoisier gold medal in 1894, and Matteucci 
medal of Italian Society of Science in 1906; elected 
foreign member of National Academy of Sciences, Wash¬ 
ington, in 1907, and corresponding member of Academy 
of Sciences in same year. Knighted, June 24, 1904. 

Dewey, George, admiral in United States Navy; 
born in Montpelier, Vt., December 26, 1837; appointed 
to Naval Academy, September 23, 1854; graduated in 
1858, as passed midshipman; LL. D., University of 
Pennsylvania, Princeton University, 1898. Attached to 
steam frigate “.Wabash,” Mediterranean squadron, until 
1861; then to steam sloop “Mississippi” of West Gulf 
squadron; commissioned lieutenant, April 19, 1861; 
in Farragut’s squadron which forced the passage of 
Fort St. Philip and Fort Jackson, April, 1862, and par¬ 
ticipated in the attack on Fort St. Philip and the sub¬ 
sequent fights with gunboats and ironclads, which gave 
Farragut possession of New Orleans. In the smoke of 
the battle of Port Hudson, the “Mississippi” lost her 
bearings and ran ashore under the guns of the land 
batteries, and the officers and men took to the boats 
after setting the vessel on fire. Was afterward on sev¬ 
eral vessels in North Atlantic blockading squadron, 
then in European squadron, and later on various duties 
and at different stations, being promoted to commander, 
April, 1872; captain, September, 1884; commodore, 
February 9, 1896. In January, 1898, assumed command 
of Asiatic squadron. On May 1, 1898, in Manila Bay. 
he commanded in the greatest naval battle since Trafal¬ 
gar, completely annihilating the Spanish Asiatic squad¬ 
ron under Admiral Montojo, destroying eleven and 
capturing all other vessels and all the land batteries, 
without the loss of a man on the American side. Imme¬ 
diately upon receipt of official news of victory he was 
promoted to rear admiral, and thanked by resolution of 
Congress; member of United States Philippine Commis¬ 
sion, 1899; promoted to admiral, March 2, 1899. 

De Witt, John, a Dutch statesman; was born in 
1625, at Dort, in Holland. A work, entitled the “Ele¬ 
ments of Curved Lines,” which he produced at the age 
of 23, was greatly admired. In 1650, he was chosen 
pensionary of Dort, and subsequently attained the 
higher dignity of pensionary of Holland. In 1654, he 
promoted a perpetual edict for abolishing the office of 
Stadtholder, and was publicly thanked for his patriotic 
services. At a later period, Holland being invaded by 
the French, popular rage was unjustly directed against 
him, and he, with his brother Cornelius, were assassi¬ 
nated with great cruelty by the populace, in 1672. 

Diaz, Porfirio, president of Republic of Mexico, 
1877-1911, was born at Oaxaca, September 15, 1830. 
Took part in resistance to French invasion, 1863; com¬ 
mander of the Army of the East, 1867; headed an 
insurrection against the government, 1875; president, 
1877-80; after a lapse of one term, re-elected, 1884, hold¬ 
ing office continuously to 1911. 

Dickens, Charles, was born in 1812, in Landport, 
Portsmouth, where his father held a small appointment 
in the navy pay-office; but when this position was lost 
the family came to London and Dickens’s youth was 
spent in constant penury and want. For some time he 


was employed in a blacking factory, but at 12 years of 
age he was again sent to school, and after three years’ 
tuition he entered an attorney’s office. Then he became 
a shorthand writer, and at 19 obtained the position of 
parliamentary reporter. During the years 1831 to 1836 
he represented various papers — latterly the “Morning 
Chronicle”—and in 1836 his “.Sketches by Boz ” were 
published in a collected form. A publishing firm wish¬ 
ing to produce an illustrated periodical, Dickens under¬ 
took the letterpress, and produced the “ Pickwick Papers.” 
At the same time he was writing “.Oliver Twist.” In 
1842, he visited America, and wrote on his return the 
“ American Notes.” In 1843 he began to publish “Mar¬ 
tin Chuzzlewit,” which at first fell rather flat, and, in 
order to economize, Dickens went to live at Genoa. 
When the “Daily News” was started Dickens was ap¬ 
pointed editor, but he retired very soon, and busied 
himself in further novel-writing— “ Dombey and Son,” 
“David Copperfield,” “Bleak House,” and “.Little 
Dorrit,” all being produced between 1846 and 1855. 
In 1850 he started the periodical “Household Words,” 
afterwards changed to “.All the Year Round.” In 1858, 
he separated from his wife. In this year he first ap¬ 
peared as a public reader of his own works, and from 
1866 to 1870 he was almost continuously employed in 
this task, his success being unexampled. In 1867, he 
made a lecturing tour in America, where he was received 
with great enthusiasm, despite his unpalatable “Amer¬ 
ican Notes.” The strain proved too great for his constitu¬ 
tion, and he died suddenly at Gadshill in 1870. 

Dickinson, Jacob M., lawyer, cabinet officer; born 
Columbus, Miss., 1851; graduate University of Nash¬ 
ville, 1871, A. M,. 1872; studied law at Columbia Univer¬ 
sity and Leipzig. Admitted to bar, 1874; several times 
special judge Supreme Court of Tennessee; assistant 
attorney-general United States, 1895-97; general coun¬ 
sel of Illinois Central R. R., 1901-09; counsel for United 
States before Alaskan Boundary tribunal, 1903; president 
American Bar Association, 1907-08; secretary of war, 
1909-11. 

Dielman, Frederick, artist; born in Hanover, Ger¬ 
many, December 25, 1847; came to United States in 
childhood; graduate of Calvert College; was topographer 
and draughtsman in United States engineering depart¬ 
ment, 1866-72; studied art under Diez at Royal Acad¬ 
emy, Munich; opened studio in New York, 1876; Na¬ 
tional Academician since 1883; president National 
Academy of Design, 1889-1909; member Art Commis¬ 
sion, New York, 1901-03; etc. Illustrator and figure 
painter; designer of mosaic panels “Law” and “His¬ 
tory” in new Congressional Library, and of large mosaic, 
“Thrift,” Albany Savings Bank, and the decorations 
in new building of the Washington “Evening Star”; 
professor descriptive geometry and drawing, college 
city of New York, since 1903. 

Dill, James Brooks, lawyer, capitalist; born in 
Spencerport, N. Y., July 25,1854; graduate of Yale, 1876, 
New York University Law School, 1878; admitted to 
bar, 1878; Philadelphia specialty, corporation law. 
Author: “Business Corporations,” “Dill on Corpora¬ 
tions,” “Banking and Trust Company Laws of New 
Jersey.” Died, 1910. 

Dillon, John, M. P., born in 1851; was educated at 
the Catholic University of Dublin. He assisted Parnell 
and Michael Davitt in founding the Land League in 
America, and in 1880, was elected member of parliament 
for County Tipperary (a position his father, John Blake 
Dillon, had previously held). In May, 1881, he was 
arrested, but in a few months was liberated on the ground 
of ill-health, and for a time withdrew from the political 
arena, not sympathizing with Parnell’s attitude towards 
the land act. In 1885 he again took his seat in parlia¬ 
ment as member for East Mayo, and in 1886, in conse¬ 
quence of his supporting the “Plan of Campaign,” was 
indicted for conspiracy, and bound over to keep the 
peace. Under Lord Salisbury’s administration of 1886, 
he took one of the most prominent parts in opposition 
to the government as a leader of the Irish party, and 
was twice convicted under the Irish crimes act. After 
enduring an imprisonment of three months, he went to 
Australia to collect funds for the Irish party. Returning, 
he was again, with O’Brien, convicted under the crimes 
act, but escaped from Ireland in a yacht, and came to 
America to collect funds. During his absence Parnell’s 
leadership was repudiated by the larger section of the 
Irish party, and Dillon went to France to endeavor to 
heal the breach. The negotiations having proved fruit¬ 
less, he returned to England, and was at once arrested 
and imprisoned under the sentence passed upon him 
before his tour in America. 

Diogenes ( di-d'-gen-es ), a philosopher of the school 
of Cynics; was born in Asia Minor. Becoming a citizen 
of Athens, he made himself notorious by his abnegation 



428 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of all social laws and customs, lived upon alms, and took 
up his abode in a tub. Of his cynicism many well- 
known anecdotes are related. Died at Corinth, at the 
age of 90, 323 B. C. 

Disraeli ( dXz-ral'e ), Benjamin, an English states¬ 
man and author, was born 1804. He was of Jewish de¬ 
scent, and for years was the leader of the conservative 
party in the Commons, holding the office of prime 
minister in 1868-70, and 1874-80. In 1876 he was 
created Earl of Beaconsfield. Died, 1881. 

Dixon, Thomas, Jr., lecturer and author; born in 
Shelby, N. C., January 11, 1864; graduate of Wake 
Forest College, N. C., 1883, A. M., 1883; graduate of 
Greensboro, N. C., law school, 1886; admitted to bar all 
courts. North Carolina and United States district, and 
Supreme Courts, 1886; scholarship, history and politics, 
Johns Hopkins University, 1883-84; member North 
Carolina Legislature, 1885-86; resigned to enter Baptist 
ministry, October, 1886; pastor Raleigh, N. C., 1887, 
Boston, 1888-89, New York, 1889-99; popular lyceum 
lecturer, 1889-1903. Author: “The Leopard’s Spots,” 
“The One Woman,” “The Clansman,” “The Life Worth 
Living.” 

Dollinger, Johan Joseph Ignaz, an eminent Ger¬ 
man theologian; was born 1799. He was leader of the 
German Catholics who refused to accept the doctrine 
of the pope’s infallibility, and which afterwards founded 
the Old Catholic sect. Died, 1890. 

Dolliver, Jonathan Prentiss, United States senator, 
lawyer; born near Kingwood, Preston County, W. Va., 
February 6, 1858; graduated at West Virginia Univer¬ 
sity, 1875; admitted to bar, 1878; established practice 
in Iowa; member 51st, 52d, 53d, 54th, 55th, and 56th 
Congresses, tenth Iowa district; appointed United States 
senator to succeed late Hon. J. H. Gear, August 23,1900; 
elected 1902, and reelected, 1907. He earned a high 
reputation as an orator and lecturer. Died, 1910. 

Dore, Paul Gustave, French painter and book 
illustrator; was born in Strasburg, in 1833, and edu¬ 
cated at a Parisian lycee. He became known by his 
illustrations of “Rabelais” and “Don Quixote,” and for 
some years was a constant contributor to the “Journal 
pour Rire.” At the time of the Crimean War he pro¬ 
duced his “Alma” and “Inkermann”; in 1861, he 
published the first of his famous illustrations to Dante’s 
“Divine Comedy”; and next his illustrations to the 
"Bible,” “Paradise Lost,” “The Ancient Mariner,” and 
“The Idylls of the King.” These works secured for him 
a greater reputation in England than was accorded to 
him in his native country. He afterwards devoted him¬ 
self to the production of large pictures on religious sub¬ 
jects, such as “The Dream of Pilate’s Wife,” “The Entry 
into Jerusalem,” and “Ecce Homo.” Died, 1883. 

Douglas, Stephen Arnold, an American statesman, 
was born at Brandon, Vermont, in 1813. His early 
youth was one of poverty; but he managed to spend 
three years at the Canandaigua Academy, having the 
study of law in view. In 1833, he went West and set¬ 
tled in Jacksonville, Ill., where he entered on the practice 
of law, and was chosen attorney-general of the State. 
He soon after was elected to the legislature, and in 1840 
became secretary of state for Illinois. He was judge 
of the Illinois supreme court from 1841 to 1843, when 
he resigned, and was chosen to Congress as a Democrat 
where he at once became recognized as one of the ablest 
men of his party. He was opposed to slavery, was 
strongly opposed to the celebrated Wilmot Proviso, and 
argued in favor of States rights. Douglas was elected 
to the Senate in 1847, and it was as a member of the 
Senate that he introduced, in 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska 
bill, which provided that their own citizens should deter¬ 
mine whether these territories should become free or slave 
States. In 1860, the Democratic party split into two 
divisions, one of which nominated Mr. Douglas for presi¬ 
dent, and the other John C. Breckenridge. The ensuing 
election resulted in favor of Mr. Lincoln. Mr. Douglas 
was strongly opposed to secession, and delivered several 
addresses on the subject after the outbreak of the Civil 
War. He died at Chicago, Ill., June 3, 1861. 

Douglas, William Lewis, ex-governor, manufacturer; 
born in Plymouth, Mass., August 22, 1845; educated at 
brief irregular periods in public schools of Massachusetts; 
when 5 years old lost father by death; at age of 7 went 
to work for an uncle, who set him to pegging shoes, and 
except for a brief return to his mother when 11 years 
old, worked for uncle eight years; worked in cotton mill 
at Plymouth at 15, and later in factory at Chiltonville, 
Mass.; afterward went to Hopkinton and South Brain¬ 
tree, Mass., where he learned bootmaking; at Brockton, 
1876, began with small shop, from which he has built 
up a business with combined capacity of over 20,000 
pairs of shoes daily, and owns seventy-eight retail shoe 
Btores in large cities selling the “Douglas” shoe. 


Member Massachusetts House of Representatives, 
1884-85, and of Massachusetts Senate, 1887; mayor 
of Brockton, 1890 ; elected, November, 1904, governor 
of Massachusetts. Delegate to Democratic National 
Conventions, 1884, 1892, 1896, delegate-at-large, 1904. 

Douglass, Frederick, American orator; was born 
in 1817, a mulatto slave in Maryland, but he escaped 
as a young man, and in 1841 began to deliver lec¬ 
tures against slavery, which attracted much attention. 
In 1845-47, he made a very successful lecturing tour 
in England, and, returning to America, he became a 
newspaper editor. From 1876 to 1881 he was United 
States marshal for the district of Columbia. Died, 
1895. 

Doyle, Sir A. Conan, the grandson of John Doyle, 
the famous political caricaturist “H. B.,” was born in 
Edinburgh in 1859, and educated at Stonyhurst and in 
Germany. In 1876, he commenced to study medicine 
at the Edinburgh University, and remained there for 
five years. From 1882 till 1890, he practiced his pro¬ 
fession at Southsea, writing all the while various'short 
stories, some of which have been since published under 
the title of “The Captain of the Polestar.” After “A 
Study in Scarlet,” “Micah Clarke,” and “The Sign of 
Four,” came “The White Company,” which led to the 
final abandonment of medicine for literature. “The 
Adventures of Sherlock Holmes” and “The Memoirs of 
Sherlock Holmes ” formed a brilliant series of detective 
stories. In 1894, he wrote a short play, “A Story of 
Waterloo,” successfully produced by Sir Henry Irving. 
“The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard” and “Rodney 
Stone,” in 1896, "Uncle Bernac ” in 1897, “The Tragedy 
of the Korosko,” a volume of poems (“Songs of Action ”) 
in 1898, “A Duet” in 1899, “The Hound of the Basker- 
villes ” in 1902, “The Adventures of Gerard” in 1903, 
“Return of Sherlock Holmes” in 1904, “Sir Nigel” in 
1906, and “Through the Magic Door” in 1907. He 
volunteered for service in the Transvaal War, and, in 
1900, gave his medical services for some months in the 
hospitals there, afterwards publishing a history of the 
war, entitled “The Great Boer War.” Knighted, June 
26, 1902. 

Draco ( dra'Jco ) was the first lawgiver of Athens. 
His code was published in 621 B. C. The laws were 
severe, and popularly said to have been written in blood. 

Drake, Francis, Sir, a distinguished English naval 
commander, was born in 1540. He circumnavigated 
the globe under a commission against the Spaniards, 
destroying many vessels and capturing immense booty 
in Spanish America. In 1587, he commanded the fleet 
which destroyed over 100 ships at Cadiz, breaking up 
a contemplated invasion of England. He was made 
vice-admiral, and commanded in the battle, in 1588, 
which destroyed the Spanish Armada. Died, 1596. 

Draper, John William ( dra'pur ), an American 
chemist, physiologist, and author, was born in England, 
in 1811. He took his degree of M. D. at the University 
of Pennsylvania in 1836; became successively professor 
of natural sciences in Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia, 
and, in 1841, professor of chemistry in New York Uni¬ 
versity, and, in 1850, of physiology. Of his numerous 
works we may mention “Human Physiology, Statical 
and Dynamical; or the Conditions and Course of the 
Life of Man,” in 1856; and a “History of the American 
Civil War,” in 1867-70. Died, 1882. 

Dry den, John ( drl'dn ), an English poet; was born 
in 1631. After graduating at Cambridge, he entered 
upon a literary career, and succeeded Sir William Dav- 
enant as poet-laureate in 1670. His “Essay on Dra¬ 
matic Poesy,” according to Dr. Johnson, created the 
school of English criticism. Dryden, by his dramas 
and political satires,— especially his “Absalom and 
Achitophel” (1681) — stands at the head of English 
poets of the second rank, and his works have elicited 
high eulogy from such judges as Pope, Scott, Macaulay, 
and Brougham. Died, 1700. 

Dumas, Alexandre, the Elder, a celebrated French 
author, born in Villers-Cotterets, 1802, son of General Du¬ 
mas, a Creole; lost his father at four, and led for a time a 
miscellaneous life, till, driven by poverty, he went to 
Paris to seek his fortune; there he soon made his mark, 
and became by-and-by the most popular dramatist and 
romancer of his time; his romances are numerous, 
and he reached the climax of his fame by the production 
of “ Monte Cristo ” in 1844, followed soon after by the 
“Three Musketeers” ; he was unhappy in his marriage, 
and with his wife, as afterwards, he squandered his 
fortune in reckless extravagance; before the end it was 
all spent, and he died at Dieppe, 1870, broken in health 
and impaired in intellect, ministered to by his son and 
daughter. 

Dumas, Alexandre, born in 1824; son of the pre¬ 
ceding, and, like him, a novelist and dramatist, accom- 



BIOGRAPHY 


429 


panied his father in a voyage to the Mediterranean in 
1846, and, in 1848, produced the work which made hia 
reputation — “La Dame aux Camelias,” a novel which 
drew the encomium of his own father. Subsequently 
his work was chiefly dramatic, and included such plays 
as the “Demi-Monde,” “La Princesse Georges,” “Mon¬ 
sieur Alphonse,” and “Denise.” In 1874, he was ad¬ 
mitted as a member to the French Academy. Died, 1895. 

Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson, 
artist and draughtsman; born in Paris in 1834, but 
educated in London, Belgium, and the Netherlands. 
For many years a valuable contributor to “Punch,” 
at the same time illustrating many other books and 
magazines. His mode of satirizing the extravagances 
of the so-called “Aesthetic” school and other society 
foibles have procured for him a high reputation. In 
1891, he published a novel, “Peter Ibbetson,” followed 
by “Trilby.” Died, 1896. 

Dunne, Finley Peter, journalist, author; born in 
Chicago, July 10, 1867; educated in Chicago public 
schools; entered newspaper life as reporter in 1885; 
served on various papers; on editorial staff of “Chicago 
Evening Post” and “Times-Herald,” 1892-97; editor 
of “Chicago Journal,” 1897-1900. Author: “Mr. 
Dooley in Peace and in War,” “Mr. Dooley in the 
Hearts of His Countrymen,” “Mr. Dooley’s Philosophy,” 
“.Mr. Dooley’s Opinions,” “ Observations by Mr. Dooley.” 

Duns Scotus, born in 1265; divine and writer. 
Residing in Paris, he occupied there the post of head 
of the theological schools, and was known as the “Subtle 
Doctor.” He was the first to promulgate the doctrine 
of the Immaculate Conception. At one time a follower 
of Thomas Aquinas, he later founded a school of his own 
in antagonism to the system of Aquinas. Died, 1308. 

Duse, Eleonora, Italian actress of the first rank, 
was born in Yigevano, October 3, 1861. She appeared 
about 1880, on the Italian, chiefly Roman, stage, as 
leading lady in the plays of Dumas and Sardou, but 
afterwards played parts of greater depth. She earned 
golden opinions by her combined force and gracefulness; 
in 1892, appeared at Vienna and Berlin; in 1893, at 
New York, and her recent visits to England have, by 
a unanimous accord, reaffirmed her triumphs. Al¬ 
though she appears chiefly in grave parts (“Magda,” 
“Nora,” “Adrienne Lecouvreur ”), her versatility has 
also allowed her to please in the lighter vein of Dumas’s 
“ Francillon,” and as the hostess in Goldoni’s “Locan- 
diera.” More recently she has produced d’Annunzio’s 
“Gioconda” and “Francesca da Rimini.” 

Dwight, Timothy, born in 1752; American divine, 
served as army chaplain in the Continental army, and, 
after working on a farm, was ordained a minister. In 
1795, he became president of Yale College. He wrote 
“The Conquest of Canaan,” an epic poem, “.Theology 
Explained and Defended,” etc. Died, 1817. 

Eads, James Buchanan, born in 1820; American 
engineer, constructed the steel bridge over the Missis¬ 
sippi at St. Louis (completed, 1874); partly carried out 
a plan of deepening the Mississippi by means of jetties, 
and was engaged at his death in planning a ship-canal 
over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Died, 1887. 

Early, Jubal A., born in 1816; American general 
and lawyer, served in the Mexican War, and on the 
Confederate side in the American Civil War, holding 
Fredericksburg in 1863 and commanding a division at 
Gettysburg. He published “Memoirs of the Last Year 
of the War.” Died, 1894. 

Eddy, Mary Baker Glover, founder of Christian 
Science, born in Bow, N. H., 1821; received her educa¬ 
tion in public schools, in an academy, and under private 
tutors. She was connected with the Congregational 
Church until 1866, when she discovered the principles of 
Christian Science. In 1867 she began to teach them, 
and in 1879 founded the Church of Christ (Christian 
Scientist) in Boston, Mass. In 1881 she was ordained 
to the ministry; in the same year established the Mas¬ 
sachusetts Metaphysical College in Boston; and in 1883 
started the “Christian Science Journal.” Author of 
“Science and Health, With Key to the Scriptures” (the 
Christian Science text-book); “Unity of Good”; “No 
and Yes”; “Rudimental Divine Science”; “Manual of 
the Mother Church,” and other works on related subjects. 
Mrs. Eddy left her entire fortune to the Christian Science 
Church, specifying that $100,000 be used for the benefit 
of indigent, educated, well-qualified persons who desire 
to enter the Christian Science work, while the residue of 
her fortune is to be used by the church for furthering 
the Christian Science movement. Died, 1910. 

Edison, Thomas Alva, electrician; was born at 
Milan, O., February 11, 1847; received some instruction 
from his mother (Ph. D., Union, 1878); at 12 years of 
age, became newsboy on Grand Trunk Railway; later 
learned telegraphy; worked as operator at various 


places in United States and Canada; invented many 
telegraphic appliances, including automatic repeater, 
quadruplex telegraph, printing telegraph, etc. Estab¬ 
lished workshop at Newark, N. J., removing to Menlo 
Park, N. J., 1876, and later to West Orange, N. J. 
Invented machines for quadruplex and sextuplex tele¬ 
graphic transmission; the carbon telegraph transmitter; 
the microtasimeter for detection of small changes in 
temperature; the megaphone, to magnify sound; the 
phonograph; the aerophone; the incandescent lamp 
and light system; the kinetoscope; also scores of other 
inventions. Was made chevalier, officer, and after¬ 
ward commander, of Legion of Honor, by French 
Government; appointed, 1903, honorary chief consult¬ 
ing engineer, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis. 
He invented the talking moving picture machine, 1912. 

Edward, the name of ten kings of England. Of 
them, three belong to the Anglo-Saxon line. Edward I., 
“the Elder,” son and successor of Alfred the Great, 
crowned 901, died 925. Edward II., “the Martyr,” 
great-grandson of the former, succeeded his father Ed¬ 
gar, 975, and was assassinated by direction of his step¬ 
mother Elfrida, 979. Edward III., “the Confessor,” 
who succeeded his half-brother Edmund Ironsides, 1042, 
died 1066. In the Plantagenet line there were five of 
the name. Edward I., “Longshanks,” who succeeded 
his father, Henry III., 1272, died in 1307. Edward II., 
his son, born in Wales, was the first to assume the title 
of Prince of Wales, since bestowed upon the heir to the 
throne. He succeeded his father, 1307, and was mur¬ 
dered by Roger de Mortimer, paramour of his queen, 
Isabella of France, 1327. Edward III., his son and 
successor, born in 1312, died in 1377. Edward IV., son 
of Richard, Duke of York, great-great-grandson of Ed¬ 
ward III., was born in Rouen, France, 1441, and claimed 
the throne in right of his mother and as the head of the 
house of York, in opposition to Henry VI., king de jure, 
representing the house of Lancaster. The long and 
bloody civil “Wars of the Roses ” ensued, Edward finally 
vanquishing his enemies. Died in 1483. Edward V., 
his son and successor, born 1470, was murdered along 
with his younger brother in the Tower of London, 1483, 
by order of their uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, 
afterwards Richard III. In the Tudor line there was 
but one of the name — Edward VI., only son of Henry 
VIII. by Jane Seymour, born in 1537. He succeeded 
his father, 1547, and died in 1553. Edward VII., son of 
Victoria and Albert Edward, born 1841, died 1910. 

Edward “the Confessor” was born about 1004. 
son of Ethelred the Unready and Emma, daughter of 
Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy; was brought 
up at the Norman court, and after his accession, on the 
death of Hardicanute, in 1042, showed a preference for 
Norman customs and ideas. Outrages were committed 
with impunity by his Norman favorites, while the English 
earls, Leofric of Mercia and Godwine of Wessex, were 
engaged in private quarrels. At last, in 1052, Godwine, 
who had been outlawed, rose in rebellion, installed 
Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, in place of Robert of 
Jumieges, who had fled with the other Normans, and 
during the rest of the reign all real power was in the hands 
of the House of Godwine. Edward codified the custo¬ 
mary law of the Anglo-Saxons, which thus became known 
as the “laws of King Edward.” Died 1066. 

Edward I.? King of England, born 1239, succeeded 
his father, Henry III., in 1272. Imbued with high 
notions of feudal sovereignty, he sought to establish 
his supremacy throughout the island of Britain. His 
expeditions against Llewellyn-ap-Gruffydd, Prince of 
Wales (1282), and his brother, David (1283), resulted 
in the reduction of the principality, the government of 
which he settled by the statute of" Wales (1284). The 
struggle between John Baliol and Robert Bruce for the 
throne of Scotland gave him a pretext for interfering 
in that country (1290). After vainly endeavoring to 
maintain Baliol as his vassal, he set to work to conquer 
Scotland for himself, sending the Earl of Warrenne 
thither as viceroy, but was forced to contend with a 
succession of claimants, and died near Carlisle, whilst 
marching against Robert Bruce. A man of strictly 
legal, but somewhat narrow mind, he secured order 
and good government by the Statutes of Winchester 
and Westminster and other enactments, and carried on 
Simon de Montfort’s work of molding the English 
Parliament (1295), though, at the same time, somewhat 
inclined to strain the royal prerogative. His personal 
character was extremely high. Died, 1307. 

Edward VII., King of Great Britain and Ireland, 
Emperor of India, born November 9, 1841. He studied 
at Edinburgh, and afterwards attended the public lec¬ 
tures at Oxford and Cambridge. In the summer of 
1860 he paid a visit to the United States and Canada. 
Two years later he traveled in the East and visited 



430 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Jerusalem. On March 10, 1863, he married Princess 
Alexandra of Denmark, the surviving issue being one 
son and three daughters. Late in 1871, he suffered 
from a dangerous attack of typhoid fever, and his 
recovery in February, 1872, was celebrated by a national 
thanksgiving festival. Between November, 1875, and 
March, 1876, the prince was engaged in a grand tour of 
India. He took great interest in exhibitions and insti¬ 
tutions, as the Colonial and Indian Exhibitions, the Royal 
College of Music, and Imperial Institute. Ascended 
throne, January 22, 1901. Died, 1910. 

Edwards, Jonathan, was born at East Windsor, 
Connecticut, October 5, 1703. He was a celebrated 
metaphysician and divine, chiefly remembered as the 
author of a treatise on “The Freedom of the Will.” 
He was the author, however, of several other treatises, 
especially of one on the “Religious Affections,” and of 
a “.History of Redemption,” which have been many 
times republished. At the time of his death he had 
just been appointed to the presidency of Princeton 
College, New Jersey. As a preacher, Edwards was 
especially famous; and, according to some authorities, 
he ranks by his writings, in the Calvinistic school of 
theology, amongst the greatest luminaries of the Chris¬ 
tian Church. Died, 1758. 

Egan, Maurice Francis, educator, author, diplo¬ 
mat; born in Philadelphia, May 24, 1852; graduated 
at La Salle College; entered Georgetown, D. C., College, 
1875 (A. M., LL. D.); afterward sub-editor, consecu¬ 
tively, of McGee’s “Illustrated Weekly,” “Catholic Re¬ 
view,” and (editor) “Freeman’s Journal”; professor of 
English literature, University of Notre Dame, Ind.; 
J. U. D., Ottawa University, 1891. Author: “A Garden 
of Roses,” “Stories of Duty,” “The Life Around Us,” 
“The Theater and Christian Parents.” Translator (for 
Mr. Augustin Daly), of “Coppee’s Pater,” “Modern 
Novelists,” “ Lectures on English Literature,” “A Gentle¬ 
man,” “Jack Chumleigh,” “Jack Chumleigh at Boarding 
School,” “A Primer of English Literature,” “The Dis¬ 
appearance of John Longworthy,” “A Marriage of Rea¬ 
son,” “The Success of Patrick Desmond,” “The Flower 
of the Flock,” “Preludes” (poems); “Songs and Son¬ 
nets,” and other poems; “The Vocation of Edward Con¬ 
way,” “The Chatelaine of the Roses,” “Jasper Thorne,” 
“In a Brazilian Forest,” “The Leopard of Lancianus,” 
“Studies in Literature,” “The Watson Girls,” “Belinda,” 
“Belinda’s Cousins,” “The Sexton Maginnis Stories.” 
One of the editors of “The World’s Best Literature,” 
“Encyclopedia of Irish Literature,” etc. In 1907, ap¬ 
pointed United States minister to Denmark. 

Egmont, Lamoral, Count, Prince de Gavre, Flem¬ 
ish noble, was born in 1522; accompanied Charles V. 
on his expedition to Africa (1541), and distinguished 
himself against the French in the battles of St. Quentin 
and Gravelines. During the regency of the Duchess of 
Parma he sought to mediate between her and the people 
of the Netherlands. Becoming obnoxious to Philip II., 
owing to his connection with the Prince of Orange, he 
was seized and executed at Brussels by the Duke of 
Alva. Died, 1568. w ^ 

Eiffel, Gustave ( ef-fel ), an eminent French engi¬ 
neer, born at Dijon, 1832; early obtained a reputation 
for bridge construction; designed the great Garabit 
viaduct, and also the enormous locks for the Panama 
canal; his most noted work is the gigantic iron tower 
which bears his name; in 1893 became involved in the 
Panama scandals, and was fined, and sentenced to two 
years’ imprisonment. 

Eldon, John Scott, Earl of, was born, 1751, son of 
a Newcastle coalfitter; after a successful career at 
Oxford, entered the Middle Temple (1773), and was 
called to the bar (1776); entered parliament as a sup¬ 
porter of Pitt (1783); became solicitor-general (1788), 
and as attorney-general (1793) prosecuted Thelwall, 
Horne Tooke, and other revolutionary agitators. He 
became chief justice of the Common Pleas in 1799, 
and was lord chancellor from 1801 to 1806, and 1807 
to 1827. In politics he was an unbending Tory, oppos¬ 
ing all improvements in the law or constitution. Died, 
1838.. 

Eliot, Charles William, born in Boston, Mass., 
March 20, 1834; graduated at Harvard in 1853. He 
taught mathematics and chemistry at Harvard, and in 
1863 he went to Europe for study of chemistry and to 
investigate the educational institutions of that conti¬ 
nent. While at Vienna was chosen in 1865 professor 
of analytical chemistry in Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, which post he filled for a period of four 
years and again went to Europe and spent fourteen 
months in further investigation, mainly in France. In 
1869, Dr. Eliot succeeded Dr. Thomas Hill as president 
of Harvard College, and continued at its head until 
1909. During his administration many notable changes 


in the government of the college occurred, its scope 
was broadened and there was a great increase in the 
number of. its professors and students, while its wealth 
by gifts and benefactions was greatly increased, so 
that now it more than successfully competes with 
the great European universities in its curriculum. 
Mr. Eliot was given the degree of LL. D. by Williams 
and Princeton colleges in 1869, and by Yale in 1870, and 
is an honored member of many scientific and literary 
bodies. Besides numerous addresses, chemical memoirs, 
and technical investigations, he published in conjunction 
with Prof. F. H. Storer a “Manual of Inorganic Chem¬ 
istry,” and a “Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analy¬ 
sis.” More recently he published “American Contribu¬ 
tions to Civilization,” “Educational Reform,” and 
“Charles Eliot: Landscape Architect.” 

Eliot, George, the nom de plume of Marian Evans, 
the great English novelist. She was born in Warwick¬ 
shire, England, November 22, 1819. She received a 
superior education, and became familiar with Latin, 
German, and the higher mathematics. In 1844-46 she 
translated Strauss’s “Leben Jesu,” and later Spinoza’s 
“Ethics,” and other works. In 1851 she became assist¬ 
ant editor of the “.Westminster Review.” At this time 
she first met George Henry Lewes, and with him she 
formed a connection, only terminated by his death in 
1878. Lewes had been married many years, but his 
wife proved unfaithful. He condoned her offense by 
taking her back to his home, and, when she left him 
finally, he was unable, by reason of the condonation, to 
secure a divorce under the law of England. Under 
these circumstances, and after due deliberation, Lewes 
and Miss Evans decided to live together. 

In 1857, the first of the “Scenes of Clerical Life” 
appeared in “Blackwood,” and in 1858 “Adam Bede” 
was published. This magnificent piece of work at once 
placed its author in the front rank of living writers. 
It was followed in succession by “The Mill on the Floss,” 
“Silas Marner,” “Romola,” and “Felix Holt,” the latter 
appearing in 1866. George Eliot published her first 
poem, “The Spanish Gypsy,” but neither this nor 
others which followed proved as successful as her prose 
writings. “ Middlemarch,” by many considered as even 
superior to “Adam Bede,” was issued in 1871-72, and 
about five years later appeared “Daniel Deronda,” a 
much inferior work. Mr. Lewes died in November, 1878, 
and Miss Evans married on May 6, 1880, a stockbroker, 
named John Cross, a man much younger than herself. 
Died, 1880. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, daughter of Henry 
VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was born 1533. Her education 
was intrusted to the most learned men of the age, and 
she became an accomplished scholar. During the reign 
of her sister Mary she was imprisoned for a time in the 
Tower. On her accession (1558), Mary’s enactments in 
favor of Romanism were abrogated; by the Act of 
Supremacy the sovereign again became head of the 
Church, and a form of worship was established which-, it 
was hoped, would conciliate moderate men of all parties. 
At first the spirit of discontent dared not show itself 
amidst the general satisfaction. But after the escape of 
Mary Stuart into England (1568), her presence in the 
country was a constant source of disquiet. She was the 
heir to the throne, and as Elizabeth persistently refused 
to marry, it seemed probable that she would be her 
successor. The disaffected Papists were further encour¬ 
aged by the sentence of excommunication pronounced 
against Elizabeth by the Pope, and by the triumph of 
their cause abroad; Jesuits from Douay traversed the 
country in disguise, several plots were formed, and it 
became necessary to put the penal enactments against 
Recusants more stringently in force. The Protestantism 
of the country was acutely aroused, and a strong party 
in the council urged the queen to put herself forward as 
the champion of the Reformed faith on the Continent. 
But Elizabeth chose rather to encourage a feeling of 
independence and energy at home than to involve 
England in foreign complications; the prudence and 
atriotism of her policy were fully proved by the after 
istory of her reign. The growing feeling of nationality 
proved stronger than the lingering attachment to the 
old faith, especially after the hopes of the Roman 
Catholics had been dashed by the execution of Mary 
(1587), and when Philip of Spain sent his long-pro¬ 
jected expedition against England (1588) Papists as 
well as Protestants came zealously forward in defense 
of the realm. During the latter part of the reign, the 
disturbances created by the Puritans foreshadowed the 
troubles of the opening century. Died, 1603. 

Elizabeth, St., of Hungary, was born. 1207, a 
daughter of Andrew II., King of Hungary, and the wife 
of Louis IV., Landgrave of Thuringia. Left a widow 
after six years of marriage, and when she was only 




BIOGRAPHY 


431 


twenty years of age, she was deprived of her regency 
by her husband’s brother Henry, and lived for some 
time in great poverty. Ultimately, the regency was 
once more offered to her, and her son Hermann was 
declared heir to the throne; but she preferred hence¬ 
forth to live in retirement at Marburg, and to devote 
herself to works of piety under the direction of her con¬ 
fessor Conrad. Died, 1231. 

Elliott, Maxine, actress; born in Rockland, Me., 1873; 
made debut with E. S. Willard in small parts; soon after 
played leading parts in Rose Coghlan’s company; was 
under Augustin Daly’s management two seasons; married 
Nat. C. Goodwin, 1898, with whom she played as co-star 
in “Nathan Hale”; divorced, 1908; owner and manager 
of Maxine Elliott’s Theater, New York. 

Ellsworth, Oliver, jurist, was born in Windsor, 
Conn., April 29, 1745. He became prominent in State 
affairs and in the Continental Congress, and was a mem¬ 
ber of the federal convention of 1787, which prepared 
the constitution of the United States. It was on his 
motion that the words “National government” in that 
organic act were replaced by the definition “Govern¬ 
ment of the United States.” He became United States 
senator from Connecticut in 1789, and was chairman of 
the committee which organized the federal judicial sys¬ 
tem. He led the Federalist party in the Senate, and 
was an earnest advocate of Jay’s treaty with England in 
1794. From 1796 to 1800 he was chief justice of the 
United States Supreme Court, and in 1800 negotiated, 
with Patrick Henry and Governor Davie, a treaty with 
France. He afterward served on the governor’s council 
of Connecticut, and in May, 1807, became chief justice 
of the State Supreme Court. Died, 1807. 

Emanuel, Filibert, Duke of Savoy, son of Charles 
III., born 1528, was commander-in-chief of the imperial 
troops in Italy against the French, who, on his father’s 
death, seized most of his inheritance; appointed govern¬ 
or of the Netherlands by Philip II. in 1556, he attacked 
France, winning the battle of St. Quentin, and by the 
Treaty of Chateau-Cambresis (1559) recovered his ances¬ 
tral domains, and married Marguerite, sister of the King 
of France. He applied himself to the administrative 
and military organization of his country, and is con¬ 
sidered the founder of the Sardinian monarchy. Died, 
1580. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, an American poet and 
prose writer, born at Boston in 1803. He graduated at 
Harvard in 1821, for five years taught in a school, and 
in 1829 became minister of a Unitarian church in Bos¬ 
ton, but in 1832 resigned his charge. He spent the greater 
part of 1833 in Europe, and on his return began his 
career as a lecturer on various subjects, in which capacity 
he acted for a long series of years. In 1834 he took up 
his permanent residence at Concord, Mass., and in 1836 
published a small volume called “Nature.” He was one 
of the original editors of the Dial, a transcendental 
magazine begun in 1840. Two volumes of his essays 
were published in 1841 and 1844, and his poems in 1846. 
His miscellaneous addresses had been published in Eng¬ 
land in 1844, and on visiting Great Britain in 1847 he 
was welcomed by a large circle of admirers. In 1850, 
he published “Representative Men”; in 1856, “English 
Traits”; in 1860, “The Conduct of Life”; in 1869, 
“May Day and Other Poems”; in 1870, “Societyand Soli¬ 
tude”; in 1874, “Parnassus,” a collection of poems; in 
1875, “Letters and Social Aims.” Emerson showed 
certain similarities with Carlyle, of whom he was a 
friend and correspondent. Their correspondence ap¬ 
peared in 1883. He was one of the most original and 
influential writers that the United States has produced. 
Died, 1882. 

Emmet, Robert, Irish revolutionist, born 1778; 
son of a Dublin doctor; expelled from Dublin Univer¬ 
sity in 1798 owing to his anti-English sympathies; in 
1803 led an unsuccessful attack on Dublin Castle; es¬ 
caped into Wicklow, but was captured and executed, 
1803. His fate is the subject of some verses by Moore. 

Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher of the 1st century, 

A. D., born at Hierapolis in Phrygia; was bought as a 
slave by Epaphroditus, a favorite of Nero. When eman¬ 
cipated he lived at Rome, until banished by Domitian, 
and then became a teacher at Nicopolis in Epirus. His 
lectures were transcribed by his pupil, Arrian. 

Epicurus, Greek philosopher, was born about 342 

B. C. It is doubtful whether his birth occurred before 
or after his parents’ removal from Gargettus, in Attica, 
to Samos. His youth was spent in that island, whence 
he removed to Athens, when about eighteen, and after¬ 
wards taught at Colophon, Mitylene, and Lampsacus. 
He returned to Athens about 306, and remained there 
till his death. He was founder of the Epicurean school, 
who hold that the mmmum bonum consists in pleasure 
— chiefly mental pleasure. Died, 270 B. C. 


Erasmus, Desiderius, one of the greatest scholars 
of the Renaissance; born in 1467, at Rotterdam; on his 
arents’ death entered a monastery, which he left to 
ecome a teacher at Paris, and, at the invitation of his 
pupil, Lord Mountjoy, came to England. He settled at 
Oxford, where he became the friend of More, and studied 
divinity under Colet, and Greek under Grocyn and 
Linacre. In 1506 he visited Italy, staying at Bologna 
and Rome, where he was warmly received, but returned 
to England, and was made Margaret professor of divinity 
and professor of Greek at Cambridge. He returned to 
the Continent, and, after a journey to the Low Countries, 
settled at Basel, where he published his edition of the 
New Testament. Erasmus was in favor of moderate 
reform in the church, as is shown by his “Enchiridion 
Militis Christiani” and “Encomium Mori®,” but he gave 
little support to Luther, although he refused to write 
against him. Died, 1536. 

Eric the Red, a Norwegian navigator, who, in 982, 
located on the island of Iceland. In 983 he sailed from 
Bredifiord to reach some western shore said to have 
been visited by one of his countrymen in former times. 
On the voyage he passed Cape Farewell, and on the 
coast met with reindeer. He named the country Green¬ 
land and the inlet Ericfiord. Returning to Iceland in 
985, he interested the people of the island in his discov¬ 
ery, and with twenty-five sail set out for the voyage. 
Some of the ships were lost in a storm, and others were 
driven home; but he succeeded in reaching the Green¬ 
land coast with fourteen, and located on the fiord, at 
some distance from the ocean, where there were grass 
and trees. About twelve years later his son Lief is said 
to have discovered the continent of North America, 
which he called Markland and Vinland. 

Ericsson, John, engineer, born in Lanzbanshyttan, 
Sweden, July 31, 1803. At the age of twelve he 
became cadet' of engineers, and at seventeen entered 
the Swedish army; in 1827 he was promoted captain. 
In 1828 he constructed a flame engine, and went to 
London to introduce it, resigning his captaincy in the 
army. He also produced in succession an instrument 
for sea-sounding, a hydrostatic weighing machine, and 
a tubular steam boiler, besides other important devices. 
In 1833 he constructed the caloric engine, and in 1853 
the ship “Ericsson,” of 2,000 tons, propelled by this 
motor. In 1836 Ericsson invented and patented the 
screw propeller, and in 1839 he came to the United 
States, where, in 1841, he designed for the government 
the screw-propelled war ship “Princeton.” This was the 
pioneer screw war ship; she carried a twelve-inch 
wrought-iron gun, designed by Ericsson, and a wrought- 
iron gun carriage, which took up the recoil without 
breaking. In 1861 he built for the United States Gov¬ 
ernment, in 100 days, the iron-clad “Monitor,” which, 
on March 9, 1862, in Hampton Roads, defeated the 
Confederate iron-clad ram “Merrimac.” In 1881 he 
built for the United States a vessel called the “ Destroyer.” 
His later scientific investigations included computa¬ 
tions of the influences that retard the earth’s rotary 
motion, and the intensity of solar heat. Died, 1889. 

Erskine, Thomas, Lord, born in 1750; son of the 
tenth Earl of Buchan; after serving in the army and 
navy, was called to the bar in 1778, and soon won re¬ 
nown as an advocate by his defense of Lord Keppel 
and of Lord George Gordon. A strong Whig, he acted 
for the defense in the political trials of the time, giving 
his aid to Horne Tooke, Thelwall, and Tom Paine; 
his defense of the last cost him the post of attorney- 
general to the Prince of Wales. He was now regarded 
as the defender of popular liberties and constitutional 
rights. From 1790, he sat in parliament as a supporter 
of Fox; in 1806, became chancellor under him, and was 
raised to the peerage. Henceforward he took little part 
in politics, but vigorously supported Queen Caroline 
in 1821. Died, 1823. 

Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d’, born in 1729; 
French admiral; after serving in the army in India, 
under the Marquis de Bussy, and being made prisoner 
at the siege of Madras, entered the navy, and led an 
expedition to Sumatra, capturing several English forts. 
Placed in command of a squadron sent to aid the United 
States against England, he captured the Isle of Grenada, 
but ultimately met with reverses, and returned to France 
in disgrace. He was guillotined during the Revolution 
in 1794. 

Euclid of Alexandria, a celebrated geometrician. 
Little is known of his life. According to Proclus, he 
lived from 328 to 283 B. C., and was one of the Platonic 
school. He is said to have written other works besides 
the “Elements of Geometry.” 

Eugene, Francois, Prince of Savoy; born in 1663, 
son of Eugfene Maurice, Count of Soissons; joined the 
Austrian service; distinguished himself against the 




432 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Turks in 1683, and was present at the siege of Belgrade, 
in 1688. After serving against the French, and defeat¬ 
ing Catinat in Italy, he overthrew the Turks at Zenta. 
Again opposed to the French in the War of Succession 
he captured Villeroi at Cremona, and joined Marl¬ 
borough in 1704, taking part in the battle of Blenheim. 
He then went to Italy, and was defeated at Cassano 
(1705), but soon afterwards gained a victory, and re¬ 
lieved Turin. In 1708, he joined Marlborough in Flan¬ 
ders, and was present at Oudenarde and Malplaquet. 
He again distinguished himself against the Turks at 
the battles of Peterwaradin and Belgrade. Died, 1736. 

Euler, Leonhard, mathematician; born in Basel in 
1707; was invited by Catherine II. to Russia in 1727, 
and taught mathematics at St. Petersburg. In 1741, 
he went to Berlin, but returned to St. Petersburg in 
1766. His writings are numerous and valuable. Died, 
1783. . . . 

Euripides, Greek tragedian; born in Salamis in 
480 B. C.; rival and contemporary of Sophocles, and 
friend of Socrates; studied under Anaxagoras, and pro¬ 
duced his first tragedy in 455. He sought in Macedonia 
a refuge from the satire of Aristophanes. Among his 
works are the “Alcestis,” “Hecuba,” and “Medea.” 
Died, 406 B. C. 

Eusebius, Pamphili ( u-se'-be-us ), a celebrated divine 
honored with the title of “Father of Ecclesiastical His¬ 
tory,” was born in Caesarea in 264. He was bishop of 
his native city from 313 till his death, about 340. 

Eustachio, Bartolommeo ( us-tash'e-d ), an Italian 
physician of the Sixteenth Century, settled in Rome, 
and made several anatomical discoveries, among others 
those of the tube from the middle ear to the mouth, 
and a valve on the wall of the right auricle of the heart, 
both called “Eustachian” after him. 

Evans, Robley Dunglison, officer of United States 
Navy; born in Floyd County, Va., August 18, 1846; 
educated in public schools of Washington; appointed 
to the United States Navy for Utah, September 20, 
1860; graduate of United States Naval Academy, 1863; 
rear admiral, February 11, 1901. During the Civil War 
he participated in both attacks on Fort Fisher, January 
15, 1865, and in land attack received four severe rifle¬ 
shot wounds. When in command of the “Yorktown” 
at Valparaiso, Chile, 1891, during period of strained 
relations between Chile and United States, his actions 
in connection with various incidents earned him his 
popular name of “Fighting Bob.” In war with Spain, 
commander of “Iowa” in Sampson’s fleet off Santiago, 
taking active part in battle with Cervera’s fleet, July 3, 
1898; was president of Board of Inspection and Survey; 
commander-in-chief at Asiatic Station, 1902-04, and 
in command of the Asiatic expedition, 1908. Author: 
“ A Sailor’s Log.” Died, 1912. 

Everett, Alexander Hill, an American litterateur 
and diplomatist, was born in Massachusetts in 1792, 
and died while commissioner to China, in 1847. He 
was minister to Russia, Holland, and Spain. 

Everett, Edward, born in 1794; American author 
and statesman, brother of the preceding; became pro¬ 
fessor of Greek at Harvard in 1815; traveled in Europe 
from 1815 to 1818; became editor of the “North Ameri¬ 
can Review,” and was a member of Congress from 
1824 to 1834; governor of Massachusetts from 1835 to 
1839; and from 1840 to 1845, minister-plenipotentiary 
to England, in which capacity he succeeded in adjusting 
several delicate matters. He became secretary of state 
in 1852, and was elected to the senate in 1853. He 
wrote “The Dirge of Alaric the Visigoth” (a poem), 
lives of Washington and General Stark, and other 
works, but was best known as an orator. Died, 1865. 

Ezekiel (e-ze'-ke-el), one of the four great Hebrew 
prophets, was the son of Buzi, and one of the sacerdotal 
race. He was carried to Babylon as a captive by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 598 B. C. Favored by the Almighty 
with the gift of prophecy, he soothed, and comforted, 
and admonished his countrymen, till at length he was 
stoned to death by order of the Babylonian authorities. 

Fabius, Maximus Quintus, born about 275 B. C.; 
Roman general. He was surnamed “Cunctator” be¬ 
cause, having, in 217 B. C., been appointed dictator 
for the second time and entrusted with the defense 
of Italy against the victorious Hannibal, he pursued 
a course of cautious and patient generalship, never 
risking a general engagement with his opponent, but 
cutting off his supplies, and gradually wearying him 
out, and meeting with signal success. Before his ap¬ 
pointment to the dictatorship, he was five times consul. 
Died, 203 B. C. 

Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, born in 1686; Prus¬ 
sian experimental philosopher; after traveling in Eng¬ 
land, Germany, and France, settled in Holland. In 
1720, it occurred to him to use quicksilver instead of 


spirits of wine in the construction of thermometers. 
By this substitution the accuracy of the instrument was 
greatly enhanced. In 1724, he was elected a Fellow of 
the Royal Society of London, and in the “Philosophical 
Transactions” of that year there appeared several 
papers from his pen. Died, 1736. 

Fairbanks, Charles Warren, former vice-president 
of the United States; born on a farm near Unionville 
Center, Union County, 0.,May 11, 1852; graduate of Ohio 
Wesleyan University, Delaware, O., 1872; admitted to 
Ohio bar, 1874, and established practice at lndianapolis. 
Was Republican caucus nominee for United States 
senator, 1893, but defeated by David Turpie, Democrat. 
Appointed, in 1898, member of Joint High British- 
American Commission, and chairman of American com¬ 
missioners. Elected United States senator from Indi¬ 
ana, 1897, and reelected in 1903; elected vice-president, 
in 1904; term expired in 1909. 

Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, an English parliamen¬ 
tarian general, was born in Yorkshire, in 1612. After 
serving with distinction in the Low Countries, Lord 
Fairfax was declared general-in-chief of the parliament 
army at the opening of the civil war, in 1642, and again 
in 1645. He distinguished himself in most of the great 
battles and sieges of that struggle, and a r its close 
refused to act as one of the judges of Charles I. In 
1659, Lord Fairfax used all his influence with the army 
to promote the restoration of Charles II. Died, 1671. 

Falconio, Diomede, cardinal, born in Pescocostanzo, 
in the Abruzzi, Italy, in 1842; entered Franciscan Order, 
September 2, 1860; on completion of studies, November, 
1865, sent as missionary to United States; ordained 
priest, January 4, 1866, by Bishop Timon, of Buffalo; 
professor of philosophy and vice-president of St. Bona- 
venture’s College, Allegany, N. Y., 1866; professor of 
theology and secretary of Franciscan Province of the 
Immaculate Conception, 1867; president of college and 
seminary of St. Bonaventure, 1868; became citizen of 
United States, 1868; secretary and administrator of cathe¬ 
dral at Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, 1872-82; in United 
States, 1882-83; returned to Italy, 1883, and elected pro¬ 
vincial of Franciscans in the Abruzzi; later reelected and 
was also commissary and visitor-general, Province of 
Naples, 1888; synodical examiner in diocese of Aquila; 
commissary and visitor-general Franciscan Province in 
Puglia, 1889; procurator-general Franciscan Order and 
visitor-general in various provinces of the Order, 1889- 
92. Consecrated, July 17, 1892, Bishop of Lacedonia, 
and was raised, November 29, 1895, to be Archbishop 
of Acerenza and Matera, in Basilicata; apostolic dele¬ 
gate to Canada, 1899-1902; apostolic delegate to 
United States, 1902-11. Made cardinal, 1911. A volume 
of his “Pastoral Letters” (translated into French) pub¬ 
lished in Canada, 1900. 

Faraday, Michael ( far'ah-da ), one of the most emi¬ 
nent of English chemists and physicists, was born in 
Surrey, in 1791. In 1833, he became professor of 
chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, where his 
lectures attracted the admiration of European and Am¬ 
erican savants. Faraday’s great fame principally rests 
upon his discoveries in electricity and electro-magnet¬ 
ism. Of the latter science he may truly be termed the 
founder. His earlier writings have been collected into 
three volumes, entitled “Experimental Researches in 
Electricity”; and, among his later works, “Experi¬ 
mental Researches in Chemistry and Physics.” Died, 
1867. 

Farragut, David Glasgow, a famous American ad¬ 
miral, of Spanish extraction; born at Knoxville, Ten¬ 
nessee, 1801; entered the navy as a boy; rose to be captain 
in 1855, and at the outbreak of the Civil War attached 
himself to the Union; distinguished himself by his daring 
capture of New Orleans; in 1862 was created rear-ad¬ 
miral, and two years later gained a signal victory over 
the Confederate fleet at Mobile Bay; was raised to the 
rank of admiral in 1866, being the first man to hold this 
position in the American Navy. Died, 1870. 

Fenelon (fen'-a-long), Frangois de Salignac de la 
Mothe, an eminent French divine and writer; was born 
in 1651, and died in 1715. 

Ferdinand I., “the Great,” King of Castile, of Leon 
and Galicia; was the second son of Sancho III., King of 
Navarre and Castile, and succeeded to the latter king¬ 
dom in 1037. He -was one of the most powerful mon- 
archs of his age. and disputed with Henry III. of Ger¬ 
many for the imperial crown. Died, 1065. 

Ferdinand V. of Castile, III. of Naples, and II. of 
Aragon and Sicily, surnamed “the Catholic.” He was 
the son of John II., and succeeded his father on the 
throne of Aragon and Sicily in 1466. In 1469 he was 
married to Isabella, sister of Henry IV. of Castile, and 
in 1479 became, through her, King of Castile, Isabella 




BIOGRAPHY 


433 


sharing with him the royal dignity. The reign of Ferdi¬ 
nand and Isabella was signalized by the discovery of 
America by Columbus. Ferdinand died in 1516, Isa¬ 
bella having died twelve years before him. After the 
death of Isabella, he acted simply as regent of the king¬ 
dom, having handed over the crown to his daughter 
Juana, in accordance with the will of Isabella. 

Fichte (flk'ta), Johann Gottlieb, one of the most 
eminent German thinkers and philosophers; was born 
in Upper Lusatia in 1762, and received his education in 
the universities of Jena, Leipzig, and Wittenberg. At 
Konigsberg, where his friendship with Kant commenced, 
his first published work, “An Attempt at a Criticism of 
all Revelation,” appeared. The celebrity he thus ac¬ 
quired obtained for Fichte the professional chair of 
philosophy at Jena, which post he resigned in 1799, in 
consequence of atheistic views being attributed to him 
in connection with the new doctrine of metaphysics he 
had introduced. In 1810, Fichte became professor of phi¬ 
losophy in Berlin University, and took a prominent part in 
bestirring the patriotism of his countrymen till it found 
a vent in the war of liberation, 1812-13. Died, 1814. 

Field, Cyrus W., an American merchant; was born in 
Stockbridge, Mass., in 1819. Was the original organizer 
of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, 1856-66, which 
succeeded after many reverses in establishing telegraphic 
communication between the United States and Europe. 
Died, 1892. 

Field, David Dudley, born in 1805; American jurist, 
and brother of Cyrus Field and Stephen Field; was, in 
1857, appointed to draw up a political, civil, and penal 
code, of which parts have been adopted by several of the 
States. To him is due the formation of an association 
for the reform of the law of nations, and for the adoption 
of arbitration in place of war. In 1889, the University 
of Edinburgh conferred upon him the degree of LL. D. 
Died, 1894. 

Field, Eugene, American poet and journalist; born 
at St. Louis, Mo., September 2, 1850. He moved to 
New England, but was educated later in Missouri. Field 
entered journalism at the age of twenty-three, ten years 
later becoming editor of the “Sharps and Flats” column 
of the “Chicago Daily News.” His humorous sayings 
therein during the following decade established his repu¬ 
tation in newspaper work. He was an author and poet 
of rare sympathy, his poems of childhood exhibiting rare 
qualities of appreciation and power of expression, and 
gaining for him the title, “The Child’s Poet.” Among 
his works are: “The Denver Tribune Primer,” “Cul¬ 
ture’s Garland,” “Love Affairs of a Bibliomaniac,” 
“Little Book of Western Verse,” “With Trumpet and 
Drum,” etc. Mr. Field died November 4, 1895. 

Field, Marshall, merchant; born in Conway, Mass., 
in 1835; spent boyhood on farm; studied at academy 
until 1852; dry goods clerk, Pittsfield, Mass., 1852-56; 
in Chicago, 1856-60; junior partner, 1860-65, then 
senior partner in house, which became, 1865, Field, Pal¬ 
mer & Leiter. Potter Palmer retired, 1867, and Levi Z. 
Leiter, 1881, Mr. Field becoming head of Marshall Field 
& Company, now having the largest wholesale and retail 
dry goods business in the world. Founded, with gift 
of $1,000,000, the Field Columbian Museum of Chicago; 
gave money and land to the amount of $450,000 to Uni¬ 
versity of Chicago. Twice married; second time in 
London, September 5, 1905, to Mrs. Delia Spencer Caton, 
of Chicago. Died in 1906, leaving an immense fortune. 

Fielding, Henry, the father of English fiction, and 
one of the most illustrious prose-writers in the language; 
was born in Somersetshire, in 1707, of a noble family 
allied to the imperial house of Austria. After dissipating 
a handsome fortune in the pleasures of youth, Fielding 
launched into authorship, and in 1742 produced his 
“Joseph Andrews,” a sparkling satire upon the char¬ 
acteristics of the Richardsonian school of fiction. In 
1749, the novel of “Tom Jones” appeared like a comet 
in the literary world, still to remain without a rival in 
the language. “Amelia” followed, in 1751, to entrance 
the minds of such critics as Burke, Gibbon, and Dr. 
Johnson. Died in Lisbon, in 1754. 

Fillmore, Millard, American statesman; born in 
Summerhill, N. Y., in 1800; was apprenticed to a wool 
carder, but became a clerk in a judge’s office, and then 
found entrance to the bar. He entered Congress in 1832, 
was appointed chairman of the committee of ways and 
means in 1840, and was author of the tariff of 1842. He 
became comptroller of the State of New York in 1847, 
was elected vice-president of the United States in 1848, 
and succeeded to the presidency on the death of General 
Taylor in 1850. By signing the act for the surrender 
of fugitive slaves he brought about the utter defeat of 
the Whig party in 1852. In 1856 he was nominated 
for the presidency, but received only scanty support. 
Died, 1874. 


Firdausi ( fur-dou'se), or Firdusl, the most eminent 
of Persian poets, was born in Khorassan, about A. D. 
940. During his lifetime his fame filled the East, and 
he was the recipient of great honors from the Sultan 
Mahmud. His chief poem, the “Shah-Namah,” or 
“Book of Kings,” has been termed by Sir William Jones 
“a glorious monument of Oriental genius and learning.” 
Died about 1020. 

Fisher, Harrison, illustrator; born in Brooklyn, 
July 27, 1875; educated in San Francisco; recent books 
illustrated by him: “The Market Place,” by Harold 
Frederic; “Three Men on Wheels,” by Jerome K. Je¬ 
rome; “The Eagle’s Heart,” by Hamlin Garland; now 
illustrating “The Saturday Evening Post,” “McClure’s 
Magazine,” “Life,” “Puck,” “Ladies’ Home Journal,” 
“Scribner’s,” etc. Author: “The Harrison Fisher Book.” 

Fiske, Minnie Maddern, actress; born in New 
Orleans, in 1865; appeared in child’s part when 3 years 
old; at 12 was alternately playing leading roles and old 
women parts, and at 15 became a star, under name of 
Minnie Maddern. Retired, about 1890, for five years; 
married March 19, 1890, Harrison Grey Fiske, journalist 
and playwright, in whose “Hester Crewe” she returned 
to the stage; since then starring in various plays. 

Fitch, William Clyde, author and playwright; 
born in New York, May 2, 1865; graduated at Amherst, 
1886 (A. M., 1902). Author: “A Wave of Life,” “The 
Knighting of the Twins,” “Some Correspondence, and 
Six Conversations,” “The Smart Set,” “Nathan Hale," 
“Barbara Frietchie,” “Captain Jinks of the Horse Ma¬ 
rines.” Original plays: “Beau Brummell,” "Betty’s 
Finish,” "Frederic Lemaitre,” “A Modern Match,” 
“Pamela’s Prodigy,” “April Weather,” “His Grace de 
Grammont,” “.The Career of Betty Singleton, or Mistress 
Betty,” ".The Moth and the Flame,” “Nathan Hale,” 
“Barbara Frietchie,” “The Cow-boy and The Lady,” 
“The Climbers,” “Captain Jinks of the Horse Marines,” 
"Lover’s Lane,” “The Girl and the Judge,” “The Way 
of the World,” “The Last of the Dandies,” "The Stub¬ 
bornness of Geraldine,” “The Girl with the Green Eyes,” 
“Her Own Way,” “Major Andre,” “Glad of It,” "The 
Coronet of the Duchess,” “The Woman in the Case.” 
Adaptations: “The Masked Ball,” “Bohemia,” “The 
Frisky Mrs. Johnson,” “The Head of the Family,” 
“Granny,” “Cousin Billy.” Died, 1909. 

Fletcher (flech'ur), John, an English dramatist, 
whose name is inseparably associated with that of 
his friend and co-worker, Francis Beaumont, was 
born in Northamptonshire, in 1579. His plays, such 
as “The Scornful Lady,” and “Rule a Wife and Have a 
Wife,” were during two centuries the delight of the stage. 
Died, 1625. 

Flint, Austin, physician; born in Northampton, 
Mass., March 28, 1836; removed to Buffalo in infancy; 
educated at private schools, Buffalo, and freshman, 
Harvard, 1852-53; studied medicine in office and at medi¬ 
cal department University of Louisville, 1854-56; 
graduate Jefferson Medical College, 1857 (LL. D., 1885); 
practiced in Buffalo, 1857-59; editor Buffalo Medical 
Journal, 1857-60; professor of physiology, medical de¬ 
partment, University of Buffalo, 1858-59, visiting sur¬ 
geon, Buffalo General Hospital, 1858. Removed to 
New York, 1859; professor of physiology, New York 
Medical College, 1859-60, New Orleans School of Medi¬ 
cine, 1860-61; acting assistant surgeon, United States 
Army, at general hospital, New York, 1862-65. One of 
founders and professor of physiology, 1861-98, Bellevue 
Hospital Medical College; professor of physiology, Long 
Island College Hospital, 1862-68; Cornell University 
Medical College, since 1898. Author: “Physiology of 
Man” (five volumes, two editions), “Chemical Examina¬ 
tion of the Urine in Disease” (six editions), “Physiologi¬ 
cal Effects of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Strain,” 
“Text-Book of Human Physiology” (four editions), 
“Source of Muscular Power,” “Handbook of Physiology.” 
Also many articles on medical and physiological sub¬ 
jects in medical periodicals and transactions. 

Folk, Joseph Wingate, ex-governor; born in Browns¬ 
ville, Tenn., October 28, 1869; graduate of Vanderbilt 
University; admitted to bar, 1890; circuit attorney, 
St. Louis, 1900-04; prosecuted numerous bribery cases; 
governor of Missouri, 1905-09. 

Foraker, Joseph Benson, United States senator, 
1897-1909; born July 5, 1846, on farm near Rains- 
boro, Highland County, Ohio. Enlisted July 14, 1862, 
in the 89th Ohio volunteer infantry, and served to end 
of war, becoming first lieutenant and brevet captain; 
graduated at Cornell, 1869; admitted to bar and began 
practice at Cincinnati, 1869. Judge Superior Court, 
Cincinnati, 1879-82; resigned on account of ill-health; 
Republican candidate for governor of Ohio, 1883 ; 
defeated, but elected governor in 1885 and 1887; 
again defeated, 1889, for same office ; chairman 



434 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Republican conventions, Ohio, 1886, 1890, 1896, 1900; 
delegate-at-large from Ohio national Republican con¬ 
ventions, 1884-1904; in conventions of 1892 and 1896, 
served as chairman committee on resolutions, and as 
such reported the platform each time to the convention; 
presented name of William McKinley to the conventions 
of 1896 and 1900 for nomination to the presidency. 
He was elected to the United States Senate in 1896, re¬ 
elected in 1902, and served as one of the conspicuous 
members of that body until March 3, 1909. 

Forrest ( lor'rlst ), Edwin, an eminent American tra¬ 
gedian; born in Philadelphia in 1806; was the patriarch 
of his country’s stage, having performed with distin¬ 
guished merit for two generations, both in the United 
States and in England. In the parts of “Richard III.,” 
“Macbeth,” and “Othello,” his acting was of the highest 
order. Died, 1872. 

Foster, John Watson, diplomatist; born in Pike 
County, Ind., March 2, 1836; graduated from Indiana 
State University, 1855; student one year at Harvard 
Law School (LL. D., Princeton, Yale, Wabash College); 
admitted to Indiana bar; was major, lieutenant-colonel, 
and colonel in Indiana regiments. After war editor of 
"Evansville Daily Journal”; postmaster, Evansville, 
1869-73; minister to Mexico, 1873-80; to Russia, 1880- 
81. Established, 1881, in practice in international 
cases in Washington, representing foreign legations be¬ 
fore commissions, arbitration boards, etc. Minister to 
Spain, 1883-85; special plenipotentiary to negotiate 
reciprocity treaties with Brazil, Spain, Germany, British 
West Indies, etc., 1891; secretary of state, United States, 
1892-93; agent for United States in Bering Sea Arbitra¬ 
tion, at Paris, 1893; invited by Emperor of China and 
participated in peace negotiations with Japan; ambas¬ 
sador on special mission to Great Britain and Russia, 
1897; member Anglo-Canadian Commission, 1898; 
agent for United States Alaskan Boundary Tribunal, 
London, 1903. Author: “Biography of Matthew Wat¬ 
son Foster,” “A Century of American Diplomacy,” 
“ American Diplomacy in the Orient,” “Arbitration and 
The Hague Court.” 

Fox, Charles James, statesman; born in West¬ 
minster in 1749; was the third son of Henry Fox, Lord 
Holland, who early inducted him into gambling and the 
other fashionable vices, which clung to him through life. 
Educated at Eton and at Hertford College, Oxford, he 
entered parliament at the age of 19 as member for Mid¬ 
hurst, and, having immediately made his mark as a de¬ 
bater, became a lord of the admiralty, and was in 1773 
nominated lord of the treasury. He soon, however, 
quarreled with Lord North. In 1782, Fox became 
secretary of state under Lord Rockingham, but on the 
latter’s death (in the) same year), refused to serve under 
Lord Shelburne. His name was struck off the list of 
privy councilors, and in 1797, he retired from parlia¬ 
mentary life to superintend the education of his nephew, 
Lord Holland, and to write the “History of the Reign of 
James II.” When his great rival, Pitt, formed his last 
administration, he wished Fox to join it, but the 
king gave a steady refusal. On Pitt’s death, in 1806, 
he was at last obliged to admit him to office, and Fox 
became foreign secretary in Grenville’s ministry of “All 
the Talents.” But the term of his life had nearly run 
out, and he had no time to realize the high expectations 
of his followers. His last motion in parliament was 
directed against the slave trade, and he died (at Chis¬ 
wick in 1806) within a few months of the measure 
founded upon it being passed into law. He was ad¬ 
mittedly the first orator of his time; he was also a man of 
wide reading, and he showed himself equal to sacrifices 
to principle such as few statesmen have cared to make. 

Fox, George, founder of the Society of Friends; 
was born in County Leicester, England, in 1624. Early 
adopting the peculiar tenets and manners known as 
Quakerism, he suffered for many years continual perse¬ 
cution. In 1671, he sailed for the West Indies and the 
American Colonies, to propagate the doctrines of the 
sect he had originated; and on his return to England, 
in 1673, he was again imprisoned, but soon released 
through the influence of William Penn. After the ac¬ 
cession of William III. to the throne, the public worship 
of the Society of Friends became tolerated and legalized. 
Died in London in 1691. 

Francis Joseph Charles, Emperor of Austria and 
King of Hungary; born in 1830; is the son of the Em¬ 
peror Francis I., and nephew of the Emperor Ferdinand I. 
The revolution of 1848 compelled Ferdinand to abdi¬ 
cate, and his brother resigning his claims to the throne 
in favor of his own son, the latter was at the early 
age of 18 called to rule an empire shaken by civil war. 
He took part in the campaign against the Hungarians, 
and was present at the capture of Raab in June, 1849. 
Restored to the mastery of his dominions, he proceeded 


to undo the work of 1848. The Hungarian constitution 
was suspended, the absolute authority of the Habsburg 
monarchy in the Austrian dominions proclaimed, and 
the imperial ministers were declared responsible only 
to the emperor. The absolute regime was maintained 
during the first ten years of his reign, though his own 
sentiments inclined to a more liberal rule. It was not 
till Austria had sustained severe reverses abroad that 
the system fell. The demand of Napoleon III. that the 
question of the Lombardo-Venetian states should be 
referred to a European conference being refused, war 
was declared. The Austrians were defeated at the battle 
of Solferino on June 24, 1859, and the emperor was com¬ 
pelled to sign the treaty of Villafranca, by which all 
claims to Lombardy were resigned. A partial return 
to constitutionalism was then attempted, and repre¬ 
sentative diets were restored in the different states, but 
the Hungarians did not cease to demand restoration 
of their old national institutions in their integrity. A 
dispute between Austria and Prussia as to Schleswig- 
Holstein led to war between the two nations in 1866. 
Here again the Austrians were completely defeated, and 
were compelled to accept the North German Confedera¬ 
tion under the leadership of Prussia, and to give up Venice 
to Italy. After these disasters the emperor restored 
national self-government to Hungary, and in June, 1867, 
was declared king of that country. In later years the 
emperor’s influence in foreign politics has been chiefly 
directed to forming a closer alliance with Germany and 
Italy. In 1878, the treaty of Berlin allowed Austria 
to occupy Bosnia and the Herzegovina. In 1887 the 
emperor took part in a series of military councils held to 
provide for the defense of Galicia against Russia. By 
the suicide of the Crown Prince Rudolph in February, 
1889, he was deprived of all hope of a direct successor, 
and the crown will pass, on his death, to his nephew, 
Francis Ferdinand, son of his brother, Charles Louis. 

Franklin, Benjamin, born in 1706; statesman, 
philosopher, and publisher; was the fifteenth of seven¬ 
teen children of a soap-boiler of Boston, Mass. Quarrel¬ 
ing with his brother, he went to Philadelphia almost 
penniless. Here, in 1729, he purchased the “Pennsyl¬ 
vania Gazette,” formed a club called “The Junto,” and 
began to acquire political influence. He was chosen 
clerk of the provincial assembly in 1736, and in 1753, 
became postmaster-general for British North America. 
In 1754, when a rupture with France was expected, he 
sat as a delegate in the Congress at Albany, and in 1756, 
for a third time held a military command. In 1757, he 
was sent to England as agent for Pennsylvania, and his 
reputation as a practical philosopher having preceded 
him, he was received with great respect, Edinburgh, 
Oxford, and St. Andrews conferring upon him the degree 
of doctor of laws. In 1764 he revisited England as 
colonial agent, and was mainly instrumental in securing 
the repeal of the stamp act. When the rupture with 
England took place he was elected a member of the 
American Congress, signed the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, and subsequently aided in framing the Con¬ 
stitution of the United States. In 1776 he was ap¬ 
pointed ambassador to France, and held the post until 
1785. He returned to America to assume the office of 
president of Pennsylvania, to which he was twice re¬ 
elected, retiring from public life in 1788. Among his 
scientific discoveries was the identity of lightning with 
electricity, which he demonstrated by his famous kite 
experiment. He also discovered the course taken by 
storms over the North American continent. Died, 1790. 

Frederick II., usually called “the Great,” was born 
in A. D. 1712; King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. 
During his reign the power of Prussia was greatly ex¬ 
tended. The Seven Years’ War (1756-63), in which he 
took part with England, secured to him a decided in¬ 
fluence in the affairs of Europe, and added Silesia to 
his dominions; in 1772, he shared in the partition of 
Poland, and obtained as his portion all Polish Prussia 
and a part of Great Poland; and, in 1779, by the Treaty 
of Teschen, he obtained Franconia. Thus, at his death, 
his kingdom was one-half larger in area than it had been 
at his accession; his army was as well organized as any 
in Europe; and the internal affairs of the country were 
directed by him with vigor, and, on the whole, with 
prudence. He was in many respects one of the greatest 
figures in modern history. The “History of Friedrich 
II. of Prussia, commonly called Frederick the Great,” 
by Thomas Carlyle, brings out clearly and forcibly the 
good and the bad sides of his character. Died, 1786. 

Frederick Charles, Prince of Prussia, born in 1828; 
known as the “Red Prince” from the color of his favor¬ 
ite hussar uniform, was the eldest son of Prince Charles, 
brother of the German Emperor William, his mother 
being a sister of the Empress Augusta. He served in 
the first Schleswig-Holstein War, and having become a 




BIOGRAPHY 


435 


general of cavalry, with command of the third army 
corps, he commanded the right wing of the Prussian 
army during the Danish War of 1864. In the Austrian 
War ot 1866, he commanded the first army, and to him 
the crowning victory of Sadowa was mainly due. In 
the Franco-German War he commanded the second 
army, which he led to victories at Thionville, Grave- 
lotte, and St. Privat, and thus blockaded Bazaine in the 
entrenchments of Metz. After Bazaine’s surrender, with 
170,000 men, the prince hastened westward to check 
the armies of Chanzy and D’Aurelles de Paladine in 
their attempts to relieve Paris from the south. A 
series of battles lasted almost uninterruptedly from the 
middle of November till the middle of January, when the 
French army of the west was rendered impotent at 
Le Mans. In the previous October, he had been created 
field-marshal. Prince Frederick was father of the 
Duchess of Connaught. Died, 1885. 

Freeman, Edward Augustus, born in 1823; an 
eminent historian, educated at Trinity College, Oxford. 
His first work was a “History of Architecture” (1849). 
After several minor works, his most important one on 
the “History of the Norman Conquest” appeared be¬ 
tween 1867 and 1879, and was followed by that of “.The 
Reign of William Rufus and Accession of Henry I.” 
He also wrote histories of the “Saracens” and of the 
“Ottoman Power in Europe,” and various other works, 
some of a more popular character, besides many articles 
and reviews. In 1884, he was appointed Regius pro¬ 
fessor of Modern History at Oxford. Died, 1892. 

French, Daniel Chester, sculptor; bom in Exeter, 
N. H., April 20, 1850; educated in Exeter, N. H.; 
Massachusetts Institution of Technology, Boston, one 
year; A. M., Dartmouth College; studied in Boston 
and in Florence, Italy; had studio in Washington, 
1876-78; in Boston and Concord, Mass., 1878-87; and 
in New York, since 1887. Among his best known 
works are “The Minute Man of Concord,” at Concord, 
Mass.; a statue of General Cass, in the capitol at Wash¬ 
ington; statue of Rufus Choate, Boston courthouse; 
John Harvard, at Cambridge, Mass., and Thomas Starr 
King statues; “Dr. Gallaudet and His First Deaf-Mute 
Pupil,” the Milmore Memorial; and colossal “Statue of 
the Republic,” at World’s Columbian Exposition. Re¬ 
ceived medal of honor, Paris Exposition, 1900. 

Frick, Henry Clay, manufacturer; born in West 
Overton, Pa., December 19, 1849; began business life 
as a clerk for his grandfather, a flour merchant and 
distiller; later embarked in small way in coke business. 
Was president, and since 1897 chairman, of board of 
directors of H. C. Frick Coke Company, now largest 
coke producer in the world, operating nearly 40,000 
acres of coal and 12,000 coke ovens, with daily capacity 
'of 25,000 tons. Came into public notice by his vigorous 
management during the famous strike at Homestead, 
1892, when he was several times shot and stabbed by 
one of the strikers. Chairman of board of the firm of 
Carnegie Bros., 1889-92, and chairman of board of 
managers of the Carnegie Steel Company since 1892; 
is also director or officer in numerous other business 
enterprises. 

Froebel, Friedrich ( frd'bel ), the founder of the 
famous Kindergarten system, was a devoted German 
educationist on the principles of Pestalozzi, which com¬ 
bined physical, moral, and intellectual training, com¬ 
mencing with the years of childhood. Born, 1782; died, 

1852. 

Froude, James Anthony ( frood ), an English essay¬ 
ist and historian, was born in Devonshire, in 1818, and 
educated at Oxford. In 1849, appeared from his pen 
that remarkable book, “The Nemesis of Faith.” His 
reputation, however, chiefly rests on his “History of 
England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the' 
Spanish Armada.” Died, 1894. 

Frye, William Pierce, lawyer, United States senator 
from Maine 1881-1911; born in Lewiston, Me., Septem¬ 
ber 2, 1831; graduate of Bowdoin College, 1850 (LL.D., 
1889 ; also LL. D., Bates, 1881) ; studied and prac¬ 
ticed law. Member of Maine Legislature, 1861, 1862, 
and 1867; mayor of Lewiston, 1866-67; attorney- 
general of Maine, 1867-69; presidential elector, 1864; 
member of Congress, 1871-81. Chairman of Commerce 
Commission of Senate; member of Peace Commission, 
Paris, 1898; president pro tem. of the Senate, 1896- 
1901, after the death of Vice-President Hobart; dis¬ 
charged the duties of that office during the 56th Con¬ 
gress; and was also president pro tem. during Mr. 
Roosevelt’s administration. Died, 1911. 

Fuller, Melville Weston, Chief Justice of the 
United States, was born in Augusta, Me., February 11, 
1833. He was graduated from Bowdoin College in 

1853, and attended a course of lectures at Harvard 
Law School. He was admitted to the bar, 1855; 


formed a law partnership at Augusta ; was associate 
editor of “ The Age,” a Democratic paper there, presi¬ 
dent of the common council, and city solicitor. Went 
to Chicago in 1856, and practiced law until 1888. Was 
member of the Illinois State Constitutional Convention, 
1862, and of the legislature, 1863-65. Chief Justice of 
the United States, from 1888 to 1910. Died, 1910. 

Fulton, Robert, an American engineer, was born in 
Pennsylvania in 1765; began life as a miniature por¬ 
trait and landscape painter, in which he made some 
progress, but soon turned to engineering. He was one 
of the first to apply steam to the propulsion of vessels, 
and devoted much attention to the invention of sub¬ 
marine boats and torpedoes; he built a steamboat to 
navigate the Hudson River, with a very slow rate of 
progress, however, making only five miles an hour. 
Died, 1815. 

Funston, Fred, brigadier-general of United States 
Army; born in Ohio, November 9, 1865; graduate of 
Iola, Kan., high school, 1886; studied in Kansas State 
University, Lawrence, two years, but was not gradu¬ 
ated; reporter, Kansas City, 1890; botanist in United 
States Death Valley expedition, 1891; commissioner for 
Department of Agriculture to explore Alaska and report 
on its flora, 1893, camping on the Klondike in winter of 
1893-94; floated down Yukon, alone, in a canoe; joined 
insurgent army in Cuba, 1896; served eighteen months; 
was wounded; returned to United States; commissioned 
colonel of 20th Kansas Volunteers, 1898; went to Philip¬ 
pines; took part in several battles; for crossing Rio 
Grande River at Calumpit on small bamboo raft in face 
of heavy fire and establishing rope ferry, by means of 
which the United States troops were enabled to cross 
and win the battle, he was promoted to brigadier-general 
of United States Volunteers, May 2, 1899. Continued 
in active service in Philippines. Organized and com¬ 
manded expedition resulting in capture of Aguinaldo, 
head of Filipino insurrection, and was appointed briga¬ 
dier-general of United States Army, March 30, 1901; 
commanding department of California, with headquarters 
at San Francisco, 1905-07. 

Gainsborough, Thomas ( ganz'bro ), an English 
painter, born in Sudbury in 1727, was the first great 
landscapist of the English school. His works, highly 
prized by collectors, excel in richness of coloring and 
vigor of chiaroscuro. Died, 1788. 

Galen, or Galenus, Claudius, born in Pergamus, in 
Mysia, about A. D. 130; a very celebrated physician, 
who practiced first in his native city, and afterwards in 
Rome, where he attended the emperors Marcus Aurelius 
and Lucius Verus. He was the author of a large num¬ 
ber of medical and philosophical writings, of which 
upwards of eighty are still extant. Died about 200. 

Galilei, Galileo, astronomer and natural philosopher; 
born in Pisa in 1564; was educated first in Florence, 
but afterwards returned to Pisa to study medicine, 
for which profession his father designed him. Here, 
after becoming known as an opponent of the Aristo¬ 
telian maxims, he discovered, in 1582, the law of the 
vibrations of the pendulum. Soon afterward he began 
to study mathematics, and was appointed professor at 
Pisa when only 25. Thence he removed to Padua in 
1592, and during his residence there invented a ther¬ 
mometer and constructed his first telescope, the inven¬ 
tion of which he had heard of at Venice. He also made 
astronomical discoveries, and was reestablished in 1610, 
at Florence, by his patron, Cosimo de’ Medici. Here it was 
that his opposition to traditional views, and especially 
his advocacy of the Copernican doctrine that the sun 
was the center of the universe, brought him into con¬ 
flict with the Inquisition, but proceedings were dropped 
on Galileo’s promise not to teach the obnoxious doctrine. 
On the publication, however, in 1632, seventeen years 
after, of his “Dialogue” on the same subject, he was 
again summoned to Rome, condemned to imprisonment 
for life, and required to solemnly recant his opinion. He 
was confined at first in the house of one of the Inquisi¬ 
tors, his pupil, but was afterwards allowed to live in 
Florence, where he died, having been blind four years. 
His works were published in Florence in the years 
1843-46. Died, 1642. 

Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins (gal-law-det '), an 
American philanthropist, was born in Pennsylvania in 
1787, and died in 1851. He founded the first deaf and 
dumb asylum in the United States at Hartford, Conn. 

Gallinger, Jacob H., M. D., United States senator 
from New Hampshire, 1891-1915; born in Cornwall, 
Ont., March 28, 1837; academic education; graduate 
in medicine, 1858 (hon. A. M., Dartmouth); practiced 
medicine until he entered public life. Member of New 
Hampshire Legislature, 1872-73, 1891; State constitu¬ 
tional convention, 1876; State senator, 1878, 1879, 
1880; president of State Senate, 1879, 1880. Surgeon- 




436 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


general of State, with rank of brigadier-general, 1879-80. 
chairman of Republican State Committee, 1882-90, 
1898-1907; member of Congress, 1885-89. 

Galvani, Luigi, born in Bologna, September^, 1737; 
a celebrated Italian physiologist, from whom “Galvan¬ 
ism” derived its name. He was educated for the pro¬ 
fession of medicine, and, in 1762, was appointed lecturer 
on anatomy in the University of Bologna, in which city 
he practiced. It was while holding this lectureship that 
he made those discoveries, partly by means of experi¬ 
ments on the muscles of frogs, which he published to 
the world, in 1791, in his treatise entitled, “De Yiribus 
Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius.” The 
now fully-established doctrine of animal electricity owes 
its origin to the patient and laborious investigations 
(at first little thought of) of the Bologna professor. 
Died, December 4, 1798. 

Gambetta, Leon Michel, born in 1838; French 
statesman; son of a grocer of Cahors; went as a young 
man to Paris with the object of practicing at the bar, 
but did nothing remarkable till his thirtieth year. In 
1868, he attracted notice by his conduct of the defense 
in the “proces Delescluze,” and in the next year was 
elected deputy for both Paris and Marseilles, when he 
immediately became the most influential member of the 
Opposition. After the outbreak of the war, in the 
midst of the siege of Paris, he went to Tours in a bal¬ 
loon, and was chiefly instrumental in organizing the 
government and the conduct of the war. During the 
years between the treaty of peace that followed and 1879, 
Giambetta was chiefly occupied with the progressive 
development of Opportunism. In the latter year it 
was his influence which, in the main, brought about the 
abdication of Marshal MacMahon. On the election of 
M. Gr6vy, he became president of the chamber, and, 
in 1881, prime minister of France, but held office only 
a few months, resigning on January 27, 1882, after 
which he took very little part in affairs. He died on 
December 31st of the same year, from a wound accident¬ 
ally inflicted on himself by a pistol shot. 

Gardiner, Samuel Rawson, born in 1829; English 
historian; was educated at Winchester and Christ 
Church. In 1884, he was elected fellow of All Souls’, 
and was for some years professor of modern history at 
King’s College, London. His historical works include 
“The History of England from the Accession of James I. 
to the Disgrace of Chief Justice Coke,” “Prince Charles 
and the Spanish Marriage,” “England Under the Duke 
of Buckingham and Charles I.,” “The Personal Govern¬ 
ment of Charles I.,” and the “Fall of the Monarchy of 
Charles I.,” all these being republished as a continuous 
work in 1883-84; “An Introduction to the Study of 
English History” (with J. B. Mullinger), “History of 
the Great Civil War,” and a complete “History of 
England.” Died, 1902. 

Garfield, James Abram, born in Orange Township, 
Cuyahoga County, Ohio, November 19, 1831; the twen¬ 
tieth president of the United States. He was elected 
to'the presidency at the close of 1880, and entered upon 
office in the spring of the following year; but on the 
2d of July, he was shot by an assassin (Guiteau) 
while at the Washington station of the Baltimore & 
Potomac Railway, and died at Elberon, New Jersey, 
after lingering for nearly three months. His early 
poverty, his manly independence, his hard-won attain¬ 
ments, and his incorruptible integrity, had all caused 
his career to be watched as that of a man of excep¬ 
tional powers and of brilliant promise; and his untimely 
death was mourned, not only by his own countrymen, 
but by the whole civilized world. Died, September 
19, 1881. 

Garfield, James Rudolph, ex-secretary of the Inte¬ 
rior; son of James Abram Garfield, twentieth president of 
the United States; was born in Hiram, Ohio, October 17, 
1865; graduate of Williams College, Massachusetts, 1885; 
studied at Columbia Law School; admitted to the bai¬ 
rn 1888; member of Ohio Senate, 1896 to 1899; member 
of United States Civil Service Commission from 1902 to 
February, 1903; commissioner of corporations, Depart¬ 
ment of Commerce and Labor, from February, 1903, to 
March, 1907. Secretary of the interior in cabinet of Pres¬ 
ident Roosevelt, 1907-09. In law practice, Cleveland, O., 
since 1909. 

Garibaldi ( gar-e-bal'de ), an Italian patriot, began 
life as a sailor. He associated himself enthusiastically 
with Mazzini for the liberation of his country, but being 
convicted of conspiracy, fled to South America, where, 
both as a privateer and a soldier, he gave his services 
to the young republics struggling there for life. Re¬ 
turning to Europe, he took part in the defense of Rome 
against France, but being defeated, fled to New York, 
to return to the Isle of Caprera, biding his time. He 
joined the Piedmontese against Austria, and, in 1860, 


set himself to assist in the overthrow of the Kingdom of 
Naples and the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel. 
Landing in Calabria, he entered Naples, and drove the 
royal forces before him without striking a blow, after 
which he returned to his retreat at Caprera, ready still 
to draw sword, and occasionally offering it again in the 
cause of republicanism. Born in 1807; died in 1882. _ 

Garrick, David, English actor, son of a captain in 
the army; was born in Hereford in 1717, and went to 
London with Dr. Johnson in 1736, to study law. On 
the death of his father, however, he joined his brother, 
a wine merchant, but soon gave this up to go on the 
stage. He made his first appearance, under the name 
of Lyddal, at Ipswich, in 1741, and soon after played 
“Richard” in the theater of Goodman’s Fields, where 
his success enabled him to get an engagement at Drury 
Lane. In 1742, he went to Dublin; in 1747, became 
joint patentee of Drury Lane, two years later marrying 
Mademoiselle Violette. He acted at Drury Lane until 
1776, when he retired and sold his share in the concern. 
His last appearance w r as on June 10th, as Don Felix in 
"The Wonder.” He died on January 20, 1779, and 
was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, born in 1805; American 
abolitionist, of humble birth; was apprenticed at the 
age of 13 to the printer of the “NewSuryport (Mass.) 
Herald,” for which paper he afterwards wrote. In 1826, 
he became owner and editor of the “Free Press,” and 
in the next year, editor of the “National Philanthropist,” 
in which temperance and emancipation were advocated. 
In 1831, he started “The Liberator,” and from hence¬ 
forth devoted himself entirely, at great personal risk, 
to the cause of slavery abolition. He visited England 
five times— 1833, 1846, 1848, 1867 and 1877,— and was 
well received. In 1847, “Sonnets and Other Poems” 
from his pen were published, and, in 1852, a selection 
from his speeches and writings. Died, 1879. 

Gaskell, Elizabeth, born in 1810; English novelist 
(n6e Stevenson), married a Unitarian minister, and wrote 
“Mary Barton” (1848), “Moorland Cottage” (1850), 
and several contributions to “Household Words,” 
which included “Cranford” and “North and South”; 
“Wives and Daughters” was appearing in the “Corn- 
hill” at the time of her death. She also wrote a biog¬ 
raphy of Charlotte Bronte. She was a friend and 
helper of Thomas Wright, and was very active in char¬ 
itable works during the cotton famine. Died, 1865. 

Gates, Horatio, American general; born in England 
in 1728, and accompanied General Braddock, but sub¬ 
sequently purchased an estate in Virginia, where he 
lived until the outbreak of the war in 1775, when he was 
appointed by Congress adjutant-general. He per¬ 
formed many services to the American cause, the great¬ 
est of which was the defeat of Burgoyne at Saratoga. 
In the latter part of the war he held a command in the 
South, and was not so successful, being defeated by Lord 
Cornwallis at Camden. Died, 1806. 

Gatling, Richard Jordan, born in 1818; American 
inventor; a doctor by profession. In 1850, he invented 
a double-acting hemp-brake, and, in 1857, a steam 
plough; but his most celebrated invention was that of 
the revolving gun, which bears his name, the conception 
of which came to him in 1861. In 1865, the gun was 
improved and tested, and w r as forthwith brought into 
use by the United States service; and several European 
governments also adopted it. Among Dr. Gatling’s 
later inventions were an improved method of casting 
steel cannon and a pneumatic gun for discharging 
explosives. Died, 1903. 

Gauss, Karl Friedrich, born in 1777; German 
mathematician and astronomer, patronized by the Duke 
of Brunswick, who defrayed the expenses of his education 
at Brunswick and Gottingen, where in 1801 he produced 
“ Disquisitiones Arithmetic®.” In 1807, he became 
professor and director of the observatory at Gottingen, 
and held the position until his death. During this period 
he brought out many works on pure mathematics, astron¬ 
omy, and other sciences, among w r hich the chief are 
“Theoria Motus Corporum Ccelestium, in Sectionibus 
conicis Ambientium,” “ Recherches sur la G£od£sie 
superieure,” and invented the Heliotrope. Died in 1855. 

Gengis Khan, born in 1162; Emperor of the Mon¬ 
gols, whose real name was Temoutchin, the title meaning 
“the chief of the most powerful.” Having consolidated 
the Tartar tribes, he marched against the Emperor of 
China, whose general he was, overran his empire (1212- 
1214), ravaged northern India, which he temporarily 
subdued, and penetrated into Russia through Persia. 
Having reached the Crimea, sacked numerous towns, 
and slaughtered millions of men, the Tartars returned. 
Died, 1227. 

Genseric, born in 406; King of the Vandals, reigned 
at first with his brother Gonderic, afterwards alone, and 




BIOGRAPHY 


437 


greatly strengthened the Vandal power in Spain. In 
429 he invaded northern Africa, stamped out Christianity, 
and from his new capital, Carthage, made incursions on 
the inhabitants of Italy and Sicily. In 455, being in¬ 
vited to Rome by the widow of Valentinian to take part 
against his murderer Maximus, he caused the city to 
be sacked for fourteen days, and carried away among 
his prisoners the Empress Eudocia and her children, be¬ 
sides much treasure. Died, 477. 

George is the name given to four (Hanoverian) kings 
of England. George I. (Lewis), son of Ernest Augustus, 
Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, granddaughter of James 
I., was born at Osnaburg, 1660, and died in 1727. He 
succeeded his father, 1698, and on the death of Queen 
Anne was declared her successor under the act of settle¬ 
ment which excluded the Roman Catholic descendants 
of James II. George was entirely ignorant of the Eng¬ 
lish language, and was only tolerated by the English 
people. George II. (Augustus), son and successor of 
the former, was born at Hanover, 1683; crowned in 1727, 
and died in 1760. George distinguished himself in the 
general European War of 1740, in which he was the 
ally of Austria against France, Spain, and Prussia, and 
commanded in person in the victory over the French at 
Dettingen, 1743. In 1756, war was renewed, and George 
allied himself with Frederick the Great of Prussia against 
France in the Seven Years’ War. George III., grandson 
of the former, and son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, 
was born in 1738, and died in 1820, after the longest 
reign of any English monarch. George IV., son and 
successor of the former, was born in 1762, and died in 
1830. He was an unpopular monarch, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his brother, William IV. 

George V., King of Great Britain and Ireland, Em¬ 
peror of India, and second son of Edward VII., was 
born at Marlborough House, London, June 3, 1865. 
After the death of his elder brother, Albert, in 1892, he 
became heir apparent to the British throne and took his 
seat in the House of Lords as Duke of York. Upon the 
accession of Edward VII. in 1901, he received the title 
of Duke of Cornwall. At this time he made a tour of 
the world, visiting all the great British colonies and on 
his return was created Prince of Wales. In July, 1893, he 
married Princess Victoria May of Teck, and six children 
were born to them. Upon the death of Edward VII., 
the new king ascended to the throne, under the title of 
George V., May 7, 1910, and was formally crowned in 
Westminster Abbey, June 22, 1911. He was crowned 
emperor of India at the durbar at Delhi, December 12, 
1911. 

George, Henry, American land reformer; was born 
in Philadelphia, in 1839, and, after being successively 
in a counting-house and a printer’s office and at sea, 
settled in California, and in 1866 joined the staff of a 
San Francisco paper. He afterwards became editor of 
two papers there, and wrote his first essay on the land 
question in “Our Land and Land Policy,” published in 
1871. In 1880 removed to New York, and the next year 
visited Ireland on his way to England. “Progress and 
Poverty” was written in 1879, and its author under¬ 
took lecturing tours in 1883 and 1889 in support of his 
principles. Besides this book he published “The Irish 
Land Question,” “Social Problems,” and “Protection 
or Free Trade.” In 1886 he was a candidate for the 
mayoralty of New York. Died, 1897. 

Gibbon, Edward, English historian; born in Putney 
in 1737, and educated at Westminster and Magdalen 
College, Oxford. While at the university he was re¬ 
ceived into the Roman Church, but having been sent to 
a Calvinist at Lausanne became a Protestant again the 
next year. At Lausanne he met Voltaire, and fell in 
love with Mademoiselle Curchod, afterwards Madame 
Necker. He returned to London in 1758, and after a 
short term of service in the Hampshire militia, revisited 
the Cohtinent, staying especially at Paris and Rome. 
When again in England he wrote “ Memoires Litteraires 
de la Grand Bretagne,” and set to work on his great book, 
“The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” the first 
volume of which appeared in 1776 and the last in 1788. 
He entered parliament in 1774, as a supporter of Lord 
North, wrote the “Memoire Justificatif,” and obtained 
a place at the board of trade. From 1783 to 1793, he 
lived at Lausanne, and died (1794) soon after his return. 

Gibbons, James, Roman Catholic cardinal; born in 
Baltimore, July 23, 1834; at early age taken by'parents 
to their former home in Ireland; began his education 
there; returned to United States, and resided in New 
Orleans with his family, 1848; entered St. Charles Col¬ 
lege, Maryland, 1855; transferred, 1857, to St. Mary’s 
Seminary, Baltimore; ordained priest, June 30, 1861; j 
assistant St. Patrick’s, Baltimore, for a few months; 
then pastor of St. Bridget’s, Canton (suburb of Balti- 
gaqre); later private secretary to Archbishop Spalding 


and chancellor of the archdiocese: assistant chancellor, 
second plenary council of American Roman Catholic 
Church, Baltimore, October, 1866; vicar apostolic of 
North Carolina, with rank and title of bishop, 1868; coad¬ 
jutor archbishop of Baltimore, May 20, 1877; succeeded 
to the see, October 3, 1877; presided at third national 
council at Baltimore, November, 1884; was nomi¬ 
nated as cardinal; invested with the princely insignia, 
June 30, 1886. Author: “The Faith of Our Fathers,” 
“Our Christian Heritage,” “The Ambassador of Christ.” 

Gibson, Charles Dana, illustrator; born in Rox- 
bury, Mass., September 14, 1867; educated at Flushing, 
L. I., also Art Students’ League, New York, 1884-85; 
has done much illustrating in principal magazines; also 
illustrated numerous books. Author: “Sketches in 
London,” “People of Dickens,” “Drawings,” “Pictures 
of People,” “Sketches and Cartoons,” “The Education 
of Mr. Pipp,” “Sketches in Egypt,” “The Americans,” 
“A Widow and Her Friends,” “Tlie Social Ladder.” 

Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau, professor of Greek in 
Johns Hopkins since 1876; born in Charleston, S. C., 
October 23, 1831; graduated at Princeton, 1849, A. M., 
1852; studied at universities of Berlin, Bonn and Got¬ 
tingen (Ph. D., 1853; LL. D., William and Mary, 1869, 
Harvard, 1896, Yale, 1901, University of Chicago, 1901; 
D. C. L., University of the South, 1884; L. H. D., 
Princeton, 1899); professor of Greek, 1856-76, and of 
Latin, 1861-66, University of Virginia. Editor “Ameri¬ 
can Journal of Philology ” since it was founded, 1880. 
Author: “Latin Grammar,” “Latin Series” (primer, 
reader, school Latin grammar, Latin composition, etc.), 
“ Essays and Studies,” " Greek Syntax.” Editor: “Per- 
sius,” “Justin Martyr,” “Odes of Pindar.” 

Gilman, Daniel Coit, educator; born in Norwich, 
Conn., July 6, 1831; graduated at Yale, 1852 (A. M., 
1855); continued studies in Cambridge, New Haven 
and Berlin (LL. D., Harvard, 1876; St. John’s, Md., 1876; 
Columbia, 1887; Yale, 1889; University of North Caro¬ 
lina, 1889; Princeton, 1896; University of Toronto, 
1903; University of Wisconsin, 1904); librarian, secre¬ 
tary of Sheffield Scientific School, and professor of physi¬ 
cal and political geography, Yale, 1856-72; president 
of University of California, 1872-75; first president of 
Johns Hopkins University, 1875—1902; first president 
of Carnegie Institution, Washington, 1901-04. Author 
“Bi-centennial Discourse, Norwich, Conn.,” “Inaugural 
Address,” “Life of James Monroe,” “University Prob¬ 
lems,” “Introduction to De Tocqueville’s Democracy 
in America,” “Life of James D. Dana, geologist,” “Sci¬ 
ence and Letters in Yale,” editor-in-chief, “New Inter¬ 
national Encyclopaedia. ” Died, 1908. 

Giotto, Ambrogiotto Bondone, born in 1276; 
Italian painter and architect; pupil of Cimabue and 
friend of Dante, whose portrait he painted at Ravenna; 
was son of a citizen of Florence, and apprenticed to a 
woolstapler; painted frescoes at Assisi, and was probably 
the founder of the modern school of portrait painting. 
About 1299 he went to Rome, where he painted and 
worked in mosaics; and subsequently was employed 
at Padua and Florence, where his frescoes in the Peruzzi 
chapel of Santa Croce were discovered in 1863. He also 
painted the “Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes,” at 
Naples, and designed the campanile of Florence. He 
died in 1337, and was buried in the cathedral there. 

Girard, Stephen ( zhe-rahrd'), an American philan¬ 
thropist, born near Bordeaux, France, in 1750; rose 
from a humble sphere of life to become a trader in 
Philadelphia, in 1776, in which city he eventually be¬ 
came a merchant and banker, and amassed a large 
fortune. Dying in 1831, he bequeathed over $2,000,- 
000 to the erection of a college for orphan boys, con¬ 
ducted on rigidly secular principles. This building, the 
finest in the Grecian style in the United States, was 
commenced in 1833, and completed in 1848. 

Gladden, Washington, author, Congregational cler¬ 
gyman; born in Pottsgrove, Pa., February 11, 1836; 
graduate of Williams, 1859 (D. D., Roanoke College, Va., 
LL. D., University of Wisconsin and Notre Dame Uni¬ 
versity, Ind.); held several pastorates and editorial 
positions prior to becoming (1882) pastor of First Con¬ 
gregational Church, Columbus, O.; especially known as 
writer upon social reforms. Author: “Plain Thoughts 
on the Art of Living,” “From the Hub to the Hudson,” 
“Workingmen and Their Employers,” “Being a Chris¬ 
tian,” “The Christian Way,” “The Lord’s Prayer,” 
“The Christian League of Connecticut,” “Things New 
and Old,” “The Young Men and the Churches,” “Ap¬ 
plied Christianity,” “Parish Problems,” “Burning Ques¬ 
tions,” “Santa Claus on a Lark,” “Who Wrote the 
Bible,” “Tools and the Man,” “The Cosmopolis City 
Club,” “The Church and the Kingdom,” “Seven Puz¬ 
zling Bible Books,” “Social Facts and Forces,” “Art 
and Morality,” “The Christian Pastor,” “-How Much 





438 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


is Left of the Old Doctrines,” ‘‘Straight Shots at Young 
Men,” ‘‘Social Salvation,” ‘‘The Practice of Immor¬ 
tality,” “Where Does the Sky Begin?” "Christianity 
and Socialism.” 

Gladstone, William Ewart ( gl&d'stun ), statesman, 
orator, and scholar; born in Liverpool in 1809, son of 
a Liverpool merchant, sometime of Leith, and of Ann, 
daughter of Andrew Robertson, Stornoway; was edu¬ 
cated at Eton and Oxford, and entered parliament in 
1832, as member for Newark in the Tory interest. 
Gladstone delivered his maiden speech on slavery eman¬ 
cipation, June 3, 1833; accepted office under Sir Robert 
Peel in 1834, and again in 1841 and 1846; as mem¬ 
ber for Oxford, separating from the Tory party, took 
office under Lord Aberdeen, and, in 1859, under Lord 
Palmerston, became chancellor of the __ exchequer; 
elected member for South Lancashire in 1865, he became 
leader of the Commons under Lord John Russell; 
elected for Greenwich, he became premier for the first 
time in 1868, holding office until 1874; after a brilliant 
campaign in Midlothian, he was returned for that 
county in 1880, and became premier for the second 
time; became premier a third time in 1886, and a fourth 
time in 1892. During his tenure of office, he intro¬ 
duced and carried a great number of important meas¬ 
ures, but failed from desertion in the Liberal ranks to 
carry his pet measure of home rule for Ireland, so he 
retired from office into private life in 1895, and spent his 
last days chiefly in literary work, the fruit of which, added 
to earlier works, gives evidence of the breadth of his 
sympathies and the extent of his scholarly attainments. 
Being seized by a fatal malady, his strong constitu¬ 
tion gradually sank under it, and he died at Hawarden, 
May 19, 1898, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Glasgow, Ellen Anderson Gholson, novelist; born 
in Richmond, Va., April 22, 1874; private education. 
Author: “The Descendant,” “Phases of an Inferior 
Planet,” “The Voice of the People,” “The Freeman 
and Other Poems,” “The Battle Ground,” “The Deliv¬ 
erance.” 

Godfrey de Bouillon, crusader, King of Jerusalem; 
set out in 1096; took Nicsea and Antioch; defeated the 
Saracens, and, in 1099, after a month’s siege, took 
Jerusalem and slaughtered the inhabitants. In the 
same year he was elected king, but refused to assume 
the title, and won the battle of Ascalon, dying, probably 
by poison, in 1100. 

Goethals, George Washington, was born in Brook¬ 
lyn in 1858. He was a student at College of city 
of New York, 1873-76; graduated from United States 
Military Academy, 1880. Appointed second lieutenant 
engineers, 1880; first lieutenant, 1882; captain, 1891; 
lieutenant colonel chief engineer volunteers, 1898; hon¬ 
orably discharged from volunteer service, 1898; major 
engineering corps, 1900; graduated from Army War Col¬ 
lege, 1905; lieutenant colonel engineers, 1907; colonel, 
1909. Chief of engineers during Spanish-American war; 
member board of fortifications (coast and harbor defense); 
chief engineer Panama canal since 1907. 

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, German poet. 

f ihilosopher, and romance writer; was born in Frank- 
ort-on-the-Main in 1749, of noble family, and received 
a liberal education. At sixteen, he went to Leipzig to 
study law, to which, however, he did not confine him¬ 
self. After about two years’ study of alchemy and 
mystical writers, he went to Strassburg in 1770, where 
he came under the influence of Herder. On his return 
to Frankfort, two years later, he published “Goetz von 
Berlichingen ” and “Die Leiden des Jungen Werther,” 
the latter of which was immensely popular. In 1775, 
he went to Weimar, where the grand duke gave him 
the office of chamberlain; and, in 1786, to Italy, where 
he traveled for two years, and conceived some of his 
greatest works. The dramas of “ Iphigenia,” “ Egmont,” 
and “Torquato Tasso” were produced between 1786 
and 1790, in which year also the first fragments of 
“Faust” were published. In 1794, Goethe’s botanical 
researches brought him into connection with Schiller. 
In 1796 he produced “Wilhelm Meister.” The results 
of his scientific studies were, besides “The Metamor¬ 
phosis of Plants,” the “Beitrage zur Optik” (1791-92), 
and a book on the theory of color, “ Farbenlehre.” 
published in 1810, in opposition to Newton’s theories. 
Meanwhile “Hermann und Dorothea” had appeared 
in 1797, and the greater part of “.Faust” in 1808, the 
latter not being finished until the year before his death. 
In the same year he accompanied the Grand Duke of 
Weimar to Erfurt, and had an interview with Napoleon. 
During his last years he was occupied with his auto¬ 
biography. Died, 1832. 

Goldsmith, Oliver, born in 1728; English poet and 
romance writer; son of a poor Irish clergyman of Pallas, 
Longford, went as sizar, in 1744, to Trinity College, 


Dublin, where he led a miserable life until he took his 
degree five years later. After this — having failed to 
obtain ordination, took pupils for a time, and lost his 
money by extravagance — he went to Edinburgh in 
1752, and from thence to Leyden; but, after staying 
there a year, found himself penniless, and traveled to 
London through France, Switzerland, and Northern Italy, 
supporting himself by flute playing. After a precarious 
existence as a surgeon, an author, and a literary hack, he 
produced, in 1759, his “Inquiry into the Present State of 
Polite Learning in Europe.” This sold well, and gained 
for the author the acquaintance of Dr. Johnson. Soon 
after he was engaged to contribute to the “Public 
Ledger,” writing the famous “Chinese Letters,” after¬ 
ward published as “The Citizen of the World.” His next 
important work was the “ Letters from a Nobleman to His 
Son.” “The Traveler” followed in 1765, and “The 
Vicar of Wakefield ” (sold for fifty guineas only) in 1766, 
but Goldsmith was improvident as ever. As a dramatist 
he became known as the writer of the “Good-Natured 
Man,” brought out at Covent Garden in 1768, and “She 
Stoops to Conquer” in 1773, and as a poet by “The 
Deserted Village ” (1770), and his last work, “The Retali¬ 
ation.” He wrote numerous other works, among which 
may be mentioned “Animated Nature.” He died, 
heavily in debt, in 1774. 

Gompers, Samuel, president of American Federation 
of Labor; born in England, January 27, 1850; cigar- 
maker by trade; has been advocate of the rights of 
labor, and connected with the efforts to organize the 
working people since his 15th year; one of the founders 
of American Federation of Labor and editor of its official 
magazine; has written a number of pamphlets on the 
labor question and the labor movement; with an inter¬ 
mission of one year, has been president of American 
Federation of Labor since 1882. 

Goodwin, Nathaniel C., actor; born in Boston in 
1857; studied under Wyzeman Marshall, then manager 
of Boston Theater; went to New York and played in 
“Law in New York,” 1876, and later as Captain Crosstree 
in “Black-eyed Susan” (burlesque); starred in Rice’s 
“Evangeline,” “Hobbies,” “The Member from Slocum,” 
“In Mizzoura,” “Nathan Hale,” and other plays. 

Goodwin, William Watson, educator; born in 
Concord, Mass., May 9, 1831; graduate of Harvard, 
1851; studied at universities of Gottingen, Berlin, and 
Bonn (Ph. D., Gottingen, 1855; LL. D., Amherst, 1881; 
Cambridge, Eng., 1883; Columbia, 1887; Edinburgh, 
1890; Harvard, 1891; Chicago, 1901; Yale, 1901; 
D. C. L., Oxford, Eng., 1890). Tutor at Harvard, 

1856^60; first director of American School of Classical 
Studies, Athens, Greece, 1882-83; knight of Greek Order 
of the Redeemer; professor of Greek literature, Har¬ 
vard, 1860-1901; professor emeritus, 1901; overseer of 
Harvard, 1903-9. Author: “Syntax of the Moods 
and Tenses of the Greek Verb,” “Greek Grammar.” 
Editor: “ Demosthenes on the Crown.” Died, 1912. 

Goodyear, Charles, the inventor of vulcanized 
rubber, was born in New Haven, Conn., in 1800. His 
career was a troubled one; he failed as an iron-founder, 
and when, after ten years’ labor, amidst every disad¬ 
vantage of poverty and privation, he, in 1844, produced 
his new method of hardening rubber by means of sul¬ 
phur, he became involved in a fresh series of troubles, 
as well as poverty, consequent on the infringement of 
his inventions. His patents latterly amounted to sixty, 
and both medals and honors were awarded him in Lon¬ 
don and Paris. Died, 1860. 

Gordon, Charles George, major-general, born in 
Woolwich, January 28, 1833; a distinguished military 
commander and administrator, who was killed while 
defending Khartoum against the forces of the Mahdi 
during the expedition to the Soudan in 1884-85. He 
had already distinguished himself in the course of the 
Crimean War, and, subsequently, in China and in India. 
From 1865 to 1871, he lived quietly ^t Gravesend, 
devoting himself chiefly to works of philanthropy; but 
in the latter year he was appointed British representa¬ 
tive on the European Commission of the Danube, and, 
two years later, governor of the equatorial provinces of 
Egypt. He held this position with marvelous success 
until the close of 1876, when he returned to England; 
but, in 1877, upon the khedive’s earnest solicitation, 
he went out once more to the Soudan, afterwards serv¬ 
ing his own government for a time in India and in South 
Africa. In January, 1884, he accepted from the king 
of the Belgians the command of the anti-slavery expe¬ 
dition which was about to be dispatched to the region 
of the Congo; but, before he could set out, he was 
offered by the English Government, and accepted, a 
commission to go again to the Soudan, on the enter¬ 
prise which ultimately cost him his life. Died, January 
26, 1885. 



BIOGRAPHY 


439 


Gordon, George Angier, Congregational clergyman; 
born in Scotland, January 2, 1853; educated in common 
schools, Insch, Scotland; graduate of Harvard, 1881 
(D. D., Bowdoin and Yale, 1893; S. T. D., Harvard, 
1895); Minister of Old South Church, Boston, since 1884; 
lecturer in Lowell Institute Course, 1900; Lyman 
Beecher lecturer, Yale, 1901, Author: “The Witness 
to Immortality,” “The Christ of To-day,” “Immortality 
and the New Theodicy,” “.The New Epoch for Faith.” 
University preacher to Harvard, 1886-90; Yale, 
1888-1901; Harvard overseer since 1897. 

Gorky, Maxim, pen name of Alexei Maximovitch 
Pyeshkoff, a self-educated Russian novelist, born in 
Nizhni-Novgorod, 1868; son of an upholsterer. After 
the death of his parents, he was engaged in various 
occupations until, through the influence of his friend 
Ivalushni, his attention was turned to literary work, 
and his first story, “Makar Chudra,” appeared in 1892. 
He is one of the most original and popular of modern 
Russian writers. In 1905, he was imprisoned for a time 
for political offenses. Among his works are “The Song 
of the Falcon,” “The Song of the Petrel,” “The Orloff 
Couple,” “Malva,” “Foma Gordyeeff,” “Children of 
the Sun,” and “The Barbarians.” 

Gouin, Sir Lomer, prime minister and attorney 
general of Quebec since 1905, was born at Grondines, 
province of Quebec, 1861. He was educated at Sorel 
and L6vis, province of Quebec. Admitted to province 
of Quebec bar, 1884; Queen’s counsel, 1900; elected 
member provincial parliament for Montreal, 1897; 
appointed member of public instruction council, 1898; 
minister of colonization and public works, Quebec, 1900; 
reelected by acclamation for Montreal (St. James divi¬ 
sion), 1900, 1904, and 1905; elected for Portneuf, 1908. 

Gould, George Jay, American capitalist, eldest son 
of Jay Gould, was born in New York City, February 6, 
1864; received private education. Early in life he began 
railway management, and became president of the Little 
Rock Junction Railway in 1888. In 1892 he was elected 
president of the Manhattan Elevated Railway Company 
of New York City; he was elected president and chair¬ 
man of boards of directors of numerous railways and 
corporations in succeeding years. 

Gould, Helen Miller, philanthropist, born in New 
York City, June 20, 1868; daughter of late Jay and Helen 
Day (Miller) Gould; identified with benevolent work; 
gave United States Government $100,000 at beginning 
of war with Spain; active member Women’s National 
War Relief Association; gave freely to its work; at 
Camp Wyckoff made care of sick and convalescent 
soldiers her personal care, and gave $50,000 for needed 
supplies. Married F. J. Shepard in 1913. 

Gounod, Charles Francois, French composer; 
born in Paris in 1818, and educated at the Conservatoire 
under Halevy and Zimmermann, whose daughter he 
married in 1852. In 1839, he gained the prize for com¬ 
position, and, after visiting Rome and Vienna, became 
an organist in Paris, where, in 1849, a high mass by him 
attracted attention. “Sappho,” his first opera, was 
produced in 1851, and the composer was soon after 
appointed director of the Orpheon. After some minor 
works, “Faust” appeared in 1859, being brought out at 
the Th^&tre Lyrique. “Mereille” followed in 1864, and 
“Romdo et Juliette” in 1867. Of his later works the 
chief are “Jeanne d’Arc,” “The Redemption,” and 
“Mors et Vita.” Died, 1893. ( t 

Graaf, Regnier de, Dutch physician and anatomist, 
was born in Schoonhoven, 1641. He rendered great ser¬ 
vice to anatomy through his use of injections into the 
blood vessels, which Swammerdam and Ruysch afterward 
brought to a state of comparative excellence. Author of 
works on the functions of the pancreas and on the gener¬ 
ative organs. Died, 1673. 

Gracchus ( grdk'-kus ), Caius Sempronius, a Roman 
orator and statesman who, as tribune, was the originator 
of many excellent laws; was born B. C. 159, and killed 
in a massacre organized by Opimius, 121. His brother, 
Tiberius Sempronius, born B. C. 163, was elected tribune, 
and was also killed, B. C. 133, in an uprising of the patri¬ 
cians against his proposal to distribute the public lands. 

Grant, Frederick Dent, major-general United 
States Army; born in St. Louis, May 30, 1850; son of 
Ulysses S. and Julia D. Grant; graduated at West Point, 
1871; assigned to fourth cavalry, was lieutenant-colonel 
United States Army when he resigned his commission, 
1881; afterward United States minister to Austria; 
and police commissioner of New York, 1894-98. 
Became colonel of the 14th New York volunteer 
infantry upon the beginning of war for Cuba, and 
May 27, 1898, was appointed brigadier-general, United 
States volunteers. Served in Porto Rico one year, and 
after war commanded military district of San Juan; 
transferred to Philippines, April, 1899; commanded 


second brigade, first division, 8th Army Corps (Lawton’s); 
occupied advance of southern line fighting battles of 
Big Bend, October 3, and Binacian, October 6, 1899; 
transferred November 1, 1899, to second brigade, second 
division, for the advance into Northern Luzon, where 
this brigade covered flanks and rear of McArthur’s di¬ 
vision; later detached to invade provinces of Batuan 
and Zamballes; assigned January, 1900, to district 
Northern Luzon, which he commanded during guerilla 
war (this district was first brought under control to ac¬ 
cept civil government); transferred to separate brigade, 
Southern Luzon, October, 1901 —order restored; trans¬ 
ferred, April, 1902, to Sixth Separate Brigade, Samar, 
where he received surrender of last of insurgent forces; 
appointed brigadier-general United States Army, Febru¬ 
ary 18, 1901; commanded department of Texas, 1902; 
January 15, 1904, department of lakes until Septem¬ 
ber 28, 1904; major-general, 1906; commanded depart¬ 
ment of the East, 1904-08. Died, 1912. 

Grant, Ulysses Simpson, born in 1822; American 
general and statesman; entered the army in 1843/and 
served with distinction in the Texas campaign of 1845. 
In 1848, he married, and in 1854, resigned his commis¬ 
sion. During the Civil War he captured Fort Henry 
(February, 1862), and Fort Donelson; won the battle 
of Shiloh (April 6-7); defeated Price at Iuka (September 
19), and for his capture of Vicksburg in July, 1863, 
was made major-general. He further distinguished 
himself by the relief of Chattanooga in November, and 
was voted a gold medal for his services. In March, 1864, 
he became lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief 
of the Federal Armies, and in little more than a year 
brought the war to a close. On July 25, 1866, he was 
named general of the armies of the United States, and 
in 1868, became president, being reelected in 1872. He 
successively superintended the pacification of the South¬ 
ern States, the restoration of the finances, and the dis¬ 
banding of the army, and he obtained from England 
the payment of the Alabama claims. On his retirement 
from office he made a tour round the world. Having 
lost his moderate fortune in an unfortunate speculation, 
he wrote an account of his life, which, being successful, 
to some extent relieved him. He died, in 1885, of can¬ 
cer, after a year’s severe suffering. 

Grattan, Henry, born in 1746; Irish patriot, edu¬ 
cated at Trinity College, Dublin, and called to the Irish 
bar in 1772; entered the Irish Parliament in 1775, and 
became an Opposition leader. In 1780 he moved that 
the crown was the only link between England and Ire¬ 
land, and in 1782, by means of the volunteer movement, 
succeeded in obtaining legislative independence for his 
country. His views on Catholic emancipation were 
not shared by the whole of his party, and, after the re¬ 
call of Fitzwilliam, power passed from his hands to the 
United Irishmen. Having been some years in retire¬ 
ment, he actively opposed the union, and after an inter¬ 
val of two years entered the British Parliament as mem¬ 
ber for Malton. He was offered office by Fox, but re¬ 
fused; supported the Irish insurrection bill of 1807, 
and devoted his last years to the cause of the Catholic 
emancipation. Died, 1820. 

Gray, Asa, a distinguished American botanist; born 
in Paris, Oneida County, N. Y., in 1810; graduated in 
medicine in 1831; became Fisher professor of natural 
history in 1842 at Harvard, and in 1874, succeeded 
Agassiz as regent of the Smithsonian Institution. His 
writings did much to promote the study of botany in 
America on a sound scientific basis, and also to forward 
the theories of Darwin. In conjunction with Doctor 
Torrey, he wrote “The Flora of North America,” and 
by himself various manuals of botany and “Natural 
Science and Religion.” Died, 1888. 

Gray, George, jurist; born in New Castle, Del., 
May 4, 1840; graduated at Princeton, 1859 (A. M., 1863; 
LL. D., 1889); studied law at Harvard; admitted to 
bar, 1863; practiced at New Castle, 1863-69; afterward 
at Wilmington; attorney-general of Delaware, 1879-85; 
United States senator, 1885-99; Democrat; member 
foreign relations and judiciary committees in senate; 
in 1896 affiliated with the national (gold standard) 
Democrats in the presidential election; member Peace 
Commission, Paris, 1898; appointed by the president 
member of the Joint High Commission at Quebec, 1898; 
made member of the International Permanent Court of 
Arbitration under The Hague convention, November, 
1900, reappointed, 1913; judge United States Circuit 
Court, third judicial circuit, since 1899; chairman 
Anthracite Coal Strike Commission, 1902. 

Gray, Thomas, an English poet, was born in Lon¬ 
don, 1716, and educated at Cambridge, in which uni¬ 
versity he became professor of modern literature in 1768. 
His “Odes” occupy a high rank in English poetry, and 
his well-known “Elegy written in a Country Church- 






440 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


yard” (1749), is one of the most perfect compositions 
of its kind in the language. Died, 1771. 

Greeley, Horace, born in 1811; American journalist 
and politician; son of a New Hampshire farmer; came 
to New York, and, after some failures, established in 
1841, the ‘‘New York Tribune,” in which he supported 
Lincoln and the Union. In 1848, he became a member 
of Congress, and, though not prominent there, was one 
of the founders of the Republican party in 1854. He 
ultimately, however, became a Democrat, and unsuc¬ 
cessfully opposed Grant for the presidency in 1872, but 
died the same year. He twice visited Europe. He 
was author of ‘‘The American Conflict,” “What I 
Know about Farming,” and “Recollections of a Busy 
Life.” 

Green, John Richard, English historian; born in 
Oxford in 1837, and educated at Magdalen College school 
and Jesus College; took orders in 1860, and was some 
time vicar of St. Philip’s, Stepney, becoming in 1869, 
librarian at Lambeth. He was author of “ A Short His¬ 
tory of the English People,” “A History of the English 
People,” “The Making of England,” and “The Conquest 
of England,” published after his death, in 1883, by his 
wife, who assisted him in various other works, and her¬ 
self wrote “Henry II.” in the “Twelve English States¬ 
men” series. Died, 1883. 

Greene, Nathanael, born in 1742; American general; 
educated himself, and broke with the Quakers on ac¬ 
count of his later military pursuits; distinguished him¬ 
self at the battle of the Brandywine; was defeated several 
times by Cornwallis, but won the battle of Eutaw Springs. 
Died, 1786. 

Gregory I., Pope, called the “Great”; was ap¬ 
pointed by the Emperor of the East, Governor of Rome, 
but, on inheriting his father’s wealth, resigned it, and 
became Abbot of St. Andrew’s, Rome. After being 
secretary to Pelagius II., he succeeded him as Bishop 
of Rome; renounced communion with the Eastern 
Christians because of the assumption of the title “Uni¬ 
versal Bishop” by the patriarch of Constantinople; 
composed chants, and established a musical school, in 
■which he himself taught, and collected and arranged 
fragments of ancient hymns. He was a great opponent 
of secular learning, but was author of numerous sacred 
works, of which the chief was his “Morals from the Book 
of Job.” Died, 604. 

Gregory VII., “Hildebrand”; born in 1020; a man 
of modest birth, who became monk of Clugny and Arch¬ 
deacon of Rome; exercised great influence over Leo IX. 
and succeeding popes, till he was himself appointed, in 
1073, to succeed Alexander II. He attacked simony 
and concubinage in the Church, and carried the power 
of the papacy to a high pitch, declining to submit to rati¬ 
fication of election from the emperor, and attempting 
to enforce spiritual control over the sovereigns of Europe. 
He was firmly opposed by William I. of England and 
Philip I. of France; he was deposed by Henry IV. of 
Germany w'hom he afterward excommunicated and com¬ 
pelled to do penance in 1077. He died in Salerno, in 
1085, where he had been taken after his rescue from the 
castle of St. Angelo by the Normans of Apulia. 

Grevy, Francois Paul Jules, born in 1807; French 
statesman, came to the front at Paris as a defender of 
republicans in political cases, and in 1848, was elected a 
member of the constituent assembly. He joined the 
Cote Gauche, became vice-president of the Assembly, 
and opposed the presidency of Louis Napoleon. In 1868, 
his native department (the Jura) returned him for the 
Assembly, and, on resuming public life, he strongly op¬ 
posed the second empire. He became president of the 
Assembly in 1871, and was reelected three times. Be¬ 
tween 1873 and 1876, when he was a private member, 
he strongly opposed the Monarchists, and he afterwards 
vigorously resisted the schemes of MacMahon, on whose 
resignation, in 1879, he became Presidentof the Republic, 
in which office he displayed much tact, and in 1885, 
made peace with China on his own responsibility. In 
December of that year he was reelected, but in 1887, 
was obliged to resign owfing to the discovery of his son- 
in-law’s (M. Wilson) implication in the decoration scan¬ 
dals. Died, 1891. 

Grey, Lady Jane, born in 1537; grand-niece of 
Henry VIII.; was appointed heir to the throne by Ed¬ 
ward VI. in contravention of the previous settlement of 
the succession, and having married a son of Dudley, 
Duke of Northumberland, was made queen and reigned 
ten days; she was beheaded with Lord Dudley in 1554. 

Griggs, James M., congressman, lawyer; born in 
Lagrange, Ga., March 29, 1861; graduate of Peabody 
Normal College, Nashville, Tenn., 1881; taught school 
and studied law; admitted to bar, 1883; practiced at 
Alapaha, Berrien County, Ga.; was for short time in 


newspaper business; removed to Dawson, Ga., 1885; 
solicitor-general (prosecuting attorney) Pataula judicial 
circuit, 1888-93; judge of same circuit, 1893-96; mem¬ 
ber of Congress, 1897-1909; chairman of Democratic 
Congressional Committee, 1902. Died, 1910. 

Grimm, Jakob Ludwig (grim), a German philologist 
born at Hanau, 1785, associated in his literary labors 
with his brother, Wilhelm Karl, born 1786. Their prin¬ 
cipal joint work is the well-known and highly esteemed 
“German Dictionary” bearing their names, and pub¬ 
lished in 1859. Jakob, who died in 1863, was also the 
author of the “Legal Antiquities of Germany,” a “.His¬ 
tory of the German Language,” and “German My¬ 
thology” — all standard works. Wilhelm died in 1859. 

Grosvenor, Charles Henry, lawyer; born in Pom- 
fret, Windham County, Conn., September 20, 1833; went 
to Ohio, May, 1838; attended country log schoolhouse; 
taught school; studied law; admitted to bar, 1857; en¬ 
gaged in practice. Served in Eighteenth Ohio volunteers, 
from 1861 to 1865, as major, lieutenant-colonel, colonel, 
and brevet brigadier-general. Member of Ohio Legis¬ 
lature, 1874-78 (speaker, two years); presidential elec¬ 
tor, 1872 and 1880; trustee Ohio Soldiers’ and Sailors’ 
Orphans’ Home, 1880-88, and president for five years; 
delegate at large to Republican National Convention, 
1896 and 1900; member of Congress 1885-91, and 
again from 1893 to 1907, eleventh Ohio district; 
member of Committee on Ways and Means, and chair¬ 
man of Committee on Mines and Mining, 55th, and 
member of Committee on Ways and Means, Committee 
on Rules, and chairman of Committee on Merchant Marine 
and Fisheries, 56th, 57th, 58th, and 59th Congresses. 
Author: “William McKinley, His Life and Work.” 

Grosvenor, Edwin Augustus, educator, author; 
born in Newburyport, Mass., August 30, 1845; graduate 
from Amherst, 1867, Andover Theological Seminary, 
1872 (A. M., Amherst, 1871; LL. D., Wabash, 1903, 
Alfred University, 1904); professor of history, Robert 
College, Constantinople, 1873-90; professor of European 
history, 1892-98, modern governments and their admin¬ 
istration, 1898-1901, modern government and inter¬ 
national law since 1901, Amherst. Author: “The Hippo¬ 
drome of Constantinople”; “ Constantinople ” (2 vols.); 
“ The Permanence of the Greek Type ”; “ Contemporary 
History”; etc. 

Grote, George, born in 1794; historian and politician; 
educated at the Charterhouse; entered the family 
bankinghouse, but devoted his leisure time to literary 
work. He published many pamphlets on reform, and 
contributed to the “.Westminster Review.” In 1832 
he was elected for the City of London, for which he con¬ 
tinued to sit till 1841, as one of the “Philosophical 
Radicals.” His “History of Greece” appeared between 
1846 and 1856, and was followed by “Plato and Other 
Companions of Socrates.” Died, 1871. 

Grotius, Hugo, Dutch statesman and writer; 
born at Delft, 1583; entered public life as pensionary 
of Rotterdam; went to England in 1615 as a commis¬ 
sioner on the Greenland fisheries’ question, and there 
met Casaubon. As a friend of Barnevelt, and a sup¬ 
porter of Arminius, he was imprisoned by the stadtholder, 
Maurice (1619), but two years after his wife contrived his 
escape, and he went to Paris for some years. After a 
short stay in Holland, and a residence of two years at 
Hamburg, he returned to Paris in 1635, as Swedish 
ambassador, where he remained till shortly before his 
death. Chief among his many works were “Poemata 
Sacra,” “De Jure Belli et Pacis,” and Annotationes in 
Novum Testamentum.” Died, 1645. 

Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de ( groo-she '), a 
marshal of France; born in Paris, 1766. He served 
with distinction under Napoleon I.; received a marshal’s 
baton in 1814, and, in 1815, refused to march his corps 
from Wavre to the assistance of the emperor at Waterloo, 
alleging his having received no order from Napoleon to 
that effect. It is not certain whether he intended to 
betray the cause of Napoleon, but his culpable indecision 
certainly contributed to the disaster which befell the 
French arms. Exiled in the same year, he was restored 
to his rank and honors in 1830, and died in 1847. 

Guericke, Otto von, German philosopher; born 
in 1602 in Magdeburg, of -which he became burgo¬ 
master, after traveling in France and England, and 
studying at Leyden. He invented the air-pump, and 
made experiments before the diet at Ratisbon in 1654. 
He also constructed the first electric machine, and de¬ 
scribed his “Magdeburg Hemispheres,” in his “.Nova 
Experimenta.” Died, 1686. 

Guffey, James 3IcClurg, petroleum producer; born 
in Westmoreland County, Pa., January 19, 1839; edu¬ 
cated in public schools and a term in commercial school; 

! railroad and express clerk in South; returned to Penn- 



BIOGRAPHY 


441 


sylvania, 1872; since then in oil and gas production; 
probably the largest individual oil producer in the United 
States; extensively engaged in silver and gold mining, 
with large bituminous coal holdings; well-known as a 
leader in Democratic politics, and a member for Penn¬ 
sylvania on National Committee, but never held or was 
a candidate for office. 

Guido ( gue'do ), Reni, a famous Italian painter of the 
Bolognese school; born in 1575. After studying 
under the Caracci, he took up his residence in Rome, 
where he obtained the patronage of Pope Paul V. His 
pictures are characterized by an exquisite grace of 
expression and delicacy of touch. Among his “chefs- 
d’oeuvre” may be quoted “The Martyrdom of St. 
Peter” (in the Vatican), “The Assumption,” and “The 
Massacre of the Innocents.” Died, 1642. 

Guiscard, Robert, born in 1015; Norman soldier; son 
of Tancred d’Hauteville; defeated Leo IX. at Civitella, 
and, upon the death of his brother Humphrey, was in¬ 
vested with the dukedom of Apulia. Subsequently he 
rescued Gregory VII. from the Emperor Henry IV., 
invaded the Greek Empire, and died, 1085, when on 
another expedition against it, having defeated the fleets 
of the Eastern Empire and Venice. 

Guiteras, Juan, professor of general pathology and 
tropical diseases, University of Havana, since August, 
1900; born in Matanzas, Cuba, January 4, 1852; edu¬ 
cated at La Empresa, Matanzas; M. D., University of 
Pennsylvania, 1873 (Ph. D.). In marine hospital service, 
1879-89; served as expert in yellow fever in all epi¬ 
demics since 1881; was professor of pathology, Univer¬ 
sity of Pennsylvania ; on staff of General Shafter as yellow 
fever expert in Santiago campaign, 1898. Prominent in 
Cuban politics in this country. Editor “La Revista de 
Medicina Tropical.” 

Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume ( ge-zo '), a dis¬ 
tinguished French scholar, historian, and statesman, 
was born in 1787. As an author, Guizot has 
been pronounced by the “Edinburgh Review,” “the 
greatest French writer of his time, and scarce owning an 
equal in any other country.” His chief works are a 
translation of Gibbon’s “Decline and Fall,” a “History 
of Civilization” (fifth edition, 1845), “Histoire de la 
Revolution d’Angleterre” (1827-56), a “Life of Oliver 
Cromwell,” and a “ History of France” (1870). Died, 1874. 

- Gustavus ( gus-tav’us ) is the name of four kings of 
Sweden. Gustavus I. (Vasa) was born at Stockholm, 
1496. He drove the Danish usurper, Christian II., from 
the country, and was crowned king, 1523; died, 1560. 
Gustavus II. (Adolphus), grandson of above, one of the 
greatest generals of history, was born, 1594; crowned, 
1611; killed at the battle of Liitzen, Germany, 1632. 
He defeated the Prussians and Poles, and as champion 
of the Protestant cause overran nearly the whole of 
Germany. Gustavus III., born in 1746, was crowned, 
1771; assassinated by Ankarstrom, one of his nobles, 
1792. Gustavus IV., born in 1778, succeeded his father, 
Gustavus III., 1792; was deposed, and died in Switzer¬ 
land, 1837. 

Gutenberg, Johann ( goo'ten-bairg ), the inventor of 
the art of printing; born in Mainz, Germany, 1400. 
In 1450, he entered into partnership with John Fust, 
a connection severed five years later by a lawsuit 
between the parties, in consequence of which Gutenberg 
was compelled to resign to Fust all the appliances and 
profits of his invention. Died, 1468. 

Guyot, Arnold, born in 1807; Swiss geographer and 
geologist; came to America in 1848, and devoted his life 
to science; was professor of geology and physical geog¬ 
raphy at Princeton College; formed an intimacy with 
Agassiz, and made numerous maps, mathematical tables 
and text-books. His greatest works were “The Meteor¬ 
ological and Physical Tables,” issued by the Smith¬ 
sonian Institution, and his “Earth and Man.” Died, 
1884. 

Hadley, Arthur Twining, president of Yale since 
June 29, 1899; born in New Haven, Conn., April 23, 
1856; graduate of Yale, 1876; student of University 
of Berlin (LL. D., Harvard, 1899; Columbia, 1900; 
Johns Hopkins, 1902). Tutor, 1879-83, lecturer, 1883-86, 
Yale; appointed commissioner of statistics, Connecticut, 
1885; professor of political science, Yale, 1886-91. 
Author: “Railroad Transportation, Its History and 
Laws,” “Connecticut Labor Reports, 1885-86,” “Eco¬ 
nomics: An Account of the Relations Between Private 
Property and Public Welfare,” “The Education of the 
American Citizen,” “Freedom and Responsibility.” 
American editor of the tenth edition of Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 

Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich, born in Potsdam, 1834; 
German naturalist, was appointed in 1861 professor of 
zoology at Jena. He afterwards traveled in all parts of 
Europe, and visited Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 


1881, he went to India. His chief works are “Natural 
History of Creation,” “The Origin of the Human Race,” 
“Popular Lectures on Evolution,” contributions to the 
“.Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger,” etc. 

Haggard, Henry Rider, English novelist; born in 
Bradenham, Norfolk, 1856; went to Natal in 1875, as 
secretary to Sir H. Bulwer, and was afterwards master 
of the High Court of the Transvaal. In 1879, he returned 
to England, and published in 1882, “Cetywayo and his 
White Neighbors.” This was followed by several novels, 
the chief of which were “Dawn,” “The Witch’s Head,” 
“King Solomon’s Mines,” and “She,” “Jess,” “Cleopa¬ 
tra,” “Beatrice,” and “Eric Brighteyes,” etc. 

Hahnemann, Christian Samuel Friedrich, born in 
1755; German physician, the founder of homoeopathy, 
to which he was led by experiments made on himself with 
Peruvian bark. He practiced at Leipzig, but was 
obliged to retire on account of the hostility of the apothe¬ 
caries there. He was invited to Kothen by the Duke of 
Anhalt, and afterwards spent eight years in Paris. He 
expounded his system in “Organon of the Healing Art,” 
and other works. Died, 1843. 

Hale, Edward Everett, author, chaplain United 
States Senate; born in Boston, April 3, 1822; studied 
in Boston Latin school; graduate of Harvard, 1839, 
S. T. D., 1879; (LL. D., Dartmouth, 1901, Williams, 
1904); studied theology; licensed to preach; minister 
Church of the Unity, Worcester, Mass., 1846-56; Prom¬ 
inent promoter of “Chautauqua” circles and “Lend-a- 
Hand ” clubs. Editor “ Lend-a-Hand Record.” Author 
(stories): “The Man Without a Country; ” “Ten Times 
One is Ten,” “Margaret Percival in America,” “In His 
Name,” “Mr. Tangier’s Vacations,” “Mrs. Merriam’s 
Scholars,” “His Level Best,” “The Ingham Papers,” 
“Ups and Downs,” “Philip Nolan’s Friends,” 
“Fortunes of Rachel,” “Four and Five,” “Crusoe in 
New York,” “Christmas Eve and Christmas Day,” 
“Christmas in Narragansett,” “Our Christmas in a 
Palace.” Other works: “Sketches in Christian His¬ 
tory,” “Kansas and Nebraska,” “ What Career? ” “Boy’s 
Heroes,” “The Story of Massachusetts,” “Sybaris and 
Other Homes,” “For Fifty Years” (poems), “A New 
England Boyhood,” “Chautauquan History of the 
United States,” “If Jesus Came to Boston,” “Memories 
of a Hundred Years,” “Ralph Waldo Emerson,” “We, 
the People,” “New England Ballads,” “Prayers in the 
United States Senate.” Editor: “Modern Achievement,” 
ten volumes, 1905. Died, 1909. 

Hale, Eugene, United States senator from Maine, 
1881-1911; bom in Turner, Oxford County, Me., June 
9, 1836; academic education (LL. D., Bates College, 
Colby University and Bowdoin College); admitted to 
bar, 1857; county attorney of Hancock County for 
nine years; member of Maine Legislature, 1867, 1868, 
and 1880; member of Congress, 1869-79. Was appoint¬ 
ed postmaster-general by President Grant, 1874, but 
declined; was tendered naval portfolio by President 
Hayes, but declined; delegate to Republican National 
conventions, 1868, 1876, and 1880. 

Hale, Sir Matthew, born in 1609; English judge, 
was called to the bar in 1637. Though a Royalist, he 
was appointed head of the committee for prevention of 
delays and expenses of law in 1652; became a judge of 
common pleas in 1654, and sat in parliament till the 
Restoration, when he was made lord chief baron. In 
1671, he became lord chief justice, and resigned just 
before his death. He wrote a “History of the Pleas of 
the Crown,” “Difficiles Nugae,” and an essay on “Gravi¬ 
tation of Fluids.” Died, 1676. 

Hall, Granville Stanley, president and professor of 
psychology, Clark University, since 1888; born in Ash- 
field, Mass., February 1, 1846; graduate of Williams, 
B. A., 1867, A. M., 1870; Ph. D., Harvard, 1878; 
LL. D., University of Michigan, 1888; Johns Hopkins, 
1902. Professor of psychology, Antioch (O.) College, 
1872—76; studied in Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg and 
Leipzig; lecturer on psychology in Harvard and Williams 
1880-81; professor of psychology, Johns Hopkins, 1881- 
88; married. Author: “Aspects of German Culture,” 
“Hints Toward a Select and Descriptive Bibliography 
of Education” (with John M. Mansfield); “Adoles¬ 
cence” (2 vols.); editor and founder of “The American 
Journal of Psychology;” editor “The Pedagogical Sem¬ 
inary,” “American Journal of Religious Psychology and 
Education.” 

Hallam, Henry, an English historian; born in 
Windsor, in 1777. His greatest works comprise a “View 
of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages,” “The 
Constitutional History of England from the Accession of 
Henry VII. to the Death of George II.,” and his master¬ 
piece, the “ Introduction to the Literature of Europe in 
the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries.” 
Died, 1859. 



442 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Haman, a courtier of Ahasuerus, King of Persia; 
out of motives of personal revenge, sought the extermi¬ 
nation of the Jewish race in that kingdom, in which 
design he was thwarted by Esther, who effected his 
disgrace, about 485 B. C. 

Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian leader, father of 
Hannibal, and head of a faction at Carthage; com¬ 
manded in Sicily in the first Punic War, at the close of 
which he defeated the mercenaries, who had rebelled; 
was killed in battle with the Vettones when meditating 
a fresh attack upon the Romans, 228 B. C. 

Hamilton, Alexander, American general and states¬ 
man; born in the island of Nevis in 1757; published, 
when 17, some papers on the rights of the colonies, and 
before he was 19 was captain of artillery. In 1777, he 
was Washington’s aide-de-camp, in 1782, a member of 
Congress, and, in 1787, a delegate to the convention 
which drew up the American Constitution. Washing¬ 
ton appointed him secretary to the treasury, and, in 
1798, he became second in command of the army, of 
which he became afterwards commander-in-chief. He 
was killed (1804) in a duel with Colonel Burr, Vice- 
President of the United States. 

Hamilton, Sir William, Bart., born in 1788; 
Scottish metaphysician, appointed in 1821 to the pro¬ 
fessorship of civil history in the University of Edin¬ 
burgh. From 1836, when he became professor of 
logic and metaphysics, he was widely known as a 
philosophical writer. His chief books were an edition 
of Reid’s works, “ Discussions in Philosophy, Litera¬ 
ture, and Education,” and his “Lectures,” published 
after his death. He left his library to the University 
of Glasgow. Died, 1856. 

Hamlin, Hannibal, American statesman; born in 
Paris, Maine, in 1809; practiced as a lawyer, and became 
a member of the State Legislature. In 1842, he was 
elected as a Democrat to Congress; was United States 
senator from 1848 to 1857, when he was elected governor 
on the Republican ticket, but resigned immediately on 
again being elected senator. In 1861, he became vice- 
president under Lincoln, whose dews he shared. He 
was again senator from 1869 to 1881, when he was named 
minister to Spain. He was chiefly instrumental in pass¬ 
ing the “Wilmot proviso” through the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives. Died, 1891. 

Hammond, James Bartlett, typewriter inventor; 
born in Boston, April 23, 1839; graduate of University 
of Vermont, 1861; newspaper correspondent during 
Civil War; graduate of Union Theological Seminary, 
1865; studied philosophy and science at University of 
Halle, Germany; devoted many years to mechanical 
experiments; patented, 1880, marketed, 1884, a type¬ 
writing machine made on scientific principles; introduced 
“Ideal” keyboard and true alignment in the “Ham¬ 
mond Typewriter ”; won highest honors in competitions. 
Collaborator on American translation of “ Lange’s Com¬ 
mentary on The Psalms,” 1884. Died, 1913. 

Hammond, John Hays, mining engineer; born in 
San Francisco, March 31, 1855; graduate of Sheffield 
Scientific School, Yale, Ph. B., 1876 (A. M., Yale); 
mining course at Royal School of Mines, Freiburg, 
Baden. Special expert of United States Geological 
Survey, 1880, examining California gold fields; later 
in Mexico, and afterward consulting engineer of Union 
Iron Works, San Francisco, and to Central and Southern 
Pacific railways; has examined properties in all parts 
of the world; became consulting engineer for Barnato 
Bros., 1893, and later for Cecil Rhodes, of whom he 
became a strong supporter; consulting engineer of Con¬ 
solidated Gold Fields of South Africa, British South 
Africa Company, and the Randfontein Estates Gold 
Mining Company. Was one of four leaders in reform 
movement in the Transvaal, 1895-96; after Jameson 
Raid (with which he was not in sympathy), was ar¬ 
rested and sentenced to death; sentence was afterward 
commuted to fifteen years’ imprisonment; and later 
was released on payment of a fine of $125,000; went 
to London and became interested in many large mining 
companies; returned to the United States and has 
traveled extensively, examining mines in United States 
and Mexico. Appointed by President Taft special 
ambassador to coronation of King George V. 

Hampden, John, an English patriot and parlia¬ 
mentary leader, was born in London, in 1594. During 
the twenty-two years he held a seat in the House of 
Commons, he identified himself as an advocate of public 
opinion and champion of popular rights, when the 
latter were encroached upon by Charles I. and his gov¬ 
ernment. He suffered imprisonment for his refusal to 
pay the obnoxious ship money; was one of the framers 
of the Grand Remonstrance; and also one of the five 
members illegally committed to prison by order of the 


king. Hampden was killed in the fight of Chalgrove 
Field, 1643. 

Hancock, John, born in 1737; American politician, 
was one of the leaders in the revolt in Massachusetts, 
the seizure of his sloop, “The Liberty,” being the occa¬ 
sion of a riot in Boston. He was very active in denounc¬ 
ing the “Boston massacre,” and was one of the persons 
whose seizure was attempted by the expedition which 
led to the Lexington affair. He was president of the 
Continental Congress from 1775-77, and governor of 
Massachusetts, 1780—85 and 1787—93. Died, 1793. 

Hancock, Winfield Scott, an American general; 
born in Pennsylvania in 1824; after graduating at West 
Point in 1844, served with great gallantry during the 
Mexican War. Appointed brigadier-general of volun¬ 
teers in 1861, he took part in the campaign on the 
Potomac, fought at Antietam, and commanded a corps 
in the battle of Gettysburg, where he was wounded, 
1863. In August, 1864, Hancock became brigadier- 
general in the regular army; held from August, 1867, 
till March, 1868, the command of the 5th Military Dis¬ 
trict. June, 1880, became the unsuccessful Democratic 
nominee for president. At his death, February 9, 1886, 
he was in command of the Department of the East. 

Handel, George Frederick, the greatest composer 
of oratorio music that has yet appeared, was born in 
Halle, Germany, in 1685. After producing some minor 
operas, etc., in Italy, he settled in England, in 1712, 
where he became chapel-master to George I. In 1738, 
appeared his oratorio of “Saul,” and four years later 
that sublime conception, “The Messiah.” “Samson,” 
“Moses in Egypt,” “Joshua,” and “Jephtha” are his 
later works. Died, 1759. 

Hanly, J. Frank, lawyer; born in St. Joseph, Ill., 
April 4, 1863; educated in common schools, Champaign 
County, Ill. Taught school nine years in Warren 
County, Ind.; admitted to bar, 1889; practiced at 
Williamsport, Ind., 1889-96; elected to State Senate, 
1890; Congress, 1894, serving one term; candidate for 
United States Senate, 1899; governor of Indiana, 
1905-09. 

Hanna, 3Iarc\is Alonzo, an American politician and 
legislator; born in New Lisbon (now Lisbon), Colum¬ 
biana County, O., September 24, 1837. He was ap¬ 
pointed to the United States Senate as a Republican by 
Governor Bushnell, March 5, 1897, to fill vacancy 
caused by the resignation of John Sherman, who re¬ 
signed to accept the position of secretary of state in 
President McKinley’s cabinet; took his seat March 5, 
1897. His term of service under the appointment 
expired in January, 1898, and he was elected for a full 
term, and served until his death in 1904. 

Hannibal, born in 247 B. C.; Carthaginian general, 
son of Hamilcar Barca, who devoted him from an early 
age to war with the Romans. After attacking the 
allies of the latter in Spain, he marched into Italy, over 
the Pyrenees and Alps, and, arriving in 218, won the 
battles of the Ticinus and the Trebia, and next year 
defeated Flaminius on Lake Thrasymenus. After his 
great victory at Cannae in 216, he wintered at Capua, 
but was unable to take Rome. In 203, he returned to 
Africa, and was defeated at Zama in the following year 
by Scipio Africanus. He became chief magistrate at 
Carthage, but was compelled by the hostility of rivals 
to flee to the court of Antiochus. When his surrender 
was demanded by the Romans, he took refuge in Bi- 
thynia, but took poison from apprehension of being 
given up. Died, 183 B. C. 

Hapgood, Norman, editor, author, and critic; born 
in Chicago, March 28, 1868; graduate of Harvard, 
1890; A. M., 1893; LL. B., Harvard Law School, 1893; 
Author: “Literary Statesmen,” “Daniel Webster,” 

"Abraham Lincoln,” “The Stage in America”; Dra¬ 
matic critic of “New York Commercial Advertiser” and 
“Bookman,” 1897-1902; editor of “Collier’s Weekly” 
1903-12. 

Hardy, Thomas, novelist, educated as an architect; 
born in Dorsetshire in 1840, the scene of his novels 
being laid in the south of England, the early Wessex. 
His chief works are “Desperate Remedies,” “Under the 
Greenwood Tree,” “Far from the Madding Crowd,” 
“The Trumpet Major,” “The Woodlanders,” “The 
Mayor of Casterbridge,” and “Wessex Tales,” “Tess of 
the D’Urbervilles,” etc. 

Harlan, John Marshall, associate justice United 
States Supreme Court, 1877-1911; born in Boyle Coun¬ 
ty, Ky., June 1, 1833; graduated at Centre College, Ky., 
1850 (LL. D., Bowdoin, 1883; Centre College, and Prince¬ 
ton, 1884); studied law at Transylvania University; 
practiced at Frankfort; county judge, 1858; Whig 
candidate for Congress in Ashland district, 1859; elector 
pn Bell and Everett ticket, 1860; removed to Louisville 
in 1867 and practiced law there. Colonel 10th Kentucky 



BIOGRAPHY 


443 


regiment in Union Army, 1861-63; attorney-general 
Kentucky, 1863-67; returned to practice; Republican 
nominee for governor, 1871; and again in 1875, his name 
was presented by Republican convention of Kentucky 
for vice-president of United States in 1872; member 
Louisiana Commission, 1877; one of American arbitrat¬ 
ors on Bering Sea Tribunal which met in Paris, 1893. 
Died, 1911. 

Harmon, Judson, lawyer, governor; born in Hamil¬ 
ton County, O., February 3, 1846; graduated Denison 
University, 1866 (LL. D., 1891); graduated Cincinnati 
Law School, 1869. Judge common pleas court, 1876—78; 
superior court of Cincinnati, 1878-87—resigned; attor¬ 
ney-general United States, 1895-97; president Ohio Bar 
Association, 1897-98; member faculty law department, 
University of Cincinnati. Elected Governor of Ohio, 
1908; re-elected, 1910. 

Harold I., King of England, surnamed Harefoot 
on account of his fleetness in runnipg, was second son 
of Canute the Great. He succeeded to the throne in 1037 
and died three years later. 

Harold II., son of Godwin, Earl of Kent, was pro¬ 
claimed King of England in 1066, on the death of Ed¬ 
ward the Confessor; and in the same year utterly de¬ 
feated an invasion of the Norsemen, only to be a few 
days later overthrown himself by William Duke of Nor¬ 
mandy, near Hastings, on the 14th of October. 

Haroun A1 Raschid, born in 763; Caliph of Bagdad, 
organized his dominions against the attacks of the 
Eastern Empire; massacred the Barmecides; com¬ 
pelled Nicephorus to resume payment of his tribute, 
and ravaged his dominions when the peace was not kept; 
sent an embassy to Charles the Great. He died in 809, 
when on an expedition against Khorassan. 

Harper, William Rainey, president of University 
of Chicago 1891-1906: born in New Concord, O., July 26, 
1856; graduated at Muskingum College, 1870 (Ph. D., 
Yale, 1875; D. D., Colby, 1891; LL. D., University of 
Nebraska, 1893, Yale, 1901, Johns Hopkins, 1902); prin¬ 
cipal Masonic College, Macon, Tenn., 1875-76; tutor, 
1876-79; principal preparatory department Denison 
University, Granville, O., 1879-80; professor of Hebrew, 
Baptist Union Theological Seminary, Chicago, 1879-86; 
professor of Semitic languages, Yale, 1886-91, and pro¬ 
fessor Biblical literature, 1889-91; principal Chautau¬ 
qua College Liberal Arts, 1885-91; head professor of 
Semitic languages and literature, 1891 to 1906. Author 
of many text-books. Died in 1906. 

Harriman, Edward Henry, capitalist; born Hemp¬ 
stead, L. I., N. Y., February 25, 1848; son of clergyman; 
common school education. He became a broker’s clerk, 
in Wall Street, at 14; later a stock broker on his own 
account. Was member New York Stock Exchange after 
1870; president and director Southern Pacific Railway; 
director of Union Pacific Railway Co., Delaware & Hud¬ 
son Railroad, Central Pacific Railway, Illinois Central 
Railway, Western Union Telegraph Company, Pacific 
Mail Steamship Company, Oregon Railroad and Naviga¬ 
tion Company, Wells-Fargo and Company, Colorado 
Fuel and Iron Company, National City Bank, etc.; 
trustee Equitable Trust Company. Died, 1909. 

Harris, Joel Chandler, author; born in Eatonton, 
Ga., December 8, 1848; served apprenticeship to printing 
trade; an editor of Atlanta “Constitution” twenty-five 
years. Author: “Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Say¬ 
ings,” “Nights with Uncle Remus,” “Uncle Remus and 
His Friends,” “Mingo,” “ Little Mr. Thimble-finger,” “On 
the Plantation,” “ Daddy Jake, the Runaway,” “Balaam 
and His Master,” “Mr. Rabbit at Home,” “The Story 
of Aaron,” “ Sister Jane,” “ Free Joe,” “ Stories of 
Georgia,” “Aaron in the Wild Woods,” “Tales of the 
Home Folks,” “Georgia, From the Invasion of De Soto 
to Recent Times,” “Evening Tales,” “Stories of Home 
Folks,” “Chronicles of Aunt Minerva Ann,” “On the 
Wings of Occasion,” “The Making of a Statesman,” 
“Gabriel Tolliver,” “Wally Wanderoon,” “A Little 
Union Scout,” “The Tar Baby Story and other Rhymes 
of Uncle Remus,” etc. Died, 1908. 

Harrison, Benjamin, twenty-third president of the 
United States; born in North Bend, O., August 20, 1833. 
He was a great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison, signer 
of the Declaration of Independence, and grandson of 
William Henry Harrison, ninth president of the United 
States. He was graduated at Miami University; studied 
law in Cincinnati; removed to Indianapolis, Ind., in 
1854, and laid the foundation ,of a fine legal practice; 
entered the Union Army in 1862, serving with conspicu¬ 
ous gallantry in the Atlanta campaign, finally returning 
to civil life at the close of the war with the rank of brevet 
brigadier-general; was the Republican candidate for 
governor of Indiana in 1876, but was defeated; entered 
the United States Senate in 1881, and June, 1888, was 
nominated for the presidency of the United States; 


elected in the ensuing November, and inaugurated 
March 4, 1889. His administration wa3 quiet, success¬ 
ful and measurably popular. It was marked by the 
amicable settlement of the trouble with Chile and by the 
passage of the McKinley tariff bill. In 1892 he received 
again the nomination in the Republican National Conven¬ 
tion, but by this time the able and persistent attacks 
of the Democracy on the high tariff policy led to a general 
revulsion against it, and he was defeated at the election 
by Cleveland. He thereupon pursued a private law 
practice, occasionally giving public addresses. He died 
in Indianapolis, Ind., March 13, 1901. 

Harrison, William Henry, born in 1773; ninth 
President of the United States, distinguished himself in 
wars with the Indians, and in that of 1812-14 with Great 
Britain. He was for some time governor of the newly 
formed Territory of Indiana, and was made in 1828 min¬ 
ister to Colombia. After his recall he was an unsuccess¬ 
ful candidate for the presidency, but was elected in 1840 
in opposition to the Democrat, Van Buren. Died, 1841. 

Hart, Albert Bushnell, professor of government, 
Harvard; born in Clarksville, Pa., July 1, 1854; gradu¬ 
ated at Harvard, 1880 (Ph. D., Freiburg, Baden, 1883; 
LL. D., Richmond College, 1902). Author: “Intro¬ 
duction to the Study of Federal Government,” “Epoch 
Maps,” “Formation of the Union,” “Practical Essays 
on American Government,” “Studies in American Edu¬ 
cation,” “Guide’to the Study of American History” 
(with Edward Channing), “Salmon Portland Chase,” 
“ Handbook of the History, Diplomacy, and Government 
of the United States,” “Foundations of American For¬ 
eign Policy,” “Actual Government,” “Essentials of 
American History.” Editor: “Epochs of American 
History” (three volumes), “American History Told by 
Contemporaries” (four volumes), “American Citizen 
Series,” “Source-Book of American History,” “Source 
Readers in American History” (four volumes), “The 
American Nation.” Was joint editor: “ American His¬ 
tory Leaflets,” “ Harvard Graduates’ Magazine,” “Amer¬ 
ican History Review.” 

Harte, Francis Bret, American writer; born in 
Albany in 1839; was at different times a miner, school¬ 
teacher, printer, and editor. From 1864 to 1870 he was 
in San Francisco as secretary of the United States Mint, 
where, in 1870, he published “The Heathen Chinee.” 
He was named American consul at Crefeld in 1878, and 
at Glasgow in 1880, and after leaving the latter in 1885 
lived in London. Chief among his works are “ Condensed 
Novels,” “The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other 
Sketches,” “Poetical Works,” “Tales of the Argonauts,” 
“The Twins of Table Mountain and Other Stories,” 
“By Shore and Sedge,” “A Millionaire of Rough and 
Ready,” “Devil’s Ford,” “AWard of the Golden Gate,” 
etc. Died, 1902. 

Harvard, John, born in 1607; son of a butcher in 
Southwark, was educated at Emmanuel College, Cam¬ 
bridge, and in 1637 married and came to New England, 
but died next year (1638), and left one half of his estate 
to be devoted to the foundation of a college at Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, which subsequently became Harvard 
U niversity. 

Harvey, George Brinton McClellan, editor of 
“North American Review,” and president of Harper & 
Brothers; born in Peacham, Vt., February 16, 1864; 
educated at Peacham Academy; was consecutively re¬ 
porter “Springfield Republican,” “Chicago News,” and 
“New York World”; managing editor “New York 
World”; insurance commissioner, New Jersey; colonel 
and aide-de-camp of governors Green and Abbett, New 
Jersey; constructor and president of various electric 
railroads; bought “North American Review,” March, 
1899; president of Harper & Brothers, October, 1900; 
bought “Metropolitan Magazine,” 1903; editor of “Har¬ 
per’s Weekly” since 1903. 

Harvey, William, born in 1578, English physiolo¬ 
gist; discovered the circulation of the blood. He studied 
at Cambridge and at Padua, and on his return to Eng¬ 
land, became physician at St. Bartholomew’s hospital 
and delivered the Lumleian lectures. His great dis¬ 
covery was described in “Exercitatio Anatomica de 
Motu Cordis et Sanguinis,” published in 1628. He was 
afterwards physician to Charles I. and warden of Merton 
College, Oxford. Died, 1657. 

Hastings, Warren, born in 1732; Englishjidminis- 
trator in India; went to Bengal as a writer in 1750, but 
was seven years later appointed agent of the East India 
Company at the court of the Nabob of Bengal. In 1764, 
he returned to England, where he remained four years 
studying Eastern literature. On his return to India he 
became a member of the council of Madras, and in 1772 
Governor of Bengal, a position which, in 1774, became 
that of Governor-General of India. He was now in¬ 
volved in quarrels with his council, and sent in his resig- 



444 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


nation, which, however, when accepted, he disavowed. 
The Supreme Court decided in his favor, and be was 
reappointed. During his first term of office he sold the 
vale of Rohilcund to Sujah Dowlah and obtained the 
execution of Nuncomar, his enemy. During his second 
term, in order to obtain money, he took those measures 
against the Rajah of Benares and the Nabob of Oude 
which were afterwards charged against him, but left the 
affairs of the company in a very prosperous condition. 
Three years after his return he was impeached before the 
fords for high crimes and misdemeanors, but, after a 
trial which proceeded at intervals for seven years, and 
in spite of the eloquence of Burke and Sheridan, he was 
acquitted in 1795. He was ruined by the expense, but 
was granted an annuity by the court of directors. Died, 
1818. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, an eminent American 
romancist, was born at Salem, Mass., in 1804. He 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, and in 1837 
he published his “Twice-told Tales,” — a work highly 
spoken of by the “North American Review.” In 1846, 
he was appointed surveyor of the port of Salem, and in 
1853, United States Consul at Liverpool, England, a 
position he held for four years. Hawthorne’s reputation 
will mainly rest upon “The Scarlet Letter,” “The 
House of the Seven Gables,” and “The Blithedale Ro¬ 
mance,” works of the very highest order of merit. Died, 
1864. 

Hay, John, an American statesman and writer; 
born in Salem, Ind., 1838. He was graduated from 
Brown University, and settled in Illinois as a lawyer, but 
went to Washington in 1861, as one of Lincoln’s private 
secretaries, acting also as his aide-de-camp. He served 
under generals Hunter and Gillmore with the rank of 
major and assistant adjutant-general. He was subse¬ 
quently in the United States diplomatic service, stationed 
at Paris, Vienna, and Madrid. In 1897, he was made 
ambassador to England, and in 1898, secretary of state. 
His literary reputation rests upon “Pike County Ballads,” 
“Castilian Days,” a volume of travel; and “Life of 
Abraham Lincoln” (with J. G. Nicolay). As secretary 
of state, Mr. Hay gained a standing equal to that of the 
most eminent men who have held that high office. In 
coolness, foresight, and statesmanlike appreciation of 
current and coming events he had no superior among 
contemporary diplomats. Died, 1905. 

Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer; 
born in Austria, 1732, and studied under Porpora. In 
1791, Haydn produced in London six grand symphonies 
followed at Vienna, in 1798, by his “chef-d’oeuvre,” “.The 
Creation.” Died, 1809. 

Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, the nineteenth pres¬ 
ident of the United States, succeeding Grant, was born 
in Ohio, 1822, and practiced law in Cincinnati. Mar¬ 
ried, in 1852, Lucy Ware Webb. He supported Scott 
in 1852, Fremont in 1856, and Lincoln for the presidency. 
He entered the army as major of the 23d Ohio Infantry, 
and participated in the campaigns of West Virginia and 
the battles around Winchester; was severely wounded 
at South Mountain; elected to Congress from Ohio in 
1864; twice governor of Ohio; nominated for the presi¬ 
dency by the Republican Convention at Cincinnati, 
June, 1876, in opposition to S. J. Tilden, of New York; 
took his seat March 4, 1877. Died, 1893. 

Hayne, Robert Young, an American statesman; 
born in South Carolina in 1791; was admitted to the bar 
in 1812; served in the war with Great Britain; and at its 
close returned to his practice in Charleston. He sat in 
the United States Senate from 1823 to 1832. He was a 
vigorous opponent of protection, and in 1832 boldly sup¬ 
ported in Congress the doctrine of Nullification. Daniel 
Webster’s reply ranks among his ablest speeches. In 
November, 1832, South Carolina adopted an ordinance 
of nullification, in December Hayne was elected governor, 
and the State prepared to resist the federal power by 
force of arms. A compromise, however, was agreed to 
and the ordinance was repealed. Hayne died September 
24, 1840. 

Hazlitt, William, born in 1778; critic and essayist, 
son of a Nonconformist minister; as an artist became 
acquainted with Leigh Hunt and Lamb, and published 
his “Essay on the Principles of Human Action,” after 
which he contributed to the “Examiner” many essays, 
including “The Round Table,” “Table Talk,” criticisms 
on “The Spirit of the Age,” and lectured on Elizabethan 
dramatists at the Surrey Institution. He also wrote 
“Characters of Shakespere’s Plays,” “View of the Con¬ 
temporary English Stage,” and a “Life of Napoleon.” 
Died, 1830. 

Hearst, Phoebe, philanthropist; born in 1842; 
maiden name Apperson; married in 1862 George F. 
Hearst, late United States Senator from California, who 


died in 1891. Has established and endowed several kin¬ 
dergarten classes for poor children, and a manual training 
school in San Francisco; several kindergartens, and a 
kindergarten training school in Washington, D. C.; 
made donations to the American University, Washington, 
and given $250,000 to build National Cathedral School 
for girls; donated from $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 for 
buildings for the Greater University of California, having 
previously paid the cost of a competition of the best 
architects of America and Europe for the plans; main¬ 
tains a school for mining engineers at the University of 
California as a memorial to her husband; has built, 
endowed and given thousands of dollars to free libraries, 
established working girls’ clubs, and done much other 
educational and charitable work. 

Hearst, William Randolph, newspaper publisher; 
born in San Francisco in 1863; son of late Senator 
George F. and Phoebe Apperson Hearst; educated in 
public schools, San Francisco, and Harvard. Editor 
and proprietor of “San Francisco Examiner,” 1886; 
bought “New York Journal,” 1895; later bought “Ad¬ 
vertiser,” to secure news franchise, and made it “New 
York Morning American”; started “Chicago Ameri¬ 
can,” 1900, “Chicago Morning Examiner,” 1902, “Bos¬ 
ton American,” 1904, “Los Angeles Examiner,” 1904. 
Elected to 58th and 59th congresses, 11th New York 
district; Democrat. President of National League of 
Democratic Clubs. Candidate for mayor of New York 
on Municipal Ownership ticket, 1905; and for governor, 
1906. Promoter of the Independence League. 

Hedin, Sven Anders, Swedish traveler; born in 
Stockholm, 1865, and educated at Stockholm and in Ger¬ 
many. He began his explorations in Persia in 1885, and 
has traveled through Khorassan and Turkestan, several 
times through Tibet and other parts of Central Asia. 
His books include “Through Asia, 1898,” “Central Asia 
and Tibet,” and “Scientific Results of a Journey in Cen¬ 
tral Asia, 1899-1902.” 

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich ( ha'-gail ), a Ger¬ 
man metaphysician; born in Stuttgart, 1770, became,in 
1801, a lecturer in Jena University; in 1816 entered 
upon the professorship of philosophy at Heidelberg, and 
two years later filled a similar chair at Berlin. 
The Hegelian system of philosophy is looked upon 
as an attempt to combine the real and the ideal, and, 
though perhaps but imperfectly understood so far, it is 
accounted in Germany as forming, or rather associating 
together, the salient doctrines of the Pantheistic school. 
Died, 1831. 

Heine, Heinrich, German poet; born in 1799 in Dus- 
seldorf of Jewish parents, and sent to Hamburg to prepare 
for a commercial life, but preferred studying law. At 
Bonn he was pupil of Schlegel, and at Berlin made the 
acquaintance of Varnhagen von Ense. In 1825, he 
renounced Judaism, and after 1830 lived at Paris, where 
he married Mathilde Mirat. He traveled much, but about 
1847 had an attack of paralysis, and soon after became 
blind. His chief works are “Buch der Lieder,” followed 
by other poems; “Reisebilder,” “Der Salon,” “Ueber 
Borne,” a satire; “Deutschland ein Wintermarchen,” 
and “Atta Troll.” Died, 1856. 

Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand, a Ger¬ 
man scientist; born in Potsdam, 1821, became professor 
of physiology at Heidelberg, 1858. He ranks among the 
ablest of recent natural philosophers; has written many 
profoundly erudite treatises on the relations of physical 
forces; and is the inventor of the ophthalmoscope, an 
instrument for the examination of the ball of the eye. 
Died, 1894. 

Hemans, Felicia Dorothea, nee Browne, born in 
1793; English verse-writer; wrote “Early Blossoms" 
before she was 15, and afterwards “Domestic Affec¬ 
tions,” “ Hymns for Childhood,” etc. She died in Dublin, 
1835, where she lived after Captain Hemans left her. 

Heney, Francis Joseph, lawyer; born in Lima, 
N. Y., March 17, 1859; resident of San Francisco since 
1864; educated at public primary, grammar and night 
schools, 1866-75, University of California, 1879-80, 
Hastings Law School, 1883-84. Admitted to bar, Sep¬ 
tember, 1883; in cattle business in Arizona, 1885-89; 
conducted Indian trader store, Fort Apache, Arizona, 
1886-88; practiced law, Tucson, Arizona, 1889-95; 
took prominent part in litigation by which titles under 
Mexican land grants in Arizona were settled, and in 
argument of three land-grant cases before United States 
Supreme Court; was attorney-general of Arizona, 1893- 
94; removed to San Francisco, 1895, and confined cases 
to civil business until urged by United States Attorney- 
General Knox to undertake land fraud cases at Portland, 
Ore.; discovered conspiracy of United States Attorney 
John H. Hall to protect guilty politicians in consideration 
of reappointment; secured removal and indictment of 



BIOGRAPHY 


445 


Hall, and indictment of Senator Mitchell, George C. 
Brownell, and others. 

Hennepin, Louis, a French recollet friar, missionary, 
i'?^r>^ ra Y e i F * n .North America; born in Flanders about 
1640. At length he embarked for Canada and arrived at 
Quebec in 1675. Between that period and 1682 he ex¬ 
plored the regions afterward called Louisiana, and 
returning to Europe, published an account of his re¬ 
searches. The geographical portions of his works are 
feeble but they present much interest as descriptions of 
the manners of the aboriginal races which the author 
visited. He died in Utrecht about 1706. 

Henry I., King of England; born in 1068, youngest 
sob William I., seized the throne on the death of 
William II. (1100), and forced Robert to be content with 

Normandy, but deprived him of this also after the battle 

of Tenchebrai; married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm 
III. and descendant of the Saxon kings; established 
Justices in Eyre,” the court of exchequer, and a 
standard of weights and measures, abolished the curfew, 
and compromised the Investiture question by an agree¬ 
ment with Paschal II. His charter was the foundation 
of the Great Charter. Died, 1135. 

Henry II., born in 1133, grandson of last-named, and 
sob of Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet; came to the 
throne in 1154, having married Eleanor of Aquitaine (di¬ 
vorced wife of Louis VII.), and acquired by the marriage 
G.uienne and Poitou; put down private war and juris¬ 
dictions, and subdued the last great feudal rising, which 
was aided by W illiam the Lion, of Scotland, whom he com¬ 
pelled to do homage; was engaged in a long quarrel with 
Becket as representative of the immunity of clerks from 
civil jurisdiction, and sanctioned the first expedition 
against Ireland, afterwards accepting the kingdom. 
His last years were much troubled by wars with his sons. 
The most important enactments of his reign were the 
Assizes of Clarendon and Northampton, and the Assizes of 
arms, besides the grant of charters to towns. He was the 
most powerful prince of his time, was offered the im¬ 
perial throne, and possessed by various titles the greater 
part of France. Died, 1189. 

Henry III., born in 1207, son of John by Isabella of 
Ang 9 uleme; came to the throne in 1216 when a minor, 
and in the course of a long reign provoked much hostility 
by his foreign favorites and his submission to papal 
exactions, discontent culminating in the Barons’ War 
(1263-65), in which he was defeated at Lewes and com¬ 
pelled to submit to control of the government by De 
Montfort and his friends. These, however, quarreled 
among themselves, and at Evesham, De Montfort was 
defeated and slain. During this reign the Great Charter 
(with important clauses omitted) was frequently renewed, 
and Westminster Abbey was almost entirely built. 
Died, 1272. 

Henry VII., born about 1457; first of the Tudor 
Dynasty, son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort, 
a descendant of John of Gaunt; invaded England in 
1485, and defeated Richard III. at Bosworth, after 
which he married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 
His reign was marked by three Yorkist risings, which he 
defeated, by the measures he enforced against the nobles, 
by his system of marriages with foreign princes, and the 
enactment of Poyning’s law. Died, 1509. 

Henry VIII., born in 1491; son of Henry VII., 
whom he succeeded in 1509; married Catherine of 
Aragon, wife of his deceased brother, his divorce from 
whom was the proximate cause of the Reformation. 
Papal jurisdiction was renounced, more especially by 
the Acts of Supremacy and of Appeals, but the king 
was strongly averse to doctrinal changes. The early 
years of the reign were marked by a war with France, 
in which Henry took part in person; attempts at union 
with Scotland were made, but defeated by French and 
papal influence; a system of balance was maintained in 
foreign relations; a large amount of ecclesiastical prop¬ 
erty was annexed to the Crown, which gained complete 
control over the Church: the rising called the Pilgrimage 
of Grace was suppressed; and the king became prac¬ 
tically absolute, being granted by parliament the right 
of making laws by proclamation, and of settling the 
succession in his will. Died, 1547. 

Henry II., King of France, was born in 1519; son of 
Francis I., whom he succeeded in 1547. By his alliance 
with the German Protestants, he acquired Metz, Toul, 
and Verdun, while he also regained Calais from the 
English. He carried on his father’s war with Spain 
with some'success until the disaster at St. Quentin, and 
died (1559) of a wound inflicted in a tournament held 
to celebrate its conclusion by the marriage of his daugh¬ 
ter and Philip II. 

Henry IV., of France, was born in 1553; as son 
of Anthony of Navarre, a descendant of Louis IX., 
was founder of the Bourbon Dynasty, succeeding Henry 


III. in 1589. His marriage with Marguerite de Valois, 
in 1572, was the occasion of the Bartholomew massa¬ 
cres. In 1576, he quitted the court and became leader 
of the Huguenots and opponent of the League, being 
the rival of the Guises for the succession. He defeated 
them at Arques and Ivry, but was unable to conquer 
Paris without becoming a Roman Catholic, which he 
did in 1593. He concluded peace with Philip II. at 
Vervins, and issued the Edict of Nantes. The rest of 
his reign was occupied by domestic reforms. He was 
assassinated by Ravaillac, 1610. 

Henry IV., of Germany, born in 1050; son of 
Henry III., began the Investiture disputes with the 
papacy, in the course of which he deposed Gregory VII., 
but was himself excommunicated and deposed, and was 
obliged to submit at Canossa in 1077, but, in 1084, 
again invaded Italy, and captured Rome. In Germany 
he had enemies in Rudolf of Swabia (whom he defeated 
finally at Wolksheim in 1080), in the Saxons, and in 
his sons, Conrad and Henry, by the latter of whom he 
was dethroned. Died, 1106. 

Henry, Joseph, an eminent American physicist; 
born in Albany, N. Y., in 1797; was appointed pro¬ 
fessor of natural philosophy in the College of New 
Jersey at Princeton, in 1832; and, in 1846, was called 
to the office of secretary or director of the Smithsonian 
Institution at Washington, to the organization and wide 
reputation of which he had mostly contributed. Henry 
made most important discoveries in electro-magnetism. 
Died, 1878. 

Henry, Patrick, born in Virginia in 1736; American 
orator and statesman; practiced as an advocate in 
Virginia, where he first came into prominence in 
1763, by his pleading in the case of clerical incomes; 
was an active opponent of the Stamp Act, and the 
chief leader of the revolution in Virginia, being more 
extreme in his views than Washington. He was for 
some years governor of his State, during which he 
opposed the Federal Constitution as not democratic 
enough. He was an eloquent but reckless speaker, and 
was obliged to resume his profession in order to cover 
his heavy debts. Died, 1799. 

Hepburn, William Peters, ex-congressman; born in 
Wellsville, O., November 4, 1833; taken to Iowa Terri¬ 
tory, April, 1841; educated in local schools and in a 
printing office; admitted to bar, 1854; in Union army, 
1861-65; captain, major, and lieutenant-colonel, 2d 
Iowa cavalry; presidential elector, 1876 and 1888; 
member of Congress, 1881-87, and 1893-1909. He 
was Chairman of Committee on Interstate and Foreign 
Commerce, and author of the Hepburn Bill to regulate 
interstate commerce. 

Herbert, Victor, conductor, composer; born in 
Dublin, Ireland, February 1, 1859. Began musical edu¬ 
cation in Germany at 7, studying under leading masters; 
first position of prominence that of principal violoncello 
player in court orchestra, Stuttgart; heard in concerts 
throughout Europe before coming to the United States 
as solo violoncellist in Metropolitan Orchestra, New 
York, 1886; since then has been connected with Theo¬ 
dore Thomas’s, Seidl’s, and other orchestral organizations 
as soloist and conductor. Bandmaster of 22d Regiment 
Band, New York, since 1894; conductor of Pittsburgh, 
Pa., Orchestra, 1898-1904; Victor Herbert’s New York 
Orchestra since 1904. Composer: “The Captive” (ora¬ 
torio written for and performed at Worcester, Mass., 
Festival); “ Prince Ananias,” “ The Wizard of the Nile,” 
“The Serenade,” “Cyrano de Bergerac,” “The Ameer,” 
“The Viceroy,” “The Idol’s Eye,” “The Fortune Teller,” 
“The Singing Girl,” “Babette,” “Babes in Toyland,” 
“It Happened in Nordland ” (all comic operas). Also 
several compositions for orchestra, songs, and a concert 
for violoncello and orchestra. 

Herod the Great, born in 62 B. C.; King of Judaea; 
put to death his wife, Mariamne, and two sons; massa¬ 
cred the children of Bethlehem, and rebuilt the Temple. 
Died, 4 B. C. 

Herodotus, born in Halicarnassus, in Caria, 484 
B. C.; an eminent Greek historian, usually called “the 
Father of History.” His great work, for which he ap¬ 
pears to have collected the materials during long travel, 
is believed to have been written at Thurii. It comes 
down to 478 B. C.; and, except for the author’s love of 
the marvelous, his history is considei'ed one of the most 
trustworthy of all ancient histories, while in the grace 
of its style it is unrivaled. The best English translation 
of Herodotus is probably that by Canon Rawlinson 
(1858-60). Died, in Thurii, in Italy, about 424 B. C. 

Herschel, William, Sir, an eminent astronomer; 
born in Hanover, in 1738, and died in 1822. Most 
of his life was spent in England. John Frederick Wil¬ 
liam, his son, who was also distinguished in the same 
line, was born in England in 1792, and died in 1871. 




446 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, ascended the throne of 
Judah in 726 B. C. He uprooted idolatry, and 
obtained the help of God against the Assyrians under 
Sennacherib, who had invaded his dominions. Died, 
697 B. C. 

Higginson, Henry Lee, banker; born in New York, 
November 18, 1834; entered Harvard, 1851, but did 
not complete course. Employ^ in counting-house of 
S. & E. Austin, Boston; then went to Vienna; studied 
music; served in United States volunteers in Civil War, 
becoming major and brevetted lieutenant-colonel of 1st 
Massachusetts cavalry; severely wounded at Aldie, Va., 
June, 1863; member of Lee, Higginson & Company, 
bankers, Boston. He has devoted a considerable sum to 
organization of a symphony orchestra in Boston. 

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, American writer; 
born in Cambridge, Mass., in 1823; at first a Unitarian 
minister, entered keenly into the movement against 
slavery, and was severely wounded during the Civil 
War. Among his works are “Malbone: an Oldport 
Romance,” and “Oldport Days,” “Harvard Memorial 
Biographies,” “Brief Biographies of European States¬ 
men,” “Common Sense About Women,” “Women 
and Men,” “Part of a Man’s Life,” and many other 
books. Died, 1911. 

Hildreth. Richard, born in 1807; American his¬ 
torian; autnor of a “History of the United States,” 
“Japan as It Was and Is,” “The White Slave,” a novel; 
was for some time consul at Trieste. Died, 1865. 

Hill, David Jayne, diplomat; born in Plainfield, 
N. J., June 10, 1850; graduate of Bucknell University, 
Pa., 1874; A. M. (LL. D., Colgate, University of Penn¬ 
sylvania, Union); student in Universities of Berlin and 
Paris. President of Bucknell University, 1879-88; 
president of University of Rochester, 1888-96; resigned; 
spent nearly three years in study of public law of Europe; 
professor of European diplomacy in School of Compar¬ 
ative Jurisprudence and Diplomacy. Washington, 
1899-1903. Assistant secretary of state of United States, 
1898-1903, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipo¬ 
tentiary of United States to Switzerland, 1903-05; to the 
Netherlands, 1905-07; ambassador to Germany, 1908-11. 
Author: “Life of Washington Irving,” “Life of William 
Cullen Bryant,” “Elements of Rhetoric,” “Science of 
Rhetoric,” “Elements of Psychology,” “Social Influ¬ 
ence of Christianity,” “Principles and Fallacies of 
Socialism,” “Genetic Philosophy,” “International Jus¬ 
tice,” “A Primer of Finance,” “The Conception and 
Realization of Neutrality,” “The Life and Work of 
Hugo Grotius,” “The Contemporary Development of 
Diplomacy,” “A History of Diplomacy in the Inter¬ 
national Development of Europe.” Also numerous 
political pamphlets in English and German, and printed 
addresses. 

Hill, James J., railway magnate; born near Guelph, 
Ont.., September 16, 1838; Scotch-Irish descent; edu¬ 
cated in Rockwood Academy; left his father's farm for 
business life in Minnesota; was in steamboat offices in 
St. Paul, 1856-65; agent of Northwestern Packet Com¬ 
pany, 1865; later established general fuel and transpor¬ 
tation business on his own account; head of Hill, Griggs 
& Company, same line, 1869-75; established, 1870, 
Red River Transportation Company, which was first to 
open communication between St. Paul and Winnipeg; 
organized, 1875, the Northwestern Fuel Company, and 
three years later sold out his interest, in the meantime 
having organized a syndicate which secured control of 
the St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, from Dutch owners of 
the securities; reorganized system as St. Paul, Minne¬ 
apolis & Manitoba Railway Company, and was its 
general manager, 1879-82; vice-president, 1882-83; 
president 1883-90; it became part of Great Northern 
system, 1890; interested himself in building the Great 
Northern Railway, extending from Lake Superior to 
Puget Sound, with northern and southern branches, 
and a direct steamship connection with China and 
Japan, 1883-93; president of entire Great Northern 
system, 1893-1907. Gave $500,000 toward establishing 
Roman Catholic Theological Seminary at St. Paul, 
Minnesota. 

Hoar, George Frisbie, statesman; born in Concord, 
Mass., August 29, 1826; graduated from Harvard Col¬ 
lege in 1846, and afterwards from the Dane Law School, 
Harvard. He practiced law at Worcester, was elected 
to the State Legislature in 1852,- to the State Senate in 
1857; was member of Congress 1869-77, and United 
States Senator from 1877 until his death. He has left 
valuable memoirs of his observations during his long 
career. Died in Worcester, Mass., September 30, 1904. 

Hobbes, Thomas, philosopher; born in Malmes¬ 
bury in 1588, and educated at Oxford; met Descartes 
and Gassendi at Paris when tutor to members of the 
Devonshire family; was afterwards mathematical tutor 


to Prince Charles (Charles II.). He received a pension 
at the Restoration, but his chief works were censured 
by parliament; these were "The Leviathan” and “De 
Cive.” He also wrote “Behemoth,” a history of the 
Civil War. Died in 1679. 

Hobson, Richmond Pearson, congressman; born 
in Greensboro, Ala., August 17, 1870; graduated from 
United States Naval Academy, 1889; also student at 
ficole National Superieur des Mines and Bcole d’Appli- 
cation du Gdnie Maritime, Paris. Served on flagship 
‘‘New York” in blockade duty, in bombardment of Man- 
tanzas, in expedition against San Juan de Puerto Rico; 
commanded collier “ Merrimac” and sunk her in Santiago 
harbor; prisoner in Spanish fortress, June 3 to July 6, 
1898; inspector of Spanish wrecks; in charge of opera¬ 
tions to save same; success with “Teresa” ; on duty in far 
East, 1899-1900; directed reconstruction at Hong-Kongof 
three Spanish gunboats—‘ ‘ Isla de Cuba,’ ’ ‘ ‘ Isla de Luzon, ’ ’ 
and ‘‘Don Juan de Austria”; in charge of construction 
department, Cavite, P. I.; special representative Navy 
Department, Pan-American Exposition, 1901, Charles¬ 
ton Exposition, 1901-02; superintending naval construc¬ 
tion, Crescent shipyard, Elizabeth, N. J., May-June, 
1902; resigned from United States Navy, February 6, 
1903, and elected to Congress from the sixth Alabama 
district, 1907. Author: “A Study of the Situation and 
Outlook in Europe,” “The Disappearing Gun Afloat,” 
“The Yacht Defender, and the Use of Aluminum in 
Marine Construction,” “The Sinking of the Merrimac,” 
“Why America Should Hold Naval Supremacy,” “Para¬ 
mount Importance of Immediate Naval Expansion,” 
“America Must be Mistress of the Seas.” 

Hodges, George, dean. Episcopal Theology School, 
Cambridge, Mass., since 1894; born in Rome, N. Y., 
October 6, 1856; graduated from Hamilton, 1877 (A. M., 
1882; D. D., Western University of Pennsylvania, 1892; 
D. C. L., Hobart, 1902); ordained deacon, 1881; priest, 
1882; assistant, 1881-89; rector, 1889-94, Calvary 
Church, Pittsburgh. Author: “The Episcopal Church,” 
“Christianity Between Sundays,” “The Heresy of Cain,” 
“In This Present World,” “Faith and Social Service,” 
“The Battles of Peace,” “The Path of Life,” “William 
Penn” (Riverside Biographical Series), "Fountains 
Abbey,” “The Human Nature of the Saints,” “When 
the King Came,” “The Cross and Passion.” 

Hoe, Robert, manufacturer, inventor; born in New 
York, 1839; educated at public schools; entered print¬ 
ing press factory of R. Hoe & Company, founded by 
his grandfather Robert. He developed the printing 
press from the “Hoe cylinder” of the 1846 patent to the 
present double-sextuple Hoe, and also presses of greatly 
improved type for printing in colors; also manufacturer 
of circular saws and saw-bits. Had large factories in 
New York and London. One of founders Metropolitan 
Museum of Art. Died, 1909. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, jurist; born in Boston, 
Mass., March 8, 1841; graduated from Harvard, 1861; 
Harvard Law School, 1866 (LL. D., 1895; Yale, 1886); 
served three years 20th Massachusetts volunteers; 
wounded in breast at Ball’s Bluff, October 21, 1861, in 
neck at Antietam, September 17, 1862, in foot at Marye’s 
Hill, Fredericksburg, May 3, 1863. Engaged in practice 
in Boston; editor “American Law Review,” 1870-73; 
member law firm of Shattuck, Holmes & Munroe, 1873- 
82; professor of law, Harvard Law School, 1882; 
associate justice, 1882-99, chief justice, 1899-1902, Su¬ 
preme Judicial Court, Massachusetts; associate justice 
Supreme Court of United States since December 4, 1902. 
Author: “The Common Law” (lectures at Lowell 
Institute), “Speeches,” etc. Edited: “Kent’s Commen¬ 
taries” (twelfth edition). 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, born in Cambridge, Mass., 
1809; a distinguished American author and man of 
letters. He published one or two novels, besides 
essays and poems, but is best known for his three works, 
“The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table,” “The Professor 
at the Breakfast Table,” and “The Poet at the Breakfast 
Table.” These first appeared in the “ Atlantic Monthly,” 
and are full of a quaint knowledge, breadth of thought, 
and genial humor which will keep them favorites wher¬ 
ever the English language is spoken. Died, October 7,1894. 

Holst, Hermann Eduard von, a German-American 
historian; born in Fellin, Livonia, Russia, June 19, 1841. 
Coming to the United States in 1866, he engaged in 
literary work and lecturing; he returned to Europe, 
becoming professor inthe universities of Strassburg (1872), 
and Freiburg (1874); appointed professor in the Uni¬ 
versity of Chicago (1892), he came to this country again. 
He wrote: “Constitutional and Political History of the 
United States,” “Constitutional Law of the United 
States,” “ Life of John Calhoun,” etc. Died, 1904. 

Homer, the greatest name in epic poetry, has come 
down to us as, unfortunately, little better than a name, 




BIOGRAPHY 


447 


and many theories of the origin of the Homeric poetry 
hardly leave us even the name. The traditions agree 
in making Homer an Asiatic Greek, probably born at 
Smyrna about the year 850 B. C. He is represented 
as blind, and as reciting his poems from place to place. 
All scholars agree that the poems were not written, but 
handed down from memory, as there is little evidence 
that writing was practiced at so early a period. One 
theory of their authorship is that they are the work or 
compilation of a company of poets, or Homeric guild, 
who composed, collected, and handed down in this form 
these legends of early history. The Iliad and the 
Odyssey are sometimes referred also to different writers, 
and sometimes to the early and later periods of Homer’s 
genius. They are the greatest epics of any age; the 
Iliad is called the “beginning of literature.’’ 

Hopkins, Mark, born in 1802; American education¬ 
ist, principal of Williams College from 1836 to 1872, and 
professor of moral philosophy; wrote “The Law of Love 
and Love as a Law,” and “An Outline Study of Man.” 
Among his pupils was President Garfield. Died, 1887. 

Hopkinson, Francis, born in 1737; American writer, 
one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence; 
wrote “The Battle of the Kegs” (1778), “The Pretty 
Story” (1774), “The Political Catechism” (1777), and 
other works in prose and verse. His son, Joseph (died 
in 1842), judge of the United States District Court, wrote 
“ Hail Columbia! ” Died, 1791. 

Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, one of the 
greatest of Latin poets, born at Venusia, 65 B. C., 
studied at Rome under Orbilius Pupillus, and com¬ 
pleted his education at Athens. He then joined the 
Roman army, and fought under Brutus at Philippi; 
thereby occasioning the confiscation of his patrimonial 
estate. On his return to Rome, he embraced literature 
as a profession, and was so fortunate as to find a liberal 
and life-long patron in Maecenas. His poetical works 
consist of odes, satires, and epistles — all replete with 
elegance of diction and perfect propriety of thought and 
expression, and withal pervaded by a certain atmos¬ 
phere of calm and well-bred philosophy, that renders 
them irresistibly attractive to the minds and tastes of 
cultivated men. Died, 8 B. C. 

Hornaday, William Temple, director of the New 
York Zoological Park since 1896; born in Plainfield, Ind., 
December 1, 1854; educated at Iowa Agricultural Col¬ 
lege; studied zoology and museology in this country and 
Europe; as collecting zoologist, visited Cuba, Florida, 
the West Indies, South America, India, Ceylon, the Malay 
Peninsula, andtBorneo, 1875-79; married Septeihber 11, 
1879, Josephine Chamberlain, Battle Creek, Mich. 
Chief taxidermist United States National Museum, 1882- 
90; in real estate business, Buffalo, N. Y., 1890-96. 
Author: “Two Years in the Jungle,” “Free Rum on the 
Congo,” “The Extermination of the American Bison,” 
“Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting,” “The Man Who 
Became a Savage,” “Guide to the New York Zoological 
Park,” “The American Natural History,” “Campfires 
on Desert and Lava,” etc. 

Hosmer, Harriet, American sculptor, born in Water- 
town, Mass., 1830, was a pupil of Gibson at Rome, and 
executed busts of “Daphne,” “CEnone,” “Beatrice Cenci,” 
and “Zenobia in Chains.” She devised a method for 
converting Italian limestone into marble. Died, 1908. 

Houston, Sam, an American general, was born in 
Virginia, 1793. He entered Congress in 1823, and four 
years later became governor of Tennessee. After 
emigrating to Texas in 1832, he was elected to the chief 
command of the army which defeated the Mexicans 
under Santa Ana at San Jacinto, April 21, 1836. He 
was elected president of Texas the same year, and re¬ 
elected in 1841. After the admission of Texas into the 
Union as a State, Houston twice represented her in the 
National Senate, and filled the gubernatorial chair in 
1859. Died, 1863. 

Howard, John, a noted philanthropist, was born in 
Hackney, Middlesex, 1726. Howard was left in easy 
circumstances at his father’s death. A bitter experience 
as a French prisoner of war and observations made 
while acting as sheriff of Bedfordshire roused him to 
attempt some reform of the abuses and misery of prison 
life; he made a tour of the county jails of England, and 
the mass of information which he laid before the House of 
Commons in 1774 brought about the first prison reforms; 
he continued his visitations from year to year to every 
part of the United Kingdom, and to every quarter of the 
continent; during 1785-87, he made a tour of inspection 
through the principal lazarettos of Europe, visited plague- 
smitten cities, and voluntarily underwent the rigors of 
the quarantine system, and finally died, 1790, at the 
Crimea while on a journey to the East. He published 
at various times accounts of his journeys. His deep 


piety, cool sense, and single-hearted devotedness to his 
one great object won him universal respect throughout 
Europe. 

Howe, Julia Ward, an American author; born in 
New York City, May 27, 1819. A philanthropist, 
interested especially in woman’s suffrage, she was the 
wife of Dr. Samuel G. Howe, the philanthropist, and with 
him edited the anti-slavery journal, the “Boston Com¬ 
monwealth.” She is best known as the author of the 
“Battle Hymn of the Republic” written during a visit 
to the camps near Washington. Among her works, 
besides several volumes of verse, are: “The World’s 
Own,” a drama; “.Life of Margaret Fuller.” Died, 1910. 

Howell, Clark, editor; born in Barnwell County, 
S. C., September 21, 1863; has lived in Atlanta, Ga., 
from infancy; graduated from University of Georgia, 
June, 1883. Entered newspaper work, succeeding Henry 
Grady as managing editor, “Atlanta Constitution,” in 
1889, and succeeded his father as editor-in-chief in 1897. 
In 1901 bought out Colonel W. A. Hemphill’s stock in 
“Constitution” and succeeded him as president of the 
company. Member of Georgia House of Representatives 
six years (speaker, 1890-91); member from Georgia of 
Democratic National Committee since 1892; member 
and president of Georgia Senate, Atlanta district, 1900- 
06; director of Associated Press of America since 1897. 

Howells, William Dean, American novelist, born 
in Martins Ferry, Ohio, 1837; was United States consul 
at Venice from 1861 to 1865. From 1872 to 1881 he 
edited the “Atlantic Monthly,” but soon began to devote 
his time to novel-writing. Chief among his novels are 
“The Lady of the Aroostook,” “A Modern Instance,” 
“A Fearful Responsibility,” etc., and “The Shadow of a 
Dream.” He also wrote lives of Lincoln and Hayes, 
“Modern Italian Poets,” and some poems. 

Hubbard, Elbert, author, journalist, lecturer; born 
in Bloomington, Ill., 1859; common school education. 
Editor “The Philistine”; proprietor “The Roy croft 
Shop,” devoted to making de luxe editions of the classics. 
Author: “No Enemy but Himself,” “Little Journeys 
to Homes of Good Men and Great,” “Little Journeys to 
the Homes of American Authors,” “Little Journeys to 
the Homes of Famous Women,” “Little Journeys to 
the Homes of American Statesmen,” “Little Journeys 
to the Homes of Eminent Painters,” “Ali Baba of 
East Aurora,” “As it Seems to Me,” “A Message to 
Garcia,” “Time and Chance,” “The Legacy,” “Forbes 
of Harvard,” “One Day,” “A Tale of the Prairies,” 
“Little Journeys to Homes of English Authors,” “Little 
Journeys to Homes of Great Musicians,” “Little Journeys 
to Homes of Eminent Orators,” “Little Journeys to 
Homes of Eminent Artists,” “Little Journeys to Homes 
of Great Philosophers,” “Old John Burroughs,” “Con¬ 
templations,” “Consecrated Lives,” “The Man of Sor¬ 
rows.” 

Hughes, Charles Evans, lawyer; born in Glens 
Falls, N. Y., April 11, 1862; graduate from Brown Uni¬ 
versity, 1881, A. M., 1884; graduated from Columbia 
Law School, 1884. Teacher Delaware Academy, Delhi, 
N. Y., 1881-82; admitted to New York bar, June, 1884; 
practiced in New York, 1884-91; prize fellow Columbia 
Law School, 1884-87; professor of law (contracts, 
evidence, etc.), Cornell University School of Law, 
1891-93 ; active practice in New York, 1893-1906; 
special lecturer at Cornell University School of Law, 
1893-95, New York Law School, 1893-1900. Fellow of 
Brown University; was member of law firm Hughes, 
Rounds & Schurman; Republican nominee for mayor, 
New York, 1905, but declined; attorney for Armstrong 
Commission of New York Legislature, investigating 
methods of large life insurance companies. Governor of 
New York, 1906-10; justice of Supreme Court, 1910. 

Hughes, Thomas, born in 1823, English writer; 
educated under Arnold at Rugby, and at Oriel; was 
called to the bar in 1848, and sat in parliament as a 
liberal for Lambeth (1865-68), and Frome (1868-74). 
He became Queen’s counsel in 1869, and county court 
judge in 1882. His chief works are “Tom Brown’s 
School Days,” “Tom Brown at Oxford,” and “A Memoir 
of Daniel Macmillan.” Died, 1896. 

Hugo, Victor Marie, French poet and romance 
writer; born of noble parents in Besan^on, 1802; began 
to write verse at the age of 14, and soon deserting classic 
models, became the founder, with Sainte-Beuve and 
others, of the French romantic school. In like manner 
his early royalism gave place to ardent republicanism. 
“Cromwell,” “ Le Dernier Jour d’un Condamn^,” “Marion 
Delorme,” and, above all, “Hernani,” were strongly 
censured by the Acad&nie; but Charles X. would not 
prohibit the performance of the last. “Le Roi s’Amuse,” 
was, however, interdicted by the ministry. Between the 
years 1830-40 appeared also “N6tre-Dame de Paris,” 




448 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and several volumes of verse, and the poet was elected 
to the Acad&nie in 1841. In 1845 he also became “pair 
de France.” In 1848, he was elected by Paris to the 
Constitutional Assembly, and acted with the moderates, 
but in the next Assembly he became one of the orators 
of the left, and, having attempted to resist the coup 
d’etai of Louis Napoleon, was banished in 1851. He 
lived chiefly in Jersey and Guernsey, and wrote ‘‘Les 
Contemplations” and ‘‘La Legendes des Sifecles.” He 
refused to avail himself of the amnesties of 1859 and 
1869, but returned to Paris in 1870. In 1866, appeared 
“Les Travailleurs de la Mer,” and, after the return, 
“ Quatre-vingt Treize,” “L’Histoire d’un Crime,” and 
many other works. “Hernani” was revived in 1867, 
and Hugo became a senator in 1876. He was buried in 
the Pantheon, which was secularized for the purpose. 
Chief among his lyrics were his early “Odes et Ballades,” 
“Les Feuilles d’ Automne,” “Les Chants du Crepuscule,” 
“Les Rayons et les Ombres,” and “Chansons des Rues 
et des Bois.” The romance “Les Miserables,” was trans¬ 
lated into many languages. Died, 1885. 

Hull, Isaac, an American naval officer; born in 
Derby, Conn., March 9, 1773. In July, 1812, he com¬ 
manded the frigate “Constitution,” which was chased 
by a British squadron for three days, but escaped by 
skillful sailing. While cruising in the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
rence he met the British frigate “Guerriere,” which, 
after a bloody fight of half an hour, surrendered, August 
19, 1812. The “Guerriere” was so injured in the battle 
that she soon sank. The British ship lost nearly 100 
men; the ‘ ‘ Constitution ’ ’ had fourteen men killed and 
wounded, and within.an hour or so was ready for an¬ 
other fight. This was the first naval battle of the War 
of 1812, and Congress gave Captain Hull a gold medal 
for his services. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., February 
13, 1843. 

Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alex., Baron von, 

great traveler and naturalist, born in Berlin, 1769; 
devoted all his life to the study of nature in all its de¬ 
partments, traveling all over the continent, and in 1799, 
with Aime Bonpland for companion, visiting South 
America, traversing the Orinoco, and surveying and 
mapping out in the course of five years, Venezuela, 
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico, the results of 
which he published in his “Travels.” His chief work is 
the “Kosmos,” or an account of the visible universe, in 
four volumes, originally delivered as lectures in Paris in 
the winter of 1827-28. He was a friend of Goethe, who 
held him in the highest esteem. Died, 1859. 

Hume, David {hum), an eminent historian, born in 
Edinburgh, 1711; after laying the basis of a great literary 
reputation by his “Treatise of Human Nature,” pro¬ 
duced “Essays,Moral,Political, and Literary,” and other 
works. His celebrated “History of England,” pub¬ 
lished between the years 1754 and 1761, for two genera¬ 
tions esteemed the ablest work of its class, was consid¬ 
ered by many critics open to objection on the score of 
skepticism and undue partiality. Died, 1776. 

Hunter, John, the most eminent English anato¬ 
mist of modern times; born near Glasgow in 1728; 
became surgeon of St. George’s Hospital, London, and 
a Fellow of the Royal Society, and acquired high celeb¬ 
rity by his discoveries in comparative anatomy and 
physiology. Died, 1793. 

Huss, or Hus, Johann, born probably in 1369; 
Bohemian reformer, attacked abuses in Prague Univer¬ 
sity and among the clergy, and opposed German predomi¬ 
nance. He was excommunicated by John XXIII. for 
giving adhesion to Wycliffe’s doctrines, and afterwards 
wrote his “Tractatus de Ecclesia.” Having gone to the 
council of Constance under a safe-conduct from the 
emperor, his enemies procured his imprisonment as a 
heretic, and, on refusal to retract, he was burned to 
death in 1415. 

Huxley, Thomas Henry, an English biologist and 
essayist; born in Ealing, England, May 4, 1825. He 
was graduated at London University in 1845. In 1846- 

1850 he sailed around the world as a naval surgeon. In 

1851 he was made F. R. S. by the Royal Society; he 
became professor of natural history in the School of 
Mines in 1854; Hunterian professor in the Royal College 
of Surgeons in 1863; president of the British Geological 
and Ethnological Societies in 1869; secretary of the 
Royal Society in 1872; Lord Rector of Aberdeen Uni¬ 
versity in 1872; and president of the Royal Society in 
1883. He was an able advocate of Darwinian evolution, 
and was perhaps best known to the popular apprehen¬ 
sion by his agnostic speculations, in expounding which 
he came into controversy with the defenders of Theism 
and Christianity. He wrote a number of scientific 
works. He died in Eastbourne, England, June 29, 1895. 

Huyghens, Christian, born in 1629; Dutch natural 
philosopher and astronomer; was compelled to leave 


Paris by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He 
had been invited to France by Colbert, and during his 
residence there visited England, and was made Fellow 
of the Royal Society. He applied the pendulum to 
clocks, ascertained the laws of collision of elastic bodies, 
and discovered the rings of Saturn. Died, 1695. 

Hypatia, born about 370; daughter of Theon, head 
of the Neo-Platonic school of Alexandria, gave public 
lectures in philosophy, but was brutally murdered by 
the partisans of the Patriarch Cyril, 415. 

Ibsen, Henrik, born in 1828; Norwegian dramatist, 
appointed director of the theater at Bergen in 1851, 
and, in 1857, of that at Christiania. Among his plays 
are “Brand,” “Peer Gynt,” “The Pillars of Society,” 
“A Doll’s House,” “Ghosts,” etc. Died, 1906. 

Ingalls, Melville Ezra, railroad president; born in 
Harrison, Me., September 6, 1842; brought up on a 
farm; educated in Bridgton Academy and studied in 
Bowdoin College; graduate of Harvard Law School, 
1863; practiced first at Gray, Me., but soon removed 
to Boston; member of Massachusetts Senate, 1867. 
President in 1870, receiver in 1871, of the Indianapolis, 
Cincinnati & Lafayette Railroad, and from bankrupt 
condition, with aid of reorganizations in 1873 and 1880, 
put its successor, the Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis 
& Chicago, upon a sound footing, consolidating it with 
other roads into the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & 
St. Louis Railroad, of which he was chairman until 1912 
(comprising the “ Big Four ” system); also from October 

I, 1888, until February, 1900, president of Chesapeake 
& Ohio Railway Company; president of Merchants’ 
National Bank, Cincinnati. Was Democratic candidate 
for mayor of Cincinnati, 1903; president of National Civic 
Federation, 1905. 

Ingersoll, Robert Green, born in 1833; American 
lawyer; was colonel of a federal regiment, 1862-65; 
and, in 1866, State attorney-general. Was a well-known 
orator and anti-Christian lecturer. Died, 1899. 

Innocent III., Pope, born about 1161; son of Count 
Trasimund, a Roman noble; elected in 1198, aimed at 
making the papacy supreme in all European affairs. 
In 1212, he deposed the Emperor Otho, setting up 
Frederick II. in his place. His dispute with John of 
England concerning the appointment of Langton to the 
See of Canterbury, lasted from 1207 to 1213. In that 
year John admitted Langton, and surrendered England 
to the pope, at the same time receiving it back as a papal 
fief. Innocent favored the fourth crusade (1200). 
Died, 1216. 

Ireland, John, Roman Catholic Archbishop of St. 
Paul since May. 1888; born in Ireland, September 11, 
1838; came to United States in boyhood. Educated in 
Cathedral School, St. Paul; studied theology, France; 
(LL. D., Yale, 1901); ordained priest, December 21, 
1861; chaplain of 5th Minnesota regiment in Civil War; 
rector cathedral, St. Paul; consecrated bishop of Maro- 
nea and coadjutor to Bishop Grace of St. Paul, Decem¬ 
ber 21, 1875. Author: “The Church and Modern 
Society," etc. 

Irving, Sir Henry (John Henry Brodribb), actor, 

born in Keinton, near Glastonbury, in 1838; acted at 
the Theater Royal, Edinburgh, from 1856 to 1859, and 
afterwards for seven years at Manchester. He played 
in London in 1859, but attracted little notice till his 
appearance at St. James’ Theater in 1866. He soon 
established a connection with the Lyceum, of which he 
became manager in 1878. There he played his chief 
parts, in conjunction with Miss Ellen Terry, producing, 
among other plays, “Hamlet,” “The Merchant of 
Venice,” “Faust,” “Macbeth,” “Henry VIII.,” “The 
Bells,” and other well-known productions. Died, 1905. 

Irving, Washington, born in 1783; American man 
of letters, son of a New York merchant; was admitted 
to the bar in 1806, but devoted himself to literature. 
In 1810, he became a partner in his brother’s commer¬ 
cial establishment, which failed in 1818. He lived in 
Europe from 1815 to 1832, acting as secretary to the 
American embassy in London from 1829 to 1831. From 
1842 to 1846, he was United States minister to Spain. 
Among his works are “Knickerbocker’s History of New 
York,” “Geoffrey Crayon’s Sketch Book,” “The Life of 
Columbus,” “The Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada,” 
and lives of “Mahomet” and “Washington.” Died, 
1859. 

Isabella of Castile, born in 1451; daughter of John 

II. ; was married to Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469, and, 
in 1474, succeeded her brother, Henry IV., on the throne 
of Castile. Isabella promoted the expedition of Colum¬ 
bus. She was a wise and humane ruler, but her relig¬ 
ious zeal led her to consent to the establishment of the 
Inquisition. Died, 1504. 

Isaiah was one of the most eminent of the Hebrew 
prophets. He was the son of Amoz, but of his personal 







BIOGRAPHY 


449 


history very little is known. He prophesied under 
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. 
His prophecies, though delivered later in point of time 
than several of those uttered by other prophets, occupy, 
in our Bible, the first place, both on account of their 
bulk, and for the sublimity and importance of the 
predictions. 

I to* Marquis Hirobumi, a Japanese statesman; 
born in the province of Choshu, in 1841. In 1871, 
visited the United States to examine the coinage system, 
and on return to Japan was successful in establishing 
a mint at Osaka. In 1878, was transferred from the 
office of minister of public works to the home office. 
He became prominent in the Japanese cabinet in 1886, 
and made many reforms. In 1897-98, made a tour of 
the United States and Europe. In the latter year he 
visited China to arrange an alliance between that 
country and his own; in 1900, on the resignation of 
Yamagata ministry, he was summoned by the emperor 
to form a cabinet. Revisited the United States in 
1901. Assassinated in Corea, 1909. 

Jackson, Andrew* the seventh President of the 
United States, was born in North Carolina, March 15, 
1767, of Irish parentage. After a harum-scarum youth, 
Jackson, in 1788, commenced the practice of the law 
in Nashville, Tenn., and became that State’s sole repre¬ 
sentative in Congress in 1796, and senator in the follow¬ 
ing year. Between 1798 and 1804, he served as a judge 
of the Supreme Court of Tennessee; in 1806, killed Mr. 
Charles Dickinson in a duel; in 1807, appeared as the 
champion of Aaron Burr; and, in 1812, upon the break¬ 
ing out of hostilities with England, offered his services 
to the Government. In 1813, he was severely wounded 
in a duel fought with Colonel Benton, and defeated the 
Creeks at Talladega in the same year. In May, 1814, 
he received the appointment of major-general in the 
United States Army, and commanded in the battle 
won over the British Army at New Orleans, in January, 
1815. This great victory raised the reputation of 
Jackson as a general to the highest point, and made 
him the idol of a large portion of the American people. 
In 1817-18, General Jackson conducted the Seminole 
War to a successful conclusion, and was appointed 
governor of Florida in 1821. Three years later he was an 
unsuccessful aspirant for the presidency, to which office 
he was, however, elected in 1828, and reelected at the 
end of his four-years’ term, in 1832. Among the chief 
occurrences during his double tenure of office were: 
his veto of a new charter to the Bank of the United 
States; the proclamation denouncing the South Caro¬ 
lina Nullification movement; and the senatorial censure 
passed on the president for his authorizing the removal 
of the public deposits from the Bank of the United 
States. Died, June 8, 1845. 

Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, better known the 
world over as “Stonewall Jackson,” an American gen¬ 
eral; born in Lewis County, Virginia, in 1824, and 
graduated at West Point Academy in 1846. After 
serving with distinction in the Mexican War, Jackson 
became a professor in the Military Institute at Lexing¬ 
ton, Va., until the outbreak of the Civil War. Appointed 
brigadier-general in the Confederate service at the 
battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861, his command on that 
occasion “stood like a stone wall,” to use the words of 
a distinguished general present. In September, he re¬ 
ceived the rank of major-general; defeated General 
Banks at Front Royal, May 23,1862; fought an indecisive 
battle with Fremont at Cross Keys, June 8th; com¬ 
manded a corps in the battles of Gaines’ Mill, June 27th, 
and Malvern Hill, July 1st; again defeated General 
Banks at Cedar Mountain, August 9th; captured Har¬ 
per’s Ferry with 11,000 Federal prisoners, September 
15th ; commanded a corps at Antietam, September 17th; 
and was made lieutenant-general for his services in largely 
contributing to the National defeat at Fredericksburg, 
December 13, 1862. On May 2, 1863, by a clever flank 
movement, he defeated the 11th corps of General Hook¬ 
er’s army at Chancellorsville; and on the evening of 
the same day was fired at by a patrol party of his own 
men, who mistook him and his staff, in the darkness, 
for a detachment of Union cavalry, and died of his 
wounds on the 10th. 

Jacquard* Joseph Marie ( zhah-kahr ), a French 
mechanic and inventor, was born in 1752, and died in 
1834. His invention of the Jacquard loom revolution¬ 
ized the art of weaving. 

James. The name of a number of sovereigns of 
European states, the most noted of whom were James I. 
(VI. of Scotland) of England, who was born in 1566, 
and crowned King of Scotland while an infant on the 
abdication of his mother, Mary Queen of Scots, Eliza¬ 
beth of England having declared in his favor. He 
succeeded to her throne in 1603, and died in 1625. 


James II., born in 1633, succeeded his brother, Charles 

11., in 1685, was driven from his kingdom by William 
Prince of Orange, in 1688, utterly defeated in Ireland, 
and died an exile in France, in 1701. James IV. of 
Scotland, “the handsomest and most chivalrous prince 
of his age,” born in 1473, succeeded his father, James 

111., who was murdered after the disastrous defeat near 
Bannockburn, in 1488; James was killed in the sangui¬ 
nary battle at Flodden Field, in 1513, in which nearly 
the entire Scotch peerage of mature age perished with 
their king. 

James, St., one of Christ’s favorite apostles, son of 
Zebedee and brother of St. John. He was martyred 
about 44, by order of Herod Agrippa. 

James* Edmund Janes, educator; born in Jackson¬ 
ville, Ill., May 21, 1855; educated at Illinois State Nor- 
I mal School and Northwestern and Harvard universities 
(A. M., Ph. D., 1877, University of Halle; LL. D., Cor¬ 
nell College, Wesleyan, Queen’s College); principal high 
school, Evanston, Ill., 1878-79; principal Model High 
School, Normal, Ill., 1879-82; professor of public finance 
and administration, Wharton School of Finance and 
Economy, University of Pennsylvania, 1883-95; pro¬ 
fessor of political and social science, University of Penn¬ 
sylvania, 1884-95; professor of public administration, 
director of extension division of the University of 
Chicago, 1896-1901; president of the Northwestern 
University, February 1, 1902, to September 1, 1904; 
president of University of Illinois since September 1, 
1904. Author: "Relation of the Modern Municipality 
to the Gas Supply,” “The Legal Tender Decisions,” 
“The Canal and the Railway,” “Federal Constitution of 
Germany,” “Federal Constitution of Switzerland,” 

| “Education of Business Men in Europe,” “Charters of 
City of Chicago,” “Growth of Great Cities in Area and 
Population,” “Government of a Typical German City — 
Halle,” also over 100 papers, monographs, and addresses 
j in transactions of societies, etc. 

James, Henry, author; born in New York, April 15, 
1843; educated in France and Switzerland, and Harvard 
Law School; began as contributor to periodicals, 1866; 
since 1869, has lived in England; brother to the late Pro¬ 
fessor William James, of Harvard. Author: “Watch and 
Ward,” “A Passionate Pilgrim,” “Roderick Hudson,” 
“Transatlantic Sketches,” “The American,” “French 
Poets and Novelists,” “The Europeans,” “Daisy Miller,” 

J “An International Episode,” “Life of Hawthorne,” 

J “A Bundle of Letters,” “Confidence,” “Diary of a 
Man of Fifty,” “Washington Square,” “The Portrait 
of a Lady,” “Siege of London,” “Portraits of 
Places,” “Tales of Three Cities,” “A Little Tour in 
France,” “Beltraffio,” “The Bostonians,” “Princess 
Casamassima,” “Partial Portraits,” “The Aspern 
Papers,” “The Reverberator,” “A London Life,” “The 
Tragic Muse,” “Terminations,” “The Spoils of Poynton,” 
“What Maisie Knew,” “In the Cage,” “The Two 
Magics,” “The Awkward Age,” “The Soft Side,” “A 
Little Tour in France,” “The Sacred Fount,” “The 
Wings of the Dove,” “The Better Sort,” “ Question of our 
Speech,” “The Lesson of Balzac” (two lectures). 

James, William, born in New York, January 11, 
1842. An eminent American psychologist and philo¬ 
sophical writer, professor of Philosophy in Harvard 
University, 1897-1907. In 1899-1901 he was Gifford 
lecturer at the University of Edinburgh. Author: 
"Principles of Psychology,” “The Will to Believe,” 
“Talks to Teachers,” “Human Immortality,” “The 
Varieties of Religious Experiences,” etc. Died, 1910. 

Jay, John, an eminent American statesman, was 
born in New York City, 1745, where he was admitted to 
the bar in 1768. In 1774, as a member of the first Con¬ 
tinental Congress, he formed one of the committee of 
three which drew up the celebrated address to the people 
of Great Britain. He also largely assisted in framing 
the National Constitution, and, in 1777, was appointed 
chief justice of New York, and in the following year 
president of Congress. He next took part in negotiating 
the treaty of peace entered into at Paris, 1783, between 
Great Britain and the United States. On his return 
he was appointed secretary of foreign affairs, and in 
1789 chief justice of the Supreme Court. In 1794 he 
proceeded on a special mission to England, where he 
concluded a treaty which met with violent opposition 
from the Anti-Federalist party. He afterwards held 
the governorship of New York State, and, after refusing 
a second nomination to the chief-justiceship, died, 1829. 

Jeejeebhoy, Sir Jajnsetjee, Indian philanthropist; 
a Parsee by birth and creed, born in Bombay in 1783; 
realized a fortune as a merchant, and employed it in 
releasing debtors from jail by paying their debts, and in 
founding a hospital and schools; in 1857 was made a 
baronet. Died, 1859. 









450 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Jefferson, Thomas, third President of the United 
States, was born in Virginia, 1743, and, after graduating 
at William and Mary College, was admitted to the bar in 
1767. He practiced law with signal success, and in 1769, 
became a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, 
and in 1773, a delegate to the first Continental Congress, 
where he assisted in framing the celebrated “Summary 
View of the Rights of British America.” In 1775, he 
took his seat in the Continental Congress, and with a 
commanding voice in its deliberations, so that in the 
year following he was appointed chairman of the com¬ 
mittee which drew up the Declaration of Independence. 
In 1779, he succeeded Patrick Henry in the governorship 
of Virginia. In 1783, he acted as chairman of the com¬ 
mittee charged with the report to Congress of the treaty 
of peace entered into at Paris, 1783, and, two years later, 
succeeded Franklin as minister at Paris. On his return, 
in 1789, he entered General Washington’s first cabinet 
as secretary of state. In this position he gradually 
came to be considered the head of the Democratic party. 
In 1793, he resigned office, and four years afterwards 
became Vice-President of the United States, and ex- 
officio president of the Senate. In 1801, he was elected 
to the presidency, and during his first administration 
the Louisiana Purchase was effected. He retired to pri¬ 
vate life, 1809, at the close of his second term. Died, 1826. 

Jelliffe, Smith Ely, physician; born in New York, 
October 27, 1866; graduate of Brooklyn Polytechnic, 
1886; medical department of Columbia University, 
1889, Ph. D., 1899, A. M., 1900, Columbia. Began practice, 
1889; interne St. Mary’s Hospital, Brooklyn; spent one 
year in Europe; visiting neurologist, City Hospital, New 
York, since 1903; clinical professor, mental diseases, 
Fordham University, since 1907. Author:” Essentials of 
Vegetable Pharmacognosy” (with Dr. H. H. Rusby), 
“Morphology and Histology of Plants” (with same), 
also “Nervous Diseases” in Butler’s Diagnostics, “Out¬ 
lines of Pharmacognosy.” Reviser “May’s Physiology,” 
“ Butler’s Materia Medica,” “ Shaw on Nervous Diseases.” 
Editor and translator: “Dubois’ Psychoneuroses”; co- 
editor, "Encyclopedia Americana,” “Scientific Ameri¬ 
can,” 1904; editor “ Reissig Haus Arzt,” 1905, “Medical 
News,” New York, 1900-05; magazine editor “Journal 
of Nervous and Mental Disease,” since 1902; also con¬ 
tributor to medical, botanical, and pharmaceutical press. 

Jenks, Jeremiah Whipple, professor of political 
economy and politics, Cornell, 1891-1912, professor of 
economics and finance, New York university, since 1912; 
born in St. Clair, Michigan, September 2,1856; graduated 
from University of Michigan, 1878, A. M., 1879, LL. D., 
1903; Ph. D., University of Halle, 1885; studied law; ad¬ 
mitted to Michigan bar; taught Greek, Latin, and Ger¬ 
man, Mt. Morris College; professor of political science 
and English literature, Knox College, 1886-89; professor 
of political economy and social science, Indiana Univer¬ 
sity, 1889-91; expert agent of United States Industrial 
Commission on Investigation of Trusts and Industrial 
Combinations in the United States and Europe, 1899- 
1901, and consulting expert of United States Department 
of Labor on same subject. Special commissioner of 
War Department, United States, to investigate questions 
of currency, labor, internal taxation and police in the 
Orient, 1901-02. Appointed financial adviser to republic 
of China, 1912. Author: “Henry C. Carey als Nation- 
alokonom, Jena,” “The Trust Problem,” “Vol. XVIII. 
Report of Industrial Commission of Industrial Combi¬ 
nations in Europe,” “Report on Certain Economic 
Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in the 
Orient.” Editor and part author: (Reports United 
States Industrial Commission) “Trusts and Industrial 
Combinations,” Vol. I., 1900, Vol. XIII., 1901. Compiler: 
“Statutes and Digested Decisions of Federal, State, and 
Territorial Law Relating to Trusts and Industrial Com¬ 
binations.” Part author and compiler of “Reports of 
Commission on International Exchange.” Frequent 
contributor to periodical literature on economic and 
political questions. Special expert on currency reform 
of government of Mexico, 1903; member of United 
States Commission on International Exchange in special 
charge of reform of currency in China. 

Jenner, Edward, famous as the discoverer of vaccina¬ 
tion, was born in 1749, in Berkeley, England; died there, 
1823. After many years devoted to the consideration of, 
and experiments made with, vaccine lymph as a specific 
for smallpox, Jenner was for the first time, in 1796, ena¬ 
bled to satisfy many medical men of the valid properties 
of this new agent as a preventive of the disease. 

Jeremiah, in Scripture one of the greatest of the 
Hebrew prophets, and author of the book which bears 
his name, and of “Lamentations.” He flourished in 
the Sixth Century, B. C. 

Jeroboam. Two kings of Israel bore this name, viz. 
one who was elected, 975 B. C., by the ten tribes who had 


rebelled against Rehoboam. Died, 954. The other, a son 
of Joash, ascended the throne about 825 B. C., and filled 
it for forty-one years. Died, 784 B. C. 

Jerome, or Hieronymus, St., bom about 343, in 
Stridon, in Dalmatia, of Christian parents, studied at 
Rome under Donatus; after traveling in Gaul and else¬ 
where, adopted a studious and ascetic life, spending four 
years in the desert of Chalcis, in Syria; was ordained 
priest in 379; visited Constantinople, where he be¬ 
came the friend and pupil of Gregory Nazianzus; re¬ 
turning to Rome, became secretary to Pope Damascus, 
but after his death (384) withdrew to the Holy Land, 
accompanied by Paula, Eustochium, and other Roman 
ladies devoted to the ascetic life. For the remainder 
of his days he presided over a monastery established by 
Paula at Bethlehem. Here he completed his translation 
of the Bible from Hebrew into Latin, known as the 
Vulgate. He wrote numerous commentaries on the 
Old and New Testaments, and was engaged in contro¬ 
versies with Rufinus, the Pelagians, and others. Died 
in 420. 

Jerome, Jerome Klapka, English humorist, writer, 
and lecturer, was born at Walsall, England, 1859. He 
has been at various times clerk, school-master, actor and 
journalist; editor of “Idler,” with Robert Barr, 1892-97, 
and of “To-Day,” 1893-97. Author: “On the Stage and 
Off,” “Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow,” “Three Men in 
a Boat,” “Diary of a Pilgrimage,” “Novel Notes,” “John 
Ingerfield,” “Barbara,” “Fennel,” “Sunset,” “New 
Lamps for Old,” “Ruth,” “Wood Barrow Farm,” 
“Prude’s Progress,” “Rise of Dick Halward,” “Sketches 
in Lavender,” “Letters to Clorinda,” “The Second 
Thoughts of an Idle Fellow,” “Three Men on the Bum- 
mel,” “Miss Hobbs,” “Paul Kelver,” “Tea Table Talk,” 
“Tommy and Co.,” “Idle Ideas in 1905,” Susan in Search 
of a Husband,” “Passing of the Third Floor Back,” 
“The Angel and the Author,” etc. 

Jerome, William Travers, lawyer; born in New 
York, April 18, 1859; educated at Williston Seminary 
and Amherst College (honorary A. M.); graduated from 
Columbia Law School, 1884; admitted to bar, 1884; 
justice of special sessions, 1895-1902; district attorney 
New York County, elected 1901; Democrat. Reelected 
as independent candidate, 1905. Author: “Liquor 
Tax Law in New York.” 

Jesus Christ (Iesous, the Greek form of Joshua or 
Jeshua, contracted from Jehoshua, meaning, help of 
Jehovah, or saviour; Christos, anointed), the Son of God, 
the Saviour of men, whose birth, life, and death were 
predicted by prophets, and attended with miraculous 
manifestations of divine power; was born of the Virgin 
Mary, of the tribe of Judah, who was betrothed to Joseph, 
the descendant and heir of the house of David. Two 
genealogies of Joseph are given — one by Matthew, 
chapter one; the other by Luke, chapter three. The 
former is supposed to contain the list of heirs of the house 
of David, whether by direct or indirect descent; the 
other the direct ancestors of Joseph. It was foretold 
that Christ should be of the seed of Abraham and the 
son of David. The place of His birth was Bethlehem; 
the time, according to the received chronology, was in 
the year of Rome 754. Scholars are now almost unani¬ 
mously agreed that this date is too late, and it is generally 
placed about four years earlier. The coming of a fore¬ 
runner to the Saviour, John the Baptist, in the spirit 
and power of Elias, was foretold by an angel (Luke i: 17). 
The angel Gabriel announced to Mary that the power 
of the Highest should overshadow her, and that she 
should bear a son who should rule over the house of 
Jacob forever; and on the night of His birth an angel 
appeared to some shepherds, and announced the coming 
of a Saviour. On the eighth day He was circumcized 
according to the law of Moses, and on the fortieth was 
presented in the temple, where the aged Simeon pro¬ 
nounced Him to be the light of nations and the glory 
of Israel. Herod ordered the extirpation of all children 
of Bethlehem and its vicinity of the age of less than two 
years, for the purpose of effecting the death of Jesus. 
But Joseph, being miraculously warned of the danger, 
fled to Egypt with the Virgin and her child, and on his 
return, after the death of Herod, went to reside at Naza¬ 
reth in Galilee, whence Jesus is called a Nazarene. We 
have no further accounts of the earlier years of Jesus, 
except the remarkable scene in the temple when He 
was 12 years old, and the general observation of Luke, 
that He remained in Nazareth with His parents and 
served them. At the age of about 30 (Luke iii: 23), He 
was baptized by John in the River Jordan, the Spirit 
of God descending upon Him like a dove, and a voice 
from heaven proclaiming, “Thou art my beloved Son; 
in thee I am well pleased.” Previously, however, to 
entering on His office of divine teacher He retired to a 



BIOGRAPHY 


451 


solitary place, where He passed forty days in fasting, 
meditation, and prayer, previous to the remarkable 
scene of the temptation described by the evangelists 
— Matt., chap, iv.; Mark i: 12-13; Luke, chap. iv. 
He was afterward transfigured in the presence of three 
of His disciples, when Moses and Elias appeared to Him 
from heaven, and His raiment became white and shining, 
and His face shone as the sun. On this occasion again, 
a voice came from heaven saying, “This is my beloved 
Son; hear ye Him” (Matt., chap. xvii.; Mark, chap. ix.; 
Luke, chap, ix., verses 28-36). His mission is generally 
considered to have occupied three years, spent in acts 
of mercy (chiefly miraculous), in inculcating a purer 
system of morals, more exalted notions of God, and more 
elevating views of man and his destiny than had yet 
been presented to the world. His doctrine is embodied 
chiefly in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt., chap, v.-vii., 
and Luke, chap, vi.), containing the form of prayer He 
taught to His disciples, commonly called the Lord’s 
Prayer; in His discourses to the Jews in John, chap, 
v.-viii. and x.; to His disciples, chap, xiv.-xvi.; and His 
intercessory prayer, chap. xvii. He chose twelve apostles 
to be the companions of His ministry, the witnesses of 
His miracles, and the depositories of His doctrine; and 
He was betrayed into the power of His enemies by one 
of these with the mockery of a friendly salutation. Be¬ 
trayed by one, denied by another, and abandoned by all, 
He was carried before the Jewish priests, found guilty, 
and by them delivered over to the Roman magistrates, 
who alone had the power of life and death. Condemned 
to death as a disturber of the public peace, He was nailed 
to the cross on Mount Calvary, and it was in the agonies 
of this bitter death that He prayed for the forgiveness 
of His executioners, and with a touching act of filial love 
commended His mother to His favorite disciple. The 
evangelists relate that from the hour of noon the sun 
was darkened and three hours after, Jesus, having cried 
out, “It is finished!” gave up the ghost. The veil of 
the temple, they add, was torn asunder, the earth shook, 
rocks were rent, and the tombs opened. The centurion 
who was present, directing the execution, exclaimed, 
ATruly this was the Son of God!” The body of Jesus 
was taken down by Joseph of Arimathea and placed in 
a tomb, about which the Jewish priests, remembering 
His prophecy that He should rise on the third day, set a 
guard, sealing up the door. Notwithstanding these 
precautions His prophecy was fulfilled by His resurrection 
on the first day of the week (Sunday), and He appeared 
repeatedly to His disciples to encourage, console, and 
instruct them. On the fortieth day after His resurrec¬ 
tion, while with them on the Mount of Olives, after He 
had given them instructions to teach and proselytize all 
nations, promising them the gift of the Holy Spirit, a 
cloud received Him out of their sight, and He was taken 
up to heaven. While the disciples stood gazing after 
Him two men in white apparel appeared to them, and 
predicted His coming again in like manner as they had 
seen Him go. See the closing chapters of the four 
evangelists and Acts i: 1-14. 

Joan of Arc. See Arc, Joan of. 

John, St., called the Baptist, son of Zacharias, a priest 
of the Jews, and of Elizabeth, who was the cousin of Mary, 
the mother of Jesus. He early exercised the apostolic 
call, and began to preach in the valley of the Jordan, 
where Jesus received baptism at his hands. He after¬ 
wards suffered imprisonment and death by command 
of Herod. 

John, St., the Apostle; born about 4 A. D.; was one of 
the earliest of Christ’s disciples. During the crucifixion 
our Lord commended His mother to John’s care, and he 
“took her to his own home.” John afterwards became 
Bishop of Ephesus. According to Tertullian, he was 
plunged into a caldron of boiling oil during the persecution 
under Domitian, but received no injury. He was subse¬ 
quently exiled to the island of Patmos, where he wrote the 
“ Book of Revelation.” He was also author of the Gospel 
and Epistles which bear his name. Died about 99 A. D. 

Johnson, Andrew, seventeenth President of the 
United States, was born in Raleigh, N. C., in 1808. 
By trade a tailor, and a self-educated man, he became 
a member of the Legislature of Tennessee (his adopted 
State); was elected to Congress, 1843-53, and became 
governor of Tennessee in 1853, and again in 1855. In 
1857, he was elected to the National Senate, and, in 
1862, appointed military governor of his State. Elected 
Vice-President of the Union by the Republican party 
in 1864, he was sworn in as President in the following 
year, on the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. In this 
position, his opposition to the measures adopted by 
Congress for the reconstruction of the Southern States 
involved him in a struggle, which ended in 1868, with 
his impeachment on charges of high crimes and mis¬ 
demeanors against the state. He was accordingly 


brought to trial in March, and acquitted on the 26th 
of May following. In January, 1875, he was elected to 
the United States Senate for the second time. Died, 
July 31, 1875. 

Johnson, Eastman, artist; born in Lovell, Me., in 
1824; educated in public schools, Augusta, Me.; studied 
two years in Royal Academy, Diisseldorf. Among 
many notable genre pictures are “The Old Kentucky 
Home,” “Husking Bee,” “The Old Stage Coach,” “Pen¬ 
sion Agent,” "Prisoner of State,” and portraits “Two 
Men,” Presidents Arthur, Cleveland, and Harrison; 
W. H. Vanderbilt, Commodore Vanderbilt, Secretary 
Folger, Daniel Webster, John Quincy Adams, Wm. B. 
Astor, John D. Rockefeller, W. D. Sloane, Mrs. Alexander 
Hamilton, Mrs. Dolly Madison (from life), Mrs. August 
Belmont, Mrs. Hamilton Fish, Mr. and Mrs. I. A. Burden, 
Mrs. W. T. Blodgett; College Presidents McCosh, Noah 
Porter, Barnard, and Andrew White; Charles O’Conor, 
Wheeler H. Peckham, Longfellow, Hawthorne, Emer¬ 
son, Bishop Potter, Morris K. Jesup, etc. Died, 1906. 

Johnson, Hiram W., governor of California, 1911-15, 
was born in Sacramento, California, 1867; studied law. 
In 1906 was associated with Francis Heney in the San 
Francisco graft prosecutions. When Heney was shot 
down in open court, Johnson took his place and sent Abe 
Ruef, leader of the grafters, to the penitentiary for four¬ 
teen years. Elected governor of California on a platform 
designed to free the state of the domination of the South¬ 
ern Pacific railroad and similar influences. Procured 
passage of twenty-three progressive amendments to state 
constitution. In 1912 nominated vice-president on the 
Progressive ticket. 

Johnson, John A„ journalist, governor of Minne¬ 
sota from 1904 until his death in 1909; born in St. Peter, 
Minn., July 28, 1861; educated in public schools, St. 
Peter. Care of family devolving upon him at 12, went 
to work in printing office in St. Peter, and continued in 
that business, becoming member of firm of Essler_ & 
Johnson, publishers of the St. Peter “Herald,” of which 
he was editor. Democrat. Served seven years in 
Minnesota National Guard, becoming captain. _Was 
State senator from St. Peter district, and prominent 
candidate for presidential nomination, 1908. 

Johnson, Dr, Samuel, a distinguished English 
writer and lexicographer, was born in Lichfield, Eng¬ 
land, September 18, 1709. He was educated in his 
father’s library and at Oxford, where he spent an un¬ 
happy period. After a varied and precarious early 
career, he slowly gained a foremost place in the litera¬ 
ture of his day. Among many great works the most 
useful to mankind was his “Dictionary.” In 1759, he 
wrote his celebrated romance of “Rasselas, Prince of 
Abyssinia,” which fine production he composed in the 
evenings of one week in order to defray the funeral 
expenses of his aged mother. He died at London, 
December 13, 1784. His remains were interred in 
Westminster Abbey with great solemnity, and his statue 
was placed in St. Paul’s Cathedral. Among his works 
are “Lives of the Poets,” “.The Rambler,” and “iThe 
Vanity of Human Wishes.” 

Johnson, Tom Loftin, capitalist, politician; born 
Georgetown, Ky., July 18, 1854; went to Indiana in 
boyhood; educated there; clerk in street railway office, 
Louisville, Ky., 1869-75; invented several street rail¬ 
way devices; bought a street railway in Indianapolis; 
later acquired large street railway interests in Cleveland, 
Detroit, and Brooklyn; was also iron manufacturer in 
Cleveland. Member of Congress, 1891-95; prominent 
advocate of the “single-tax” theories of _ Henry 
George. He retired from business and devoted his entire 
time to taxation questions, municipal reform and official 
duties; mayor of Cleveland for four terms, 1901-10. 
Died, 1911. 

Johnston, Albert Sydney, a distinguished American 
Confederate general, was born in Kentucky in 1803, 
and graduated at West Point in 1826. In 1837, he 
superseded General Houston as commander-in-chief of 
the Texan army; next became Texan war secretary, 
and served as a colonel of American regulars during the 
Mexican War. In 1857, he commanded the expedition 
sent against the Mormons of Utah; and in 1861, was 
made military commander of the department of Ken¬ 
tucky and Tennessee, by the so-called Confederate Gov¬ 
ernment. After the surrender of Fort Donelson, he 
formed a junction with the army of General Beauregard, 
and fell in the battle of Shiloh, April 6, 1862. 

Johnston, Joseph Eggleston, born in 1807; Ameri¬ 
can soldier, joined the Confederate army, and became 
commander of the Confederate forces in South Carolina 
in February, 1865, but surrendered with his army in the 
following April. Died, 1891. 

Jokai, Maurice, born in 1825; Hungarian novelist; 
took part as a journalist in the revolution of 1848; 



452 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


wrote about 200 novels, including “Timar’s Two 
Worlds,” “Black Diamonds,” “The Romance of the 
Coming Century,” etc. Died, 1904. 

Jonathan, son of Saul, and the bosom friend of 
David, who bewailed his untimely death in one of the 
most beautiful of his songs. Also, a son of Mattathias, 
and brother of Judas Maccabeus. He succeeded his 
brother Judas in the leadership of the Jews, and was 
made high-priest by Alexander Balas. After some 
vicissitudes of fortune, he renewed the league his brother 
had formed with the Romans, and was at last treach¬ 
erously slain by Tryphon. 

Jones, Paul (real name John Paul), a brilliant Amer¬ 
ican naval commander in the Revolution, was born in 
Scotland in 1747. After the conclusion of peace with 
Great Britain, he became rear-admiral in the Russian 
service, but was dismissed on account of a private 
quarrel, and died in Paris (1792) in poverty. 

Jonson, Benjamin, or Ben, born about 1573; dram¬ 
atist, was educated at Westminster under Camden. It 
is uncertain whether he studied at Cambridge. After 
following the trade of a bricklayer, he went as a volun¬ 
teer to Flanders, and on his return became an actor, 
also writing plays in conjunction with o.thers. His first 
independent work, “Every Man in His Humour,” was 
followed by “Every Man Out of His Humour,” “Cyn¬ 
thia’s Revels,” “Sejanus,” “Volpone,” “The Alche¬ 
mist,” and many others. Died, 1637. 

Jordan, David Starr, president of Leland Stanford 
Jr. University; born in Gainesville, N. Y., January 19, 
1851; graduate of Cornell, M. S., 1872; M. D., Indiana 
Medical College, 1875 (Ph. D., Butler University, 1878; 
LL. D., Cornell, 1886, Johns Hopkins, 1902). Professor 
in various collegiate institutions, 1872-79; assistant to 
United States Fish Commission, 1877-91; professor of 
zoology, 1879-85, and president, 1885-91, Indiana Uni¬ 
versity; president of Leland Stanford Jr. University since 
1891; president of California Academy of Sciences, 
1896-1904 and since 1908; also United States commis¬ 
sioner in charge of fur seal investigations, etc. Author: 
"A Manual of Vertebrate Animals of Northern United 
States,” “Science Sketches,” “Fishes of North and 
Middle America,” "Footnotes to Evolution,” “The 
Story of Matka,” “Care and Culture of Men,” “The 
Innumerable Company,” “Imperial Democracy,” “Ani¬ 
mal Life,” “Animal Forms” (with V. L. Kellogg and H. 
Heath); “The Strength of Being Clean,” “ Standeth 
God Within the Shadow,” “To Barbara” (verse), “The 
Philosophy of Hope,” “The Blood of the Nation,” 
“Food and Game Fishes of North America” (with B. 
W. Evermann), “A Guide to the Study of Fishes,” 
“Voice of the Scholar,” “The Call of the Twentieth 
Century ”; also numerous papers on ichthyology in pro¬ 
ceedings of various societies and government bureaus. 

Joseph. In Scripture, one of the twelve patriarchs, 
the favorite son of Jacob, said to have been born in 
Mesopotamia. He was sold by his envious brothers and 
taken to Egypt as a slave, but rose to be prime minister. 
Also the name of the husband of Mary, mother of the 
Saviour. Two German emperors bore this name. 
Joseph I., born in 1678, was made King of Hungary and 
of the Romans; he succeeded his father Leopold I. as 
emperor in 1705, and died in 1711. Joseph II., born in 
1741, succeeded his father, Francis I., in 1765, and died 
in 1790. 

Joshua, or Ho shea, son of Nun; commander of 
the Israelites after the death of Moses, led them into 
the Holy Land, and obtained many victories over the 
tribes of Canaan. 

Josiah succeeded his father, Amon, as King of Judah 
in 641 B. C. He died in a war with Pharaoh Necho, 
King of Egypt, in 609 B. C. 

Joubert, Petrus Jacobus, born in 1831; one of the 
triumvirate who organized a Transvaal revolt against 
the British Government in 1880, held the chief com¬ 
mand in the engagements at Laing’s Nek, Ingogo 
River, and Majuba Hill. In 1899, was commander-in¬ 
chief of the Boer forces in the war with England. Died, 
1900. 

Joule, James Prescott, born in 1818; electrician, 
pupil of Dalton; made discoveries in electro-magnetism, 
and, in 1843, established his theory of the mechanical 
equivalent of heat. Died, 1889. 

Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, Comte, born in 1762; 
French marshal; served in the wars of the republic, 
and, in 1799, was appointed commander of the army 
of the Danube by the Directory. In 1797, he became 
president of the Council of Five Hundred, but was ex- 
elled in 1799, owing to his opposition to Bonaparte, 
y whom, however, he was afterwards employed. He 
subsequently followed the fortunes of Joseph Bonaparte. 
He owed his title to Louis XVIII., but joined in the 
revolution of 1830. Died, 1833. 


Jowett, Benjamin, M. A.; born in 1817; succes¬ 
sively scholar, fellow, and master of Balliol College, 
Oxford, and Regius professor of Greek since 1855. His 
works include translations of Plato and Thucydides. 
He contributed a paper “ On the Interpretation of 
Scripture” to “Essays and Reviews.” Died, 1893. 

Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve disciples chosen 
by Jesus, and the one who betrayed his Master for 
thirty pieces of silver; after which he very properly 
“w’ent and hanged himself.” 

Jude, St., or Judas. One of the apostles, brother 
of St. James the Less, and supposed to have been mar¬ 
tyred at Berytus about the year 80. The “Epistle” 
which bears his name is one of the smallest and least 
important books in the canon of the New Testament, 
and one whose canonical authority has been much 
disputed both in ancient and quite modern times. 

Judith. A heroine of Israel, whose name has been 
given to one of the Apocryphal books of the Bible. 
She is said to have by artifice gained the tent of the 
Assyrian general, Holofernes, at Bethulia, whom she 
decapitated during his sleep; bearing away his gory 
head in triumph. The most general opinion among 
critics is that the history of Judith is a Jewish romance, 
written, probably in the age of the Maccabees, in order 
to animate the Jews in their struggles against the 
Assyrians. 

Judson, Harry Pratt, president of the University 
of Chicago, since 1907; born in Jamestown, N. Y., 
December 20, 1849; graduate of Williams, 1870 (A. M., 
1883; LL. D., 1893; LL. D., 1903, Queens University, 
Canada). Teacher and principal of high school, Troy, 
N. Y., 1870-85; professor of history, University of 
Minnesota, 1885-92; was co-editor of “American His¬ 
torical Review.” Author: “History of the Troy Citi¬ 
zens’ Corps,” “Caesar’s Army,” “Caesar’s Commentaries” 
(co-editor), “Europe in the Nineteenth Century,” “The 
Growth of the American Nation,” “The Higher Educa¬ 
tion as a Training for Business,” “The Latin in English,” 
“The Mississippi Valley” (in Shaler’s United States of 
America), “The Young American,” “The Government 
of Illinois,” “Graded Literature Readers” (co-editor), 
"The Essentials of a Written Constitution.” 

Jugurtha, a king of Numidia at the end of the 
Second Century, B. C., was the grandson of Masinissa, 
but illegitimate, and brought up by Micipsa, along with 
his own sons, and left a share of the kingdom by him 
at his death. He, however, murdered both of them, 
and made himself master of the whole. The Romans, 
therefore, made war upon him, and after a long strug¬ 
gle he was conquered, made prisoner, led in triumph 
by Marius, and starved to death in prison at Rome, 
104 B. C. 

Julian, Julianus Flavius Claudius, surnamed “The 

Apostate,” a nephew of the Emperor Constantine the 
Great, was born in Constantinople, A. D. 331, and was 
Emperor of Rome from A. D. 361 to 363. He was one 
of the best emperors of the later period, but he is chiefly 
remembered by his unwise and necessarily unsuccessful 
attempt to restore the effete and dethroned paganism 
of Rome. 

Julius II., Pope (Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere), 
born in 1443; distinguished as a warrior and patron of 
the arts; became pope in 1503. He endeavored to ex¬ 
tend the papal territory, and, after driving Cesare Borgia 
from the Romagna, formed the league of Cambrai with 
Maximilian and Louis XII. against Venice (1508). 
After the submission of the republic, he turned his arms 
against France (1510). In 1511, the Holy league was 
formed, and the French army driven back over the Alps. 
Died, 1513. 

Justinian I., Emperor of the East; born in 483; 
succeeded his uncle, Justin I., in 527. He issued a 
famous code, forming, together with his collections of 
“Pandects,” “Institutiones,” and “Novelise,” the “cor¬ 
pus juris civilis.” Under Justinian, the boundaries of 
the empire were much extended through the victories 
of Belisarius and Narses over the Persians, Vandals, 
and Ostrogoths. Died, 565. 

Juvenal, a celebrated Latin poet and satirist, born 
in Aquinum; a friend of Martial and contemporary of 
Statius and Quintilian; his satires, sixteen in number, 
are written in indignant scorn of the vices of the Romans 
under the empire, and in the descriptions of which the 
historian finds a portrait of the manners and morals of 
the time (60-140). 

Kant, Immanuel, a celebrated German philosopher; 
born in Konigsberg, 1724; was the son of a saddler, of 
Scotch descent, and fortunate in both his parents. He 
entered the university in 1740, as a student of theology; 
gave himself to the study of philosophy, mathematics, 

| and physics; wrote an essay, his first literary effort, on 
l motive force in 1746; settled at the university as a 





BIOGRAPHY 


453 


private lecturer on a variety of academic subjects in 
1755; became professor of logic and metaphysics in 
1770, when he was 46, and continued until his retirement, 
in 1797, from the frailties of age; he spent the last seven 
years of his life in a small house with a garden in 
a quiet quarter of the town. His great work, the “ Critique 
of Pure Reason,” was published in 1781, and it was fol¬ 
lowed by the “ Critique of Practical Reason ” in 1788, and 
the “ Critique of Judgment ” in 1790. His works inaugu¬ 
rate a new era in philosophic speculation, and by the 
adoption of a critical method dealt a death-blow to 
speculative dogmatism on the one hand and skepticism 
on the other. It was, he says, the skepticism of Hume 
that first broke his dogmatic slumber, so that had Hume 
not been, he had not been, and the whole course of modern 
thought might be different. Kant by his critical 
method did for philosophy what Copernicus did for 
astronomy; he centralized the intelligence in the rea¬ 
son or soul, as the latter did the planetary system in the 
sun. Kant was a lean, little man, of simple habits, and 
was never wedded. Died, 1804. 

Kauffmann, Angelica, painter; born in Coire in 1741; 
in 1766 went to England. She was elected a member of 
the Royal Academy in 1768. In 1781 she married the 
Venetian artist, Antonio Zucchi, and thenceforward lived 
in Italy. Died, 1807. 

Kean, Charles John, actor; born in Waterford, in 
1811; son of Edmund Kean; was educated at Eton; 
made his debut at Drury Lane in 1827, but did not es¬ 
tablish his reputation till 1838, when he acted as Hamlet, 
Richard III., and Sir Giles Overreach. In 1842 he mar¬ 
ried Miss Ellen Tree, a celebrated actress. From 1850 
to 1859 he was manager of the Princess’s theater. Died, 
1868. 

Keats, John, born in 1795; poet, son of a livery 
stable proprietor in Finsbury; was educated at a school 
at Enfield, where he formed a lifelong friendship with the 
master’s son, Charles Cowden Clarke. He was appren¬ 
ticed to Mr. Hammond, a surgeon at Edmonton, whom 
he left in 1814, but pursued his studies at Guy’s Hospital 
till 1817. He then determined to follow the bent of his 
genius. “Endymion,” his first long poem, appeared 
in 1818. “Isabella or the Pot of Basil,” “Hyperion,” 
“Lamia,” “The Eve of St. Agnes,” and the “Odes,” 
were written in the course of the next two years. Mean¬ 
while, a hereditary tendency to consumption had de¬ 
veloped itself, and in September, 1820, he was forced to 
undertake a journey to Italy. He was accompanied 
by his friend, Joseph Severn, who nursed him tenderly 
during his last illness at Rome, where he died in February, 
1821. 

Keifer, Joseph Warren, ex-speaker United States 
Congress; born in Clark County, O., January 30, 1836; 
educated at Antioch College; since 1858 in law practice, 
Springfield, O.; served in Ohio volunteers in field, 1861- 
65; four times wounded; declined appointment as lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel 26th United States Infantry, 1866; 
member Ohio Senate, 1868-69; department commander 
Ohio G. A. R., 1868-70; vice-commander-in-chief G. A. 
R., 1871-72; delegate to Republican National Conven¬ 
tion, 1876; member of Congress, 1877-85, and 1905-11 
(speaker, 1881-83); president of Lagonda National 
Bank, Springfield, O., since 1873. Appointed and served, 
1898-99, as major-general volunteers in war against 
Spain. Author: “Slavery and Four Years of War.” 

Kellar, Harry, public entertainer (magician); 
born in Erie, Pa., July 11, 1849; graduated from Paines- 
ville, O., High School, 1866. When a young man was 
assistant to the “Fakir of Ava,” the magician; joined 
Davenport Brothers, spirit mediums, as business manager, 
1867; with Fay toured South America and Mexico as 
Fay & Kellar, 1871-73; with Ling Look and Yamadura, 
under name of Kellar, Ling Look & Yamadura, royal 
illusionists, played through South America, Africa, 
Australia, India, China, Philippine Islands, and Japan 
(Ling Look and Yamadura died in China, 1877); then 
with J. H. Cunard, as Kellar & Cunard; traveled five 
years through India, Burmah, Siam, Java, Persia, Asia 
Minor, Egypt, and Mediterranean ports; since 1884 has 
performed in leading American cities. 

Kelly, Howard Atwood, physician; born in Cam¬ 
den, N. J., February 20, 1858; graduated from University 
of Pennsylvania, B. A., 1877, M. D., 1882; founder of 
Kensington Hospital, Philadelphia; associate professor 
of obstetrics, University of Pennsylvania, 1888-89; 
professor gynecology and obstetrics, Johns Hopkins 
University, 1889-99; professor of gynecology, Johns 
Hopkins University. Authors “ Operative Gynecology ” 
(two volumes), “The Vermiform Appendix and Its Dis- j 
eases,” also about 300 articles in medical journals. 

Kembles, The, a celebrated family of actors. (1) | 
John Philip, born in 1757; son of Roger Kemble, manager i 


of a traveling company; was educated for the Roman 
Catholic priesthood. His first appearance in London 
was in the character of Hamlet at Drury Lane (1783). 
He was manager of Drury Lane 1788-1802, and part 
proprietor of Co vent Garden, 1803-17. Died in 1823. 
(2) Sarah Kemble (Siddons). (3) Charles, born in 1775; 
educated at the college of Douay, appeared at Drury 
Lane in 1794 as Malcolm in Macbeth; in 1803 joined 
his brother and sister at Covent Garden, of which he was 
manager for a short time in 1817; visited the United 
States in 1832; retired from the stage in 1840. Died in 
1854. (4) Frances Anne, born in 1809; died, 1893. 

Kempis, Thomas a, born at Kempen, near Diissel- 
dorf; son of a poor but honest and industrious craftsman 
named Hamerken; joined, while yet a youth, the “ Broth¬ 
erhood of Common Life,” at Deventer, in Holland, and at 
20 entered the monastery of Mount St. Agnes, near Zwolle, 
in Overyssel; here he chiefly resided for seventy long 
years, became sub-prior, spending his time in acts of 
devotion and copying manuscripts, among others, that 
of the Bible in the Vulgate version. He produced works 
of his own, in chief the “Imitation of Christ,” a work 
that in the regard of many, ranks second to the Bible, 
and is thought likely to survive in the literature of the 
world as long as the Bible itself; it has been translated 
into all languages within, as well as others outside, the 
pale of Christendom. Born about 1380; died, 1471. 

Kent, James, an eminent American jurist; was 
born in Putnam County, N. Y., 1763. His most im¬ 
portant work, “Commentaries on American Law,” is a 
production of great literary merit, and a work of high 
authority in England as well as in the United States. 
Died, 1847. 

Kepler, Johann, astronomer; born of poor parents 
at Wurttemberg, in 1571; studied at Tubingen under 
Maestlin; in 1594 became professor of astronomy at 
Gratz; in 1600 visited Tycho Brahe at Prague, became 
his assistant, and on his death (1601), was appointed 
mathematician to the Emperor Rudolph. He was after¬ 
wards professor at Linz, and finally at Rostock. He 
died in 1630, at Ratisbon. Two of Kepler’s laws — 
that enunciating the elliptic form of the planetary orbits, 
and that of the “equable description of areas” — are 
contained in “Astronomia Nova.” His third law, that 
the squares of the periodic times of the planets are as 
the cubes of their mean distances, is to be found in the 
“Harmonice Mundi.” 

Key, Francis Scott, American poet, author of “The 
Star Spangled Banner,” was born in Maryland in 1780. 
He was a lawyer of note, and brother-in-law to Chief- 
justice Taney. He wrote the words that have immor¬ 
talized him when he saw the national flag floating over 
the ramparts of Baltimore in 1814. Died, 1843. 

King, Henry Churchill, president of Oberlin College, 
since 1902; born at Hillsdale, Mich., September 
18, 1858; graduate from Oberlin, 1879; Oberlin Theo¬ 
logical Seminary, 1882 (B. D.); post-graduate from 
Harvard, 1882-84 (A. M., 1883); Berlin, 1893-94 
(D. D., Oberlin, 1897, Western Reserve, 1901, Yale, 
1904); tutor in Latin and mathematics, Oberlin Academy, 
1879-82; associate professor of mathematics at Oberlin 
College, 1884-90; associate professor of philosophy, 
1890-91; professor, 1891-97; professor of theology since 
1897; dean of Oberlin College, 1901-02. Author: “Out¬ 
line of Erdmann’s History of Philosophy,” “ Outline of 
the Microcosmus of Hermann Lotze,” “The Appeal of 
the Child,” “Reconstruction in Theology,” “Theology 
and the Social Consciousness,” “ Personal and Ideal Ele¬ 
ments in Education,” “Rational Living,” also various 
pamphlets on philosophy, etc. 

Kinglake, Alexander William, historian; born in 
Taunton, 1809, educated at Cambridge; was called to 
the bar in 1837; represented Bridgewater in parliament, 
1857-68. His works are “Eothen,” and the “History 
of the War in the Crimea.” Died, 1891. 

Kingsley, Charles, an English divine and popular 
writer; born in Devonshire, 1819. His best works 
embrace the well-known politico-economic novel “ Alton 
Locke ”; the powerful philosophical romance “ Hypatia,” 
and the historical novel entitled “Westward Ho!” 
His writings have gone through several English and 
American editions. In polemics, he belonged to the 
“broad” school of the Anglican Church. Died, 1875. 

Kipling, Rudyard, author; born in Bombay, India, 
December 30, 1865; educated in United Services College, 
North Devon, England; assistant editor in India of 
“Civil and Military Gazette and Pioneer,” 1882-89; 
traveled in Japan, China, Africa, and Australia. Author: 
“Departmental Ditties,” “Plain Tales from the Hills,” 
“Soldiers Three,” “In Black and White,” “The Story of 
the Gadsbys,” “Under the Deodars,” “Phantom ’Rick¬ 
shaw,” “Wee Willie Winkie,” “Life’s Handicap,” “The 
Light that Failed,” “Barrack-Room Ballads,” “Many 




454. 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Inventions,” “The Jungle Book,” “Second Jungle 
Book,” “The Seven Seas,” “Captains Courageous,” 
“The Day’s Work,” “ Stalky & Co.,” “ From Sea to Sea’’ 
(reprint of newspaper articles), “The Brushwood Boy,” 
“The Absent-Minded Beggar,” “Kim of the Rishti,” 
"Just So Stories,” “The Five Nations,” “Traffics and 
Discoveries.” 

Kirkland, James Hampton, chancellor, Vander¬ 
bilt University, since 1893; born in Spartanburg, S. C., 
September 9, 1859; graduate Wofford College, 1877 
(A. M., 1878; Ph. D., Leipzig, Germany, 1885; LL. D., 
University of North Carolina, 1894; D. C. L., University 
of the South, 1902); professor of Greek and German, 
Wofford College, 1881-83; traveled and studied abroad, 
1883-86; professor of Latin, 1886-93, Vanderbilt Uni¬ 
versity. Editor: “Satires and Epistles of Horace.” 
Has published monographs, philological review articles, 
etc. 

Kleber, Jean Baptiste, born in 1754, distinguished 
himself in the wars of the French revolution, and under 
the Directory became commander of the army of the 
Sambre and Meuse. He went to Egypt with Napoleon, 
and on his departure remained behind as commander-in¬ 
chief. He captured Cairo, and entered into an alliance 
with Murat Bey, but was assassinated by an Arab in 1800. 

Knapp, Martin Augustine, jurist; born in Spaf- 
ford, N. Y., November 6, 1843; graduate from Wesleyan 
University, Connecticut, 1868 (A. M., 1871, LL. D., 
1892; honorary A. M., Syracuse University, 1892); 
admitted to New York bar, 1869; practiced at Syra¬ 
cuse, N. Y.; corporation counsel, 1877-83. Ap¬ 
pointed interstate commerce commissioner by Presi¬ 
dent Harrison, February, 1891; reappointed by 
Cleveland, 1897; by Roosevelt, 1902 and 1908; 
elected chairman of the commission, 1898. Appointed 
first chief judge of commerce court by Taft, 1910. 

Kneisel, Franz, musician, director of Kneisel 
Quartette; born in Rumania (of German parentage), 
1865; studied music; violin instruction under Griin 
and Hellmesberger; was concert master of Hofburg 
Theater Orchestra, Vienna; later of Bilse’s Orchestra, 
Berlin; was concertmaster Boston Symphony Orchestra; 
especially prominent as violin soloist. 

Knox, John, a Scottish divine and ecclesiastical 
reformer; born in Haddingtonshire, 1505, and was 
educated at St. Andrews University. In 1542, Knox 
became a fiery advocate of the Reformed faith, thereby 
encountering much persecution. In 1551, he was 
appointed chaplain to Edward VI. of England, and 
subsequently passed three years at Geneva, where he 
enjoyed the friendship of Calvin. On his return to his 
native country in 1559, he became the leading spirit of 
the Reformation of Scotland, and induced the parlia¬ 
ment to abjure the papal authority, and to declare 
Protestantism the religion of the land. Tried for treason 
at the instance of Queen Mary, he was acquitted; 
and assisted in bringing about that sovereign’s abdi¬ 
cation, together with the consequent elevation of her 
brother, the Earl of Murray, as Regent of Scotland. 
Died, 1572. 

Knox, Philander Chase, lawyer, statesman; 
born in Brownsville, Pa., May 6, 1853; graduate of 
Mt. Union College, Ohio, 1872 (LL. D., University 
of Pennsylvania, 1905); admitted to bar, 1875. 
Assistant United States district attorney, Western 
District of Pennsylvania, 1876-77; resigned; engaged 
in practice since 1877, with firm name of Knox & 
Reed, representing many large corporations, including 
the Carnegie Company; attorney-general of the United 
States, 1901-04. Senator from Pennsylvania, 1904-09; 
secretary of state, 1909-13. Visited Latin-American 
republics in 1912. Represented United States at funeral 
of Emperor Mutsuhito of Japan, 1912. 

Koch, Robert, M. D., born at Clausthal, Prussia, 
1843; between 1879 and 1883 succeeded in iden¬ 
tifying the germs of cattle disease, of consumption 
and of cholera. In 1884, he established the exist¬ 
ence of a bacterium as the cause of cholera. Appointed 
professor of hygiene at Berlin, 1885; in 1890, brought 
out a lymph for the cure of consumption. Died, 1910. 

Kohlsaat, Hermann Henry, capitalist, journalist; 
born in Albion, Edwards County, Ill., March 22, 1853; 
educated in common schools, Galena, Ill., and Skinner 
School, Chicago. Began business life as cash boy and 
later cashier in dry-goods store; traveling salesman for 
two other firms and, 1875-80, for Blake, Shaw & Co., 
wholesale bakers; became junior partner, 1880, and had 
charge of a bakery lunch established by this firm; bought 
that branch of the business, 1883, and greatly enlarged it; 
H. H. Kohlsaat & Co. (incorporated) now owning 
several large establishments and also doing large whole¬ 
sale bakery business; part owner in Chicago “Inter- 
Ocean,” 1891-93; editor and publisher “Chicago Times- 


Herald,” 1894 (amalgamated with "Chicago Record,” 
becoming “Record-Herald,” 1901); also of “Chicago 
Evening Post,” 1894-1901; editor of Chicago “Record- 
Herald” since January 1, 1910. Has been largely 
identified with local real-estate operations; presented 
statue of General Grant to City of Galena, Ill.; has 
contributed largely to charities; member of Republican 
National Convention, 1896. 

Kosciusko, Tadeusz, born in 1746; Polish patriot; 
came to America and became aide-de-camp to Washing¬ 
ton; in 1789, received the appointment of major-general 
in the Polish army; distinguished himself in the cam¬ 
paign of 1792, especially at the battle of Dubienka; 
after the submission of Stanislaus retired to Leipzig; on 
the outbreak of the second Polish rising, in 1794, was 
chosen commander-in-chief; although scantily supplied 
with troops, succeeded in expelling the Russians from 
Poland, but was finally overwhelmed at Macieowice in 
October. He was imprisoned in a fortress near St. 
Petersburg, but released on the accession of the Emperor 
Paul. In 1798, he settled in France. He died in Soleure, 
Switzerland, 1817. 

Kossuth, Louis, born in 1802; Hungarian patriot; 
in 1847, was returned to the diet as deputy for Pesth; 
became leader of the party of reform; held the office of 
minister of finance in the new Hungarian ministry, and 
after its fall was made president of the committee of 
national defense. In April, 1849, the Hungarians de¬ 
clared themselves independent, and Kossuth carried on 
the government from Debreczin, and afterwards from 
Szegedin; but, finding it impossible to act in conjunction 
with Gorgey, he resigned in August, 1849. The ill-suc¬ 
cess of his countrymen in the field compelled him soon 
afterwards to flee to Turkey, whence he removed to Eng¬ 
land in 1851. During his late years he lived chiefly in 
Italy. Died, 1894. 

Kotzebue, August Friedrich Ferdinand von, born 
in 1761; German man of letters; in 1781, was attached 
to the Prussian embassy at St. Petersburg; afterwards 
entered the Russian Service, and in 1817, was sent by 
the Tzar as consul-general to Prussia. His Russian sym¬ 
pathies made him unpopular in Germany, and led to his 
assassination in 1819. His works embrace a wide range 
of subjects. 

Krauskopf, Joseph, rabbi, lecturer, author; born 
in Ostrowo, Prussia, January 21, 1858; came to America, 
1872, and worked as clerk at Fall River, Mass.; grad¬ 
uated B. A., University of Cincinnati, 1883; also as rabbi 
from Hebrew Union College, 1883 (D. D., 1885); soon 
after graduation accepted call from Hebrew congregation, 
Kansas City; rabbi of the Reform Congregation Kene- 
seth Israel, Philadelphia, 1887; founded Jewish Publi¬ 
cation Society of America; founded, and president since 
organization, National Farm School, in which Jewish 
boys are trained in practical and scientific agriculture. 
Author: “The Jews and Moors in Spain” (lecture); 

“Evolution and Judaism,” “A Rabbi’s Impressions of 
the Oberammergau Passion Play,” “The Seven Ages of 
Man,” “Old Truths in New Books,” “Society and its 
Morals,” “Some Isms of To-day,” “Gleanings from Our 
Vineyard,” “The Service Manual,” “The Service Ritual,” 
“The Mourner’s Service,” “The School Service,” “Sun¬ 
day Lectures.” 

Kropotkin, Prince Peter, born in 1842, Russian 
Nihilist; in 1872 went to Belgium and Switzerland; 
became an internationalist; after his return to Russia, 
lectured under assumed names; was imprisoned, but 
escaped to Switzerland; has since taken part in the 
agitation carried on throughout Europe against existing 
social arrangements. 

Kruger, S. J. Paul, born in 1825, Boer statesman; 
formed with Joubert and Pretorius the provisional 
government (December, 1880) of the Transvaal, or 
South African Republic; held a high position during 
the war with England; was elected president in 1883, 
1888, 1893, and 1898. Died, 1904. 

Krupp, Alfred, a metal and steel founder, was born 
in Essen, where through his father he became the pro¬ 
prietor of a small foundry which grew in his hands into 
such dimensions as to surpass every other establishment 
of the kind in the world. The Bessemer process was 
early introduced into England in the manufacture of 
steel, which Krupp was the first to employ in the manu¬ 
facture of guns. The works cover an immense area, and 
employ 20,000 people, and supply artillery to every 
government of Europe. Born, 1812; died, 1887. 

Ladd, George Trumbull, an American educator; 
born in Painesville, O., January 19, 1842: he was 
educated at Western Reserve College and Andover 
Theological Seminary; was pastor of Spring Street 
Congregational Church, Milwaukee, Wis., 1871-79; 
and professor of philosophy at Bowdoin College, 1879- 



BIOGRAPHY 


455 


81, when he assumed the chair of philosophy at Yale. 
His works include “Principles of Church Polity,’’ “Doc¬ 
trine of Sacred Scripture,” and “Elements of Physio¬ 
logical Psychology.” He lectured on philosophy in 
India, 1899-1900, and was decorated by the Emperor 
of Japan. 

La Farge, John, artist; born in New York, March 
31, 1835; studied architectural decoration; then studied 
painting with Couture and William M. Hunt. Began 
painting with religious subjects and decorative work; 
painted flowers, a few portraits, and many landscapes; 
for a short time made illustrations for books and maga¬ 
zines; then devoted himself to mural painting, mostly 
of religious or ecclesiastical character; afterward was 
for years devoted to the making of stained glass win¬ 
dows, for which he invented the new methods known in 
Europe as “American,” changing and reforming entire 
art of the glass-stainer, from the making of the new 
glass by new methods to the painting of same; much 
of his work was in churches and residences in Boston, 
New York, Chicago, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Washing¬ 
ton, Detroit, and elsewhere. Author: “Lectures on 
Art,” “Letters from Japan,” etc. Died. 1910. 

Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert 
Motier, Marquis de, born in 1757; educated at 
the College of Plessis; took part in the American War 
of Independence, and was entrusted by Washington 
with the defense of Virginia; was one of the earliest 
leaders in the French Revolution, presenting his “Decla¬ 
ration of Rights” to the Constituent Assembly, and 
receiving the command of the National Guard in July, 
1789; retained his post till 1791, but, by opposing 
mob violence, excited the animosity of the Jacobins, 
which was increased by his letter denouncing the clubs 
(June, 1792). After vainly attempting to make his 
presence felt in Paris, he fled over the frontier, but was 
captured by the Austrians (August, 1792), and remained 
in prison till released by Napoleon in 1797. After 
holding office under the Bourbons, he took part in rais¬ 
ing Louis Philippe to the throne (1830), but afterwards 
opposed his government. Died, 1834. 

La Follette, Robert Marion, lawyer, statesman; 
born in Primrose, Wis., June 14, 1855; graduate of 
University of Wisconsin, 1879 (LL. D., 1901); ad¬ 
mitted to bar, 1880. District attorney, Dane County, 
1880-84; member of Congress, 1885-91; as member of 
Ways and Means Committee, he took prominent part in 
framing McKinley Bill. Elected governor of Wiscon¬ 
sin, 1901, 1903 and 1905. Led movements for direct 
primaries, adequate railway taxation, control of railway 
rates by state commission, etc. He was elected to the 
United States Senate in 1905 and re-elected in 1911. 
Has made important contributions toward railroad and 
other public reforms and is regarded as one of the ablest 
debaters in the Senate. 

Lagrange, Joseph Louis, Count, mathematician; 
of French extraction, born in Turin in 1736; became 
professor of mathematics in that town at the age of 
19. In 1766, he succeeded Euler as director of the 
Academy of Berlin. Removing to Paris in 1787, he 
remained there during the Revolution, and was after¬ 
wards patronized by Napoleon. Died, 1813. 

Lamar, Joseph Rucker, jurist, born at Ruckers- 
ville, Ga., 1857. He received his education at Univer¬ 
sity of Georgia, Bethany College, Washington and Lee 
University. Admitted to the Georgia bar, 1879; mem¬ 
ber of Georgia legislature, 1886-89; commissioner to 
codify the laws of Georgia, 1895; served as associate 
justice of Supreme Court of Georgia, 1901-05; in 1910 
he was appointed by President Taft associate justice of 
United States Supreme Court. 

Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louis de, born in 
1790; French author and statesman; held diplomatic 
posts in Italy from 1820 to the accession of Louis 
Philippe; traveled for about two years in the East; 
returning in 1833, sat in the National Assembly till the 
revolution of 1848, when he became minister of foreign 
affairs, but retired, owing to what he considered the 
absence of liberal views among his colleagues. His 
chief prose works are “Histoire des Girondins,” “Sou¬ 
venirs d’Orient,” “Le Tailleur de Pierres de St.-Point,” 
and “Histoire de la Restauration.” Died, 1869. 

Lamb, Charles, essayist and poet, was born in the 
Temple, where his father w r as clerk to a bencher, in 1775; 
received his education at Christ’s Hospital; became a 
clerk in the South Sea House, and afterwards in the 
India House, retiring on a pension in 1825. His life 
was devoted to the care of his sister, Mary, who always 
remained subject to fits of insanity. Most of the 
“Essays of Elia” were published in the “London Maga¬ 
zine” between 1820 and 1826; others appeared in the 
“New Monthly” and the “Englishman’s Magazine.” 
Lamb also wrote “.Rosamund Gray,” “.John Wood- 


ville,” a drama; studies of the Elizabethan dramatists, 
and many short lyrics. He died in Edmonton in 
1834. 

Landis, Kenesaw Mountain, jurist; born in Mill¬ 
ville, O., November 20, 1866; educated in public schools, 
Logansport, Ind.; graduate of Union College of Law, 
1891; admitted to bar, 1891. Practiced law in Chi¬ 
cago, 1891-1905, except for two years while he was 
private secretary to secretary of state Gresham; judge 
of United States District Court, northern district of 
Illinois, since March 28, 1905. 

Landor, Walter Savage, born in 1775, descended 
from a good Warwickshire family; was educated at 
Itugby and Trinity College, Oxford, where he won a 
high reputation as a scholar. He next passed three 
years of solitude in South'Wales, and there wrote “Gebir.” 
“Simonidea” appeared in 1806, and “Count Julian” 
in 1812. In the year 1811 he married, and his agri¬ 
cultural schemes at Llanthony Abbey resulting in fail¬ 
ure (1814), went abroad with his wife, with whom he 
lived very unhappily at Florence and other places, and 
at last separated from her in 1835. From 1837 to 1858, 
he resided at Bath, and from 1858 till his death at 
Florence in 1864. The first series of “.Imaginary Con¬ 
versations” was published in 1824. 

Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry, youngest son of John 
Landseer, was born in London in 1802; showed his 
genius at an early age; was elected A. R. A. in 1826, 
and R. A. in 1830; declined the presidency in 1865. 
Among his chief works are “High Life” and “Low 
Life,” “Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time,” “The Old 
Shepherd’s Chief Mourner,” “Dignity and Impudence,” 
“Night and Morning,” and “.Children of the Mist.” 
Died, 1873. 

Langtry, Lillie, actress; born in Island of Jersey in 
1852; daughter of Rev. W. C. Le Breton; married (1), 
1874, Edward Langtry (died, 1897); (2) 1899, Gerald, 
son of Sir Hugo de Bathe. Debut, Haymarket Theater, 
London, 1881, as Hester Grazebrook, in “An Unequal 
Match”; made American tours, appearing as Pauline 
in “The Lady of Lyons,” Rosalind in “As You Like 
It”; has also appeared in “A Wife’s Peril,” “Nos 
Intimes,” “Esther Sandraz,” “As in a Looking Glass,” 
etc.; twice leased Prince’s (now Prince of Wales) 
Theater, London; became naturalized citizen of United 
States, 1887; leased Princess’s Theater, London, 1891. 

Laotse (i. e., the old Philosopher), a Chinese sage; 
born in the province of Ho-nan about B. C. 565, a con¬ 
temporary of Confucius, who wrote the celebrated 
“Tao-te-King” canon, that is, of the Tao, or divine 
reason, and of virtue, one — and deservedly so on 
account of its high ethics — of the sacred books of China; 
he was the founder of one of the principal religions of 
China, Confucianism and Buddhism being the other two, 
although his followers, the Tao-sze, as they are called, 
are now degenerated into a set of jugglers. 

Laplace, Pierre Simon (lah-plahs '), an illustrious 
French astronomer and mathematician; born in 
Calvftdos, in 1749. In 1768, through the influence of 
D’Alembert, he became professor of mathematics in 
the military school, and, in 1785, a titular member of 
the Academy of Sciences. In 1796, his “Exposition of 
the System of the Universe” attracted general atten¬ 
tion, and opened to him the doors of the French Acad¬ 
emy. In 1817, he became president of that body, and 
was created a marquis. The grandest monument of his 
genius — the “Traitd de la M^canique Cdleste ”—has 
placed him as a scientist among the greatest names 
either of ancient or modern times. Died, 1827. 

Lardner, Dionysius, born in 1793, son of a Dublin 
solicitor; educated in Cambridge; in 1827, became 
professor of natural history in the University of London, 
and set on foot his “Cabinet Encyclopaedia,” for which 
he wrote most of the scientific articles. Died, 1859. 

Lardner, Nathaniel, born in Hawkhurst, in Kent, 
A. D. 1684; a distinguished Unitarian minister, cele¬ 
brated as the author of “The Credibility of the Gospel 
History” (published between 1727 and 1757). He was 
also the author of a “Collection of Jewish and Heathen 
Testimonies.” These two works — the value of which 
in Christian apologetics can hardly be over-estimated — 
occupied Dr. Lardner for the greater part of forty-three 
years. Died, 1768. 

Larned, Josephus Nelson, author; born in Chatham, 
Ont., May 11, 1836; educated in public schools, Buffalo; 
on editorial staff of “Buffalo Express,” 1859-72; super¬ 
intendent of education, Buffalo, 1872-73; superintendent 
of Buffalo public library, 1877-97, Author: “Talks 
About Labor,” “History for Ready Reference,” “Talk 
About Books,” “History of England for Schools,” 
“A Multitude of Councilors,” “Primer of Right and 
Wrong,” “.History of the United States for Secondary 




456 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OP FACTS 


Schools,” ‘‘Seventy Centuries;—a Survey.’’ Editor: 
‘‘The Literature of American History.” 

La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, born in 1643; French 
traveler; traced the Mississippi to its mouth in 1682; 
in 1684, attempted to establish a fortified settlement 
on the Gulf of Mexico, but was murdered by his compan¬ 
ions, in Texas, in 1687. 

Lassalle, Ferdinand, founder of Socialism in Ger¬ 
many; born in Breslau, in 1825, of Jewish parents. 
He attended the universities of Breslau and Berlin; 
became a disciple of Hegel; took part in the Revolution 
of 1848, and was sent to prison for six months. In 
1861, his ‘‘System of Acquired Rights” started an agi¬ 
tation of labor against capital, and he was again thrown 
into prison; and on his release founded an association to 
secure universal suffrage and other reforms. Died, 1864. 

Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, G. C. M. G., the first French- 
Canadian Premier of the Dominion, was born in St. Lin, 
1841. He was admitted to the bar in 1864, and in 1871 
was elected as a liberal to the Quebec Provincial Assembly. 
In 1874 he was elected to the Federal Assembly, and his 
high personal character, his undoubted loyalty to the 
connection of the colony with Great Britain, together 
with his great oratorical powers, which have earned for 
him the title ‘‘Silver-tongued Laurier,” soon gave him 
high rank in the Liberal party. He was minister of 
inland revenue in the Mackenzie ministry of 1877; 
defeated at general election of 1878, but was immediately 
afterward elected for district of Quebec East; was 
reelected at the general elections of 1878, 1882, 1887, 1891 
and 1911. On the retirement of Blake in 1891 he was 
chosen as leader of the Liberal party, and at the general 
election of 1896 he led his followers to a notable victory. 
His tariff legislation during 1897, giving Great Britain the 
benefit of preferential trade with Canada, aroused much 
enthusiasm both in the colony and at home, and he was 
warmly welcomed when he went to London to attend the 
Jubilee festivities. He was then appointed a member of 
the privy council and made a G. C. M. G. In 1900 he 
again secured the approval both of the dominion and of 
the empire by the prompt despatch of Canadian troops 
to aid the mother country in South Africa, and led his 
party to another victory at the polls in November. He 
was again returned to power in 1904 and in 1908, and in 
1907 attended the imperial conference in London. The 
Liberal ministry under the leadership of Laurier for fifteen 
years was defeated in 1911, and Robert Borden as head 
of the Conservative party became premier. 

Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, born in 1743; French 
chemist; after studying at the College Mazarin, obtained 
the post of farmer-general (1769), and devoted much of 
his time to chemical experiments, resulting in a new 
theory of chemistry, the ‘‘anti-phlogistic” (1773-75), 
on which the modern science is based. In arriving at 
his results he was much indebted to Priestley, who made 
known to him his discovery of oxygen. During the revo¬ 
lution he was accused of adulterating tobacco, and guillo¬ 
tined in 1794. 

Lawson, Thomas William, banker and broker, 
yachtsman, author; born in Charlestown, Mass., Febru¬ 
ary 26, 1857; educated at public schools, Cambridge, 
Mass.; in business as banker and broker since April, 
1870; now senior member of firm of Lawson, Arnold & 
Company, members of Boston and New York Stock Ex¬ 
changes; Republican; prominent as yachtsman; con¬ 
tributor to magazines, reviews, and newspapers since 
1875. Author: “The Krank,” “History of the Repub¬ 
lican Party” (large illustrated 4to.), “Secrets of Success,” 
“Collection of Poems and Short Stories from Magazines,” 
“Lawson History of the America’s Cup,” “.Frenzied 
Finance,” “Friday the Thirteenth.” 

Lea, Henry Charles, author; born in Philadelphia, 
September 19, 1825; private education (LL. D., Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania, Harvard and Princeton); mem¬ 
ber many learned societies in Europe and the United 
States; in publishing business, 1843-80, then retired. 
Author: “Superstition and Force,” “An Historical 
Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church,” 
“Studies in Church History,” “A History of the Inquisi¬ 
tion of the Middle Ages,” “Chapters from the Religious 
History of Spain,” “Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary 
in the Thirteenth Century,” “A History of Auricular 
Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church,” “The 
Moriscos of Spain: Their Conversion and Expulsion,” 
“History of the Inquisition of Spain,” also many articles 
in periodicals. Died, 1909. 

Lee, Robert Edward, born in 1807; American gen¬ 
eral, educated at West Point, entered the corps of en¬ 
gineers; served in the Mexican War; was superintendent 
of West Point, 1852-55; after the outbreak of Civil War 
was placed in command of the army of Northern Vir¬ 
ginia (May, 1862); repelled McClellan, and relieved 
Richmond; defeated the Northern army near Manassas 


Junction; was beaten by McClellan at Antietam (Sep¬ 
tember); gained the victories of Fredericksburg (De¬ 
cember), and Chancellorsville (May, 1863); was defeated 
at Gettysburg (July); fought several battles against 
Grant, and defended Petersburg for ten months; be¬ 
came general-in-chief of the Confederate Armies in Feb¬ 
ruary, 1865; surrendered at Appomattox on April 9, 
1865. Died, 1870. 

Le Gallienne, Richard, journalist, author; born in 
Liverpool, Eng., January 20, 1866; in business seven 
years, but abandoned it for literature; for some time in 
journalism and literary work in United States. Editor: 
“Izaak Walton, The Compleat Angler,” “Hazlitt’s 
‘Liber Amoris,’ ” “Hallam’s ‘.Remains.’ ” Author: 
“My Ladies’ Sonnets,” “Volumes in Folio,” “George 
Meredith,” “The Book-Bills of Narcissus,” “English 
Poems,” “.The Religion of a Literary Man,” “Prose 
Fancies,” “.Robert Louis Stevenson and Other Poems,” 
“Retrospective Reviews,” “Prose Fancies,” second series, 
“The Quest of the Golden Girl,” “If I were God,” 
“Omar Khayyam, a Paraphrase,” “.The Romance of 
Zion Chapel,” “Young Lives,” “ Worshiper of the Image,” 
“Travels in England,” “The Beautiful Lie of Rome,” 
“Rudyard Kipling, a Criticism,” “.The Life Romantic,” 
“Sleeping Beauty,” “Mr. Sun and Mrs. Moon,” “Per¬ 
seus and Andromeda,” “An Old Country House,” “.Odes 
from the Divan of Hafiz,” “.Painted Shadows.” 

Lenormant, Francois, a distinguished archajologist; 
born in Paris in 1837; a man of genius and of vast learn¬ 
ing; his chief works “Manuel d’Histoire Ancienne de 
l’Orient,” “Lettres Assyriologues,” “Les Premieres Civ¬ 
ilisations,” and “.Les Sciences Occultes en Asie.” Died, 
1883. 

Leo I., “the Great,” Pope; born about 390; succeeded 
Sixtus III. in 440; zealously opposed the Manichseans 
and Pelagians, and secured the condemnation of the 
Eutychian heresy at the general council of Chalcedon 
(451). He induced Attila to spare Rome (452), but it 
was pillaged by Genseric (455). Died, 461. 

Leo X., Pope (Cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici): son of 
Lorenzo the Magnificent; born in Florence in 1475; was 
banished with his family in 1494; traveled in Germany 
and Flanders, and formed a friendship with Erasmus; on 
his return to Italy became legate to Julius II.; was 
taken prisoner at Ravenna (1512); became pope in 
1513. In his efforts to extend the papal dominions he 
allied himself at one time with France, at another with 
the empire. In 1515 he signed the famous concordat 
with Francis I. His pontificate is one of the most bril¬ 
liant periods in the history of art and literature, and is 
also memorable as the time when the Reformation began. 
Died, 1521. 

Leo XIII. (Gioacchino Pecci), Pope; son of Count 
Ludovico Pecci; born in Carpineto, in the Papal States, 
in 1810; educated at the Collegio Romano and the 
Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics; administered the dis¬ 
tricts of Benevento, Spoleto, and Perugia successively;, 
became archbishop of Damietta, 1843, and bishop of 
Perugia, 1846; was nuncio to the King of the Belgians, 
1843-46; was created a cardinal, 1853, and in 1877 be¬ 
came chamberlain. He was elected pope as representa¬ 
tive of the Moderates in 1878, and down to his death in 
1903 was one of the foremost figures of modern times. 

Leonidas was a Spartan King who succeeded his 
brother, Cleomenes I., 491 B. C. In 480 B. C., he, with a 
few soldiers, defended the Pass of Thermopylae against 
Xerxes and his Persian Army, nearly a million strong, 
the Greeks perishing to a man after killing five times 
their number. 

Leopardi, Giacomo, modern Italian poet; born near 
Ancona, 1798; a precocious genius; an omnivorous reader 
as a boy, and devoted to literature; of a weakly con¬ 
stitution, he became a confirmed invalid, and died sud¬ 
denly; had sceptical leanings; wrote lyrics inspired by 
a certain somber melancholy. Died, 1837. 

Leopold I., King of the Belgians, son of the Duke of 
Saxe-Coburg; born in 1790; in his youth served in the 
Russian Army; visited England in 1815, and married 
Princess Charlotte, who died two years later; he declined 
the throne of Greece in 1830, but accepted that of the 
Belgians in 1831, and proved a wise, firm, constitutional 
sovereign; in 1832 he married the French Princess Louise; 
he was succeeded by his son Leopold II. Died, 1865. 

Leopold Il„ King of the Belgians; born in 1835; son 
of the preceding; married Archduchess Maria of Austria 
in 1853, and succeeded his father in 1865. His reign was 
marked by quarrels of the Liberals and Roman Cath¬ 
olics. He was the leading spirit of the International 
African Association. Died, 1909. 

Le Sage, Alain Rene, French novelist and dramatist; 
born in Sarzeau in Brittany, in 1668; educated in the Jesuit 
College at Vannes; went to Paris in 1692; learned Span- 
ish, and translated or imitated several Spanish dramas; 



BIOGRAPHY 


457 


in 1707 produced “Le Diable Boiteux,” and soon after¬ 
wards a comedy called “.Turcaret.” “.Gil Bias’’ was 
published in three parts. Died, 1747. 

Lesseps, Ferdinand, Vicomte de, born in 1805; 
after holding various consular posts, went to Madrid as 
ambassador in 1848. While in Egypt, in 1854, he pro¬ 
posed the scheme of the Suez canal to Said Pasha, and, 
a company having been formed, the canal was begun in 

1859, and completed in 1869. He was also author of 
the Panama canal scheme. Died, 1894. 

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, born in Kamenz, 
Lusatia, in 1729; educated at the Meissen Fiirstenschule 
and the university of Leipzig; between 1749 and 1760 
lived chiefly in Berlin, where Mendelssohn and Nicolai 
were his literary associates; was secretary to General 
Tauentzien, governor of Silesia, 1760-65; in 1770 be¬ 
came librarian to the Duke of Brunswick at Wolfenbuttel. 
By publishing Reimarus’ “Wolfenbuttel Fragments,” 
of which he was supposed to be the author, he incurred 
the hostility of the Church. His chief works are “Lao- 
koon,” a treatise on art, and the following dramas: 
“Miss Sarah Sampson,” a tragedy; “Minna von Barn- 
helm,” a comedy; “Emilia Galotti,” a tragedy; and 
“Nathan der Weise.” Died, 1781. 

Lieber, Franz ( le'ber ), born in Berlin, 1800; after 
suffering imprisonment for his political opinions, came 
to America (1827), and was made professor of history 
in Columbia College, South Carolina. He edited the 
“Encyclopaedia Americana” (1829-33), and wrote 
“Political Ethics” (1838), “Civil Liberty and Self- 
Government” (1853), “Guerilla Parties” (1862), etc. 
Died, 1872. 

Liebig, Justus ( le'big ), Baron von, chemist, born 
in Darmstadt, 1803; studied at Bonn and Erlangen; 
went to Paris, and attracted the attention of Humboldt 
by a paper on fulminic acid; was appointed professor 
at Giessen (1824), where his laboratory became cele¬ 
brated, and afterwards at Munich (1852). Among his 
chief works are “Organic Chemistry in its Application 
to Agriculture” (1840), and “Annalen der Chimie,” 
edited in conjunction with Wohler. Died, 1873. 

Liliuokalani. Lydia Kamekeha, ex-queen of 
Hawaiian Islands; born in Honolulu, H. I., December 2, 
1838; made vice-regent when King Kalakaua left Hawaii, 
and after his death in San Francisco was proclaimed 
queen, January 29,1891. Her attempts to abolish the con¬ 
stitution of 1887 and restore absolute monarchy, though 
abandoned, led to her dethronement, January 30, 1892. 
A provisional government was set up, and although 
President Cleveland declared in favor of her restoration 
to the throne, her efforts in that direction failed. After 
her dethronement she came to the United States. 
Hawaii being annexed to United States, July, 1898, she 
returned to the islands in August. 

Lincoln, Abraham, sixteenth President of the 
United States; born near Hodgensville, Kentucky, Feb¬ 
ruary 12, 1809. His father was a poor farmer, who, in 
1816, removed from Kentucky to Indiana. In the rude 
life of the backwoods, Lincoln’s entire schooling did not 
exceed one year, and he was employed in the severest 
agricultural labor. He lived with his family in Spencer 
County, Indiana, till 1830, when he removed to Illinois, 
where, with another man, he performed the feat of 
splitting 300 rails in a day, which gave him the popular 
sobriquet of “the Railsplitter.” In 1834, he was elected 
to the Illinois Legislature. At this period, he lived by 
surveying land, wore patched homespun clothes, and 
spent his leisure hours in studying law. He was three 
times reelected to the legislature; was admitted to 
practice law in 1837; and removed to Springfield, the 
State capital. In 1844, he canvassed the State for Mr. 
Clay, then nominated for president. Mr. Clay was de¬ 
feated, but the popularity gained by Lincoln in the 
canvass secured his own election to Congress in 1846, 
where he voted against the extension of slavery; and 
in 1854 was a recognized leader in the newly-formed 
Republican party. In 1855, he canvassed the State as 
a candidate for United States senator, against Mr. Doug¬ 
las, but without success. In 1856, he was an active 
supporter of Mr. Fremont in the presidential canvass, 
which resulted in the election of Mr. Buchanan. In 

1860, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency by the 
Chicago Convention over Mr. Seward, who expected the 
nomination. The non-extension of slavery to the Terri¬ 
tories, or new States to be formed from them, was the 
most important principle of his party. There were 
three other candidates — Mr. Douglas of Illinois, North¬ 
ern Democrat; Mr. Breckenridge of Kentucky, then 
vice-president, and afterwards a general of the Confed¬ 
erate army, Southern Democrat; and Mr. Bell of Ten¬ 
nessee, Native American. With this division, Mr. Lin¬ 
coln received a majority of votes over any of the other 
candidates, though a million short of an absolute major¬ 


ity; every Southern and one Northern State voted 
against him. He was installed in the president’s chair, 
March 4, 1861. His election, by a sectional vote and on 
a sectional issue hostile to the South, was followed by 
the secession of eleven Southern States, and a war for 
the restoration of the Union. As_a military measure, 
he proclaimed, January 1, 1863, the freedom of all 
slaves in the rebel States; and was reelected to the 
presidency in 1864. The war was practically brought 
to a close in April, 1865, through his efforts. On the 
14th of the same month Lincoln was shot by an assas¬ 
sin, and died the next day. He was characterized by 
a strong sense of duty and great firmness. 

Lind, Jenny (Madame Otto Goldschmidt), the Swed¬ 
ish nightingale, was born at Stockholm in 1820. Giving 
evidence of her power of song in childhood, she was put 
under a master at 9; too soon put to practice in 
ublic, her voice at 12 showed signs of contracting, 
ut after four years recovered its full power, when, 
appearing as Alice in “Robert le Diable,” the effect was 
electric; henceforth her fame was established, and fol¬ 
lowed her over the world; in 1844 she made a round of 
the chief cities of Germany; made her first appearance 
in London in 1847, and visited the United States, 
1850-52; she was married in Boston, 1852, and then left 
the stage for good, to appear only now and again at 
intervals for some charitable object. She was plain 
looking, and a woman of great simplicity both in man¬ 
ners and ways of thinking. Died, 1887. 

Linnaeus, or Carl von Linne ( lin-ne'ua or lln'na'), 
was born at Rashult, in the province of Smaland, 
Sweden, May 23, 1707. He was the most eminent 
naturalist of his day, for many years professor of physic 
and of botany in the University of Upsala. He was 
the son of a clergyman, whose real name was Bengtsson, 
but who, before going into orders, had assumed the 
name of Linnaeus. He ascribed his love for the study 
of botany to his father, who was himself attached to 
the culture of his garden; but this love for the science 
was greatly developed during his residence, as a student, 
at the University of Lund, where a physician, who 
possessed a good library and a museum of natural 
history, received the young student into his house, and 
gave him every assistance and encouragement. In 1730, 
having received some further education at the University 
of Upsala, he became assistant and deputy to Rudbeck, 
then professor of botany in the university; and 
in 1741, having in the meantime traveled through 
Holland, France, England, and other countries, in pur¬ 
suit of knowledge, he was himself appointed to the 
professorship at Upsala, which he held nominally till 
his death. He was the author of numerous works, of 
which the most important is “Systema Naturae,” 
which was first printed in 1735 in twelve folio pages, 
and grew by 1768 into three volumes. In 1761 he was 
raised to the rank of the nobility, and then took the 
name of Von Linne. Although his system of classifica¬ 
tion has long been to a large extent superseded, he 
undoubtedly prepared the way for other discoverers, 
and he did much to advance the study of natural science. 
His library and herbarium were purchased for the sum 
of one thousand pounds by Sir J. E. Smith, and were by 
him presented to the Linnsean Society of London, which 
was instituted in 1788, and incorporated in 1802, for 
the promotion of the science to which Linnseus had 
devoted his life. Died at Upsala, 1778. 

Lippi, Fra Filippo ( lep'pe ), Italian painter, born in 
Florence, 1412; left an orphan, was brought up in a 
monastery, where his talent for art was developed and 
encouraged; went to Ancona, was carried off by pirates, 
but procured his release by his skill in drawing, and 
returning to Italy practiced his art in Florence and 
elsewhere, till one day he eloped with a novice in a 
nunnery who sat to him for a Madonna, by whom he 
became the father of a son no less famous than himself; 
he prosecuted his art amid poverty with zeal and success 
to the last; distinguished by Ruskin as the only monk 
who ever did good painter’s work; he had Botticelli 
for a pupil. Died, 1469. 

Liszt, Franz (Abbe) (list), one of the most brilliant 
pianists who ever lived, was born October 22, 1811. 
He made his first appearance at a concert in his ninth 
year. He took orders and received the tonsure on 
April 25, 1865. In 1871 his native country of Hungary 
granted him a pension of £600 a year, and in 1875 he 
was named director of the Hungarian Academy of 
Music. One of his two daughters married Richard 
Wagner. Died, 1886. 

Livingston, Edward, American lawyer and states¬ 
man, was born 1764; was elected to Congress in 1794; 
followed his profession at New Orleans (1804-23); 
represented that town in Congress (1823-9); entered 
the Senate (1829); became secretary of state (1831); 



458 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


was minister to France (1833-5). He wrote a cele¬ 
brated “System of Penal Law” (1833). Died, 1836. 

Livingstone, David, born at Blantyre, in Lanark¬ 
shire, 1813. He worked during childhood and youth in 
a cotton mill; was sent to South Africa by the London 
Missionary Society in 1840; resided for several years at 
various stations near the Limpopo, discovering Lake 
Ngami in 1849, and penetrating to the Makololo country 
in 1851; in 1853-4 crossed Africa from the Zambezi to 
the Congo, and in 1854-6 made his way from Loanda to 
Quilimane, following the course of the Zambezi, and 
discovering the Victoria Falls; went to England in 
1856, and published “Missionary Travels” (1857); re¬ 
turned to Africa as consul at Quilimane in 1858; ex¬ 
plored the country north of the Zambezi (1858-64), 
discovering Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, and in 1865 
published his “Narrative” of the journey; undertook 
his third expedition in 1866, and spent the remainder of 
his life endeavoring to ascertain whether the Nile flowed 
from the water-system west of Lake Tanganyika. In 
November, 1871, he was found by Stanley at Ujiji. He 
died of dysentery at the village of Chitambo, 1873. 

Livy, or Titus Livius, was born at Patavium 
{Padua), in the north of Italy, 59 B. C. He was the 
most eminent of the Roman historians, distinguished 
for the animation of his narrative and for the purity of 
his style, though not for the reliableness of his historical 
statements. His “History of Rome” was written partly 
at Rome and partly at Naples, under the patronage of 
the Emperor Augustus. It consisted originally of 142 
books; but of these only thirty-five have come down to 
us, and some of these in a very imperfect state. Of all 
but two, however, we possess fragments, with short epit¬ 
omes from another hand. The “History” (or, as it 
was called by its author, “The Annals of the Roman 
People”) begins with the foundation of the city, and 
ends with the death of Drusus, the younger brother of 
the Emperor Tiberius, 9 B. C. He died, 17 A. D. 

Lloyd-George David, English statesman, chancellor 
of the exchequer since 1908, was born in Manchester, 
1863; educated at Llanystymdwy church school and pri¬ 
vately; became solicitor in 1884; member of parliament 
since 1890; president of the board of trade, 1905-08. He 
is the author of the old age pension law of 1908 and 
the insurance act of 1912 insuring working people against 
illness or disability; he strongly supported the minimum 
wage law of 1912 which settled by intervention of the 
government the great coal strike involving a million 
miners. 

Locke, John, an English philosopher; born in 
Wrington, in Somersetshire in 1632. He was educated at 
Westminster and Christ Church College, Oxford. When, 
in 1672, Lord Shaftesbury was appointed lord chan¬ 
cellor, he made Locke secretary of presentations, and at 
a later period, secretary to the Board of Trade. As a 
philosopher, Locke stands at the head of what is called 
the Sensational School in England. His greatest work 
is the “Essay on the Human Understanding,” in which 
he endeavors to show that all our ideas are derived 
from experience, that is, through the senses, and reflec¬ 
tion on what they reveal to us. He is best known to 
Americans as the author of a peculiar constitution for 
North Carolina, which included orders of nobility, etc. 
It was never put in operation. He died in 1704. 

Lockwood, Belva Ann Bennett, lawyer; born in 
Royalton, N. Y., October, 24, 1830; daughter of Lewis 
Johnson and Hannah (Green) Bennett; graduate of 
Genesee College, Lima, N. Y., 1857 (A. M., Syracuse 
University, 1871); taught school, 1857-68. Worked 
for and secured passage by Congress of bill giving women 
employes of the government equal pay for equal work. 
Studied law in Washington; graduate of National 
University, B. L., 1873; admitted to District of Columbia 
bar; secured passage of a bill admitting women to 
United States Supreme Court, 1879; was admitted under 
it, February, 1879; also to United States Court of Claims; 
has been engaged in many important law cases, several 
before United States Supreme Court; for years identified 
with claims of North Carolina Cherokee Indians vs. 
United States; presented bill to Congress to remove 
intruders from Cherokee Nation; was one of attorneys 
in probate of will of Myra Clarke Gaines. Took a course 
of lectures, University Extension, in Oxford, England, 
1890. Prominent in temperance, peace, and woman 
suffrage movements; nominated, 1884 and 1888, by 
Equal Rights Party for president of United States; 
commissioned by State Department to represent United 
States at Congress of Charities and Corrections, Geneva, 
Switzerland, 1896. Writer on peace and arbitration and 
on political and social subjects; prepared amend¬ 
ments to Statehood bill before Congress, granting suffrage 
to women in Oklahoma, Arizona, and New Mexico. 


Lodge, Henry Cabot, author, statesman, was born 
in Boston, Mass., May 12, 1850; received a private 
school and collegiate education; was graduated from 
Harvard College in 1871; studied law at Harvard Law 
School and graduated in 1874, receiving the degree of 
LL. B.; was admitted to the Suffolk bar in 1876; in the 
same year — 1876 — received the degree of Ph. D. from 
Harvard University for his thesis on “The Land Law of 
the Anglo-Saxons”; profession, that of literature; has 
published, 1877, “Life and Letters of George Cabot”; 
1881, ‘‘Short History of the English Colonies in Amer¬ 
ica”; 1882, “Life of Alexander Hamilton”; 1883, ‘‘Life 
of Daniel Webster ”; 1885, edited the works of Alexander 
Hamilton in nine volumes; published, in 1886, “Studies 
in History”; 1889, “Life of Washington,” two volumes; 
1891, “ History of Boston”; 1892, “Historical and Polit¬ 
ical Essays”; 1895, in conjunction with Theodore Roose¬ 
velt, “ Hero Tales from American History ”; 1897, “ Cer¬ 
tain Accepted Heroes, and Other Essays”; 1898, “Story 
of the Revolution,” two volumes; 1899, "Story of the 
Spanish War ”; “A Fighting Frigate, and Other Essays ”; 
1906, “ A Frontier Town, and Other Essays ” ; is a member 
of many learned societies; has received the degree of 
doctor of laws from Williams College, Clark University, 
Yale University, and Harvard University; was perma¬ 
nent chairman of the Republican National Convention 
which met in Philadelphia, June 19, 1900; chairman of the 
committee on resolutions of the Republican National Con¬ 
vention of 1904 at Chicago; was a member of the Com¬ 
mission on Alaskan boundary appointed by President 
Roosevelt; regent of the Smithsonian Institution during 
service in the House of Representatives, and appointed 
regent again in 1905; served two terms as member of the 
House of Representatives of the Massachusetts Legisla¬ 
ture; was elected to the 50th, 51st, 52d, and 53d Con¬ 
gresses ; was elected to the Senate, 1893, and reelected in 
1899, 1905, and 1911. 

Loeb, Jacques, professor of physiology, University 
of California, 1902-10; head of department experimental 
biology, Rockefeller Institute, since 1910; born in Ger¬ 
many, April 7, 1859; graduate of Ascanisches Gymnasium, 
Berlin; studied medicine at Berlin, Munich and Strass- 
burg; M. D., Strassburg, 1884. State examiner, Strass- 
burg, 1885; assistant in physiology, University of Wurz¬ 
burg, 1886-88; same, University of Strassburg, 1888-90; 
biological station, Naples, 1889-91; associate in biology, 
Bryn Mawr, 1891-92; assistant professor of physiology 
and experimental biology, 1892-95, associate professor, 
1895-1900, professor, 1900-02, University of Chicago. 
Author: “The Heliotropism of Animals and Its Identity 
with the Heliotropism of Plants,” “Physiological Mor¬ 
phology,” “Comparative Physiology of the Brain and 
Comparative Psychology,” “Studies in General Physi¬ 
ology.” Also various monographs relating to artificial 
parthenogenesis and kindred topics. 

Long, John Luther, lawyer, author; born in Penn¬ 
sylvania, 1861. Author: “Madam Butterfly,” “Miss 
Cherry Blossom of Tokyo,” “The Fox-Woman,” “The 
Prince of Illusion,” “Naughty Nan,” “Heimweh, and 
Other Stories.” 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, an American poet; 
born in Portland, Maine, February 27, 1807; was grad¬ 
uated at Bowdoin College. While at college he dis¬ 
tinguished himself in the study of modern languages, 
and published some short poems. In 1826 he accepted 
the professorship of modern languages at Bowdoin, being 
allowed three years to prepare himself for the post by 
study and travel in Europe. He was elected to the 
chair of modern languages and literature in Harvard 
University. After spending another year in Europe, 
studying Scandinavian languages and literature, he 
entered on his professorship in 1836. In 1839 he pub¬ 
lished “Hyperion, a Romance”; “Evangeline” in 1847; 
in 1855 “Hiawatha”; in 1858 the “Courtship of Miles 
Standish”; in 1863 “Tales of a Wayside Inn”; in 1871 
the “Divine Tragedy”; in 1874 “The Hanging of the 
Crane.” He resigned his chair at Harvard in 1854. In 
1868-69 he again traveled in Europe, and received 
the degrees of LL. D. and D. C. L., from the Universities 
of Cambridge and Oxford, respectively. His poems are 
equally popular on both sides of the Atlantic. He died 
in Cambridge, Mass., March 24, 1882. 

Lorimer, George Horace, editor-in-chief of “Satur¬ 
day Evening Post” since March 17, 1899; born in Louis¬ 
ville, Ky., October 6, 1868; educated at Mosely High 
School, Chicago; college course at Colby and Yale; 
Author: “Letters From a Self-Made Merchant to His 
Son,” “Old Gorgon Graham.” 

Lotze, Rudolf Hermann ( lot'se ), a German philoso¬ 
pher; born in Bautzen, Saxony, May 21, 1817. He 
ranks among the first of metaphysicians, and has given 
impulse to the recent development of physiological 



BIOGRAPHY 


459 


psychology. Among his works are “Metaphysik” 
(1841), “Universal Pathology’’ (1842), “Logik” (1843), 
“On the Idea of Beauty” (1846), “Medical Psychology” 
(1852), “Microcosmus,” “Ideas for a History of Nature,” 
and “Humanity” (1856), “System of Philosophy” 
(1874-84). He died in Berlin, July 1, 1881. 

Louis IX. was born in 1215 and succeeded his father, 
Louis VIII., in 1226, under the regency of his mother, 
Blanche of Castile. In 1229 the Albigensian crusade 
was brought to a close, and the county of Toulouse was 
incorporated with the French kingdom. Henry III. of 
England made some unsuccessful attempts to recover 
his lost provinces, and in 1259 yielded them to Louis. 
In 1248 Louis embarked on a crusade, wasted much 
time in Egypt (1248-50), where he was taken prisoner, 
and returned from Palestine in 1254 without having 
effected anything. He undertook another crusade in 
1270, but died while besieging Tunis. He was canon¬ 
ized in 1297. 

Louis XII., son of Charles, Duke of Orleans, was 
born in 1462, and succeeded Charles VIII. in 1498. He 
laid claim to the kingdom of Naples and the duchy of 
Milan. In 1499 he invaded Italy, and gained possession 
of Milan. With the assistance of Ferdinand of Aragon, 
he conquered Naples in 1500, but, having quarreled 
with his ally, was expelled in 1503. In 1508 he united 
with Ferdinand, Pope Julius II., and the Emperor, in 
the League of Cambrai against the Venetians. In 1511 
Ferdinand joined Julius in the Holy League against the 
French, who were finally driven out of Italy by means 
of the Swiss in 1513. In the same year Henry VIII. 
invaded France, and was successful at Guinegate. In 
1499 Louis married Anne, Duchess of Brittany, widow 
of Charles VIII. By his good government he earned 
the title of “Father of his People.” Died, 1515. 

Louis XIV. was born 1638, and succeeded his father, 
Louis XIII., in 1643. His mother, Anne of Austria, 
was nominally regent, but the government was carried 
on by Cardinal Mazarin. France was then engaged in 
the Thirty Years’ War, in which Turenne and Cond£ 
gained many successes. Peace was made in Germany 
by the Treaty of Westphalia (1648),. but the war with 
Spain continued till 1659. In 1660 Louis married Maria 
Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. The unpopularity of 
Mazarin’s government occasioned the rising of the Fron- 
deurs (1648-53). After his death (1661) Louis conducted 
the government himself, following in financial matters 
the advice of his minister, Colbert. In 1665, he invaded 
the Netherlands, in violation of his agreement with 
Spain. In consequence of his attack on Holland (1672), 
an alliance against him was formed between Spain, the 
Emperor, and the Elector of Brandenburg, and a war 
ensued, which was terminated by the Treaty of Nime- 
guen (1678). The Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685. 
Another war, undertaken to check the growing power of 
France, was concluded by the Peace of Ryswick (1697). 
In 1701 began the war of the Spanish Succession between 
the rival claimants, Philip, Duke of Anjou, Louis’s grand¬ 
son, and the Archduke Charles of Austria, who was 
supported by England and the Emperor. Died, 1715. 

Louis XV., “le Bien-Aim6,” was born 1710, and 
succeeded his great-grandfather, Louis XIV., in 1715, 
under the regency of Philip, Duke of Orleans, a nephew 
of Louis XIV. Fleury became chief minister in 1726. 
The King’s attempt to enforce the claim of his father- 
in-law, Stanislas, to the throne of Poland, led to a war 
with the Emperor (1733-38). France was next engaged 
in the war of the Austrian Succession, Louis supporting 
the claim of Charles, Elector of Bavaria (1741-48). Dur¬ 
ing the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) France was de¬ 
prived by England of most of her colonial possessions. 
Died, 1774. 

Louis XVI. of France, was born in 1754, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father, Louis XV. in 1774. In 1770 he had 
married Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa of 
Austria. The finances were in complete disorder, and 
Louis was not fortunate in his choice of ministers. 
Turgot and Necker were in turn dismissed, and 
succeeded by the incapable Calonne (1783-87) and 
Lom^nie de Brienne (1787-88). Necker was then 
recalled, and advised the summoning of the States- 
General, which had always been conformable to mon¬ 
archical authority but had not been summoned since 
1614. It was convoked in May, 1789, and in June was 
superseded by the National Assembly, which assumed 
the whole legislative authority. The dismissal of 
Necker was followed by the destruction of the Bastille, 
July 14, the declaration of the Rights of Man, and an 
attack by an armed mob, chiefly women, on the palace 
at Versailles in October. The king and the queen were 
forcibly removed by Lafayette to Paris. The revolution 
then begun culminated (so far as the king was concerned) 
in the insurrection of 1792, the storm of the Tuileries, 


the abolition of monarchy, the declaration of the repub¬ 
lic and the execution of the king on the scaffold in 
January, 1793. 

Louis Philippe (-fe-leep'), born in Paris, 1773, was 
the eldest son of Louis Philippe, Due d’Orleans, com¬ 
monly known as “Philippe Egalit^.” While still young 
he was educated in opinions of advanced political liber¬ 
alism, and served in the revolutionary army against the 
Austrians, 1792, under Dumouriez, in whose conspiracy 
he became involved. After an exile of many years, 
during which he resided in many countries (the United 
States among others) and underwent singular vicissi¬ 
tudes, this prince shared in the restoration of his house, 
1814; and, after the fall of the elder Bourbon dynasty 
in 1830, was popularly elected to the vacant throne, 
under the title of “ King of the French.” Louis culti¬ 
vated peaceful relations with foreign powers, sought to 
strengthen his throne by gaining the support of the 
middle classes, and repressed all the extreme parties by 
what became known as the “Juste-milieu” policy. The 
extreme democrats hated him, and frequent attempts 
were made upon his life. The country prospered under 
his government, but a demand for reform in the electoral 
system became loud and general, and this being unwisely 
opposed by the king and his minister Guizot, led to the 
revolution of 1848, when Louis Philippe, deserted by all, 
fled with his queen to England, where he died, 1850. 

Low, Seth, an American educator; born in Brooklyn, 
N. Y., January 18, 1850; was graduated at Columbia 
University in 1870; made a member of his father’s 
mercantile firm in 1875; mayor of Brooklyn in 1881- 
85; and was elected president of Columbia University 
in 1890. In 1895, he erected for that institution a grand 
university library at a cost of 81,175,000. In honor of 
President Low’s generosity and in accord with his desire, 
the trustees of Columbia founded twelve scholarships in 
the university for Brooklyn boys and the same number 
in Barnard College for Brooklyn girls, and also agreed 
to found eight annual scholarships. In 1899, he was 
appointed by President McKinley a member of the 
delegation to represent the United States at the Inter¬ 
national Peace Conference at The Hague. Mr. Low 
was an unsuccessful candidate for mayor of Greater New 
York in 1897; and was again nominated for the office on 
a fusion ticket in 1901. He was elected after a hard- 
fought campaign, and was again candidate on the fusion 
ticket in the autumn of 1903, and defeated. 

Lowell, Abbott Lawrence, born in Boston, Decem¬ 
ber 13, 1856; graduated from Harvard in 1877, and from 
Harvard Law School in 1880; practiced law in Boston, 
1880-97; lecturer, 1897-99, professor of the science of 
government, 1900-03, Eaton professor, 1903-09, Harvard. 
In 1900 he became a trustee of the Lowell Institute of 
Boston. He is known as an authority in the field of 
comparative politics, and is the author of “Essays on 
Government,” “Governments and Parties in Continental 
Europe,” “Colonial Civil Service” (with Prof. H. Morse 
Stephens), “The Influence of Party upon Legislation in 
England and America,’’ and other works. In January, 
1909, upon the resignation of Dr. Eliot, he was elected 
president of Harvard University. 

Lowell, James Russell, an American poet, was born 
in Cambridge, Mass., in 1819. He was educated at Har¬ 
vard University. His “Legend of Brittany ” appeared in 
1844. In 1845, he published a prose work entitled “Con¬ 
versations on Some of the Old Poets.” His “Fable for 
Critics,” and “The Biglow Papers,” are racy with humor. 
In 1855, he succeeded Longfellow as professor of modern 
languages at Harvard; from 1857 to 1862, was editor 
of the “Atlantic Monthly,” and from 1863 to 1872, of 
the “North American Review.” He received the degree 
of LL. D. from the English University of Cambridge in 
1874. Was Minister to Great Britain 1880-85. In 1869, 
he published “Under the Willows, and Other Poems,” 
and “The Cathedral,” an epic; in 1870, a collection of 
essays; in 1871, “My Study Windows ”; in 1886, “De¬ 
mocracy”; in 1888, “Political Essays.” He died in 
Cambridge, 1891. 

Loyola, Ignatius de ( lo-yo’lah ), was born at Loyola, 
in the Basque Provinces, 1491. He was an ecclesiastic 
of the Roman Catholic Church, the founder of the order 
of Jesuits, or “the Society of Jesus.” He was the son 
of a Spanish nobleman (Bertram de Loyola), and was 
early devoted to the profession of arms; but, being 
wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in Navarre, in 1521, 
he devoted his life to the service of the Virgin, made a 
pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and founded the Society of 
Jesus on his return to Paris, in 1534. The institution 
of the society was confirmed by a bull of Pope Paul III., 
September 27, 1540; and in the following year Loyola was 
appointed the first General of the order. He was canon¬ 
ized by Pope Gregory XV. in 1622. Died in Rome, 1556. 

Lubbock, Sir John, born in 1834; entered parliament 




460 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


as a liberal in 1870; in 1871 passed the bank holidays act; 
represented London University 1880—1900. He has 
published “ Pre-Historic Times,” ‘‘Ants, Bees, and 
Wasps,” “The Pleasures of Life,” etc. 

•Lucretius, Titus Cams, Roman poet of the First 
Century B. C.; wrote “De Rerum Natura,” in hexam¬ 
eter verse, expounding the epicurean system of phi¬ 
losophy. He is said to have been driven mad by a love 
philtre, administered by his wife, and to have committed 
suicide. 

Luke, St., one of the four Evangelists, was the asso¬ 
ciate of St. Paul in his mission of evangelizing the Gen¬ 
tiles. The time and place of his nativity are not known 
with any approach to authenticity, though it would 
appear from the style and substance of his writings that 
he must have received a liberal scholarship. Besides 
the Gospel called after him, he was author of “The Acts 
of the Apostles,” written, like the former, in Greek. 

Luther, Martin, one of the greatest of religious 
leaders, was born in Eisleben, Germany, 1483. After 
studying at the University of Erfurt, he became a monk 
of the Augustine order in that city, and, in 1508, was 
made professor of philosophy at Wittenberg. After 
a visit to Rome, in pursuance of a vow he had made, 
his ideas regarding the tenets and practices of the Roman 
Church underwent a gradual change. In 1512, he began 
openly to declare his heterodox views upon scriptural 
theology. These views, embodied in his celebrated 
“ninety-five propositions,” at once plunged him into 
bitter controversy and exposed him to as bitter perse¬ 
cution. He soon found friends, however, among 
some of the most powerful of the German princes. 
Summoned by the pope to defend his opinions, through 
the intervention of the Elector of Saxony, it was 
arranged that a hearing should be given to Luther at 
Augsburg, before the papal legate. That interview was 
held, and it decided nothing. Luther then continued 
his public discussions, and also gave vent to his polemic 
innovations in writings — one of which, the “De Capti- 
vitate Babylonicst Ecclesise,” created so great a sensation 
that a papal bull was issued, condemning to a public 
auto-da-fe it and others of his productions. Luther, 
however, finding that the crisis had come, proceeded to 
the walls of Wittenberg, attended by a number of his 
friends and disciples, there burned the pope’s bull, and 
by that act dissevered forever his remaining ties with the 
Church of Rome. After this Luther became the spokes¬ 
man of a propaganda whose labors never rested till the 
spirit of the Protestant religion had taken deep and 
lasting root throughout Northern Germany, and thence 
extended among her Scandinavian neighbors. Cited to 
appear before the Diet of Worms, 1521, Luther appeared 
there, attended by a retinue of the Protestant princes 
and the nobles of Germany, and after ably pleading his 
cause — that of religious liberty — before the Emperor 
Charles V. in person, he was seized, on his returning 
home, at the instigation of his friend, the Elector of 
Saxony, and carried to the castle of Wartburg, where 
he remained about a year. Returning the.n to Witten¬ 
berg, he doffed his monastic character, married, pub¬ 
lished his translation of the New Testament in 1522, 
and his German version of the Old Testament in 1534. 
The closing years of the life of Luther were passed in 
comparative tranquillity. Died, 1546. 

Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist, was born in Forfar¬ 
shire in 1797; educated at Oxford; was called to the 
bar in 1825, but abandoned the legal profession in 1827; 
after traveling on the Continent, and contributing papers 
to the “Transactions” of the Geological Society, pub¬ 
lished “Principles of Geology” (1830-33), which substi¬ 
tuted the Huttonian doctrines for the old “catastrophic ” 
theory, thus raising geology to the rank of a branch of 
inductive science. He became president of the Geolog¬ 
ical Society in 1836, and again in 1850. He visited 
America in 1841 and 1845, and published narratives of 
both expeditions, written in a popular style. In 1863 
appeared “The Antiquity of Man,” in which he gave 
his assent to the Darwinian theory. Died, 1875. 

Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer- 
Lytton, Lord, an eminent English novelist, was born 
in London, of an ancient family, in 1803. In 1826, he 
graduated at Cambridge, and published, in 1827, his 
first novel, “Falkland.” Inthe year following “Pelham ” 
appeared — a work which placed him at once in the first 
rank of contemporary writers of fiction. Thenceforward 
his literary career was one of meteoric brilliancy; novel 
after novel, drama after drama, flowed from his pen 
almost without intermission. For a quarter of a century 
he reigned the great master of English fiction — the 
successor to Scott, the predecessor of Dickens. In 1866 
he was created a peer of the realm. Among his principal 
novels are: “The Disowned,” “Devereux,” “Paul 
Clifford,” “Eugene Aram,” “The Pilgrims of the Rhine,” 


“The Last Days of Pompeii,” “Rienzi, the Last of 
the Roman Tribunes,” “Ernest Maltravers,” and its 
sequel, “Alice, or the Mysteries,” “Night and Morning,” 
“Zanoni,” “The Last of the Barons,” “Lucretia, or the 
Children of the Night,” “Harold, the Last of the Saxon 
Kings,” “The Caxtons,” “My Novel,” “What Will He 
Do With It,” and “A Strange Story,” He is also author 
of the successful and favorite plays “The Lady of Lyons,” 
“Richelieu,” and “Money,” and of the poems, “The 
New*Timon,” and “King Arthur.” Died, 1873. 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord, born in 1800; 
British historian and statesman; graduated at Cambridge, 
was called to the bar in 1826, and entered parliament 
for Caine in 1830, as a Whig. He was secretary at war 
(1839-41), and paymaster-general (1846-47), and, hav¬ 
ing represented Edinburgh for many years, was created 
a peer in 1857. His chief works were “History of Eng¬ 
land from the Accession of James II.,” “Critical Essays,” 
most of which were written for the “ Edinburgh Review,” 
and “Lays of Ancient Rome.” Died, 1859. 

Macdonald, Sir John Alexander, distinguished 
Canadian statesman; born in Glasgow in 1815; was 
called to the Canadian bar in 1836, and became receiver- 
general of Canada (1847), commissioner of crown lands 
(1847-48), attorney-general (1854-62 and 1864-67), 
(prime minister in 1858,) government leader in the as¬ 
sembly (1864-67), and minister of militia affairs (1862- 
65-67). He was chairman of the London Colonial Con¬ 
ference of 1866-67, and more than any other person was 
responsible for Canadian federation; was head of the 
new Dominion Government, as minister of justice and 
attorney-general, from 1867 to 1873, when he resigned 
on the Pacific Railway charges. From 1878 till his 
death in 1891, he was premier of the Dominion. 

Machiavelli, Niccolo di Bernardo del, born in 
1469; Florentine writer and statesman; son of a jurist 
of good family; as secretary of state at Florence from 
1498 to 1512, went on several important missions, but 
was deprived and exiled in the latter year by the Medici. 
His chief works were “II Principe,” “Istorie Fiorentine,” 
“Arte della Guerra,” some comedies and poems, and 
“Discorsi sulle Deehe di Tito Livio.” In 1521, he again 
took part in affairs for a short time, but died in poverty, 
in 1527, a few years later. 

Mackenzie, Alexander, Canadian statesman; born 
in Perthshire, Scotland, 1822; early emigrated to 
Canada, where he became a contractor and journalist. 
After sitting in the Canadian Parliament for six years, 
he was elected to the Dominion Legislature, and was 
also provincial secretary and treasurer in Ontario till 
1872. From 1873 till 1878 he was premier and minister 
of public works for the Dominion. He more than once 
declined the honor of knighthood. Died, 1892. 

MacMahon, 31'arie Edme Patrice Maurice de, 
French soldier and statesman of Irish descent; born, 
1808; served in the Algerian War of 1830, took part in 
the expedition to Antwerp in 1832, and in 1855, suc¬ 
ceeded to Canrobert’s command in the Crimea. For 
his services in Italy in 1859, he was made Due de Magenta 
and marshal of France, and became governor-general of 
Algeria in 1864. On the outbreak of war with Prussia 
he was given the command of the first army corps. He 
shared in the disaster at Woerth, and was in chief com¬ 
mand at Sedan, where he was severely wounded and 
made prisoner. On his return to France in March, 1871, 
he conducted the siege of Paris against the Communists, 
and reorganized the army. In 1873, he was named 
president of the Republic for seven years. In 1877, 
he began to entertain monarchical designs, but was 
defeated in the elections, and two years later retired 
rather than submit to the law against monarchical 
officers. He continued to live in retirement in Paris 
until his death in 1893. 

Macready, William Charles, actor; born in Lon¬ 
don, in 1793; educated at Rugby; made his first ap¬ 
pearance at Birmingham in 1810, and was engaged at 
Covent Garden in 1816. He played Richard III. in 1819, 
and removed to Drury Lane in 1822, and after a tour in 
the United States, appeared as Macbeth in 1827. He 
subsequently visited Paris, and held the management 
of Covent Garden and Drury Lane. In 1849, he nearly 
lost his life in a riot promoted by the friends of Forrest 
at the Astor Opera House, New York; and he made his 
last appearance at Drury Lane in 1851. Died, 1873. 

Mac Veagli, Wayne, lawyer; born near Phoenix- 
ville, Chester County, Pa., April 19, 1833; graduated 
from Yale, 1853; admitted to bar, 1856; district at¬ 
torney, Chester County, Pa., 1859-64; captain of in¬ 
fantry, 1862, and of cavalry, 1863, when invasions of 
Pennsylvania were threatened; chairman Republican 
State Committee of Pennsylvania, 1863; United States 
minister to Turkey, 1870-71; member Pennsylvania, 
constitutional convention, 1872-74; head of “Mac- 



BIOGRAPHY 


461 


Veagh commission ” sent to Louisiana, 1877, by President 
Hayes to amicably adjust disputes of contending parties 
there; United States attorney-general in cabinet of 
President Garfield, 1881, but resigned on accession of 
President Arthur, resuming law practice at Philadelphia; 
supported Cleveland for president, 1892; ambassador 
to Italy, 1893-97; chief counsel of United States in the 
Venezuelan arbitration before The Hague Tribunal, 1903. 

Madison, Janies, fourth President of the United 
States; was born in King George County, Virginia, March 
16, 1751. He graduated at Princeton, N. J., in 1771, and 
studied law. In 1776, he was a member of the Virginia 
Convention, and, though too modest for an orator, he 
became one of the most eminent, accomplished, and 
respected of American statesmen. He was elected to 
the Federal Congress in 1779; in 1784, to the Legislature 
of Virginia, in which he supported the measures of Mr. 
Jefferson in the revision of the laws, and placing all 
religious denominations on an equality of freedom with¬ 
out State support. As a member of the convention of 
1787, which framed the Federal Constitution, Mr. Madi¬ 
son acted with Jay and Hamilton, and with them wrote 
the “Federalist.” He supported the adoption of the 
constitution, but opposed the financial policy of Hamil¬ 
ton, and became a leader of the Republican or Jeffer¬ 
sonian party. He declined the mission to France, and 
the office of secretary of. state, but in 1792 became the 
leader of the Republican party in Congress, and wrote 
the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, which contain the 
basis of the State-rights doctrines. In 1801, Mr. Jeffer¬ 
son having been elected president, Mr. Madison was 
made secretary of state, which post he held during the 
eight years of Jefferson’s administration. In 1808, he was 
elected president. The European wars of that period, 
with their blockades and orders in council, were destruc¬ 
tive of American commerce. The claim of the English 
Government to impress seamen from American vessels 
was violently resisted. Mr. Madison vainly endeavored 
to avoid a war with England, which was declared in 
1812, and continued for two years, at a cost of 30,000 
lives and 100,000,000 dollars. He was one of the nine 
presidents elected for a second term, during which he 
approved the establishment of a national bank as a 
financial necessity — a measure he had opposed and 
vetoed. In 1817, he retired to his seat at Montpelier, 
Virginia, where he served as a rector of the University 
of Virginia, and a promoter of agriculture and public 
improvements. Without being a brilliant man, he was 
a statesman of eminent ability and purity of character. 
He died at Montpelier, June 28, 1836. 

Maeterlinck, Maurice, Belgian author; was born 
in 1862. The following is a list of his works, some of 
which have been translated into English and have at¬ 
tracted considerable attention: “La Princesse Maleine,” 
“Pelleas et Melisande,” “Alladine et Palomides,” “Ag- 
lavaine et Selysette,” “Douze Chansons,” “Le Trtisor 
des Humbles,” “La Mort de Tintagiles,” “L’lntruse,” 
and “La Sagesse et la Destinee.” He is also the author 
of the dramas “Ariane et Barbebleue” and “Soeur 
Beatrice”; “Monna Vanna,” “ Joyzelle,” and “Bluebird.”- 
Received Nobel prize for literature, 1911. 

Magdalene, Mary, a Galilaean, belonging to Mag- 
dala, on the sea of Galilee, who followed Christ, stood by 
the cross, prepared spices for His sepulchre, to whom 
He first appeared after His resurrection, and who is sup¬ 
posed by some recent critics to be the sole voucher for 
His rising again. 

Magellan, Ferdinand, Portuguese navigator; born 
about 1470; served his country first in the East Indies and 
Morocco, but, dissatisfied with King Manuel’s treatment 
of him, offered himself to Spain; under Charles V.’s 

{ >atronage he and Ruy Falero set out to reach the Mo- 
uccas by the west in 1519; he reached the Philippines, 
and died in battle in Mactan; on this voyage he discov¬ 
ered the Magellan Strait, 375 miles long and fifteen miles 
wide, between the South American mainland and Tierra 
del Fuego; he gave name to the Pacific from the excep¬ 
tional calm he experienced on entering it. Died, 1521. 

Magoon, Charles E., lawyer, administrator; born in 
Minnesota, December 5, 1861; educated at high school, 
Owatonna, Minn., University of Nebraska; admitted 
to bar, 1882, and engaged in general practice; was judge 
advocate of Nebraska National Guard; law officer of 
Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department, Washington, 
1899-1904; general counsel, Isthmian Canal commission, 
1904-05; governor Canal Zone, 1905-06; American 
minister to Panama 1905-06; 1906-1909, provisional 
governor of Cuba. Author: “The Law of Civil Govern¬ 
ment Under Military Occupation.” 

Mahan, Alfred Thayer ( Ma-han '), an American 
naval officer and writer; born in West Point, N. Y., 
September 27, 1840; was graduated at the United 
States Naval Academy in 1859; served in the Civil 


War ; was president of the Naval War College, New¬ 
port, in 1886-89 and 1892-93; visited Europe in 
command of the “Chicago” in 1893, receiving many 
honors, among them degrees from both Oxford and 
Cambridge. He was retired at his own request Novem¬ 
ber 17, 1896. During the war with Spain he was a 
member of the Naval Board of Strategy; and in 1899 
was appointed by President McKinley as one of the 
American delegates to the Universal Peace Conference 
at The Hague. His chief work, “Influence of Sea 
Power upon History,” with its continuation, “Influence 
of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire,” 
gave him a world-wide reputation. 

Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner, F.R.S.,D.C.L., 
born in 1822; English jurist, educated at Cam¬ 
bridge, where in 1847, he became Regius professor of 
civil law. After being reader at the Temple, he was law 
member of the council of India for seven years, and in 
1870, became Corpus professor at Oxford. His chief 
works are “Ancient Law,” “Village Communities,” 
“Early History of Institutions,” etc. In 1871 he 
became member of the secretary of state for India’s 
council, and in 1877 master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 
Died, 1888. 

Malibran, 31aria Felicita, bom in 1808, French 
singer, daughter of Manuel Garcia; made her d6but 
in the Italian opera in 1825, and soon afterwards mar¬ 
ried M. Malibran, from whom she was divorced. In 1836, 
she married De Beriot, the violinist. She met with 
much success in “Semiramis,” and other operas, making 
tours in England, the Continent, and the United States. 
She died in 1836 from the consequence of a fall while 
riding. 

Malory, Sir Thomas, flourished in the Fifteenth 
Century; was the author of “Morte d’Arthur,” being a 
translation in prose of a labyrinthine selection of Arthu¬ 
rian legends, which was finished in the ninth year of 
Edward IV., and printed fifteen years after by Caxton 
“ with all care.” 

Malpighi, Marcello, born in 1628; Italian anato¬ 
mist and chief physician to Pope Innocent XII.; lectured 
in Bologna, Pisa, and other places, and wrote works on 
the anatomy of plants, the physiology of the silkworm, 
and medical subjects. His name was given to the Mal¬ 
pighian genus. Died, 1694. 

Malthus, Thomas Robert, F. R. S., born in 1766; 
English political economist; some time Fellow of Jesus 
College, Cambridge; published in 1798 his “Essay on 
Population,” afterwards took orders, and held from 1805 
the professorship of history and political economy in 
East India Company’s college, Haileybury. Died, 1834. 

Mann, Horace, an American statesman; born in 
Franklin, Mass., 1796; is chiefly remembered for his 
untiring efforts in the cause of educational extension 
and reform, in the suppression of slavery, and in the 
promotion of temperance. Died, 1859. 

Mann, Louis, actor; born in New York, 1865; began 
acting at 6, at 18 traveling with small companies; later 
played with the elder Salvini, Lewis Morrison, J. K. Em¬ 
mett, etc.; then “barn-stormed” in classical drama; 
played Utterson, the lawyer, in Daniel Bandmann’s pro¬ 
duction of “ Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde”; appeared in one 
of leading roles in “Incog”; subsequently was original 
caricaturist of Svengali in “Merry World”; created Ger¬ 
man comedy parts in “The Strange Adventures of Miss 
Brown”; starred with his wife, Clara Lipman, in “Girl 
from Paris, ” “The Telephone Girl,” “All on Account 
of Eliza,” etc.; starred alone in “The Second Fiddle,” 
“The White Hen,” etc. Author of short stories. 

Maimering, Mary, actress; born in London, Eng¬ 
land, April 29, 1876; daughter of Richard and Florence 
Friend (stage name taken from maiden name of 
her father’s mother); educated at private schools; 
studied for stage under Herman Vezin; went on stage 
at 15; appeared in “Hero and Leander” at Shaftesbury 
Theater, London; toured English provinces two years, 
playing Shakesperian roles; then leading parts in “Sow¬ 
ing the Wind,”. “The Late Mr. Costello,” “Called 
Back” (revised for English provinces); etc.; came to 
United States under management of Daniel Frohman; 
American d^but at Parsons’ Theater, Hartford, Conn.; 
November 20, 1896, in “The Courtship of Leoni”; New 
York debut, Lyceum Theater, four days later; has since 
appeared in leading roles in modern drama; married, 
May 2, 1897, J. K. Hackett. 

Manning, Henry Edward, Cardinal, born in 1808; 
English Roman Catholic prelate, educated at Harrow 
and Balliol; was some time Fellow of Merton; subse¬ 
quently took orders, and became Archdeacon of Chi¬ 
chester in 1840. In 1851, however, he seceded to the 
Roman Church, publishing “Grounds of Faith” next 
year. In 1865 he succeeded Wiseman as Archbishop 




462 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of Westminster, and ten years later was made cardinal. 
He approved the infallibility dogma of the Vatican 
Council of 1869, and carried on a controversy with 
Gladstone on the subject. He sat on several commis¬ 
sions, and took a leading part in bringing to a conclusion 
the dock strike of 1889. Died in 1892. 

Mansel, Henry Longueville, born in 1820; English 
philosopher and theologian; one of the strongest op¬ 
ponents of the Broad Church school; was educated at 
Merchant Taylors and Oxford, where he was succes¬ 
sively Waynflete professor of moral philosophy and pro¬ 
fessor of ecclesiastical history, and in 1858, delivered 
the Bampton lectures on “The Limits of Religious 
Thought.” He had previously published an edition of 
Aldrich’s “Logic,” and several works on metaphysics. 
His appointment to the deanery of St. Paul’s, in 1868, 
was strongly opposed. Died, 1871. 

31ansfleld, Richard, actor, was born in Heligoland, 
Germany, in 1857; studied for East Indian civil service, 
but came to Boston and opened a studio; studied art in 
England and later entered theatrical profession. Played 
small parts in comic opera; came to United States again 
and appeared at Standard Theater, New York, as 
Dromez in ” Les Manteaux Noirs.” Was very successful in 
a wide repertoire from Koko in ‘‘Mikado” to Richard III. 
Head of his own company, and has created such parts 
as Beau Brummel, Baron Chevrial, and the titular roles 
in “Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.” Appeared as Cyrano de 
Bergerac in 1898, and played Shylock, Henry V., Beau- 
caire, and Brutus in “Julius Csesar.” Married Beatrice 
Cameron, his leading woman. Author: “ Blown Away,” 
“Monsieur,” “Ten Thousand a Year,” and “Don 
Juan.” Died, 1907. 

31ansfleld, William Murray, Earl of, was born at 
Perth, Scotland, March 2, 1705. He was a distinguished 
judge, from 1756 to 1788 chief justice of the King’s Bench. 
He was remarkable for his accomplishments and for his 
eloquence, and was styled by Pope “the silver-tongued 
Murray”; but his political opinions were not popular, 
and, in the Gordon riots of 1780, his house in Blooms¬ 
bury Square, London, was burnt down by the mob. 
He died, 1793, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Manlell, Robert Bruce, actor; born in Irvine, 
Ayrshire, Scotland, February 7, 1854; professional 

d^but, Rochdale, England, as the Sergeant in “ Arrah- 
na-Pogue,” October 21, 1876; came to United States 
and played juvenile roles with Mme. Modjeska, 1878; 
returned to England, and for three years supported Miss 
Wallis (now Mrs. Lancaster) as leading man. Later 
appeared in New York as Loris Ippanhoff in “Fedora,” 
with Fanny Davenport; afterward became a star, and 
has been at the head of his own company in classic and 
romantic plays, including “Hamlet,” “Othello,” “Rich¬ 
ard III.,” “Macbeth,” “Romeo and Juliet,” “Riche¬ 
lieu,” “Lady of Lyons,” “Corsican Brothers,” “Mon¬ 
bars,” “Dagger and Cross,” etc. 

Marat, Jean Paul (mah-rah '), a fanatical democrat, 
born in Neuchatel, 1744. His father was an Italian 
his mother a Genevese; studied and practiced medicine, 
went to Paris as horse-leech to Count d’Artois; became 
infected with the revolutionary fever, and had one fixed 
idea: “Give me,” he said, “two hundred Naples bravoes, 
armed each with a good dirk, and a muff on his left arm 
by way of shield, and with them I will traverse France 
and accomplish the Revolution,” that is, by wholesale 
massacre of the aristocrats; he had more than once to 
flee for his life, and one time found shelter in the sewers 
of Paris, contracting thereby a loathsome skin disease; 
he was assassinated one evening as he sat in his bath, 
by Charlotte Corday, but his body was buried with 
honors in the Pantheon by a patriot people, “that of 
Mirabeau flung out to make room for him,” to be some 
few months after himself cast out with execration. 
Died, 1793. 

March, Francis Andrew, American philologist; 
born in Milbury, Mass., in 1825; was made professor of 
English language and comparative philology at Lafay¬ 
ette College, Pennsylvania, in 1856; became president 
of the American Philological Association in 1873, and 
took the direction in America of Dr. Murray’s “New 
English Dictionary on Historical Principles,” in 1879. 
His chief works are “ Method of Philological Study of 
the English Language,” “Comparative Grammar of 
Anglo-Saxon,” and “Introduction to Anglo-Saxon.” 
Died, 1911. 

Marconi, Guglielmo, LL. D., D. Sc., electrical en¬ 
gineer and pioneer of wireless telegraphy, was born in 
Griffone, near Bologna, in 1874. His father was an 
Italian, his mother an Irish woman. He was educated 
at Leghorn and Bologna Universities. It was at Bo¬ 
logna that his system of wireless telegraphy first at¬ 
tracted attention. In 1896, he visited England, and, 
with hia invention, sent messages across the Bristol 


Channel from Penarth, near Cardiff, to Weston-super- 
Mare. He afterwards set up installations of wireless 
telegraphy between the South Foreland and the East 
Goodwin light-vessel, the South Foreland and Wime- 
reux in France, Harwich and Chelmsford. His system 
was definitely adopted by the Admiralty in 1900. _ In 
December, 1901, Marconi succeeded in communica¬ 
ting across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1902, he set up a 
station at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, and in October, 1907, 
began a public service of wireless telegraphy across the 
Atlantic. 

Marcy, William Learned, American statesman, 
born at Southbridge, Mass., in 1786; died, July 4, 1857. 
He graduated at Brown University in 1808, studied 
law, and practiced in Troy, N. Y. He was an associate 
justice of the New York supreme court from 1829 to 
1831, when he was elected United States senator. He 
was elected governor of New York in 1832, 1834, and 
1836. President Van Buren appointed him member of 
the Mexican Claims Commission, in 1839. In 1845, 
President Polk appointed him secretary of war; and 
he was secretary of state in President Pierce’s cabinet, 
1853-57. He left a reputation as a statesman of the 
highest order of abilities. 

Margaret of Austria, born in 1480; daughter of 
the Emperor Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy; mar¬ 
ried first John of Castile, and secondly Philibert of 
Savoy; was made governor of the Low Countries in 
1507, and negotiated both the League of Cambrai (1508) 
and the “Paix des Dames” (1529). Died, 1530. 

Margaret of Denmark, born in 1353; succeeded 
her father, Waldemar IV., became queen also of Norway 
on the death of her husband, Haakon VI., but was soon 
expelled; recovered Norway in 1387, and, having de¬ 
feated Albert of Mecklenburg in 1389, united the three 
Scandinavian kingdoms by the union of Calmar in 1397. 
Died, 1412. 

31argaret of Valois, born in 1492; sister of Francis 
I. and grandmother of Henri IV.; married first the Due 
d’Alengon, and secondly Henri d’Albret, titular King of 
Navarre; supported the Reformation, and wrote “Miroir 
de l’Ame Pecheresse,” and “Contes et Nouvelles” (the 
“ Heptameron ”). Died, 1549. 

Maria Theresa, born in 1717; Queen of Hungary, 
and daughter of the Emperor Charles VI.; married 
Francis of Lorraine in 1736, and was supported by Eng¬ 
land against the Elector of Bavaria, who claimed the 
empire, and was supported by France; carried on the 
Seven Years’ War, with the help of France, against 
Prussia, who had obtained part of Silesia; took part, 
against her will, in the first partition of Poland. Died, 
1780. 

Marie de’ Medici, born in 1573; Queen of France, 
daughter of Francis of Tuscany; married Henri IV. in 
1600, and became mother of Louis XIII., during whose 
minority she was regent, but was overthrown by Riche¬ 
lieu after a long contest, and left France in 1631. Died, 
1642. 

Mario, Giuseppe, a famous Italian opera-singer, was 
born at Cagliari, Italy, in 1810, and was the son of 
General di Candia. In 1838, he made his first appear¬ 
ance in opera as “Robert,” in “Robert le Diable.” 
In this he achieved the first of many successes in 
Paris, London, St. Petersburg, and America. Mario 
married the famous singer Giulia Grisi, and retired 
from the stage in 1867. He died December 11, 1883. 

Mark, the Evangelist. “John, whose surname was 
Mark,” was the son of Mary, a woman of piety who 
lived in Jerusalem, where the disciples occasionally 
assembled at her house for prayer, and was cousin to 
Barnabas. He is also called Marcus. He accompanied 
the Apostle Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, Cyprus, and 
Perga in Pamphylia, returned to Jerusalem, and went 
afterwards to Cyprus, and thence to Rome. Eccle¬ 
siastical tradition speaks of a missionary expedition of 
Mark to Egypt and the west of Africa, of his suffering 
martyrdom about the year 62 or 66 (the Coptic Church 
still consider him their founder and first bishop), and 
of the transmission of his corpse to Venice, which city 
has chosen him for its patron saint. It is said that he 
wrote at Rome the gospel which bears his name. 

Mark Antony, or Marcus Antonius, an eminent 
Roman, was born about 83 B. C. He was one of the 
most active partisans of Julius Caesar down to the death 
of the latter. After the death of Caesar, he endeavored 
to succeed to power, but was defeated by Octavianus, 
the great-nephew of the dictator, and was obliged to 
cross the Alps. He afterwards became reconciled to 
Octavianus; and Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus 
divided the government between them under the title 
of Triumvirs. Cicero, who had attacked Antony in his 
Philippic orations, now fell a victim to Antony. Antony 
afterwards went to Asia, which he had received as his 



BIOGRAPHY 


463 


share of the Roman world, and there the greater part of 
his remaining life was spent. There he became capti¬ 
vated by the charms of Cleopatra, and assumed the 
pomp and ceremony of an Eastern despot. After the 
sea-fight off Actium (September 2, 31 B. C.), he fled with 
Cleopatra to Alexandria, and put an end to his life in 
the following year, when Octavianus (Augustus) ap¬ 
peared before the city. Died, 30 B. C. 

Marlborough, John Churchill, first Duke of; born 
in 1650; soldier and diplomatist; obtained a commis¬ 
sion through the influence of his sister with the Duke 
of York, and first served under Turenne; deserted 
James II. at the Revolution, but, though created earl 
and commander-in-chief by William III., intrigued with 
his former master; after a period of disgrace, went to 
The Hague to organize the Grand Alliance; was appointed 
captain-general and duke under Anne, and won the 
victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Ouden- 
arde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709), but was recalled 
in 1711, and dismissed on a charge of peculation. He 
was restored by George I. in 1714, but never fully trusted. 
Died, 1722. 

Marlowe, Julia, actress; born in England, in village 
of Caldbeck, Cumberlandshire, August 17, 1870; came, 
at age of 5, to United States with parents; lived in 
Kansas two years: moved to Ohio, locating finally in 
Cincinnati; attended public schools until 12th year; 
then joined juvenile opera company, which gave “Pina¬ 
fore,” “Chimes of Normandy,” and other light operas. 
Was christened Sarah Frances Frost, but in the juvenile 
company was called Frances Brough (the latter a family 
name); later played a child’s part in “ Rip Van Winkle,” 
and, the next season, played small parts in a company 
which gave classic dramas in the West; retired from 
stage and studied three years in New York; made 
metropolitan d^but as Parthenia in “ Ingomar ”; since 
November, 1888, has starred in Shakesperean and other 
tragic and romantic roles in United States; married 
Robert Taber, but afterward secured legal separation; 
married E. H. Sothern, 1911. 

Marshall, John, an eminent American jurist, was 
born in Fauquier County, Va., in 1755. He served in 
several battles of the Revolution, afterwards entered 
upon the study and practice of the law, and, in 1788, 
became a member of the convention of his native State, 
where he took an active part in promoting the settle¬ 
ment of its constitution, and supported the Federalist 
party. In 1797, he was a colleague of Gerry and General 
Pinckney on a special mission to the French Directory; 
in 1799, entered Congress, and there highly distinguished 
himself. In the following year he entered upon the 
duties of secretary of state, and, in 1801, was appointed 
to the chief-justiceship of the Supreme Court of the 
United States, a position he filled with high honor to 
himself and his decisions during the long period of 
thirty-four years. Marshall was a statesman of the 
first order. Died, 1835. 

Marshall, Thomas R., was born in Manchester, 
Indiana, in 1854. He was educated in the common 
schools, and at Wabash college, A. B., 1873, A. M., 1876, 
LL. D., 1909. On his twenty-first birthday he was 
admitted to the bar at Columbia city, Indiana. He was 
a member of the firm of Marshall and McNagny, 1876-92; 
Marshall, McNagny and Clugston, 1892-1909. Gov¬ 
ernor of Indiana, 1909-13. Elected vice-president of the 
United States in 1912. 

Martineau, Harriet, born in 1802; English writer 
of Huguenot descent, daughter of a Norwich surgeon; 
visited the United States in 1834, and the East in 1846, 
publishing descriptive works on her return; wrote 
“Deerbrook,” “The Hour and the Man,” and other 
novels, and many tales for children, and was also author 
of a condensation of Comte, and “ History of England 
During the Thirty Years’ Peace.” Died, 1876. 

Marx, Karl, German Socialist; born in 1818, in 
Treves, where his father was a lawyer; educated at 
Bonn and Berlin; took an active part in the Liberal 
movement of 1840, and, after the suppression of the 
"Rhenish Gazette” (edited by him), he went to Paris, 
but had to leave it for Brussels on the demand of the 
Prussian Government. Having been expelled from Bel¬ 
gium, he was invited to Paris, but soon went to Cologne, 
where he attempted to revive the “ Rhenish Gazette.” 
He now settled in London, where he was engaged in 
literary work, and took an active part in the International 
Working Men’s Association. After the secession of the 
Anarchist section in 1872, he took little further part in 
affairs, and died at Hampstead eleven years later (1883). 
His chief work was ,r Das Kapital.” 

Mary I., Queen of England; born in 1516, daughter 
of Henry VIII. by Catherine of Aragon; came to the 
throne in 1553, after a short struggle with Northumber¬ 


land; restored the abbey lands taken by Henry VIII. 
and first-fruits to the papacy; deprived and imprisoned 
the Protestant bishops, and, having married Philip II. 
of Spain, persecuted the Protestants, contrary to the 
promises made before her accession. The end of her 
reign was marked by a war, in conjunction with Spain, 
against France, when Calais was lost by England. 
Died, 1558. 

Mary of Guise, born in 1515; daughter of Claude, 
Due de Guise; married James V. of Scotland in 1538, 
and became mother of Mary, Queen of Scots; as regent 
of Scotland, after her husband’s deaths opposed the 
Reformation, till deposed in 1559, by the Lords of the 
Congregation. Died, 1560. 

Mary, Queen of Scots, or Mary Stuart, was born 
at Linlithgow, December 8, 1542; a daughter of James 
V. of Scotland and Mary of Lorraine, daughter of the 
Duke of Guise; on the death of her father, before she 
was a week old, his successor to the throne. She was 
educated at the French court, and when 16 years 
of age married the Dauphin of France, who, in 1559, 
succeeded his father, Henry II., under the title of 
Francis II. Already, however, instigated by Henry II., 
Francis and Mary had assumed the arms and title of the 
King and Queen of England, on the ground of Eliza¬ 
beth’s illegitimacy, and this step ultimately proved fatal 
to Mary. Soon after the death of her husband in 1560, 
she returned to Scotland, and, five years afterwards 
(July 29, 1565), married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. 
On the 9th of March, 1566, Darnley murdered David 
Rizzio, an Italian (whom he accused of improper 
relations' with Mary), in the Palace of Holyrood; 
exactly twelve months afterwards he was himself mur¬ 
dered by the Earl of Bothwell, who married Mary after 
an interval of less than three months. These proceed¬ 
ings, and an attempt on the part of Bothwell to secure 
the young Prince (afterwards James VI.) who had been 
born in the previous June, so incensed the nobles that 
they took up arms against Mary. She was able to lead 
an army against them, but it melted away without 
striking a blow on the field of Carberry, near Edinburgh 
(June 15, 1567); nothing was then left to her but to 
abandon Bothwell, and to surrender herself to the Con¬ 
federated Lords, by whom she was conducted first to 
Edinburgh, and next to an island castle in Loch Leven, 
in the county of Kinross. After a year’s confinement 
in this castle, during which she was compelled to sign 
an act of abdication in favor of her son, she escaped 
and gathered together her supporters, but was defeated 
by the Regent Murray at Langside, near Glasgow (May 
13, 1568), and then crossed the Solway into England, 
to place herself under the protection of Elizabeth. By 
Elizabeth, however, she was treated as a prisoner; was 
confined successively at Carlisle, Bolton, Tutbury, Wing¬ 
field, Coventry, Chatsworth, Sheffield, Buxton, Chartley, 
and Fotheringay Castle in Northamptonshire; there 
at last, after nineteen years of suffering and, as was 
asserted, of constant conspiracy, she was brought to 
trial on a charge of complicity in a plot against the life 
of Elizabeth, and was beheaded. She was at first buried 
in the cathedral at Peterborough; but in 1612 her 
remains were removed to Westminster Abbey by her 
son (at this time James I. of England), and Fotheringay 
Castle was razed by him to the ground. Died, 1587. 

Mather, Cotton, born in 1663; Puritan minister at 
Boston, where he carried on a witchcraft persecution, 
and wrote “Memorable Providences Relating to Witch¬ 
craft” and other works. Died, 1728. 

Mather, Increase, father of the preceding; born in 
1639 in Dorchester, Mass., where hia father had been 
pastor; became president of Harvard ^in 1685, and 
visited England to obtain a new charter*for his colony 
in 1688. He also wrote many works. Died, 1723. 

Matthew, one of the twelve apostles of Christ, was 
also called Levi, and was the son of Alpheus. He 
appears to have resided at Capernaum, where he was a 
revenue officer or publican. Of his personal history 
nothing more is recorded in the sacred volume. 

Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, born in 
1443; was proclaimed king in 1458, soon after his re¬ 
lease from imprisonment at Prague; maintained the 
throne against the emperor, and, after having engaged 
in successful wars with the Turks, received the Bohemian 
Crown from the pope on condition of extirpating the 
Hussites. While thus engaged a revolt took place in 
Hungary, supported by Poland and other powers, which 
combination he routed. After this he engaged in two 
wars with the emperor, and captured Vienna in 1485, 
living there until his death in 1490. 

Maupassant, Henri Guy de {Mo-pHson^g)), French 
novelist, was born, 1850; pupil and follower of Flau¬ 
bert, under whom he studied for seven years, beginning 



464 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


to write in 1880. His chief works are “La Maison Tel- 
lier,” “ Les Contes de la Becasse,” “Yvette,” “Contes 
du Jour et de Nuit,” “Pierre et Jean,” and "Afloat.” 
In 1891 his mind became deranged. Died at Passy, 
1893. 

Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, son of Wil¬ 
liam of Orange, “the Silent,” was born, 1567; became 
Stadtholder of the United Provinces and head of the 
army in 1587, and successfully carried on the struggle 
against Spain; refused peace in 1598, but consented to 
a truce in 1609; afterwards supported the Gomarists 
against the Remonstrants, and put to death Barneveldt, 
and concluded a treaty with France and England just 
before his death. Died, 1625. 

Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany, son of Fred¬ 
erick III., born in 1459; acquired Burgundy and Flanders 
by marriage, which involved him in a war with France; 
became emperor on the death of his father in 1493; be¬ 
came by marriage Duke of Milan, and brought Spain 
under the power of his dynasty by the marriage of his 
son Philip to the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella; 
it was he who assembled the Diet of Augsburg at 
which Luther made appeal to the pope. Died, 1519. 

Maximilian II., Emperor; born in 1527, son of Fer¬ 
dinand I.; married a daughter of Charles V., and was 
made regent in 1548; was elected King of Bohemia 
(1562) and of Hungary (1563), and became emperor in 
the following year; showed great toleration in his relig¬ 
ious policy, and tried to unite the German Protestants, 
besides remonstrating with Philip II. on the subject of 
his persecutions in the Netherlands. Died, 1576. 

“Max O’Rell,” nom de plume of Paul Blouet; born 
in 1848; French writer, who graduated at Paris in 
1864-65; entered the army in 1869, was taken prisoner 
at Sedan, and fought against the Commune, after which 
he went to England as a correspondent; was French 
master at St. Paul’s School from 1876 to 1884, and 
lectured in England and America. He has written 
“John Bull et son lie,” “Les Filles de John Bull,” etc. 
Died, 1903. 

Maxwell, James Clerk, F. R. S., physicist; born in 
Edinburgh in 1831; after being second wrangler and 
Smith’s prizeman, became professor of natural philosophy 
at Aberdeen, and of physics and astronomy at King’s 
College (1860-68). In 1871, he was elected professor 
of physics at Cambridge, where he made numerous 
researches, resulting in “The Kinetic Theory of Gases,” 
“Electricity and Magnetism,” etc. Died, 1879. 

May, Sir Thomas Erskine, Right Hon., historian; 
born in 1815; was called to the bar in 1838, and became 
clerk to the House of Commons in 1871. He wrote “A 
Treatise on the Haws, Privileges, Proceedings, and 
Usage of Parliament,” “The Constitutional History of 
England from 1760 to 1860,” and several other works, 
and was created a peer a few days before his death. 
Died, 1886. 

Mazarin, Giulio, Cardinal, French statesman, of 
Italian birth, born in 1602. After being in the diplo¬ 
matic service of Spain, he went to France in 1634, as 
nuncio-extraordinary of the pope, and, having been 
favored by Richelieu, joined him five years later in 
opposition to the papacy, and became naturalized in 
France. In 1641, he was created cardinal, and, having 
succeeded to the place of Richelieu soon after, supported 
Anne of Austria, and, after having twice been exiled 
by his enemies’ influence, was recalled by Louis XIV. 
in 1653, and remained supreme until his death (1661). 
He had a share in the Treaty of Westphalia, and nego¬ 
tiated the Treaty of the Pyrenees. 

McBurney, Charles, surgeon; born in Roxbury, 
Mass., February 17, 1845; graduate of Harvard, 1866, 
A. M., 1869; College of Physicians and Surgeons, New 
York, 1870. In practice as surgeon, New York, since 
1870; professor of clinical surgery, College of Physicians 
and Surgeons, 1892-1907. Was consulting surgeon to 
President McKinley after he was shot by the assassin. 

McCall, Samuel Walker, congressman, lawyer; 
born in East Providence, Pa., February 28, 1851; 
graduate of Dartmouth College, 1874; admitted to bar, 
1876; delegate to National Republican conventions, 
1888, 1900; member of Massachusetts House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, 1888, 1889, and 1892; member of Congress, 
8th Massachusetts district, 1893-1913. Author: “ Life of 
Thaddeus Stevens” (American Statesmen Series). 

McClellan, George Brinton, ex-mayor of New York; 
born on November 23, 1865, in Dresden, Saxony, where 
his parents, General George B. (U. S. A.) and Ellen M. 
(Marcy) McClellan, were on a visit. Graduate of 
Princeton, 1886; worked as reporter and in editorial 
positions on New York dailies; treasurer of New York 
and Brooklyn Bridge, 1889-92; admitted to bar, 1892; 
president of board of aldermen, New York, 1893 and 
1894; member of Congress, 1895-1903; Democrat. 


Mayor of New York, 1903—09. Stafford Little lecturer 
on public affairs, 1908-10, university lecturer on public 
affairs since 1911, Princeton university. 

McClellan, George Brinton, American general; 
born in 1826; distinguished himself in the Mexican 
War, and drew up a report on the organization of 
European armies after a visit to the Crimea; during 
the Civil War commanded the army of the Potomac, 
but after indecisive engagements, was superseded in 
1862. In 1864, as a Democrat, he was the unsuccessful 
opponent of Lincoln for the presidency. In 1877, he 
was elected governor of New Jersey. Died, 1885. 

McCutcheon, George Barr, journalist, author; 
born on farm, Tippecanoe County, Ind., July 26, 1866; 
educated at Purdue University; city editor “Lafayette 
Courier,” 1893. Author: “Graustark,” “Beverly of 
Graustark,” “Brewster’s Millions,” “Nedra,” “Castle 
Craneycrow,” “Jane Cable,” “The Husbands of Edith,” 
“.Man from Brodney’s,” and magazine stories. 

McGrath, Harold, journalist, author; born, Syra¬ 
cuse, N. Y., September 4, 1871; engaged in journalism 
since 1890. Author: “Arms and the Woman,” “The 
Man on the Box,” “ Hearts and Masks,” “ Half a Rogue,” 
“The Best Man,” “The Lure of the Mask,” “The Goose 
Girl,” and numerous magazine stories. 

McKirn, Charles Follen, architect; born in Chester 
County, Pa., August 24, 1847; student of Harvard 
Scientific School, 1866; Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 
1867-70. Began practice, 1872; joined in partnership 
by Wm. R. Mead, 1877, and by Stanford White in 1879. 
Awarded Royal gold medal by King Edward for pro¬ 
motion of architecture, 1903. Was president of Ameri¬ 
can Institution of Architects. Died, 1909. 

3IcKinley, William, twenty-fifth President of the 
United States; born in Niles, O., January 29, 1843. 
He was educated at the public schools, and at the Poland, 
Ohio, Academy. In May, 1861, he volunteered for the 
army, and entered the 23d Ohio Infantry as a private. 
He served four years, rising by merit and faithfulness to 
the captaincy of his company, and to the rank of major 
when mustered out in 1865. He at once began the 
study of law; in 1867 was admitted to the bar, and 
commenced practice at Canton, O., where he afterward 
had his residence. In 1869 he was elected prosecuting 
attorney for Stark County, where his success attracted 
local attention. Entering politics, he was elected to 
Congress in 1876, and was reelected for six successive 
terms. In 1882, his election was contested, and he was 
unseated, but triumphantly returned at the next elec¬ 
tion. His reputation in Congress rests chiefly on the 
tariff bill that bears his name. It was drawn by him as 
chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, and 
passed by the fifty-first Congress. This bill and his 
able advocacy of it before the House distinguished him 
as the leader of the Republican party, on the tariff 
question. The Republican party went before the 
country in 1892 almost solely on the issue raised by 
the McKinley tariff, but a reaction against it had set 
in, and Cleveland was elected. Meanwhile McKinley 
failed of reelection in his district, though largely reduc¬ 
ing the adverse plurality created by a redistricting that 
changed the limits of the district. In 1891 he was 
elected governor of Ohio by a large plurality over former 
Governor James E. Campbell, a very popular Democrat, 
and reelected in 1893 in the reactionary tidal wave of 
politics following a contrary tariff policy, that carried 
the Republican party back to power in Congress, having 
a plurality of over 80,000. By this time his name was 
frequently mentioned as a future candidate for the 
presidency. In 1895, a systematic canvass in McKin¬ 
ley’s behalf was instituted by his supporters, which was 
continued until the election of 1896. He was nominated 
and elected, receiving an electoral majority of 95, after 
a campaign of more intense interest than was displayed 
in any election since the Civil War. 

President McKinley’s first term is memorable chiefly 
for the occurrence of the Spanish-American War and 
its unexpected results. That his policy during 1896- 
1900 was acceptable was shown by his unanimous 
renomination and by his reelection in 1900 by an 
electoral majority of 137. His second term began 
most auspiciously and ended tragically. On Sep¬ 
tember 5, 1901, he visited the Pan-American Expo¬ 
sition in Buffalo, N. Y., that day having been set 
apart in his honor and called the “President’s Day.” 
On the afternoon of the following day, while holding a 
public reception in the Temple of Music, he was shot 
twice by Leon F. Czolgosz, an anarchist, who was at 
once arrested. The wounded president was first taken 
to the Emergency Hospital on the exposition grounds, 
for immediate treatment, and then removed to the 
residence of John G. Milburn, the president of the 
exposition. Hopes of hie recovery were entertained 




BIOGRAPHY 


465 


for several days, but on September 13th he began to 
sink rapidly and died at 2.15 A. M., September 14th. 
His remains were removed to Washington on September 
16th, laid in state in the capitol on the 17th, and taken 
to his home city, Canton, Ohio, where they were interred 
on the 18th, amid universal mourning. 

McLean, Emily Nelson Ritchie (Mrs. Donald Mc¬ 
Lean), regent of New York City Chapter of Daughters 
of American Revolution ten years; now honorary pres¬ 
ident-general, National Society, D. A. R.; born in Pros¬ 
pect Hall, Frederick, Md., 1859; daughter of Judge John 
and Betty Ritchie; graduate of Frederick Seminary 
(now Woman’s College), June, 1873; post-graduate 
courses in language, history, and mathematics; married 
in Frederick, Md., April 24, 1883, to Donald McLean. 
Charter member of Daughters of American Revolution. 
Scholarship bearing her name established, 1898, in 
Barnard College by Daughters of American Revolution, 
New York Chapter. Was commissioner from New York 
to Cotton States and International Exposition, 1895-96; 
accepted appointment as commissioner to South Caro¬ 
lina Exposition, 1901-02. Best known by her public 
addresses throughout the country on patriotic and 
educational themes. 

McMaster, John Bach, professor of American his¬ 
tory in University of Pennsylvania since 1883; born in 
Brooklyn, June 29, 1852; graduate of College of City 
of New York, 1872, Ph. D., Litt. D., LL. D.; civil 
engineer, 1873-77; instructor in civil engineering, Prince¬ 
ton, 1877-83. Author: “A History of the People 
of the United States ” (eight volumes published), “ Benja¬ 
min Franklin as a Man of Letters,” “With the Fathers,” 
“Studies in American History,” “Origin, Meaning, and 
Application of the Monroe Doctrine,” “A School History 
of the United States,” “A Primary School History of 
the United States,” “Daniel Webster,” “Brief History 
of the United States,” “The Struggle for the Social, 
Political, and Industrial Rights of Man.” 

Meade, George Gordon, general in the United 
States army, was born in Cadiz, Spain, where his father 
was an agent of the United States navy, December 31, 
1815. He graduated at West Point in 1835, and, after 
serving but one year in the army, resigned to begin 
practice as a civil engineer. He was frequently em¬ 
ployed by the government, and reentered its military 
service in 1842. He served with distinction on the staffs 
of Taylor and Scott in the Mexican War, and in scientific 
work. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was placed 
in command of a brigade of volunteers, soon rising to 
the command of a division, and joining his fortunes 
permanently to those of the army of the Potomac. He 
led his division through the Seven Days’ battle, being 
severely wounded at Glendale, through the Antietam 
campaign, and at Fredericksburg, where he particularly 
distinguished himself. At Chancellorsville he com¬ 
manded the fifth corps; and when Hooker resigned the 
command of the army, and while the army itself was in 
hasty movement northward to check Lee’s invasion of 
the North in 1863, Meade was appointed to the command. 
He accepted it with the greatest reluctance, and alto¬ 
gether from a sense of duty. He had inclined to fight 
on the line of Pipe Creek, to the south of Gettysburg; 
but Reynolds fell into collision with Lee’s advance at 
Gettysburg, other corps hurried to support, and Gettys¬ 
burg" became historical. When Grant assumed general 
command in 1864, Meade continued to command the 
army of the Potomac under him, and mutual good¬ 
feeling enabled them to maintain this delicate relation 
without friction, and with the best results. At the 
close of the war, being major-general in the regular army, 
he commanded the military division of the Atlantic 
until his death at Philadelphia, November 6, 1872. 

Medici, Lorenzo de% “il Magnifico”; born in 1448; 
son of Pietro, became dominant in Florence after the sup¬ 
pression of the Pazzi, by whom his brother, Giuliano, 
had been murdered (1478). His alliance with Venice 
and Milan excited the jealousy of the papacy, and Sixtus 
IV. excommunicated Florence on his account. He was 
reconciled, however, with Innocent VIII., and his son, 
Giovanni, was made cardinal. He was a great patron 
and collector of manuscripts. Died, 1492. 

Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, painter; born in 
Lyons in 1815; attracted attention by his “Little Mes¬ 
senger” in 1836, and continued to exhibit at the Paris 
Salon for many years, his best pictures distinguished 
for minute detail being the “Napoleon Cycle,” among 
which the picture called “ 1814 ” was sold, in 1890, for 
$100,000. Meissonier served in the Italian campaign 
and the early part of the Franco-Prussian War, and 
was colonel at the siege of Paris. Died in Paris in 
1891. 

Melanchthon, Philip, born in 1497; German reformer; 
studied under Reuchlin, and was appointed professor of 


Greek at Wittemberg at an early age, thus becoming 
acquainted with Luther. He drew up the Confession of 
Augsburg, of which he sent a copy to the patriarch of 
Constantinople inviting his adhesion; and by his 
moderation as w T ell as,his writings did much to help the 
reformation. Died, 1560. 

Melba, Madame, operatic vocalist, born in Aus¬ 
tralia, May 19, 1865. At 6 sang ballads to her own 
accompaniment at a charitable concert. Studying under 
Madame Marchesi in Paris, she made her stage debut 
October 15, 1887, in “Rigoletto,” at the Theatre de la 
Monnaie, Brussels. Next year appeared as Lucia at 
Covent Garden. In 1889 played “Ophelia” at Paris 
Grand Opera. For her Bemberg specially wrote 
“Elaine,” producedjn London in 1892. She has taken a 
prominent part in recent opera seasons in London and 
New York, and, in 1908, proved herself equally success¬ 
ful in concert. 

Mellen, Charles Sanger, railway official; born in 
Lowell, Mass., August 16, 1851; in railway service since 
September 22, 1869, beginning as clerk in cashier’s 
office Northern New Hampshire R. R.; clerk to chief 
engineer Central Vermont R.R., 1872-73; superintendent’s 
clerk to chief clerk and assistant treasurer of Northern 
New Hampshire R. R., 1873-80; assistant to manager of 
Boston & Lowell Ii. R., 1880-81; auditor, 1881-83, 
superintendent, 1883-84, general superintendent, 1884- 
88, Boston & Lowell and Concord railroads; general pur¬ 
chasing agent, 1888, assistant general manager, 1888-89, 
general traffic manager, 1889-92, Union Pacific System; 
general manager New York & New England R. R. at 
Boston, 1892; 2d vice-president New York, New Haven 
& Hartford R.R., 1892-96; president of Northern Pacific 
Railway Co., 1896-1903, New York, New Haven & Hart¬ 
ford R. II. Co.; since 1903. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix (- bar-tol'de ) a dis¬ 
tinguished German musical composer, born in Hamburg, 
1809, manifested a precocious taste and genius for music. 
In his 18th year he produced his famous “Overture to 
the Midsummer Night’s Dream,” as well as the opera of 
the “Wedding of Camacho.” His fame was at once 
secured. In 1836, appeared his oratorio of “St. Paul,” 
and in 1846, the magnificent one called “Elijah” — a 
masterpiece, second only to the greatest works of Handel. 
Mendelssohn’s “Songs Without Words” are the most 
admired of his minor compositions. Died, 1847. 

Meredith, George, poet and novelist, was a native of 
Hampshire, and was born in 1828. After studying for 
some time in Germany he commenced his literary career 
with the publication of a volume of poems. This was 
followed by the “Shaving of Shagpat, an Arabian Enter¬ 
tainment”; “Farina, a Legend of Cologne,” “The 
Ordeal of Richard Feverel,” “Modern Love: Poems and 
Ballads,” “Emilia in England,” “Rhoda Fleming,” 
“ Vittoria,” “The Adventures of Harry Richmond,” 
“The Egoist,” “The Tragic Comedians,” “Poems and 
Lyrics of the Joy of Earth,” “Diana of the Crossways,” 
“One of Our Conquerors,” “Lord Ormont and his 
Aminta,” “The Amazing Marriage,” and a volume of 
short stories. Died, 1909. 

Mergenthaler, Ottmar, inventor of the typesetting 
machine bearing his name, was born in Wiirttemberg, 
Germany, in 1854; came to the United States in 1872, 
and received a government position in Washington to 
care for the mechanism of bells, clocks, and signal 
service apparatus; became connected with a mechanical 
engineering firm in Baltimore, Md., in 1876; subse^- 
quently, while still engaged with that company, he 
began experiments which resulted in the invention 
named. He died in Baltimore, Md., 1899. 

Merivale, Charles, dean of Ely; born in Exeter in 
1808; held a succession of appointments as lecturer; 
wrote a history of Rome from its foundation in 753 B. C. 
to the fall of Augustus in 476 A. D., but his chief work is 
the “History of the Romans under the Empire,” indis¬ 
pensable as an introduction to Gibbon. Died, 1893. 

Merritt, Wesley, major general of United States 
Army, retired June 16, 1900; born in New York, June 
16, 1836; graduated from West Point, 1860; commissioned 
brigadier-general United States volunteers, June 29, 1863; 
major-general, United States volunteers, April 1, 1865. 
After war regularly promoted from lieutenant-colonel to 
major-general, United States Army. Served in army of the 
Potomac until June, 1864; participated in all its battles 
and earned six successive brevet promotions for gallantry 
at Gettysburg, Yellow Tavern, Hawes’ Shop, Five 
Forks, etc. Afterward accompanied General Sheridan 
on cavalry raid toward Charlottesville, and engaged in 
battle of Trevilian’s Station; commanded cavalry divi¬ 
sion in Shenandoah campaign, August, 1864, to March, 
1865; was engaged in battles of Winchester, Fisher’s 
Hill, etc.; commanded corps of cavalry in Appomattox 
campaign; one of three commanders from National 



466 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Army to arrange with Confederate commanders for sur¬ 
render of Army of Northern Virginia. After war served 
in various departments, participated in several Indian 
campaigns; superintendent of United States Military 
Academy, 1882-87; commanded department of the Atlan¬ 
tic until assigned, May, 1898, to command of United 
States forces in the Philippine Islands, continuing there 
until summoned to the aid of the American Peace Com¬ 
missioners in session in Paris, December, 1898; returned 
to United States; in command of department of the East, 
Governor’s Island, until retirement, 1900. Died, 1910. 

Merry del Val, Raphael, pontifical secretary of 
state, was born in London of Spanish parents on October 
10, 1865, and educated in England, where he has resided 
for some length of time at different periods in his career. 
He was at first attached to the diocese of Westminster, 
acted for many years as Camerieri Segreto to Pope 
Leo XIII., and was appointed president of the Accademia 
Pontificia in 1899, and Italian Archbishop of Nicosia in 
1900. He visited England as papal envoy on the occa¬ 
sions of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee and King Edward’s 
Coronation, and was sent to Canada on an educational 
mission. In July, 1903, on the death of Leo XIII., he 
was nominated consistorial secretary, and in October 
succeeded Cardinal Rampolla as secretary of state, 
being afterwards created a cardinal. 

Metternich, Clemens Wenzel, Prince von, a great 
Austrian diplomatist and statesman; born in Coblenz, 
1773; after a distinguished diplomatic career, became 
foreign minister of the empire in 1809. This high office 
he held with consummate ability for a period of thirty 
years, exercising, almost without control, the highest 
authority in Austria. The revolution of 1848 sent him 
into exile, from which he returned three years after. 
Died, 1859. Prince Metternich was an adroit intriguer, 
and exercised in his day a powerful influence upon the 
cabinets of Europe. 

Meyer, Adolf, pathologist, alienist; born in Nieder- 
weningen, near Zurich, Switzerland, September 13, 1866; 
educated at gymnasium, Zurich; University of Zurich, 
M. D., 1892; post-graduate studies in Paris, London, 
Edinburgh, Zurich, Vienna, and Berlin, 1890-92 (LL.D., 
Glasgow, 1901); came to the United States, Septem¬ 
ber, 1892. Honorary fellow and later docent in neu¬ 
rology, University of Chicago, 1892-95; pathologist to 
Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Kankakee, Ill., 
1893-95; pathologist and later director of clinical and 
laboratory work, Worcester (Mass.) Insane Hospital, 
and docent in psychiatry, Clark University, 1895-1902; 
director Pathological (psychiatric) Institute, New York 
State Hospitals, 1902-10. Professor psychiatry, Cor¬ 
nell University Medical College, 1904-09; professor psy¬ 
chiatry, Johns Hopkins University, since 1910. Extensive 
contributor to neurology, pathology, and psychiatry, etc. 

Meyer, George von Lengerke, born in Boston, June 
24, 1858; graduated at Harvard, 1879; engaged in busi¬ 
ness as merchant and trustee, 1879-99. Member of Bos¬ 
ton common council, 1889-90; member of board of aider- 
men, 1891; memberof Massachusetts Legislature, 1892-97, 
and speaker of house, 1894-97; chairman of Massachu¬ 
setts Paris Exposition Managers; member of Republican 
National Committee, 1898-1905. Director of Amoskeag 
Manufacturing Company, the Amory Company, Old Col¬ 
ony Trust Company, National Bank of Commerce, United 
Electric Securities Company; president of Ames Plow 
Company. United States ambassador to Italy, 1900-05. 
Ambassador to Russia, 1905-07; postmaster-general, 
1907-09; secretary of navy, 1909-13. 

31ichael VIII. (Palseologus), born in 1234; having 
been crowned Emperor at Nicsea with John Lascaris, 
regained Constantinople from the Latins in 1261, and 
ordered his colleague to be blinded, for which he was 
excommunicated and did public penance; attempted to 
unite the Eastern and Western Churches at the Council 
of Lyon (1274), and subsequently defeated a French 
invasion. Died, 1282. 

Michelet, Jules, born in Paris, August 21, 1798; 
a popular French historian, for many years professor of 
history in the College of France. In 1843-46, he became 
widely known, not only in his own country, but also in 
England, by his attacks upon the Jesuits in his three 
works: “The Jesuits,” “Priests, Women, and Families”; 
and “The People.” He was the writer of many other 
works, several of them of considerable interest; but 
those of most permanent value are his “History of 
France,” his “History of the French Revolution,” and 
his “History of the Nineteenth Century.” Died, Febru¬ 
ary 9, 1874. 

Miles, Nelson Appleton, an, American military offi¬ 
cer; born in Westminster, Mass., August 8, 1839. At 
the breaking out of the Civil War, he was engaged in 
mercantile pursuits in Boston, Mass.; entered the serv¬ 


ice as first lieutenant of the 22d Massachusetts Regi¬ 
ment in September, 1861, and distinguished himself at 
the battles of Fair Oaks, Charles City Cross Roads, and 
Malvern Hill. In September, 1862, he was commis¬ 
sioned colonel of the 61st New York regiment, which 
he led at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, where he 
was severely wounded. He commanded the first bri¬ 
gade, first division, second army corps, in the Richmond 
.campaign, and was promoted brigadier-general, May 12, 
1864; and brevetted major-general for gallantry at 
Ream’s Station in August, 1864. At the close of the 
war he was commissioned colonel of the 40th United 
States Infantry. He was promoted brigadier-general 
in December, 1880; major-general in April, 1890; and 
succeeded Lieutenant-General John M. Schofield as com¬ 
mander of the army in 1895. He took a prominent part 
in the wars with the Indians in 1874, and thereafter. 
On July 13, 1898, he went to the front and assumed per¬ 
sonal command of the army around Santiago, Cuba; and 
after the surrender of the Spanish Army commanded the 
expedition which left Guantanamo Bay, July 21st, landed 
at Guanica, Porto Rico, July 25th, and was marching on 
San Juan, the capital, when the armistice stopped hostile 
operations. On the reorganization of the army in 1901, 
the grade of lieutenant-general was revived and he was 
promoted to it. In December, 1901, he publicly ex¬ 
pressed satisfaction with Admiral Dewey’s report on 
Rear-Admiral Schley and was reprimanded therefor. 
He was retired upon reaching the age limit, August, 1903. 

Mill, James, a British historian and political econo¬ 
mist, was born near Montrose, Scotland, in 1773. He 
has written much that is of standard value, as witness 
his “History of British India” (five volumes); the “Lib¬ 
erty of the Press,” the “Law of Nations,” “Elements 
of Political Economy,” and “Analysis of the Phe¬ 
nomena of the Human Mind.” Died in London in 1836. 

Mill, John Stuart, son of James Mill, born in Lon¬ 
don in 1806, established his reputation, in 1843, by the 
publication of “A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and 
Inductive,” a work the success of which paved the way 
for “The Principles of Political Economy, with some of 
their Applications to Social Philosophy.” His later 
works are an “Essay on Liberty,” “An Examination of 
Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy,” and the “Subjec¬ 
tion of Women,” in which he avows himself a partisan 
of what has been popularly termed the “.Woman’s 
Rights Movement.” Died, 1873. 

Mil man, Henry Hart, born in London, 1791; an 
ecclesiastical historian and poet, for several years 
professor of poetry in the University of Oxford, and 
from 1849 to his death Dean of St. Paul’s Cathedral. 
His best known poems are “The Fall of Jerusalem,” 
and “The Martyr of Antioch”; his historical works are 
a “History of the Jews,” a “History of Christianity 
from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in 
the Roman Empire,” and a “History of Latin Christian¬ 
ity, including that of the Popes to the Pontificate of 
Nicolas V.” Died, 1868. 

Milton, John, born in 1608; English poet; son of a 
London scrivener of some culture, who sent him to St. 
Paul’s school and Cambridge (Christ’s College), after 
leaving which he lived with his father in Buckingham¬ 
shire, and then traveled in France and Italy. In 1644 
he published “ Areopagitica,” a speech for the liberty of 
unlicensed printing, among his other prose works being 
“Eikonoklastes ” and “Defensio pro Populo Anglicano ” 
(in answer to Salmasius), this last work being the im¬ 
mediate cause of his loss of sight. He was appointed 
foreign secretary to the Council of State in 1649, and 
some years after became blind. “The Allegro,” “Pen- 
seroso,” “Comus,” “Lycidas,” etc., were written in his 
early days, and his greatest work, “Paradise Lost,” was 
published in 1667, and “Paradise Regained” in 1671. 
He was married three times. Died, 1674. 

Mitchell, John, labor leader, was born at Braid- 
wood, Ill., February 4, 1870; received common school 
education, read law one year, and made special study of 
economic questions; began work in coal mines, 1882, 
and has since, as worker or labor leader, been identified 
with mines and mining; his official connection with the 
United Mine Workers of America began in 1895, and 
from 1899 to 1908 he served as president of that organi¬ 
zation. He is the author of a book, “ Organized Labor, 
Its Problems, Purposes, and Ideals.” 

Modjeska, Helena (Mme. Chlapowski), actress; 
born in Cracow, Poland, October 12, 1844; d^but, 
Bochnia, Poland, 1861; soon became leading actress in 
her native country; married, in 1868, Charles Bozenta 
Chlapowski, compatriot. First appearance in English, 
San Francisco, 1877, in Adrienne Lecouvreur, followed 
by a starring tour through United States and England. 
Returned here and played leading Shakesperean parts 
Camille,” “ Mary Stuart,” etc. Died, 1909. 




BIOGRAPHY 


407 


Mohammed was in his youth employed as a camel- 
driver between Mecca and Damascus by his uncle, who 
had adopted him, but at the age of twenty-five married 
Khadija, a rich widow. __ He now led a life of medita¬ 
tion, during which the Koran was drawn up. When at 
the age of 40 he claimed to be a prophet, he was opposed 
by his family, and in 622 left Mecca for Medina (the 
Hegira). Here his followers increased, and were incited 
by him against the Arabian Jews. Mecca was stormed, 
and in time all Arabia and Syria conquered, but the 
prophet died (632) soon after at Medina, perhaps from 
poisoned food. 

Moliere, Jean Baptiste (Poquelin), born in 1622; 
dramatist: was educated by the Jesuits, and studied 
law, but about 1645, changed his name, and became an 
actor. He began to write plays in 1653, and took part 
in them himself, first performing before Louis XIV. in 
1658. In 1673, while playing Argan in “Le Malade 
Imaginaire,” he was seized with convulsions, and died 
soon after. It was only by the intervention of the 
king that the Church allowed him burial. His chief 
plays were “L’Etourdi,” “L’ficole des Femmes,” ‘‘Le 
Misanthrope,” ‘‘Le Medecin Malgrd Lui,” “Tartufe,” 
“Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme.” 

Moltke ( molt'ka ), von, Helmuth Karl Bernhard, 
Count, chief marshal of the German Empire; was born 
in Parchim, in Mecklenburg, in 1800. He entered the 
Prussian service in 1822, as a lieutenant in the eighth 
infantry regiment. In 1835, he undertook a tour in 
Turkey, remained there several years, and took part in 
the campaign of the Turks in Syria, against the viceroy 
of Egypt. He became a lieutenant-general in 1859, and 
sketched the plans of the campaigns against Denmark, 
1864, and Austria, 1866. He was the commander-in¬ 
chief in the Franco-German War, 1870-71, and to his 
brilliant strategy are ascribed the splendid victories 
of the German arms. The illustrious marshal, who is 
generally regarded as the first strategist of the day, was 
created a count in 1870, and chief marshal of the Ger¬ 
man Empire in 1871. Died, 1891. 

Monk, George, Duke of Albemarle, an English 
general; born in County Devon in 1608; after a brief 
service in Holland, fought at first on the side of Charles I. 
during the civil war; then, changing his coat, he com¬ 
manded a republican army in Ireland* 1646-50, and in 
1651 reduced Scotland into submission to Cromwell. 
In 1653, he commanded in the sea-fight in which the 
Dutch were defeated, and their admiral, Van Tromp, 
killed. Aiter the death of the Protector, 1658, Monk 
proclaimed Richard Cromwell, his father’s successor, 
and himself retained command of the army in Scotland. 
With that army, he, in 1660, marched upon London, and 
declared for the restoration of Charles II., which con¬ 
summation he succeeded in bringing about. His last 
great victory at sea was over the Dutch in 1666. Monk 
died in 1670. 

Monroe, James, fifth President of the United States; 
was born in Westmoreland County, Va., 1758. After 
graduating at William and Mary College, he served with 
distinction in the army during the War of the Revolution, 
and in 1783, entered the general Congress as a delegate 
from his native State. In the Virginia convention, 1788, 
he opposed the adoption of the Federal Constitution, 
and allied himself with the Republican party, which 
party elected him a member of the United States Senate 
in 1790. Four years later he proceeded to France as 
minister-plenipotentiary, from which office he was re¬ 
called in 1796. During the years 1799-1802, he filled 
the office of governor of Virginia. In 1802, as the as¬ 
sociate of Livingston, he was dispatched on a special 
mission to negotiate for the purchase of Louisiana. In 
1803, in England, and in 1805, in Spain, he performed 
special diplomatic services for his country. In 1811, he 
again accepted the governorship of Virginia, and in the 
same year became secretary of state under President Madi¬ 
son’s administration, which position he occupied with 
credit till March, 1817. The year before he had been 
the elected Democr.atic candidate for the presidency. 
During his term of office, Florida was ceded to the United 
States, 1819. Reelected in 1820, during his second term, 
the United States recognized the de facto independence 
of the Spanish-American colonies. In December, 1823, 
he gave utterance in his message to the celebrated prin¬ 
ciple touching the foreign policy of the United States, 
since known as the “Monroe Doctrine.” In 1825, Mon¬ 
roe retired from the presidential chair, and died in New 
York, 1831. 

Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de, born in 1533; 
French writer; was educated at the College de Guienne 
at Bordeaux, partly under George Buchanan, and be¬ 
came a judge of the parliament there in 1554. He took 
no part in affairs, but was driven from his chateau for 
two years by the wars of the league, during which time 


he formed his friendship with Marie de Gournay. In 
1588, he was chosen to negotiate a treaty between Guise 
and Navarre at Blois. His “Essais,” of which Shakes- 
pere and Ben Jonson possessed translations, were first 
published in 1580. Died, 1592. 

Montcalm de Saint Veran, Louis Joseph, Mar¬ 
quis de, born in 1712; French general; was named 
commander of the French forces in Canada in 1756, where 
he won several victories, and fortified Quebec, but was 
defeated by Wolfe in 1759, and mortally wounded. 
Died, 1759. 

Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, 

born at the Castle of La Brfede, near Bordeaux, January 
18, 1689; an eminent political philosopher of France, 
best known as the author of a work on “.The Spirit of 
Laws,” which was published in 1748. In this work, 
which occupied its writer for more than fourteen years, 
he discusses with great ability the principles of political 
science, as those principles were understood in his time. 
He was also the author of some “Persian Letters ” (1721), 
in which, in the character of a Persian, he described and 
satirized the peculiarities of his countrymen; of a dis¬ 
course on “The Causes of the Greatness and of the Decay 
of the Romans ” (1734); and of numerous other works. 
Died in Paris, February 10, 1755. 

Montezuma I., Emperor of Mexico; after having 
been the victorious general of his uncle, succeeded him 
in 1436. He defeated the people of Chaleo, and em¬ 
banked the lake of Tezcuco. Died, 1464. 

Montezuma II., born in 1466; became emperor in 
1502, and governed with great cruelty. His dominions 
having been attacked and conquered by Cortez, he was 
killed (1520) by his subjects while persuading them to 
submit to the Spaniards. 

Montgomery, Richard, an American general; was 
born in Ireland in 1736. In 1772, he resigned his com¬ 
mission in the British service, and settled in Dutchess 
County, N. Y., representing it in the Continental Con¬ 
gress, 1775. As brigadier in the national army he took 
Montreal, and was killed in the assault on Quebec, 
December, 1775. 

Montrose, James Graham, Marquis of. Royalist 
leader; was born in Edinburgh in 1612, and lived some 
time in France as an officer in the Scottish Guard. On 
his return he first joined the Covenanters, but afterwards 
became a zealous Royalist, gaining several battles for the 
king, but was defeated by Leslie at Philiphaugh in 1645, 
and five years later, having been captured in Orkney, 
was brought to Edinburgh and executed in 1650. 

Moody, Dwight Lyman, American preacher; born 
in Massachusetts in 1837; renounced Unitarianism and 
became a Congregationalist, served during the Civil 
War on the Christian commission, and from 1856 entirely 
abandoned business. His church and school-house at 
Chicago having been burnt down in 1871, he went to Eng¬ 
land to raise funds for rebuilding them, and was success¬ 
ful in his object. Established a school for Christian 
workers at Northfield, Mass., and a Bible institute at 
Chicago. Died, 1899. 

Moody, William Henry, jurist; born in Newbury, 
Mass., December 23, 1853; graduated from Phillips 
Academy, Andover, Mass., 1872; Harvard University, 
1876; lawyer by profession; district attorney for eastern 
district of Massachusetts, 1890-95; member 54th Con¬ 
gress from sixth Massachusetts district to fill vacancy; 
also member 55th, 56th, and 57th Congresses; secretary 
of the navy, 1902-04; attorney general United States, 
1904-06; in 1906, associate justice United States Supreme 
Court, from which he retired in 1910. 

Moore, Sir John, soldier; born in 1761, son of a 
doctor in Glasgow, who edited Smollett’s works; served 
in the American war, in Corsica (1794), in the attack on 
St. Lucia, of which he became governor, and subse¬ 
quently in Ireland, Holland, Egypt, and Sicily (1806). 
On his return from an expedition in aid of Sweden, he 
was sent to Portugal to command an army to cooperate 
with the Spaniards. He was obliged to retreat from 
Salamanca to the sea, and won the victory of Corunna 
(1809), but fell in the battle and died. 

Moore, John Bassett, publicist; born in Smyrna, 
Del., December 3, 1860; graduate of University of Vir¬ 
ginia, 1880; studied law, Wilmington, Del.; passed 
civil service examination, 1885, and appointed law clerk 
in state department at $1,200 a year;- in 1886, became 
third assistant secretary of state. Although a Demo¬ 
crat, was retained in that position by Mr. Blaine; re¬ 
signed, 1891, to become professor international law 
and diplomacy at Columbia College; appointed, April, 
1898, assistant secretary of state, resigning in Septem¬ 
ber to become secretary and counsel to Peace Commis¬ 
sion at Paris; member of Institut de Droit International, 
and the Institute Colonial International (LL. D., Yale, 




468 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


1901). An authority on international law. Author: 
“Report on Extraterritorial Crime,” “Report on 
Extradition,” “Extradition and Interstate Rendition” 
(two volumes), “American Notes on the Conflict of 
Laws,” “History and Digest of International Arbitra¬ 
tions” (six volumes), “American Diplomacy, Its Spirit 
and Achievements.” One of the editors of “Political 
Science Quarterly,” and of the “Journal de Droit 
International Privee.” 

More, Sir Thomas, statesman and writer; born in 
1478, son of Sir J. More, a judge; was educated in the 
household of Archbishop Morton, who sent him to 
Oxford, where he made the acquaintance of Erasmus. 
He entered parliament in 1504, where he took an inde¬ 
pendent course, refusing a pension from the king, whose 
favor, however, and that of Wolsey, he enjoyed; was 
knighted in 1521, became speaker in 1523, and, on the 
fall of Wolsey, chancellor, but resigned in 1532, and was 
committed to the Tower two years later for refusing to 
take the oath of supremacy. He was then condemned 
by attainder, and executed on a charge of treason 
in 1535. He wrote “Utopia” and several other works, 
most of them in Latin. 

Morgan, John Pierpont, banker, financier; born 
in Hartford, Conn., April 17, 1837; son of Junius Spencer 
and Juliet (Pierpont) Morgan; graduate of English high 
school, Boston; student of University of Gottingen, 
Germany. Entered bank of Duncan, Sherman & Co., 
1857; became agent and attorney in United States, 
1860, for George Peabody & Co., bankers, London, in 
which his father was. partner; member of Dabney, 
Morgan & Co., investment securities, 1864-71; be¬ 
came member, 1871, of firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co., 
now J. P. Morgan & Co., leading private bankers of 
United States; also J. S. Morgan & Co., London. Largely 
occupied as financier in largest reorganizations of railways 
and consolidation of industrial properties; floated United 
States bonds issue of $62,000,000 during Cleveland admin¬ 
istration ; organized and floated securities of United States 
Steel Corporation, 1901 (capital, $1,100,000,000); secured 
American subscriptions of $50,000,000 to British war loan 
of April, 1901; organized existing agreement of anthracite 
operators of Pennsylvania, also of soft coal interests in 
Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania; controlled over 50,000 
miles of railways, large American and British ocean 
transportation lines. Gave site, buildings, and funds, 
amounting to about $1,500,000, to lying-in hospital, New 
York, and large donations to the New York trade schools, 
the cathedral of St. John the Divine, and many other 
institutions. Made valuable gifts to American Museum 
of Natural History, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 
and New York Public Library. In 1912 he gave to library 
of congress a complete set of autographs of the signers of 
the declaration of independence. Owned famous collec¬ 
tions of pictures (including famous Gainsborough paint¬ 
ing), books, manuscripts, curios, etc. President of Met¬ 
ropolitan Museum of Art; member of many societies, 
clubs, etc., in United States and abroad. Died, 1913. 

Morgan, John Tyler, United States senator from 
Alabama, 1877-1907; born in Athens, Tenn., June 20, 
1824; emigrated to Alabajma when 9 years old; aca¬ 
demic education; admitted to bar, 1845; practiced 
until elected to the senate. Presidential elector, 1860; 
delegate to Alabama secession convention, 1861; 
joined Confederate States Army, May, 1861, as private; 
promoted through all grades to colonel of 51st Alabama 
Regiment, which he raised; was brigadier-general, 
1863-65. After war, resumed practice at Selma, Ala.; 
presidential elector, 1876; Democrat. Appointed by 
President Harrison as arbitrator on Bering Sea fish¬ 
eries, 1892; appointed by President McKinley, July, 
1898, one of the commissioners to organize government 
in Hawaii, after passage of annexation bill. Died, 1907. 

Morley, Right Hon. John, statesman and writer; 
born in Blackburn in 1838, and educated at Cheltenham 
and Oxford; took degree of LL. D. in 1859, but devoted 
his time to writing. He edited, among other publica¬ 
tions, the “Fortnightly Review” from 1867 to 1882, 
the “Pall Mall Gazette” from 1880 to 18S3, and “Mac¬ 
millan” in 1883-85, and after two unsuccessful candi¬ 
datures (in 1869 and 1880) entered parliament in 1883, 
as member for Newcastle. He, from the first, adopted 
Home Rule, and, in 1886, became chief secretary for 
Ireland, and again in 1892. His chief works are “Ed¬ 
mund Burke: an Historical Study,” “Voltaire,” “Rous¬ 
seau,” “Diderot,” “On Compromise,” “Life of Cobden,” 
“Walpole,” and “Chatham” in the “Statesmen” series; 
and he edited the “English Men of Letters” series. 

Morris, Clara, actress; born in Toronto, Canada, 
in 1849; lived there until three months old, then went 
to Cleveland and grew up there; became member of 
ballet in Academy of Music, Cleveland, 1861, rapidly 


advancing to leading lady; in 1869, became leading 
lady at Wood’s Theater, Cincinnati; became member 
Daly’s Fifth Avenue Company, New York, 1870; soon 
became prominent in emotional roles and has appeared 
as star in principal American theaters. Leading roles: 
Camille, Alixe, Miss Multon, Mercy Merrick in “The 
New Magdalene,” Cora in “L’Article 47,” etc.; married 
in 1874, to Frederick C. Harriott. Author: “A Silent 
Singer,” "My Little Jim Crow,” “Life on the Stage,” 
“A Paste-Board Crown” (novel), “Stage Confidences” 
“The Trouble Woman,” “New East Lynne,” “Left in 
Charge.” 

Morris, Gouverneur, American statesman; born in 
1752; became a member of the Provincial Congress of 
New York, and was one of those who drew up the State 
Constitution in 1776; was a prominent member of the 
Continental Congress in 1777-80, being the colleague of 
R. Morris as superintendent of finance. He was one of 
the draughters of the Federal Constitution in 1787, 
after which he passed many years in Europe, being 
minister to France during the Revolution, and became 
United States senator on his return. He wrote “Obser¬ 
vations on the American Revolution,” and his “Corre¬ 
spondence” throws much light on the French Revolu¬ 
tion. Died, 1816. 

Morris, Robert, American financier; born in Liver¬ 
pool in 1734; emigrated at an early age and settled in 
Philadelphia, becoming a partner in the counting-house 
of C. Willing; opposed the Stamp Act, and signed the 
Non-importation Agreement (1765). Having become a 
member of the Continental Congress, he signed the 
Declaration of Independence, and greatly helped the 
American cause from his own purse, both during the 
war and afterwards. He founded the Bank of North 
America, was superintendent of finance from 1781 to 
1784, but declined the secretaryship of the treasury; 
was finally ruined by his speculations, and imprisoned 
for debt. He died in 1806. 

3Iorris, William, English poet and socialist; born 
in 1834, son of a London merchant; was educated at 
Marlborough and Oxford, and, in 1863, with D. G. 
Rossetti, Burne-Jones, and others, engaged in the 
manufacture of artistic wall-paper and household 
decorations. During his leisure hours he gave socialist 
lectures, and wrote poetry, his chief productions having 
been “The Life and Death of Jason,” “The Earthly 
Paradise,” "The Story of Sigurd the Volsung,” besides 
translations of the “2Eneid” and the “Odyssey,” and 
some prose works, of which the chief is “A Tale of the 
House of the Wolfings.” Died, 1896. 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, born in 1791; Amer¬ 
ican electrician; son of a Congregationalist minister in 
Massachusetts; having graduated at Yale, went to Eng¬ 
land in 1810, and, becoming a pupil of West, exhibited 
“The Dying Hercules” at the academy in 1813. He 
afterwards abandoned art for science, and, in 1837, took 
out a patent for his electric telegraph, the first overhead 
message being sent from Washington to Baltimore in 
1844. It was afterwards generally adopted, the inventor 
receiving an international testimonial in 1858. Disputes 
subsequently arose with Professor Henry, as to priority 
of invention, and on account of the infringement of 
Morse’s patent. Died, 1872. 

Morton, Levi Parsons, American banker and states¬ 
man, Vice-President of the United States, 1889-93; born 
in Shoreham, Vt., May 16, 1824; graduated from 
Shoreham Academy (LL. D., Dartmouth College, 1881, 
Middlebury College, 1882); founded banking houses of 
L. P. Morton & Company and Morton, Bliss & Company, 
New York; Morton, Rose & Company, Morton, Chaplin 
& Company, London, and Morton Trust Company, New 
York; member Congress from New York, 1879-81; 
United States minister to France, 1881-85; governor 
of New York, 1895-96. 

Moses, a great Hebrew; prophet and legislator, and 
son of Amram of the Levitical tribe, was born in Egypt, 
about 1570 B. C. In pursuance of a royal command 
that all male infants of Hebrew birth should be destroyed, 
Moses, to escape this fate, was laid in a basket among a 
clump of bulrushes on the banks of the Nile, and there 
discovered by the daughter of Pharaoh, who adopted 
him as her son. When arrived at a ripe manhood, 
Moses began to form plans for the deliverance of his race 
from bondage, and incurring, by so doing, Egyptian 
mistrust, he fled to Midian, where he served as a shep- 
herd till his 80th year. Then he is said to have been the 
recipient of the Lord’s commands to guide the children 
of Israel out of captivity into the Land of Canaan. He 
accordingly conducted them through the Red Sea into 
the wilderness, and became their apostolic chief and 
lawyer, composing for them the code since known as the 
Mosaic Dispensation.” After appointing Joshua as his 



BIOGRAPHY 


469 


successor, Moses died on Mount Pisgah, at the patri¬ 
archal age of 120. 

Motley, John Lothrop, an American historian; 
born in Massachusetts in 1814, and graduated at Har¬ 
vard College in 1831, after which he traveled for 
some years in Europe. In 1841, he became secretary 
of legation at St. Petersburg; was minister-plenipo¬ 
tentiary at Vienna from 1861 till 1867; and in 1869 
was appointed American minister to the court of St. 
James, a post from which he was removed in 1870. The 
three great works upon which Motley has built up one 
of the foremost literary reputations of the age, are “The 
Rise of the Dutch Republic — a History,” its sequel, 
“The History of the United Netherlands from the Death 
of William the Silent to the Synod of Dort,” and “John 
of Barneveld”; all of which have been translated into 
the French, Dutch, and German languages. Died in 
England in 1877. 

Moulton, Louise Chandler, novelist and poet; born 
in Pomfret, Conn., April 10, 1835; daughter of Lucius 
L. and Louisa R. (Clark) Chandler. Author: “This, 
That, and the Other,” “Juno Clifford,” “My Third 
Book,” “Bed-Time Stories,” “More Bed-Time Stories,” 
"Some Women’s Hearts,” “Swallow Flights,” poems; 
“New Bed-Time Stories,” “Random Rambles,” “Fire¬ 
light Stories,” “Ourselves and Our Neighbors,” “Miss 
Eyre From Boston, and Other Stories,” “ In the Garden 
of Dreams,” “Stories Told at Twilight,” “Lazy Tours 
in Spain and Elsewhere,” “In Childhood’s Country,” 
“At the Wind’s Will.” Edited: “Garden Secrets,” 
“A Last Harvest,” by Philip Bourke Marston; “Col¬ 
lected Poems of Philip Bourke Marston,” “Selections 
from Poems of Arthur O’Shaughnessy.” Died, 1908. 

Moulton, Richard Green, educator, author; born 
in Preston, Eng., May 5, 1849; graduated from London 
University, 1869; Cambridge, Eng., University, 1874 
(Ph. D., University of Pennsylvania, 1891); Cambridge 
university extension lecturer in literature, 1874-90. Now 
professor of literary theory and interpretation, Univer¬ 
sity of Chicago. Author: “Shakespere as a Dramatic 
Artist, a Study of Inductive Literary Criticism,” “The 
Ancient Classical Drama, a Study of Literary Evolution,” 
“Four Years of Novel Reading—Account of an Experi¬ 
ment in the Study of Fiction,” “The Literary Study of 
the Bible," “A Short Introduction to the Literature of 
the Bible,” “The Moral System of Shakespere.” Editor: 
“The Modern Reader’s Bible,” twenty-one volumes, 
1895-98. 

Moultrie, William, an American Revolutionary 
general, born in South Carolina in 1731; was the recip¬ 
ient of the thanks of Congress for his heroic defense of 
the fort on Sullivan’s Island, Charleston Harbor, since 
called by his name. In 1785, he became governor of 
his native State, and died in 1805. 

Moxom, Philip Stafford, clergyman; born in 
Canada, 1848; ordained to ministry, 1871. Pastor of 
First Baptist Church, Cleveland, O., 1879-85; First 
Baptist Church, Boston, 1885-93; South Congregational 
Church, Springfield, Mass., since March, 1894. Author: 
“The Aim of Life,” “From Jerusalem to Nicsea: The 
Church in the First Three Centuries,” “The Religion of 
Hope,” also numerous articles in periodicals. 

Mozart, Johann ChrysostomWolfgang Amadeus, 
German composer, was born in Salzburg in 1756; com¬ 
posed some pieces at the age of five, when he was taken 
to Munich, and performed with his sister before the 
elector of Bavaria. In 1763, the children went on a 
tour to all the principal German towns, as well as Brus¬ 
sels and Paris, and in April, 1764, gave concerts in 
London. On his return to Salzburg in 1769, Mozart 
became director of the archbishop’s concerts, and soon 
after made a tour in Italy, after his return from which, 
in 1781, he settled in Vienna. Here, in his 25th year, 
he wrote “ Idomeneo ” on the occasion of the first 
rejection of his suit to Constance Weber, whom he 
married in 1782. “ L’Enlevement du Serail” was com¬ 

posed in 1782, “Nozze di Figaro” in 1786, “Don 
Giovanni ” in 1787, “ Die Zauberflote ” and “ La Clemenza 
di Tito” in 1791, and the “Requiem” on his death¬ 
bed, in addition to which he produced many masses, 
symphonies, concertos, etc. Died, 1791. 

Muir, John, geologist, naturalist, born in Scotland, 
1838; educated in Scotland and at University of Wiscon¬ 
sin. Discovered Muir glacier, Alaska; visited the Arctic 
regions on the United States steamer Corwin in search of 
the DeLong expedition; has devoted many years to 
cause of forest preservation. Member of many learned 
societies. Traveled in Asia, Australasia, South America 
and Africa. Author: “The Mountains of California,” 
“Our National Parks,” "Stickeen, the Story of a Dog,” 
“My First Summer in the Sierra,” and many scientific 
articles, 


Mtiller, Friedrich Max, philologist; born in Dessau 
in 1823; son of a German poet, Wilhelm Muller; edu¬ 
cated at Leipzig; studied at Paris, and came to England 
in 1846; was appointed Taylorian professor at Oxford 
in 1854, and in 1868, professor of comparative philology 
there, a science to which he has made large contributions; 
besides editing the “Rig-Veda,” he published “Lec¬ 
tures on the Science of Language,” and “Chips from a 
German Workshop,” dealing therein not merely with 
the origin of languages, but that of the early religious 
and social systems of the East. Died in 1900. 

Munsey, Frank Andrew, publisher; born in Mercer, 
Me., August 21, 1854; educated in public schools in 
Maine; unmarried; started business career in country 
store; became manager Western Union Telegraph office, 
Augusta, Me.; went to New York, 1882, and started 
“The Golden Argosy,” juvenile weekly (now the adult 
monthly, “The Argosy”); in February, 1889, launched 
“Munsey’s Weekly,” converted October, 1891, into 
“Munsey’s Magazine”; now also owns “The All-Story 
Magazine,” the “Washington Times,” the “Boston 
Journal,” and several other publications. Author: 
“Afloat in a Great City,” “The Boy Broker,” “ATragedy 
of Errors,” “Under Fire,” “Derringforth.” 

Munsterberg, Hugo, professor of psychology, Har¬ 
vard, since 1892; born in Danzig, Germany, June 1, 1863; 
graduated from Danzig Gymnasium, 1882; post-gradu¬ 
ate studies in philosophy, natural sciences, and medicine 
in Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1882-87 (Ph. D., Leipzig, 
1885; M. D., Heidelberg, 1887; LL. D., Washington 
University, 1904); instructor University of Freiburg, 
Germany, 1887; assistant professor same, 1891. Author: 
“Psychology and Life,” “Grundzuege der Psychologie,” 
also other works in German, “American Traits,” “The 
Americans,” “Principles of Art Education,” “Eternal 
Life.” 

Murfree, Mary Noailles (“Charles Egbert Crad¬ 
dock”), author; born in Murfreesboro, Tenn., January 
24, 1850; for years concealed her identity and sex under 
her pen-name. Author: “ In the Tennessee Mountains,” 
“Where the Battle was Fought,” “Down the Ravine,” 
“The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountain,” “In the 
Clouds,” “The Story of Keedon Bluffs,” “The Despot 
of Broomsedge Cove,” “In the ‘Stranger-People’s’ Coun¬ 
try,” “His Vanished Star,” “The Phantoms of the Foot¬ 
bridge,” “The Mystery of Witchface Mountain,” “The 
Juggler,” “The Young Mountaineers,” “The Story of 
Old Fort Loudon,” “The Bushwhackers and Other 
Stories,” “The Champion,” “A Spectre of Power,” 
“Storm Centre,” “The Frontiersman.” 

Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, born in 1617; Span¬ 
ish painter, pupil of Juan del Castillo; after living in 
great poverty, made the acquaintance of Velasquez, 
who introduced him to the Escorial. He made a repu¬ 
tation by his pictures in the “ Claustro Chico ” of the 
Seville Franciscan Convent, and afterwards painted 
Madonnas and holy families, his “chef-d’oeuvre” being 
“The Immaculate Conception.” now in the Louvre. 
Murillo died (1682) from the effects of a fall from scaf¬ 
folding when engaged on a picture of “The Espousals 
of St. Catherine.” 

Murray, James Stuart, Earl of, regent of Scotland; 
born in 1533; was a natural son of King James V. Dur¬ 
ing the early part of the reign of his half-sister, Mary, 
Queen of Scots, he became her chief minister, and after 
her deposition was appointed to the regency. Assas¬ 
sinated, January, 1570. 

Nansen, Fridtjof, born near Christiania, Norway, 
about 1861; made his first Arctic exploration in 1882, 
followed by a second in 1888-89, when he crossed 
Greenland; from 1893 to 1896, was engaged in his 
famous expedition in the “Fram,” when he penetrated 
farther north than any of his predecessors. Was professor 
of zoology at Christiania University; took an active part, 
1905, in effecting separation of Norway from Sweden, 
and was Norwegian ambassador to England, 1906-08. 

Napoleon I. was born in 1769, in Ajaccio, being the 
second son of Charles Bonaparte, a Corsican advocate. 
He was educated at Brienne, entered the French Army 
in 1785, and first became notable for his conduct at the 
siege of Toulon in 1793, when he commanded the artillery. 
Two years later he led the troops of the Convention against 
the Sections, and in 1796, soon after his first marriage, 
received the command of the army of Italy. After his 
great successes in this war, he in May, 1798, set out for 
Egypt, where he defeated the Mamelukes and invaded 
Syria, but was checked at Acre. Having left Egypt 
secretly he reached France in October, 1799, overthrew 
the Directory, and became first consul. He now again 
invaded Italy, and made peace with Austria and England 
in 1801 and 1802, reconstructing the German Empire 
in the interests of France, while he also concluded a con¬ 
cordat with the pope, and remodeled the French con- 




470 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


stitution and legal system. War broke out again with 
England in 1803, and Austria in 1805. He crushed the 
latter at Ulm and Austerlitz, but failed in his designs 
on the former. Next year Prussia was conquered at 
Jena and Auerstadt, and in 1807, after an indecisive 
campaign, the Peace of Tilsit was made with Russia. 
The continental system was now organized against Eng¬ 
land, and the crown of Spain given to Joseph Bonaparte. 
The second great attempt of Austria ended with the de¬ 
feat of Wagram (1809); after which Napoleon divorced 
Josephine Beauharnais, and married Maria Louisa, 
daughter of the emperor. Meanwhile, however, in the 
Iberian Peninsula, the French arms had been held in 
check, and a breach with Russia occurred in 1812, the 
results of which were the invasion of that country, the 
disastrous retreat of the Grand Army and the rising of 
Germany. After the battle of Leipzig, France was in¬ 
vaded from east and south, and on April 11, 1814, Na¬ 
poleon abdicated, and was banished to Elba. Next year 
he escaped, held France at his feet, but after a hundred 
days met his final defeat at Waterloo (June 18, 1815). 
He passed the rest of his life in exile at St. Helena, where 
he dictated his “Memoirs.” Died, 1821. 

Napoleon III., born in 1808; the third son of Louis 
Bonaparte, King of Holland, and Hortense de Beau¬ 
harnais; became head of the house after the death of his 
elder brothers and of the King of Rome, and in 1836, 
made a first attempt to assert his claims, the result of 
which was exile to the United States. In 1840, he made 
another attempt, for which he was imprisoned in the 
castle of Ham, whence he escaped to England in May, 
1846. He was elected to the Assembly in 1848, and soon 
after became president of the republic. After the coup 
d’etat of December, 1851, his term of office was prolonged 
to ten years, and less than a year later a plebiscite was 
held, and Louis Napoleon became Emperor of the French. 
He joined England in the Crimean War, and in 1859 (the 
year after his life was attempted by Orsini), helped 
Sardinia against the Austrians, and also took part in the 
operations against China (1858-60), and Mehemet Ali 
(1860-61), but he failed in Mexico in 1861, and his govern¬ 
ment becoming increasingly unpopular in France, he 
sought a remedy in the quarrel with Prussia. The re¬ 
sult was his defeat and capture at Sedan (September 1-2, 
1870), after which he was deposed, and on his release 
lived in England till his death. Napoleon III. was the 
author of several works, the chief of which are “ LaVie 
de Cesar,” and “Des Idees Napoleonmennes.” Died, 
1873. 

Neander, Johann August Wilhelm, born in 1789 
(David Mendel); German theologian of Jewish parentage, 
rofessor of theology at Berlin. Many of his works have 
een translated, the chief of them being “History of the 
Christian Religion and Church,” “Life of Jesus Christ,” 
and “The Emperor Julian and his Age.” Died, 1850. 

Nebuchadnezzar succeeded his father, Nabopo- 
lassar, as King of Babylon, and after taking Jerusalem, 
in 606 B. C., carried off to Babylon numerous captives, 
among them the prophet Daniel who tells much about 
him in the book of Daniel. He afterwards conquered 
Tyre and Egypt. Died, 562 B. C. 

Necho, one of the Pharaoh Dynasty of Egyptian kings, 
succeeded his father, Psammetichus, in 610 B. C., de¬ 
feated Josiah, King of Judah, and was himself defeated 
by Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, in 605. 

Needham, Charles Willis, educator; born in Castile, 
N. Y., September 30, 1848; graduate of Albany 

Law School, 1869 (LL. D., University of Rochester, 
Georgetown College. Kentucky); practiced law in 
Chicago, 1874-90, Washington 1890-97; assisted in 
organizing Chicago University and was one of board 
of trustees; elected professor of law, 1897, organized, 
and elected dean, school of comparative jurisprudence 
and diplomacy, 1898, president, 1902-10, The George 
Washington University (formerly Columbian). Lecturer 
upon legal ethics, constitutional law, trusts and trades 
unions. Member of American Economic Association, and 
many other learned and educational societies. Delegate 
to Congres International de Droit Compare, 1900; dele¬ 
gate to Congres International des Chemins de Fer; dele¬ 
gate Congrks International D’Assitance Publique et de 
Bienfaisance Priv^e, Paris; speaker upon jurisprudence, 
congress of arts and sciences, St. Louis Exposition, 1904. 
Author of several pamphlets on education, law, and 
jurisprudence; contributor to periodicals. 

Neilson, Adelaide, an English actress; born in Leeds, 
Yorkshire, England, March 3, 1848. Her real name was 
Elizabeth Ann Brown, though she was sometimes called 
Lizzie Bland (Bland being the name of her step-father). 
She made her debut as Juliet when only 17 years old. 
She appeared as Amv Robsart in 1870, in London, with 
immense success, ana by 1878 stood at the head of her 


profession. In 1872, she came to the United States, 
playing in Booth’s theater, New York, and in Boston, 
where she was equally successful. She made four visits 
to the United States, her last one being in 1880. She 
died in Paris, France, August 15, 1880. 

Nelson, Horatio, Viscount, born in 1758; English 
admiral, son of a Norfolk clergyman; entered the navy 
in 1770, served in the American War, and under Lord 
Hood in the war with revolutionary France, becoming 
commodore in 1796, and rear-admiral after the battle of 
Cape St. Vincent, 1797. In the following year he won 
the battle of the Nile, for which he was made baron, and 
in 1801, brilliantly disobeyed Sir Hyde Parker, by at¬ 
tacking Copenhagen. After this he commanded in the 
Mediterranean, and on October 21, 1805, saved England 
from invasion by his defeat of the combined French and 
Spanish fleets at Trafalgar, but fell in the action. 

Nepos, Cornelius, a Roman historian who flourished 
during the time of Julius Caisar and the first six years of 
the reign of Augustus. He enjoyed the friendship of 
Cicero, and his only extant work “Vitae Excellentium 
Imperatorum,” is held in high esteem as an educational 
classbook. 

Nero, Lucius Domitius, born in 37; Emperor of 
Rome, grandson of Germanicus; was adopted by Clau¬ 
dius in the year 50, and succeeded him in 54. He caused 
his mother, Agrippina, to be murdered for opposing his 
divorce from Octavia and marriage with Poppaea Sabina, 
this being accomplished by the murder of the former. 
He persecuted the Christians, whom he charged with the 
burning of Rome in 64, and married Messalina after the 
death of his second wife. The conspiracy of Piso was 
discovered, but on the success of that of Galba, Nero put 
an end to his life. 

Nerva, Marcus Cocceius, a Roman Emperor, born 
in Umbria, A. D. 32; after being twice consul, was pro¬ 
claimed emperor on the death of Domitian, 96. He 
ruled with mildness and justice, and, after adopting Tra¬ 
jan as his son and successor, died, 98. 

Newcomb, Simon, astronomer; born in Wallace, 
N. S. f March 12, 1835; came to United States, 1853; 
graduate of Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard, B. S., 
1858. Appointed, 1861, professor of mathematics, 
LTnited States Navy; assigned to duty at United States 
Naval Observatory; professor in mathematics and astron¬ 
omy, Johns Hopkins, 1884-94, and editor “American 
Journal Mathematics.” In 1874 made correspondent, 
and in 1893, one of the eight foreign associates, institute 
of France; made officer of Legion of Honor of France, 
1893. Author: “Secular Variations and Mutual Rela¬ 
tions of the Orbits of the Asteroids,” “Investigation of 
the Orbit of Neptune,” “Researches on the Motion of 
the Moon,” “Popular Astronomy,” “Calculus,” “A Plain 
Man’s Talk on the Labor Question,” “Principles of 
Political Economy,” “Elements of Astronomy,” “His 
Wisdom the Defender,” “The Stars,” “Astronomy for 
Everybody,” “Reminiscences of an Astronomer,” also 
various other books on astronomy and economic topics, 
magazine articles, etc. Died, 1909. 

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal, born in 1801; 
theologian, son of a London banker; graduated from 
Trinity College, Oxford, in 1820, and was elected Fellow 
of Oriel. He took orders in 1824, in 1825 became vice¬ 
principal of St. Alban’s Hall, and in 1828, became vicar 
of St. Mary’s. He took a leading part in the Tractarian 
movement, and in 1841, wrote “Tract XC.,” which was 
severely condemned. After living at Littlemore for 
some years in seclusion, he was received into the Roman 
Church, in 1845; founded the Brompton oratory in 1850, 
and directed the Edgbaston oratory for the greater part 
of his remaining years. He took part in controversies 
with Kingsley in 1864, and with Gladstone in 1874, and 
accepted the Infallibility dogma with some reservations. 
He was created cardinal in 1879. Chief among his works 
were “Apologia pro Vita Sua, An Essay in Aid of a Gram¬ 
mar of Assent,” and “The Dream of Gerontius.” Died, 
1890. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers, 
was born, December 25, 1642, at Woolsthorpe, in Lin¬ 
colnshire, and early displayed a talent for mechanics and 
drawing. He was educated at Grantham School, and at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics 
with the utmost assiduity. In 1667, he obtained a fel¬ 
lowship; in 1669, the mathematical professorship; and 
in 1672, he became a member of the Royal Society. It 
was during his abode at Cambridge that he made his 
three great discoveries, fluxions, the nature of light 
and colors, and the laws of gravitation. To the 
last of these his attention was first turned by his 
seeing an apple fall from a tree. The “ Principia,” which 
unfolded to the world the theory of the universe, was not 
published till 1687. In that year also Newton was chosen 
one of the delegates to defend the privileges of the 




BIOGRAPHY 


471 


university against James II.; and in 1689 and 1701 he 
was elected one of the members of parliament for the 
university. He was appointed warden of the mint in 
1696; was made master of it in 1699; was chosen presi¬ 
dent of the Royal Society in 1703; and was knighted in 
1705. He died, March 20, 1727. Among his works are: 
“Arithmetica Universalis,” ‘‘A New Method of Infinite 
Series and Fluxions,” “Optics,” “The Chronology of 
Ancient Kingdoms,” amended; and “Observations on 
the Prophecies of Daniel,” and the “Apocalypse.” 

Ney, Michel, peer and marshal of France; born in 
Saarlouis, 1769, son of a cooper; entered the army as a 
private hussar in 1788; distinguished by his bravery 
in the wars of the Revolution and the Empire, and earned 
for himself from the army under Napoleon, and from 
Napoleon himself, the title, “ Brave of^the braves ”; on 
Napoleon’s abdication in 1814 he attached himself to 
Louis XVIII., but on Napoleon’s return from Elba 
Ney joined his old master, and stood by him during the 
hundred days; on the second Restoration he was arrested, 
tried by his peers, and shot in 1815. 

Nicholas II., who on November 1, 1894, succeeded 
Alexander III. as “Emperor of All the Russias,” was 
born in St. Petersburg on May 18, 1868, his mother 
being the Princess Dagmar, a daughter of King 
Christian IX. of Denmark, and sister to Queen Alexandra, 
the Duchess of Cumberland, and George V. of Greece. 
During the famine of 1891, he was, at his own request, 
made president of the committee of succor, and worked 
hard in the organization of relief. As Czarevitch he held 
several military commands in his own country — in the 
famous Preobrajensky regiment among others — and 
in England he had conferred upon him, in 1893, the order 
of the garter. He married the Princess Alix of Hesse- 
Darmstadt in November, 1894. Four daughters came 
first, but a son was born on August 12, 1904, and w r as 
named Alexis. The coronation of the czar took place with 
impressive ceremonial at Moscow in May, 1896, and in 
August of the same year he commenced a tour which 
included visits to the Emperors of Austria and Germany, 
to the King of Denmark, to Queen Victoria, and to the 
President of France. The famous peace proposals which 
he made to the powers during 1898 led to the first peace 
conference at The Hague in 1899, the establishment of 
the Permanent Court of Arbitration there, and indirectly 
to the second conference in 1907. He is gifted with the 
linguistic facility of most of his countrymen, and fluently 
speaks French, German, Italian, and especially English, 
of whose literature he has a thorough knowledge. The 
czar must belong to the Orthodox Greek Church, and his 
consent is necessary to the marriage of any prince or 
princess of the Imperial family. 

Nicholas V., “Da Sarzana” born in 1398, was elected 
pope in 1447 (the abdication of the anti-pope, two years 
later, bringing to an end the “Great Schism”), and 
defeated the conspiracy of Porcari in 1452. He was a 
great scholar, was chief founder of the Vatican library, 
and of several Italian universities, and offered an asylum 
to the Greeks driven out of Constantinople. Died, 1455. 

Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, historian and philol¬ 
ogist, was born in Copenhagen, in 1776, but in 
1806 entered the Prussian service, and became privy 
councilor. He was several years minister at Rome, and 
negotiated the concordat of 1821. In 1823, he obtained 
a chair at Bonn, and his “Roman History” ap¬ 
peared in enlarged form in 1827. It was translated by 
Hare and Thirlwall. He was also author of a 
work on the Byzantine historians and of other works, and 
discovered at Verona the fragments of Gaius. Died, 
at Bonn, Prussia, 1831. 

Niehaus, Charles Henry, sculptor; born in Cin¬ 
cinnati, January 24, 1855; educated at Cincinnati 
schools; art education at Royal Academy, Munich, Ger¬ 
many; took degree and won first medal ever given to 
American, and prizes at different times. Made Garfield 
statue, Cincinnati; Ingalls, Allen, Garfield, and Morton, 
in rotunda of Capitol, Washington; statues of Gibbon 
and Moses, Congressional Library, Hahnemann at Scott 
Circle, Washington; Astor historical doors, Trinity 
Church, New York; pediment to appellate court-house, 
New York; statues of Hooker and Davenport, Conn. 
State House; statue to Drake, erected by Standard Oil 
Company, at Titusville, Pa.; two large groups, “Mineral 
Wealth,” Pan-American Exposition, 1901; statues of 
Lincoln, Farragut, and McKinley, Muskegon, Mich.; 
Lincoln, Buffalo; Apotheosis of St. Louis for St. Louis 
Exposition; equestrian, General Forrest, Memphis, Tenn. 

Nielsen, Alice, opera singer; born in Nashville, 
Tenn., 1876; daughter of Erasmus Ivarius and Sarah A. 
Nielsen; musical education in San Francisco, under 
Mile. Ida Valerga; first stage appearance with opera 
company at Oakland, Cal., 1893, as Yum Yum in 
“Mikado”; after Tivoli engagement, joined the Bos¬ 


tonians, 1896, and took the role of Annabel in “ Robin 
Hood,” the following season played leading part of 
Maid Marion; also principal soprano role in “The Ser¬ 
enade.” Stellar debut at Grand Opera House, Toronto, 
Canada, September 14, 1898, in “The Fortune Teller.” 

Nightingale, Florence, was born in Florence in 
1820, and, in 1851, entered an institution of sisters of 
mercy at Kaiserswerth. On November 4, 1854, she 
arrived with a corps of women at Scutari, and brought 
the hospital there to a high state of efficiency. A tes¬ 
timonial was offered her but declined. She wrote 
“Notes on Hospitals,” “Notes on Nursing,” and other 
works. Died, 1910. 

Nilsson, Christine, an operatic singer, born in 
Sweden, 1843; daughter of a peasant, and one of the 
foremost sopranos of her day; distinguished for her 
dramatic talent no less than for her powers as a vocalist. 
Her husband died, 1882, and she was again married in 
1887. 

Nimrod, a grandson of Ham, is supposed to have 
been the founder of Babylon, and also the first king 
and the first conqueror. In the Scripture he is called 
“a mighty hunter before the Lord.” 

Ninus, the supposed founder of the Assyrian mon¬ 
archy, and builder of the city of Nineveh, flourished 
about 2000 B. C., and was husband of the famous 
Semiramis. 

Nixon, Lewis, shipbuilder; born in Leesburg,_ Va., 
April 7, 1861; early education in Leesburg; appointed 
midshipman, United States Navy, 1878; graduate of 
United States Naval Academy, 1882, at head of class, 
and sent to Royal Naval College, Greenwich, England, 
by navy department; transferred to construction corps 
of navy, 1884; in 1890, designed battle-ships “Oregon,” 
“Indiana,” and “Massachusetts,” and then resigned 
from navy to become superintending constructor of 
Cramp shipyard, Philadelphia; resigned, 1895, and 
started Crescent shipyard, Elizabeth, N. J., on his own 
account, where he has built 100 vessels in six years, 
among others the sub-marine torpedo-boat, “Holland,” 
monitor “Florida,” torpedo-boat “O’Brien,” and cruiser 
“ Chattanooga.” Appointed by Mayor Van Wyck presi¬ 
dent of East River Bridge Commission, January, 1898; 
appointed, 1902, New York commissioner to Louisiana 
Purchase Exposition, St. Louis; trustee of Webb’s 
Academy and home for shipbuilders; Democrat (Tam¬ 
many Hall); succeeded Richard Croker as leader of 
Tammany Hall, November, 1901, to May, 1902; chair¬ 
man of finance committee, Democratic congressional 
campaign committee, 1902. Has been received.in special 
audiences by the king of England, the pope,'and Emperor 
Nicholas of Russia. Appointed by President Taft dele¬ 
gate to the 4th Pan-American conference, Buenos Ayres, 
1910, and envoy extraordinary and minister plenipoten¬ 
tiary on special mission to represent United States at 
Chilian centenary, 1910. 

Noah, an eminent patriarch, the ninth in descent 
after Adam, was born about 2950 B. C. He was 
600 years old when the grand deluge destroyed all 
the human race except himself and his family, who were 
saved in the ark, and entered into a new and everlasting 
covenant. Died at the age of 950 years. 

Nordica, Lillian (Mrs. G. W.. Young), prima donna; 
born (Lillian Norton) in Farmington, Me., in 1859; 
musical education in New England Conservatory, by 
John O’Neill, and with San Giovanni, Milan, Italy; 
married, first, to Mr. Gower; second, to Herr Dome; 
third, to G. W. Young. Operatic debut, Brescia, Italy, 
in “La Traviata”; appeared in London, 1887, and in 
Paris, St. Petersburg, and other European capitals. 
Repertoire embraces forty operas and all the standard 
oratorios; best known in Wagnerian parts. 

North, Frederick, Earl of Guilford, commonly 
known as Lord North; statesman; born in 1732, of 
the same family as first earl; became chancellor of 
the exchequer in 1767, and from 1770 to 1782, was 
prime minister, after which he formed a coalition with 
Fox, and was joint secretary with him for a few months. 
He was the favorite minister of George III., but towards 
the end of his administration wished to conclude peace 
with the colonies. Died, 1792. 

North, Simon Newton Dexter, journalist, statis¬ 
tician; born in Clinton, N. Y., November 29, 1849; 
graduate of Hamilton College, 1869. Managing editor 
“Utica Morning Herald,” 1869-86; president of New 
York State Associated Press, 1885-86; editor and joint 
proprietor of “Albany Express,” 1886-88. Secretary 
of National Association of Wool Manufacturers, 1888- 
1903. Appointed member of United States Industrial 
Commission by President McKinley, 1898; resigned, 
1899, to accept position of chief statistician for manu¬ 
factures, twelfth census; appointed, April, 1903, di- 




472 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


rector United States census; resigned, 1909. Author: 
“An American Textile Glossary,” “A History of the 
American Wool Manufacture,” “Old Greek, an Old Time 
Professor in an Old-Fashioned College”; also numerous 
pamphlets and lectures on economical, industrial, and 
educational subjects. 

Norton, Charles Eliot, professor of history of art, 
Harvard, 1874-98; professor emeritus, 1898-1908; 
born in Cambridge, Mass., November 16, 1827; grad¬ 
uate of Harvard, 1846 (Litt. D., Cambridge, England, 
1884; L. H. D., Columbia, 1885; LL. £)., Harvard, 
1887, Yale, 1901; hon. D. C. L., Oxford University, 
England, 1900). Entered commercial office in Boston, 
1846; went as supercargo on East Indian voyage, 1849; 
later made several trips to Europe. Known as a Dante 
scholar and an authority on art. Author: “Consider¬ 
ations on Some Recent Social Theories,” “Historical 
Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages,” “Notes 
of Travel and Study in Italy.” Editor: “North Amer¬ 
ican Review,” 1862-68; “Letters of James Russell 
Lowell,” “Writings of George William Curtis,” “Corre¬ 
spondence of Carlyle and Emerson, and of Goethe and 
Carlyle,” “ Reminiscences and Letters of Thomas Car¬ 
lyle,” “Letters of John Ruskin.” Translator of Dante’s 
“Vita Nuova” and “Divina Commedia.” Died, 1908. 

O’Connell, Daniel, born in Kerry in 1775; educated 
at St. Omer and Douay, and was called to the bar in 
1798. His agitation for removing the political disabil¬ 
ities of the Roman Catholics culminated in 1828, when 
he was elected for Clare, but not allowed to take his 
seat. Amidst great excitement the Catholic Emancipa¬ 
tion Bill was passed in. 1829. He first demanded the 
repeal of the Union in 1841. After holding several 
monster meetings in Ireland, he was arrested, fined, and 
imprisoned, but this judgment was reversed by the 
House of Lords. O’Connell was opposed to the use of 
physical force, and discountenanced the Chartists and 
the “ Young Ireland ” party. He died in Genoa in 1847. 

Odell, Benjamin B., Jr., governor of New York, 
1901-05; born in Newburgh, N. Y., January 14, 1854; 
educated in public schools, Bethany (W. Va.) College, 
and three years at Columbia College; engaged in bank¬ 
ing, electric lighting, and commercial enterprises in New¬ 
burgh, New York. Member of Republican State Com¬ 
mittee 1884-96; chairman of executive committee, 
1898-1900. Member of Congress, 1895-99. Chairman 
of Committee on Accounts, 55th Congress, and later 
chairman of Republican State Committee, New York. 

Odoacer, a Herule or Rugian chieftain, after attack¬ 
ing and slaying the patrician Orestes, and deposing his 
son, the Emperor Romulus Augustulus (476), ruled 
Italy as patrician under the Eastern Emperor Zeno, 
but was practically an independent sovereign. He was 
overthrown by Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, who 
put him to death in 493. 

Oglethorpe, James Edward, born in 1696; English 
general, served under Marlborough and Eugene; in 
1733, founded the colony of Georgia, which he named 
after George II.; returned to England in 1743, and held 
a command against the Jacobites (1745). Died, 1785. 

Ohm, Georg Simon, born in 1787; German man of 
science; discovered “Ohm’s law” of electricity, by 
which the intensity of a current is stated in terms of 
the electro-motive force and the resistance of the circuit. 
Died, 1854. 

Oku, General Count, was born in 1845, and has 
seen about forty years’ service with the Japanese army. 
In 1877, when he had attained the rank of major, he 
greatly distinguished himself at the siege of Kumamoto 
Castle by the Satsuma insurgents, cutting his way out 
and opening communication with the relieving army. 
When the war broke out with China in 1894, he was 
given the command of a division in the Manchurian 
campaign, and received his title of nobility in recognition 
of his great services. His knowledge of the ground, 
and his capacity, marked him out for service in the war 
with Russia, and he commanded the second army, 
which landed on the east coast of the Liao-tung Penin¬ 
sula in May, 1904, won the brilliant victory at Kinchau, 
and did splendid service in the subsequent fighting in 
Manchuria. Count, 1907. 

Olaf, St., a Norwegian king; wrested the throne 
from Eric, and set himself to propagate Christianity by 
fire and sword; excited disaffection among his people, 
who rebelled and overpowered him with the assistance 
of Cnut of Denmark, so that he fled to his brother-in- 
law, Jaroslav of Russia; by his help he tried to recover 
the throne, but was defeated and slain, his body being 
buried in Trondhjem; he was canonized in 1164, and is 
patron saint of Norway. 

Olcott, “ Chauneey ” (Chancellor John Olcott), 
singer and actor; born in Buffalo, July 21, 1860; edu¬ 
cated in Buffalo common schools; brought out as singer 


by late R. M. Hooley, 1880. With Hooley’s company 
two years, then consecutively with Haverly’s company, 
Carncross Minstrels, Denman Thompson, Duff’s Opera 
Company for several seasons; sang two years in England 
in comic opera, then succeeded W. J. Scanlan as star 
in Irish musical dramas; has since appeared in various 
leading roles in United States and England. 

OIney, Richard, ex-United States attorney-general, 
ex-United States secretary of state; born in Oxford, 
Mass., September 15, 1835; graduate of Brown, 1856; 
Harvai'd Law School, 1858; (LL. D., Harvard, Brown, 
Yale). Admitted to bar, 1859; practiced law in Boston 
(serving in Massachusetts Legislature, 1874) till ap¬ 
pointed United States attorney-general by President 
Cleveland, serving from March 6, 1893, to June 9, 1895, 
and from June 10, 1895, until March 4, 1897, as secre¬ 
tary of state, United States. Resumed practice of law. 

Omar Khayyam ( o'mur ky-ya'm ), astronorner-poet 
of Persia, born in Nishapur, in Khorassan; lived in 
the latter half of the Eleventh Century, and died in the 
first quarter of the Twelfth. He wrote a collection of 
poems which breathe an Epicurean spirit, and while 
they occupy themselves with serious problems of life, 
do so with careless sportiveness, intent on the enjoy¬ 
ment of the sensuous pleasures of life, like an easy¬ 
going Epicurean. The great problems of destiny do 
not ti'ouble the author, they are no concern of his, and 
the burden of his songs assuredly is, as his translator 
says, “ If not, ‘ let us eat, let us drink, for to-morrow 
we die.’ ” 

Oppenheim, Nathan, physician, medical author; 
born in Albany, N. Y., October 17, 1865; graduate of 
Harvard, 1888; College of Physicians and Surgeons 
(Columbia), 1891. Attending physician, children’s de¬ 
partment, New York Red Cross Hospital, and New 
York City Children’s Hospital and schools; specialty in 
diseases of childi'en. Author: “The Development of 
the Child,” “The Medical Diseases of Childhood,” “The 
Care of the Child in Health,” “Mental Growth and Con¬ 
trol.” Also various scientific essays. 

Opper, Frederick Burr, artist; born in Madison, 
Lake County, O., January 2, 1857; left school at 14; 
worked a year or more in the village newspaper office; 
went to New York and worked, in a store for a short 
time and then, having sold some humorous sketches to 
“Wild Oats” and other comic papers, went to drawing 
as a profession; on art staff of “Frank Leslie’s” three 
years; an artist of “Puck” eighteen years; severed 
connection with “Puck” to accept offer from “Hearst’s 
New York Journal,” May, 1899. Illustrator for Bill Nye, 
Mark Twain, Hobart (Dinkelspiel), Dunne (Dooley), etc. 
Author: “The Folks in Funnyville” (with his own 
verses and pictures), “Our Antediluvian Ancestors,” 
“Happy Hooligan,” “Alphonse and Gaston,” “John 
Bull,” “Happy Hooligan Home Again,” “Maud the 
Matchless.” 

Orange, Princes of, (1) Williarq I., “the Silent” 
born in 1533, son of William, Count of Nassau; inherited 
large domains in Brabant, Flanders, and Holland; was 
sent as a boy to the court of Charles V.; enjoyed the con¬ 
fidence of that emperor, but was distrusted by his son, 
Philip II. On learning the designs of Philip and Henri 
II. of France against the Protestants (1559), he deter¬ 
mined to espouse their cause. When the Duke of Alva 
arrived in the Low Countries (1567), he put himself 
at the head of the insurgents, and, after a protracted 
struggle, founded the republic of the Netherlands (1579) 
of which he was elected the first stadtholder. He was 
assassinated at Delft in 1584. (2) Maurice of Nassau, 
born in 1567, second son of the preceding; was one of 
the most skillful strategists of the age. Was appointed 
stadtholder of Holland in 1587, and soon afterwards of 
Utrecht, Overysesl, and Gueldres. The war with Spain 
was continued till 1609, after which the Dutch were able 
to maintain their independence. In 1619, Barneveldt, 
who accused Maurice of ambitious projects, was put to 
death. Maurice succeeded his elder brother as Prince 
of Orange (1618). Died, 1625. 

Oscar I., King of Sweden and Norway, son of Berna- 
dotte, born in Paris, reigned from 1844 to 1857. 

Oscar II., King of Sweden and Norway, son of 
preceding, succeeded his brother Charles XV. in 1872; 
has distinguished himself in literature by translating 
Goethe’s “Faust” into Swedish, and by a volume of 
minor poems under his “nomdeplume” Oscar Frederick; 
born in 1829; died, 1907. 

Osier, William, physician, educator, author; born 
in Tecumseh, Ont., 1849; graduate of McGill, 
Montreal, 1872; (LL. D., McGill, Toronto, University of 
Edinburgh, University of Aberdeen, Harvard, Yale; 
D. Sc., Oxford); professor of institutes of medicine, 
McGill University, 1874-84; professor of clinical medi¬ 
cine, University of Pennsylvania, 1884-89; professor of 



BIOGRAPHY 


473 


medicine, Johns Hopkins University, 1889-1905; Regius 
professor of medicine, Oxford University, since 1905. 
Author: “The Cerebral Palsies of Children,” “Chorea 
and Choreiform Affections,” “Lectures on Abdominal 
Tumors,” “Angina Pectoris and Allied States,” “The 
Principles and Practice of Medicine,” “Cancer of the 
Stomach,” “Science and Immortality” (Ingersoll 
lecture, Harvard University), “..Equanimitas, and 
Other Addresses.” 

Ossian ( osh'e-an ), a Celtic bard, supposed to have 
lived in Scotland or Ireland about fifteen hundred 
years ago. He was the son of Fingal, King of Morven, 
a famous hero, and was blind. Ossian’s poems are re¬ 
markable for their grandeur and wild beauty, and are 
very different from all other poetry. They have been 
published in nearly all European languages. 

Otto I., “the Great,” Emperor of the West, born in 
912, son of Henry the Fowder, was chosen King of Ger¬ 
many in 936; in 951 was summoned to aid the Italians 
against Berengar, and married Adelheid, widow of King 
Lothair; routed the Hungarians near Augsburg, in 955; 
in 962, was crowned Emperor at Rome by Pope John XII. 
He subsequently deposed John, and set up Leo VIII. in 
his stead. He extended his dominion over nearly the 
whole of Italy, reestablished the Western Empire, and 
made many reforms in church and state. Died, 973. 

Owen, Robert, the founder of socialism in England, 
was born of poor parents in Newtown, Montgomeryshire, 
1771. In 1800 he became owner of the New Lanark 
Cotton Factory, where he proceeded to put in practice 
his theories of a new system of society. He afterwards 
made unsuccessful attempts to establish communistic set¬ 
tlements at New Harmony in America (1825), and Har¬ 
mony Hall in Hampshire (1844). To his efforts may be 
traced the first factory legislation, the co-operative 
movement, and the establishment of infant schools. 
Died, 1858. 

Oxenstierna, Axel, Count, born in 1583, Swedish 
statesman, was made chancellor by Gustavus Adolphus 
in 1611; succeeded him as leader of the Protestant party 
in Germany (1632-35); acted as regent throughout the 
minority of Christina, and became her chief minister 
when she assumed the government (1644). Died, 1654. 

Oyama, Field-Marshal Prince, was bom in Kago- 
»shima, in 1842. Entered the Japanese Army, was ap¬ 
pointed colonel in 1871, promoted major-general in the 
same year, lieutenant-general in 1878, general in 1891, 
and in 1898, was raised to the rank of field-marshal. 
Having served as military attache on the Prussian side 
during the Franco-Prussian War, upon his return to 
Japan he entered the ministry of war, and assisted in the 
work of reorganising the army. In the Satsuma rebellion 
(1877) he took command of a brigade, and played a con¬ 
spicuous part in subduing the revolt. Afterwards he 
was appointed under-secretary, and subsequently minis¬ 
ter of war. When war broke out between Japan and 
China he was minister of war, but he took the field 
as commander of the second army, and captured 
Kinchow, Talienwan, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei. 
In 1904, Oyama was chief of the general staff, and when 
war broke out with Russia he was appointed commander- 
in-chief in Manchuria, defeating the Russians at the three 
great battles of Liao-Yang, the Shaho, and Mukden. He 
received the order of merit, February 21, 1906, and 
resigned his post as chief of the general staff in April. 
Received the first class of the order of the golden kite, 
December, 1906, Prince, 1907. His wife was educated in 
America, and took a degree. 

Paderewski, Lgnace Jan, famous pianist and com¬ 
poser, was born on November 6, 1860, in Podolia, a prov¬ 
ince of Russian Poland. He began to play the piano at 
the age of 3, and, when 7 years old, was placed under 
Pierre Lowinski, a local tutor. In 1872, he went to War¬ 
saw, learning harmony and counterpoint from Roguski, 
and subsequently from Frederick Kiel. He toured 
through Russia, Siberia, and Rumania, playing only his 
own compositions. In 1878, he became professor of 
music in Warsaw Conservatoire, and for a while, in 1884, 
he was a professor at Strasburg Conservatoire, but then 
definitely decided to try his fortune as a virtuoso. After 
three years’ study with Leschetizky, in Vienna, he made 
his debut in 1887 with instant success. He has toured 
Germany, Paris, London, and America. 

Page, Thomas Nelson, author; born in Oakland 
Plantation, Hanover County, Va., April 23, 1853; edu¬ 
cated at Washington and Lee (Litt. D.); graduate of law 
department of University of Virginia; Litt. D., Yale; 
practiced law in Richmond, Va., 1875—93; lecturer. 
Author: “In Ole Virginia,” “Two Little Confederates,” 
“On Newfound River,” “The Old South,” “Among the 
Camps,” “Elsket and Other Stories,” “Befo’de War” 
(with Armistead C. Gordon); “Pastime Stories,” “The 
Burial of the Guna,” “Uno’ Edinburg, Meh Lady,” 


“Mars Chan,” “Polly,” “Social Life in Old Virginia,” “The 
Old Gentleman of the Black Stock,” “Two Prisoners,” 
“Red Rock,” “Santa Claus’s Partner,” “A Captured 
Santa Claus,” “Gordon Keith,” “The Negro — The 
Southerner’s Problem.” 

Paine, John Knowles, professor of music, Harvard, 
1876-1906; born in Portland, Me., January 9, 1839; 
studied music under Hermann Kotzschmar there; made 
first appearance as organist, 1857; studied in Germany 
under fiaupt and others, 1858-61; made artistic tour 
there, 1866-67; instructor of music, Harvard, in 1862 
(A. M., Mus. D.). Composer of music to “ (Edipus Tyran- 
nus ” of Sophocles as performed in Greek at Cambridge, 
1881; spring symphony; symphony in C minor; sym¬ 
phonic poems; Shakespere’s “ Tempest ”; “ Island Fan¬ 
tasy,” overture to “As You Like It”; cantatas,Nativity 
and Song of Promise, choruses to “Birds” of Aristophanes; 
etc.; opera of Azara; “Centennial Hymn” to Whittier’s 
words, sung at opening of Philadelphia Exposition, 1876; 
Columbus march and hymn for World’s Columbian 
Exposition, 1893; Hymn of the West, words by Sted- 
man, sung at the opening of the St. Louis Exposition, 
1904; also mass, oratorio of St. Peter; cantatas, Realm 
of Fancy and Phoebus Arise, etc. Died, 1906. 

Paine, Thomas, a political writer; born in England, 
1737. In 1774 came to the United States, became editor 
of the “Pennsylvania Magazine”; issued his pamphlet, 
“Common Sense,” in which he advocated the independ¬ 
ence of the colonies. He went to Paris in 1787, and in 
1791-92 published in England his “Rights of Man”; in 
1792, elected a member of the French National Assembly, 
acting with the Girondists, and narrowly escaped the 
guillotine. While he was in France, appeared his deistical 
work, “The Age of Reason.” Returned to the United 
States in 1802. Died in New York, 1809. 

Paley, William, born in 1743, English theologian, 
professor of divinity at Cambridge, and archdeacon of 
Carlisle; wrote “Horse Paulinse,” “Natural Theology,” 
“Evidences of Christianity,” etc. Died, 1805. 

Palissy, Bernard (pah-le-se') , a famous French potter, 
chemist and enameler, was born near Agen, about 1510. 
The pottery made by Palissy, known as the Palissy 
ware, is much prized by collectors, and is distinguished 
for the high relief of the figures and ornaments. Died, 
1589. 

Palma, Tomas Estrada, Cuban patriot; born in 
Bayamo, Cuba; studied law at University of Seville, but 
never practiced. Took part in the Cuban revolution of 
1868-78, in the early part of which his mother had been 
captured and starved to death by the Spaniards. Her 
death made him heir to a vast estate, which the Span¬ 
iards confiscated. , He became President of Cuban 
Republic, but was captured, 1877, and imprisoned until 
hostilities ceased, 1878; then went to Honduras; became 
teacher and later postmaster-general; married a daugh¬ 
ter of President Guardiola. Came to the United States; 
settled in Central Valley, Orange County, N. Y. Dur¬ 
ing last revolution delegate-at-large and minister pleni¬ 
potentiary for Cuban Republic. President of Cuba, 
1902-06. Died, November 4, 1908. 

Palmer, George Herbert, Alford professor of 
natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity, 
Harvard, since 1889; born in Boston, March 19, 1842; 
graduate of Harvard, 1864; studied at University of 
Tubingen, 1867-69; Andover Theological Seminary, 
1870 (LL. D., University of Michigan, 1894, Union, 
1895; Litt. D., Western Reserve, 1897); tutor of Greek, 
1870-73, assistant professor, 1873-83, professor philoso¬ 
phy, 1883-89, Harvard. Author: “The Odyssey,” (Eng¬ 
lish translation in rythmic prose); “The New Education,” 
“The Glory of the Imperfect,” “Self Cultivation in Eng¬ 
lish,” “The Antigone of Sophocles” (translation), “The 
Field of Ethics,” “The Nature of Goodness.” 

Papin, Denis, born in Blois, in France, 1647 ; a 
celebrated mathematician and physicist; from 1687 
to 1696 professor of mathematics in the University 
of Marburg. He was one of the early inventors of the 
steam engine, and made many other discoveries in phy¬ 
sical science. A statue to his memory was erected at 
Blois in 1880. Died, at Marburg, in Hesse-Cassel, 1712. 

Park, Roswell, physician, born in Pomfret, Conn., 
May 4, 1852; A. B., Racine College, 1872; M. D., medi¬ 
cal department Northwestern University, 1876 (honorary 
M. D., Lake Forest University; LL. D., Yale, 1902); 
demonstrator in anatomy, Woman’s Medical College, 
Chicago, 1877-79; adjunct professor of anatomy, medical 
department, Northwestern University, 1879-82; lecturer 
on surgery, Rush Medical College, Chicago, 1882; since 
1883, professor of surgery, medical department, Univer¬ 
sity of Buffalo, and surgeon to Buffalo General Hospital. 
Attended President McKinley after he was shot, 1901. 
Author “Lectures on Surgical Pathology,” “History of 
Medicine,” “Text-book of Surgery” (two volumes). 



474 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Parker, Alton Brooks, jurist, lawyer; born in 
Cortland, N. Y., May 14, 1852; educated at public 
schools, Cortland Academy, Cortland Normal School; 
graduate of Albany Law School (LL. D., Union); 
admitted to bar; practiced in Kingston; surrogate 
Ulster County, 1877-85; delegate to Democratic National 
Convention, 1884; tendered office of first assistant post¬ 
master-general, 1885; chairman of Democratic State 
Committee, 1885; appointed justice of Supreme Court, 
N. Y., 1885, elected, 1886; member Court of Appeals, 
2d division, 1889-92; member of general term, 1893-96, 
of appellate division, 1896-97; chief justice Court of 
Appeals, N. Y., January 1, 1898, to August 5, 1904; 
resigned to accept Democratic nomination for the presi¬ 
dency made on first ballot, July 9, 1904; now practicing 
law. 

Parker, Theodore, born in 1810, American minister, 
son of a farmer at Lexington, Mass.; ejected by the Uni¬ 
tarians for his writings, became leader of a society of free¬ 
thinkers; was also an active abolitionist. A collected 
edition of his works appeared in 1863. Died, 1860. 

Parkhurst, Charles Henry, Presbyterian clergy¬ 
man; born in Framingham, Mass., April 17, 1842; 
graduated from Amherst, 1866 (D. D., LL. D.); studied 
theology at Halle, 1869-70; Leipzig, 1872-73; taught 
in Williston Seminary, Easthampton, Mass., 1870-71; 
pastor Congregational Church, Lenox, Mass., 1874-80; 
since 1880 pastor Madison Square Presbyterian Church, 
New York. Became president, 1891, Society for Pre¬ 
vention of Crime, and his assertion of partnership of 
police with criminals led to an investigation of the New 
York police by the New York Legislature. Author: 
“Forms of the Latin Verb Illustrated by the Sanskrit,” 
“The Blind Man’s Creed,” “The Pattern on the Mount,” 
“Three Gates on a Side,” “.What Would the World Be 
Without Religion?” “The Swiss Guide,” “Our Fight 
with Tammany,” “.The Sunny Side of Christianity.” 

Parkman, Francis,-'. American historical writer; 
born in Boston in 1823; lived some time among the 
Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and wrote “The Con¬ 
spiracy of Pontiac,” “The Old Regime in Canada,” 
“Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV.,” 
and “Montcalm and Wolfe,” etc. Died in 1893. 

Parnell, Charles Stewart, Irish politician; was 
born in 1846, in Avondale, County Wicklow, and educated 
at Cambridge. He entered public life as member for 
Meath in 1875, and two years later became conspicuous 
by the “obstruction” with which he met the prisons 
bill. He gradually ousted Mr. Butt from the leadership 
of the home rule party, and, in 1880, became leader of the 
Irish party and entered upon the land agitation. At the 
general election he was elected for three constituencies, 
but chose Cork, and as the head of the Land League was 
prosecuted in 1880, by the Gladstone government, the 
result being a disagreement of the jury. In the following 
session he, with the majority of his followers, was re¬ 
moved by the sergeant-at-arms for obstruction, and in 
October was imprisoned in Kilmainham under the 
coercion bill. He was released in April, 1882, but the 
“no rent” manifesto had meanwhile been issued, and in 
1883, the National League took the place of the sup¬ 
pressed Land League. At the general election of 1885, 
he nominated every home rule candidate, and subse¬ 
quently entered into an alliance with the followers of 
Mr. Gladstone. In the next parliament he proposed a 
bill to suspend evictions and reduce rent, after the re¬ 
jection of which the agitation continued. In 1888, a 
special commission was appointed to examine the charges 
made against Mr. Parnell and others by the “Times,” 
the result being his acquittal on the greatest, but con¬ 
demnation on many others. In consequence of the 
result of the O’Shea divorce case in 1890, he was deposed 
by the majority of his party, but continued to lead the 
minority and to carry on an active campaign until his 
death in 1891. 

Parsons, Frank, lawyer, educator, author; born in 
Mt. Holly, N. J., November 14, 1854; graduated in 
mathematics and engineering course, Cornell, 1873; ad¬ 
mitted to Boston bar; law clerk for a time; then 
opened offices of his own; text writer for Little, 
Brown & Company, publishers; public lecturer on 
economics and sociology; professor of history and politi¬ 
cal science, Kansas Agricultural College, 1897-1900; 
lecturer on law, Boston University, 1892-1908. Author: 
“The World’s Best Books,” “Our Country’s Need,” 
“The Drift of Our Time,” “Rational Money,” “The 
New Political Economy,” “The Power of the Ideal,” 
“The City for the People,” “Direct Legislation,” “The 
Bondage of Cities,” “.The Story of New Zealand.” Died, 
1908. 

Parton, James, American writer; born in Canter¬ 
bury in 1822, but was brought to America when a child, 
and wrote many works, the chief of which were “Life of 


Horace Greeley,” “General Butler in New Orleans,” 
“Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin,” and “Life of 
Jefferson.” Died in 1891. 

Partridge, William Ordway, sculptor, author; 
born in Paris, France, April 11, 1861; student Columbia 
College; art education in Rome, Florence, and Paris; 
works include statue of Shakespere, Lincoln Park, Chi¬ 
cago; bronze statue, Alexander Hamilton, Brooklyn: 
Kauffmann Memorial, Washington; bust of Edward 
E. Hale, Union League Club, Chicago; Whittier, Boston 
Public Library; equestrian statue General Grant for 
Union League Club, Brooklyn; Schermerhorn Memorial, 
Columbia University; baptismal font St. Peter and St. 
Paul Cathedral, Washington; group Christ and St. John, 
Brooklyn Museum Fine Arts, etc. Author: “Art for 
America,” “The Song Life of a Sculptor,” “The Tech¬ 
nique of Sculpture,” “The Angel of Clay” (novel), 
“ Nathan Hale, the Ideal Patriot.” 

Pasteur (pas-tor'), Louis, an eminent French chem¬ 
ist, was born in Dole, in department of Jura in 1822. 
Pasteur was celebrated for his studies and discoveries 
in fermentation, and also for his researches in hydropho¬ 
bia, and his suggestion of inoculation as a cure. The 
Pasteur Institute in Paris was the scene of his researches 
from 1886. Died, 1895. 

Patmore, Coventry, English poet; born in Essex, 
1823; best known as the author of “The Angel in the 
House,” a poem in praise of domestic bliss, succeeded 
by others, superior in some respects, of which “The 
Unknown Eros” is by many much admired. Died, 
1896. 

Patti, Mme. Adelina, famous high soprano, the 
greatest operatic prima donna the world has ever seen; 
of late years heard once a year, at the annual concert 
she has given at the Albert Hall, London; was born 
at Madrid in 1843, but was brought to America when only 
a few years old, and in this country she appeared as a 
prodigy vocalist. She is said to have earned nearly two 
millions during the course of her brilliant operatic career 
all over the world. Mme. Patti has been married three 
times — first to the Marquis de Caux, then to Signor 
Nicolini, the famous tenor, and is now Baroness Ceder- 
strom. 

Pattison, Mark, born in 1813; scholar and divine; 
became Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1839, and 
rector in 1861. He was at first a follower of Newman, 
but afterwards contributed to “Essays and Reviews,” 
and became an active university reformer. His chief 
works were “Life of Casaubon,” “Milton” in the Men 
of Letters series, and an edition of Pope’s works. 
Died, 1884. 

Patton, Francis Landey, educator, theologian; 
born in Warwick Parish, Bermuda, January 22, 1843; 
educated at Knox College, Toronto, University of Toron¬ 
to; graduated from Princeton Theological Seminary, 
1865 (LL. D., Wooster University, 1878, Harvard, 1889, 
Toronto, 1894, Yale, 1901, Johns Hopkins, 1902); or¬ 
dained to Presbyterian ministry June 1, 1865; pastor 
84th Street Presbyterian Church, New York, 1865-67; 
Presbyterian Church, Nyack, 1867-70; South Church, 
Brooklyn, 1871. Cyrus H. McCormick Professor Theo¬ 
logical Seminary of the Northwest (now McCormick 
Seminary), Chicago, 1872-81; also, 1874-81, pastor 
Jefferson Park Presbyterian Church, Chicago; mod¬ 
erator general assembly, 1878; professor of Relations of 
Philosophy and Science to the Christian Religion, Prince¬ 
ton Theological Seminary, 1881-88, this chair being 
founded and endowed for Dr. Patton by Robert L. 
Stewart; president Princeton University, 1888-1902, 
resigned; since 1886 professor of ethics, Princeton 
University, and lecturer on theism, Princeton Theologi¬ 
cal Seminary, which positions he still holds; president 
of Princeton Theological Seminary since 1902. Author: 
“The Inspiration of the Scriptures,” “Summary of 
Christian Doctrine”; also many articles and reviews. 

Paul, St., this eminent apostle, originally named 
Saul, was a Jew of pure Hebrew descent, of the tribe of 
Beniamin. He was born at Tarsus in Cilicia, and was 
by birth a free Roman citizen. The mysterious circum¬ 
stances that led to and attended his conversion, and his 
apostolic travels, are, doubtless, familiar to our readers, 
and need not be given here. Much diversity of opinion, 
however, prevails among the learned about the dates 
of the principal events of his life. About A. D. 59, 
having visited Jerusalem for the fifth time since his 
conversion, the populace there assailed him, and would 
have killed him, but an officer took him into custody 
and sent him to the Roman Governor Felix, at Caesarea, 
where he was unjustly detained a prisoner for two years. 
Having finally appealed to the Roman Emperor, ac¬ 
cording to the privilege of a Roman citizen, he was sent 
to Rome. On the voyage thither, he suffered shipwreck 
at Melita (probably Malta), in the spring of 61. 



BIOGRAPHY 


475 


At Rome, he was treated with respect, being allowed to 
dwell “for two whole years in his own hired house.” 
Whether he ever left the city or not cannot be positively 
demonstrated, but it is believed by many critics, from 
a variety of considerations, that he did obtain his liberty 
about A. D. 64, and that he made journeys both to the 
East and to the West, revisiting Asia Minor, and carry¬ 
ing out his long-cherished wish of preaching the gospel 
in Spain, then thought to be the western limit of the 
world. Meanwhile occurred the great and mysterious 
burning of Rome, generally attributed to Nero. The 
latter threw the blame on the Christians, who were, in 
consequence, subjected to a severe persecution. Among 
the victims was Paul, who, according to tradition, suf¬ 
fered A. D. 67. 

Payne, John Howard, born in 1792; American 
actor and dramatist; wrote for the press at 13, and ap- 

E eared on the stage at 16; made his debut at Drury 
ane in 1813, when 21, and composed a number of 
pieces, in one of which the air “Home, Sweet Home” 
was first heard. He died as consul at Tunis in 1852. 

Payne, Sereno E., congressman, lawyer; born in 
Hamilton, N. Y., June 26, 1843; graduate of University 
of Rochester, 1864; admitted to bar, 1866; practiced 
at Auburn (LL. D., Colgate, 1902, University of 
Rochester, 1903); married, 1873, to Gertrude Knapp. 
City clerk, Auburn, 1868-71; supervisor, 1871-72; 
district attorney, Cayuga County, 1873-79; president 
of board of education, 1879-82; member of Congress, 
1883-87; and, since 1889, 31st New York district. 
Chairman of Committee on Ways and Means; was 
active in framing McKinley and Dingley Tariff laws. 
Member of High Joint Commission to negotiate treaty 
with Canada, 1898. Author of the Payne tariff bill, 
1909. 

Peabody, Francis Greenwood, Plummer professor 
of Christian morals, Harvard, since 1886; born in 
Boston, 1847; graduate of Harvard, 1869; Harvard 
Divinity School, 1872 (D. D., Yale); pastor of First 
Parish Church, Cambridge, 1874-80; Parkman profes¬ 
sor of theology in Harvard Divinity School, 1881-86. 
Author: “Mornings in the College Chapel,” “Short 
Addresses to Young Men on Personal Religion,” 
“Founder’s Day at Hampton,” “Afternoons in the 
College Chapel,” “Jesus Christ and the Social Question,” 
“Happiness,” “Religion of an Educated Man.” 

Peabody, George, born in 1795; philanthropist; 
having made a fortune as a dry-goods merchant in 
America, went to England, and established a banking 
business in London in 1843. Besides giving half, a 
million to be invested for the London poor, he assisted 
with funds Dr. Kane’s Arctic expedition, and founded 
and endowed many institutions at Baltimore and other 
places in the United States. Died, 1869. 

Peary, Josephine Diebitsch, arctic traveler, author; 
born (Diebitsch) and educated in Washington, D. C.; 
married Lieutenant R. E. Peary, United States Navy, 
explorer, 1888; accompanied him on his 1891-92 and 
1893-94 expeditions as far as winter quarters in Green¬ 
land; was the first white woman to winter with an 
arctic expedition; gave birth to a daughter (Marie 
Ahnighito), the most northerly born white child in the 
world; accompanied her husband on his arctic trip in 
1897. Went north to meet her husband in 1900. Ship 
caught in ice and she wintered with her little daughter 
at Cape Saline, 78° 42' north latitude; went north again 
in 1902, returning with her husband. Author: “My 
Arctic Journal,” “The Snow Baby.” 

Peary, Robert Edwin, arctic explorer, officer in 
United States Navy; born in Cresson, Pa., May 6, 
1856. Entered United States Navy as civil engineer, 
October 26, 1881; assistant engineer on Nicaragua ship 
canal under government orders, 1884-85; engineer in 
charge of Nicaragua canal surveys, 1887-88; invented 
rolling-lock gates for canal. Made reconnaissance, 
1886, of the Greenland inland ice-cap, east of Disco 
Bay, 70° north latitude; chief of arctic expedition of 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, June, 
1891, to September, 1892, to northeast angle of Green¬ 
land (Independence Bay 81° 37' north latitude); dis¬ 
covered and named Melville Land and Heilprin Land, 
lying beyond Greenland. Made another arctic voyage, 
1893-95; made thorough study of little tribe of Arctic 
Highlanders; discovered, 1894, famous Iron Mountain 
(first heard of by Ross, 1818), which proved to be three 
meteorites, one of them weighing ninety tons (the largest 
known to exist); failed to reach the northern end of 
Greenland on third trip. Fitted out another ship, and 
sailed on another Polar expedition in 1905. Made sum¬ 
mer voyages, 1896, 1897, bringing the Cape York 
meteorites to United States; commander of Arctic 
expedition under auspices of Peary Arctic Club of New 
York City, 1898-1902; rounded northern extremity of 


Greenland Archipelago, the last of the great Arctic land 
groups; named the northern cape, the most northerly 
land in the world (83° 39' north latitude), Cape Morris 
K. Jesup; in 1906, attained highest north in Western 
Hemisphere (87° 6' north latitude). Announced his dis¬ 
covery of the North Pole, 1909. Author: “Northward 
Over the Great Ice,” etc. 

Peck, Harry Thurston, professor of Latin, Colum¬ 
bia University, 1888-1910; editor of the “Bookman,” 
1895-1907; born in Stamford, Conn., November 24, 1856; 
graduate of Columbia, 1881. (A. M., Ph. D., L. H. D., LL. 
D.); studied in Berlin, Paris, and Rome. Author: “The 
Personal Equation,” “The Semitic Theory of Creation,” 
“Latin Pronunciation,” “The Adventures of Mabel,” 
“What is Good English?” “Greystone and Porphyry” 
(poems), “Twenty Years of the Republic,” “The Life 
of Prescott.” Editor: “Harper’s Classical Dictionary,” 
“The International Cyclopaedia ” (15 vols.), “The New 
International Encyclopaedia” (20 vols.), “American 
Atlas of the World,” “The Library of the World’s 
Literature,” “Masterpieces of Literature.” Consulting 
editor of International Year Book, etc. Translator of 
“Trimalchio’s Dinner,” etc. 

Peckham, Rufus Wheeler, associate justice of 
United States Supreme Court, 1895-1909; born in 
Albany, N. Y., November 8, 1838; educated at Albany 
Academy and in Philadelphia; studied law; admitted 
to bar, December, 1859. District attorney of Albany 
County, 1868; later corporation counsel, city of 
Albany; justice of Supreme Court of New York, 
1883-86; associate justice of Court of Appeals, New 
York, 1886-95. Died, 1909. 

Peel, Sir Robert, Bart., statesman; born in 1788, 
eldest son of the first baronet; was named under-secre¬ 
tary for the Colonies immediately on his entering par¬ 
liament in 1811, and was Irish secretary from 1812 to 
1818. In the following year he was chairman of the 
bank committee, and, in 1822, was appointed to the 
home office, becoming leader in the Commons on the 
death of Canning (1827). As such he introduced the 
Catholic emancipation and police bills, and lost his 
seat for Oxford University in consequence of the 
former. After the reform bill he reconstructed his 
party, modern Conservatism dating from his Tam- 
worth manifesto (1834). He now held office a few 
months, and was finally prime minister from 1841 
to 1846, when his desertion of protection cost him the 
support of the majority of his followers. He died in 

1850. 

Pelz, Paul Johannes, architect; born in Seitendorf, 
County of Waldenburg, Silesia, Germany, November 18, 
1841; educated in College of St. Elizabeth and College 
of the Holy Spirit, Breslau; did not graduate, but left 
at 16 to join his father, who settled in the United States, 

1851, for political reasons; studied architecture, 1859- 
66, in New York, under Detlef Lienau. In practice as 
architect; was connected with United States Light¬ 
house Board as architect and civil engineer, and de¬ 
signed many lighthouses. Architect of Congressional 
library building; Georgetown college academic building; 
Carnegie library, and music hall building, Allegheny, 
Pa.; United States Government army and navy hos¬ 
pital, Hot Springs, Ark.; Chamberlain hotel, Old Point 
Comfort, Va.; clinic hospital, University of Virginia; 
Aula Christi, Chautauqua, N. Y.; machinery hall, 
Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and many others. 

Penn, William, founder of Pennsylvania; was born 
in 1644, son of Sir W. Penn, who, with Venables, took 
Jamaica. He became a Quaker while at Oxford, and 
was several times imprisoned for his writings. In 1682, 
he embarked for the colony of the New Netherlands, 
which had been granted him by Charles II., and founded 
Philadelphia, but died in England, in 1718, having been 
in great favor at court under James II. 

Pennell, Joseph, artist, illustrator, author; born in 
Philadelphia, July 4, 1860; pupil of Pennsylvania Acad¬ 
emy of Fine Arts and Pennsylvania School of Industrial 
Art; represented in national collections of France 
(Cabinet des Estamps), Dresden, Buda-Pest, Mel¬ 
bourne, Perth, Adelaide, and in many State and munici¬ 
pal collections in Europe and America. Chairman of 
International Jury of Awards, St. Louis Exposition, 
1904. Author: “A Canterbury Pilgrimage,” “An 
Italian Pilgrimage,” “Two Pilgrims’ Progress,” “Our 
Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy,” “Pen 
Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen,” “Our Journey to the 
Hebrides,” “The Stream of Pleasure,” “The Jew at 
Home,” “Play in Provence,” “To Gypsyland,” “Mod¬ 
ern Illustration,” “The Illustration of Books,” “The 
Alhambra,” “The Work of Charles Keene,” “Lithog¬ 
raphy and Lithographers.” Has illustrated a large 
number of books. 



476 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Pennypacker, Samuel Whitaker, jurist, ex-gov¬ 
ernor; born in Phoenixville, Pa., April 9, 1843; edu¬ 
cated there and at West Philadelphia Institute; private 
of 26th “Emergency” regiment, 1863, at Gettysburg; 
graduated in law from University of Pennsylvania, 
1866; has a notable library of early Pennsylvania im¬ 
prints; presiding judge of Court of Common Pleas, 
Philadelphia, 1896-1902; governor of Pennsylvania 
1903-07. Author: “Pennsylvania Colonial Cases,” 
“Annals of Phoenixville and Vicinity,” “Historical and 
Biographical Sketches,” “Index to the English Common 
Law Reports,” “The Settlement of Germantown,” 
“Congress Hall,” “Capture of Stony Point,” “Gen. 
Weedon’s Orderly Book at Valley Forge,” “Penny- 
packer’s Supreme Court Reports” (4 vols.); and sixty 
other books and papers. 

Pepin le Bref, born in 714; King of the Franks and 
father of Charlemagne, deposed Childeric III., and 
founded the Carlovingian Dynasty (751), and after¬ 
wards, by helping Stephen II. against the Lombards, 
founded the temporal power of the popes. Died, 768. 

Perry, Bliss, professor English literature, Harvard, 
since 1907; editor of “The Atlantic Monthly” 1899- 
1909; born in Williamstown, Mass., November 25, 
1860; graduate of Williams, 1881, A. M., 1883 (L. H.D., 
Princeton, 1900, Williams, 1902; Litt. D., Bowdoin, 
1904); studied in Berlin and Strassburg universities. 
Professor of English, Williams, 1886-93; Princeton, 
1893-1900. Editor: “Selections from Burke,” Scott’s 
“Woodstock” and “Ivanhoe,” and “Little Master¬ 
pieces.” Author: “The Broughton House,” “Salem 
Kittredge, and Other Stories,” “The Plated City,” 
“The Powers at Play,” “Chapter on Poetry in Counsel 
Upon the Reading of Books,” “A Study of Prose Fic¬ 
tion,” “The Amateur Spirit.” 

Perry, Oliver Hazard, distinguished American naval 
officer, born at South Kingston, R. I., 1785. He entered 
the navy in 1799, served in war against Tripoli, and in 
1807 was made lieutenant. In the celebrated battle of 
Lake Erie, September 10, 1813, he defeated the British. 
He commanded the naval battalion in the battle of the 
Thames, October 5, 1813. These two victories restored 
Michigan to the United _ States and established the 
supremacy of the Americans on the northwestern 
frontier during the rest of the war of 1812. Perry 
received from congress a vote of thanks, a medal, and 
rank of captain. 

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, born at Zurich, 
Switzerland, in 1746; Swiss educator and writer, cele¬ 
brated for his reforms in the methods of education; 
studied theology and jurisprudence at Zurich; later turned 
his attention to agriculture. He established an institu¬ 
tion for deserted children on his estate Neuhof in 1775, 
and afterwards as a school-master at Burgdorf and 
Yverdon practiced his “intuitive” system. His chief 
works were “How Gertrude Instructs Her Children” 
and his “Mother’s Book.” Died, 1827. 

Peter I., Tsar of Russia (Peter the Great); born in 
1672; was joint ruler with Ivan V. from 1682 till 1696, 
when he became sole sovereign; visited Holland and 
England to learn shipbuilding, and on his return sup¬ 
pressed the conspiracy of the Strelitz (1698); founded 
St. Petersburg in 1703, and, after a defeat at Narva, 
won the victory of Pultowa over Charles XII. of Sweden 
in 1709. He added to his dominions Esthonia, Livonia, 
and part of Finland, and again visited western Europe 
in 1716-17. Died, 1725. 

Peters, John Punnett, clergyman; born in New 
York, December 16, 1852; graduated from Yale, 1873; 
studied philology and theology, Yale (Ph. D., 1876; 
D. D., 1895); studied in Berlin and Leipzig, 1879-83 
(honorary scholar of divinity, University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 1895); professor of Old Testament languages and 
literature, Protestant Episcopal Divinity School, Phila¬ 
delphia, 1884—91; professor of Hebrew, University of 
Pennsylvania, 1885-93; in charge of expedition of Univer¬ 
sity of Pennsylvania to Babylonia, conducting excava¬ 
tions at Nippur, 1888-95; rector of St. Michael’s Church, 
New York, since 1893; canon residentiary, Cathedral 
St. John the Divine, 1904-10. Author: “Scriptures, 
Hebrew and Christian” (Volumes I and II). “The Bible 
as Literature” (part author); “In Lauda Zion,” “Nip¬ 
pur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates,” 
two volumes, “The Old Testament and the New Scholar¬ 
ship,” “Early Hebrew Story,” “Some Tombs in the 
Necropolis of Marissa” (with Dr. Hermann Thiersch). 
Translator: “ Political History of Recent Times ” (with 
appendix covering period 1876-81). Edited: “Diary of 
David McClure.” 

Petrarca, Francesco, Italian poet; born in Arezzo 
in 1304; lived chiefly at Avignon, but passed his later 
years at Milan, Venice, and Padua; with Boccaccio took 
an active part in the revival of learning, and was crowned 


as laureate in the capitol by King Robert of Anjou in 
1341. His chief works are “Sonnetti,” “Canzoni et 
Trionfi ” (in praise of Laura, a married lady whom he 
met at Avignon in 1327), and some Latin treatises. 
Died in Arqua in 1374. . . 

Phidias, one of the greatest of sculptors, an Athenian; 
is supposed to have been born about 500 B. C. Little, 
however, is known respecting his life. Hegias is stated 
by some to have been his master; he also studied under 
Ageladas of Argos. He executed several statues of 
Minerva, particularly that in the Parthenon (the works 
of which temple he superintended); a statue of Jupiter 
Olympius; and various other admirable productions. 
Died about 432 B. C. 

Philip, one of the twelve apostles, according to John’s 
Gospel, “of Bethsaida, the city of Andrew and Peter,” 
and who was called to follow Jesus at Bethany. After 
the resurrection he was present at the election of Matthias 
to the apostleship, but is not again mentioned. Philip 
the Evangelist, often confounded with the above, is 
first mentioned in Acts vi: 5. He preached at Smyrna, 
where Simon Magus was one of his converts; baptized 
the Ethiopian eunuch; and entertained Paul and hia 
companion on their way to Jerusalem. 

Philip, an Indian chief, whose father had been a 
staunch friend of the Pilgrim settlers, was himself friendly 
to the colonists, till in 1671 their encroachments pro¬ 
voked him to retaliation; after six years’ fighting, in 
which many colonists perished and great massacres 
of Indians took place, he was defeated and slain in 1676. 

Philip II., King of Macedon; born 382 B. C.; as¬ 
cended the throne in 359 B. C.; instituted the phalanx, 
made Thrace and Thessaly tributary, defeated the 
Athenians at Chaeronea (338), but was assassinated at 
JEgse two years later, 336 B. C. 

Philip II. of Spain, born in 1527; succeeded upon 
the abdication of Charles V. in 1556. He married (1) 
Maria of Portugal, (2) Mary of England, (3) Elizabeth 
of France, (4) Anne of Austria. His reign was marked 
by the revolt of the Netherlands, the annexation of 
Portugal (1580), the defeat of the Turks at Lepanto 
(1571), and the loss of the Armada (1588). Died, 1598. 

Phillips, Wendell, an American orator and abolition¬ 
ist; born in Boston, Mass., November 29, 1811. He was 
graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied law there, and 
was called to the bar in 1834. But before clients came 
he had been drawn away from his profession to the real 
work of his life. A timely speech in Faneuil Hall, in 1837, 
made him at once the principal orator of the anti-slavery 
party; and henceforth, till the president’s proclamation 
of January 1, 1863, he was Garrison’s loyal and valued 
ally, his lectures and addresses doing more for their 
cause than can well be estimated. He also championed 
the cause of temperance, and that of women, and ad¬ 
vocated the rights of'the Indians. In 1870, he was nomi¬ 
nated governor by the Prohibitionists and the Labor 
-party. His speeches and letters were collected in 1863 
(new edition 1884). He died in Boston, Mass., Febru¬ 
ary 2, 1884. 

Phipps, Henry, manufacturer; born in Philadelphia, 
September 27, 1839; worked in stores in Pittsburgh, 
1852-56; office boy and bookkeeper for Dilworth & 
Bidwell, spike manufacturers, 1856-61; partner in Bid- 
well & Phipps, agents for Dupont Powder Company, 1861; 
also partner in small iron mill, Kloman & Phipps; later 
associated with Thomas M. and Andrew Carnegie in iron 
and steel manufacture, building up large fortune, and 
having, next to Carnegie, largest interest in Carnegie 
Steel Company; director of United States Steel Cor¬ 
poration, Mellon National Bank (Pittsburgh). 

Pickering, Edward Charles, professor of astron¬ 
omy and director Harvard College observatory since 
1876; born in Boston, Mass., July 19, 1846; graduated 
Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard, 1865 (A. M., 1880, 
LL. D., universities of California, 1886, of Michigan, 1887, 
of Chicago, 1901, of Harvard, 1903; Ph. D. of Heidelberg, 
1903; divinity scholar, Victoria University, England, 
1900); instructor of mathematics, Lawrence Scientific 
School, 1865-67; Thayer professor of physics, Massa¬ 
chusetts Institution of Technology, 1867-76; established 
first physical laboratory in United States; under his direc¬ 
tion, the invested capital and income of the observatory 
has increased fourfold; study of light and spectra of the 
stars have been special features of his work; by estab¬ 
lishing an auxiliary station in Arequipa, Peru, southern 
stars are also observed, extending the work from pole 
to pole. Author: “Elements of Physical Manipulation,” 
and various volumes of annals and other publications of 
Harvard College Observatory. 

Pilate, Pontius, Roman procurator of Judea and 
Samaria in the days of Christ, from A. D. 26 to 36; per¬ 
suaded of the innocence of Christ when arraigned before 
his tribunal, would fain have saved Him, but yielded 



BIOGRAPHY 


477 


to the clamor of His enemies, who crucified Him; by 
washing his hands in their presence he protested before 
they led Him away that he was guiltless of His blood. 

Pinchot, Gifford, forester; born in Simsbury, Conn., 
August 11, 1865; graduated from Yale, 1889; studied 
forestry in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria; 
began first systematic forest work in United States at 
Biltmore, N. C., January, 1892 (M. A., Yale, 1901, Prince¬ 
ton, 1904); member National Forest Commission; chief 
division, afterward Bureau of Forestry, and later The 
Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 
1898-1910; appointed member committee on organiza¬ 
tion of government scientific work, March 13, 1903, 
and commission on public lands, October 22, 1903. 
Author: “The White Pine” (with H. S. Graves), “The 
Adirondack Spruce,” “ A Primer of Forestry.” 

Pinero, Arthur Wing, dramatic author; was born 
in London in 1855; commencing a legal career, he after¬ 
wards became connected with the stage, and acted at the 
Lyceum and Haymarket theaters. Devoting himself 
to play-writing, he produced his first piece, which was 
entitled “Two can Play at that Game,” at the Lyceum. 
Other plays from his pen include “£200 a Year,” “The 
Money Spinner,” “The Squire,” “Lords and Commons,” 
“The Rocket,” “The Magistrate,” “Sweet Lavender,” 
“The Profligate,” “In Chancery,” “Lady Bountiful,” 
“The Times,” “The Second Mrs. Tanqueray,” “The 
Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith,” and “The Benefit of the 
Doubt,” “The Princess and the Butterfly,” “Trelawny 
of the Wells,” “The Gay Lord Quex,” “Iris,” “ Letty,” 
“A Wife without a Smile,” and “His House in Order.” 
He also collaborated with Sir Arthur Sullivan and 
Comyns Carr in “The Beauty Stone,” a romantic musical 
drama produced in May, 1898. 

Pitt, William, English statesman, born in 1759; 
second son of Lord Chatham; was returned for Appleby 
in 1780, as a follower of Shelburne, whose chancellor of 
the exchequer he became two years later. After the 
defeat of the Coalition ministry, Pitt became prime minis¬ 
ter, at first in a minority. After the dissolution of 1784, 
however, he had a majority, with which he passed his 
India Bill, and carried on the war with revolutionary 
France. In 1801, he resigned on acaount of the king’s 
opposition to the removal of Catholic disabilities, with 
which Pitt had hoped to accompany the Act of Union. 
From 1804, till his death (1806), Pitt was again in office, 
and continued to direct the struggle against France. 

Pius V., Ghislieri, born in 1504; elected pope in 
1566, having previously been inquisitor-general; excom¬ 
municated Queen Elizabeth and suppressed heresy, but 
also carried out reforms, and encouraged Spain and 
Venice in their war against the Turks. Died, 1572. 

Pius IX., Giovanni Mastai-Ferretti, born in 1792; 
was elected pope in 1846, and immediately granted a con¬ 
stitution, but refused to declare war against Austria. 
After the insurrection at Rome (1848), he fled to Gaeta, 
but was restored by French aid two years later. The 
same year he established a Catholic hierarchy in Eng¬ 
land, and in 1854, defined the doctrine of the Immaculate 
Conception. In 1859-60 he lost the greater part of his 
dominions, but was maintained in Rome by a French 
garrison. In 1870, the Infallibility dogma was promul¬ 
gated by the ecumenical council held at Rome. In that 
year, when the French left the city, it was declared the 
capital of Italy, and occupied by the troops of Victor 
Emmanuel. Died, 1878. 

Pius X., is the 253rd Roman Pontiff. His name is 
Giuseppe (Joseph) Sarto, and he was born June 2, 
1835, at Riese, in the diocese of Treviso, his father 
being a minor municipal official. His relatives are still 
shopkeepers and people of humble position. He was 
educated at Castelfranco and the diocesan seminary of 
Padua, and ordained priest September 18, 1858. He 
officiated nine years as curate at Tombolo, nine years as 
parish priest of Salzano; and was made canon and chan¬ 
cellor of the diocese of Treviso in 1875. In 1884, he was 
appointed Bishop of Mantua, and Leo XIII. made him a 
cardinal and patriarch of Venice, in 1893. His charity 
and tact brought him unbounded popularity, and he was 
more than once instrumental in settling serious strikes 
and labor disputes. He came into direct personal con¬ 
tact with the King and Queen of Italy while he was cardi¬ 
nal, but he is credited with an inflexible resolve to main¬ 
tain the rights and liberty of the Church. On the death 
of Leo XIII., July 20, 1903, the conclave met, July 31st, 
and on August 4th, at the seventh scrutiny, elected 
Cardinal Sarto as pope, and he chose to be known as 
Pope Pius X. As priest and bishop his life was spent in 
the pastoral and episcopal service of the Church rather 
than in the paths of diplomatic and official service. He 
has always displayed deep interest in social questions and 
in bettering the life of the poor, to whom his charity at 
Venice was proverbial. He has shown himself zealous 


in the reform of Church music and in other matters of 
ecclesiastical discipline. In May, 1907, he issued a 
decree entrusting the revision of the vulgate to the Bene¬ 
dictine Order, and in September issued an encyclical 
against the modernist movement in the Church. 

Pizarro, Francisco, born in 1475; Spanish con¬ 
queror of Peru; embarked for America in 1510, and, 
after having once visited Peru, he returned in 1531, and, 
taking advantage of a civil war, got possession of that 
country, founding Lima in 1535. Six years later he was 
assassinated by the friends of Almagro, a rival whom he 
had caused to be executed, His brother, Gonzalo, who 
had accompanied him, was put to death in 1548, for a 
revolt against the Spanish viceroy. Died, 1541. 

Plato, a Greek philosopher; born in Athens or in 
dEgina, in 429 B. C., the year in which Pericles 
died. He was a disciple of Socrates, and after the death 
of that philosopher, Plato himself became a teacher in 
the plane tree grove of the Academia. He had a great 
number of disciples, many of whom became eminent 
teachers. Among them was Aristotle, distinguished as 
the “Mind of the School,” and perhaps Demosthenes. 
Women are said to have attended. In his 40th year, 
Plato visited Sicily, but he offended the tyrant Dionysius 
by the political opinions he uttered, and only escaped 
death through the influence of his friend, Dion. Two 
later visits to the court of the younger Dionysius were 
the only interruptions to his calm life as a teacher and 
writer at Athens. He died in the act of writing, it is 
said, in 347 B. C. 

Platt, Thomas Collier, United States senator; born 
in Owego, N. Y., July 15, 1833; educated at Owego 
Academy; member of class of 1853, Yale, but compelled 
to give up course because of ill health (A. M., 1876); 
entered mercantile life; was president of Tioga National 
Bank at its organization; became largely interested in 
lumbering in Michigan; clerk of Tioga County, 1859-61; 
member of Congress, 1873-77; elected United States 
senator, January 18, 1881, and resigned, May 16th, same 
year, with Roscoe Conkling. Secretary and director of 
United States Express Co., 1879, and its president, 
1880-1910. President of board of quarantine commis¬ 
sioners, N. Y., 1880-88; was president of Southern 
Central R. R. and of Addison & Northern Pennsylvania 
R. R. He was the recognized leader in New York 
Republican politics for years; United States senator 
from 1897 to 1909. Died, 1910. 

Plutarch ( ploo'tark ), the most distinguished biog¬ 
rapher of antiquity, was born in Boeotia, about A. D. 50. 
After studying under Ammonius at Athens, he taught 
philosophy at Rome during the reign of Vespasian, as is 
supposed. He belonged to the platonic school, and was 
a most prolific writer. His “Lives” of eminent Greeks 
and Romans, arranged in parallels, ranks as a standard 
classic. 

Pocahontas (po-Jca-hon'tas), the daughter of Pow¬ 
hatan, a powerful Indian chief of Virginia, was born 
about 1595. She was seized by the English, 1612, and 
held by them as a safeguard against the hostility of her 
tribe. She married an Englishman, John Rolfe, who 
took her to England, where she died, 1617. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, an American poet, born in Boston, 
Mass., 1809, was a youth of wonderful genius, but of 
reckless habits, who came to an unhappy and untimely 
end. He left behind him tales and poems which, though 
they were not appreciated when he lived, have received 
the recognition they deserve since his death. His 
poetical masterpiece, “The Raven,” is well knowm. 
Poe died, 1849, at Baltimore of inflammation of the brain. 
He had, perhaps, the loftiest and most original poetical 
genius which America has produced. 

Polk, James Knox, born in 1795; eleventh President 
of the United States; was speaker of the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives (1835-39) and governor of Tennessee (1839- 
41), and was elected as a Democrat to the presidency in 
1844. He obtained the annexation of Texas and the 
cession of Upper California and New Mexico by Mexico, 
as well as the settlement of the Oregon boundary. 
Died, 1849. 

Pollock, Sir Frederick, Bart., born in 1845; grand¬ 
son of Sir F. Pollock; educated at Eton and Trinity Col¬ 
lege, Cambridge, of which he was Fellow; was called to 
the bar in 1871, became professor of jurisprudence at 
University College, London, in 1882, and at Oxford, in 
1883. His works include “The Land Laws” (English 
Citizen series), “Essays in Jurisprudence and Ethics,” 
and “Introduction to Political Science,” “Spinoza,” etc. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan, a Spanish explorer, the dis¬ 
coverer of Florida; born in San Servas, Spain, in 1460; 
was a court page, served against the Moors, and in 1502, 
sailed with Ovando to Hispaniola, and became governor 
of the eastern part of the island. In 1510, he obtained the 
government of Porto Rico, and had conquered the whole 





478 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


island by 1512. In the same year he set out on a quest 
for the fountain of perpetual youth, and found Florida. 
He secured the appointment of adelantado of the 
country, and returned in 1521, to conquer his new sub¬ 
jects; in this, however, he failed. He retired to Cuba, 
and died there in July from the wound of a poisoned 
arrow. 

Pope, Alexander, English poet; son of a linendraper; 
was born in London in 1688, and began as a child to 
write verses. He made his reputation by the “Essay 
on Criticism,” and soon became the friend of Swift and 
other leading writers, and produced “The Rape of the 
Lock,” verse translations of the “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” 
“The Dunciad,” and the “Essay on Man,” besides tak¬ 
ing part in “Miscellanies” with Swift, Arbuthnot, and 
others. Died, 1744. 

Porter, Gene Stratton (Mrs.)* author, illustrator; 
born on a farm in Indiana, 1868; married Charles Dar¬ 
win Porter, 1886. Editor camera department, “Recrea¬ 
tion,” two years; was on natural history staff of “Out¬ 
ing” two years; specialist in natural history photography 
on “Photographic Times Annual Almanac” four years. 
Author and illustrator: “The Song of the Cardinal,” 
“Freckles,” “What I Have Done With Birds,” “At the 
Foot of the Rainbow,” “A Girl of the Limberlost,” 
“Birds of the Bible,” “Music of the Wild,” “The Har¬ 
vester.” 

Porter, Horace, soldier, diplomat; born in Hunting¬ 
don, Pa., April 15, 1837; educated at Lawrence Scientific 
School, Harvard; graduated at West Point, 1860 (LL. D., 
Union, 1894). Served in field through the Civil War, 
every commissioned grade up to brigadier-general; 
received Congressional medal of honor for gallantry at 
Chickamauga; private secretary of President U. S. 
Grant, 1869-73; since then prominent in business; 
president of several railway corporations, clubs, and 
patriotic societies. Orator at inauguration of Washing¬ 
ton Arch, New York, May 4, 1895, and dedication of 
Grant’s Tomb, New York, April 27, 1897; at inaugura¬ 
tion of Rochambeau Statue, Washington, May 24, 1902; 
at Centennial of foundation of West Point Military 
Academy, June 11, 1902, etc. Decorated with Grand 
Cross of Legion of Honor by French Government, 1904; 
ambassador to France, 1897-1905. Author: “Cam¬ 
paigning with Grant,” “West Point Life,” etc. 

Porter, Jane, born in 1776, English writer; author of 
“Thaddeus of Warsaw,” and “The Scottish Chiefs.” 
Died, 1850. Her sister, Anna Maria, died, 1832, wrote 
“The Hungarian Brothers,” and other tales. 

Porter, Noah, D. D., LL. D., born in 1811; American 
philosopher; became professor of metaphysics and moral 
philosophy at Yale, in 1846, and president in 1871, 
resigning in 1886. Among his works are “The Human 
Intellect,” “Elements of Intellectual Philosophy,” 
"Elements of Moral Science,” etc., and he edited the 
reissues of “Webster’s Dictionary” in 1864 and 1880. 
Died, 1892. 

Potter, Cora Urquhart (Mrs. James Brown Potter), 
actress; born in New Orleans; daughter of Colonel David 
Urquhart. Gained fame as an amateur in New York; 
professional debut Haymarket Theater, London, as 
Anne Sylvester in “Man and Wife,” March, 1887; 
appeared at 5th Avenue Theater, New York, in Mile, de 
Bremier, October, 1887; since then has appeared in 
varied repertoire and played during three tours around 
the world. Was instrumental in obtaining many thou¬ 
sands of pounds for the various funds in aid of the troops 
at the front in South Africa; also one of the prominent 
ladies on committee of the “Maine” hospital ship pre¬ 
sented by America to British Government. A number 
of years past has appeared continually in London in 
various theaters. Author: “My Recitations,” also 
magazine articles. 

Potter, Henry Codman, Protestant Episcopal 
bishop of New York, 1887-1908; born in Schenectady 
N. Y., May 25, 1835; educated at Episcopal Academy, 
Philadelphia; theological seminary of Virginia, 1857 
(A. M., 1863, D. D., 1865, LL. D., 1878, Union; 
LL. D., Yale, 1901; D. D., Harvard and Trinity; also 
Oxford and Cambridge, England). Ordered deacon, 
1857; ordained priest, 1858; pastorates: Christ’s Church, 
Greensburg, Pa., 1857-58; St. John’s, Troy, 1859-66; 
assistant at Trinity Church, Boston,; rector at Grace 
Church, New York; secretary at House of Bishops, 
1863-83; coadjutor to his uncle, Horatio Potter, bishop 
of New York, 1883-87. Author: “Thirty Years Re¬ 
viewed,” “Our Threefold Victory,” “Young Men’s 
Christian Associations and Their Work,” “The Church 
and Her Children,” “Sisterhood and Deaconesses,” 
“The Religion for To-day,” “The Gates of the East,” 
"Sermons of the City,” “ Waymarks,” “The Scholar and 
the State,” “The East of To-day and To-morrow,” “The 
Industrial Situation,” “.Law and Loyalty.” Died, 1908. 


Powell, Major John Wesley, Ph. D„ LL. D„ born 
in 1834; American geologist and ethnologist; lost an arm 
in the Civil War, became president of the American Asso¬ 
ciation for the Advancement of Science in 1887, and is 
the author of several geological monographs, and “Intro¬ 
duction to the study of Indian Languages.” Died, 1902. 

Powers, Hiram, born in 1805; American sculptor, 
son of a farmer in Vermont; lived at Florence from 1837 
till his death, his chief productions being “The Greek 
Slave,” “The Fisher Boy,” “Proserpine,” and “The 
Indian Girl.” Died, 1873. 

Praxiteles, a famous Grecian sculptor, is believed to 
have been a native of Athens, to have flourished early in 
the Fourth Century B. C., and to have died at the age 
of eighty. He was long attached to the celebrated 
Phryne, of whom he executed two statues, one of which 
was placed in the temple of Delphi, the other in the 
temple of Love at Thespia. His Venus at Cnidus was 
considered one of the most finished productions of 
Greece. 

Prescott, William Hickling, born in Salem, 1796; 
American historian; in spite of very bad eyesight, 
devoted himself to literature, and wrote “History 
of Ferdinand and Isabella,” “The Conquest of Mexico,” 
“Conquest of Peru,” and “History of Philip II.” (un¬ 
finished). He was made D. C. L. at Oxford in 1850. 
Died, 1859. 

Priestley, Joseph, F. R. S., born in 1733; Unitarian 
natural philosopher; gained the Copley medal in 1773, 
for his discoveries concerning the properties of fixed air, 
and was librarian to Lord Shelburne for seven years. He 
also made important observations on respiration. In 
1791, his house at Birmingham was wrecked by a mob 
who disapproved his sympathy with the French revolu¬ 
tion, and three years after he went to the United States, 
where he died (1804). Besides his scientific works, he 
wrote a “History of Early Opinions Concerning the 
Person of Christ,” and several similar books. 

Prouty, Charles Azro, lawyer, government official; 
born in Newport, Vt., October 9, 1853; graduate of 
Dartmouth, 1875. Assistant to Professor S. P. Langley 
at Allegheny Observatory, 1875-76; taught several 
years; admitted to Vermont bar, 1882; practiced at 
Newport, Vt., 1882-96; member of House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, Vermont, 1888; reporter on decisions of 
Supreme Court of Vermont, 1888-96; since December, 
1896, member of United States Interstate Commerce 
Commission, and chairman since 1912. 

Ptolemaeus Claudius, flourished about 139; Alex¬ 
andrian writer, author of the “Almagest” or “Syntax 
of Astronomy,” the theories of which were accepted 
till the discoveries of Copernicus. He also wrote a 
“Geography,” which was for thirteen centuries the 
leading authority. 

Ptolemaeus Soter, King of Egypt; obtained Egypt 
as his share of the dominions of Alexander the Great in 
323 B. C.; was engaged in continual w T ars with Perdiccas 
and Antigonus (q. v.), and gained his surname by 
saving Rhodes when besieged by Demetrius. Died, 
283 B. C. 

PuffendorfT, Samuel, Baron von, born in 1632; 
German jurist and historian, author of “ De Jure Naturae 
et Gentium,” “Life of Gustavus of Sweden,” etc. Died, 
1694. 

Pulitzer, Joseph, proprietor of “New York World” 
1883-1911; born in Budapest, Hungary, April 10, 
1847; educated by private tutor; came to the United 
States, 1864; served until end of Civil War in cavalry 
regiment; went to St. Louis; became reporter on 
“Westliche Post” (German newspaper), 1868; later its 
managing editor and part proprietor. In 1878, bought 
the “St. Louis Dispatch” and united it with “The 
Evening Post” as the “Post-Dispatch”; member of 
Missouri Legislature, 1869; Missouri State Constitutional 
Convention, 1874; was elected to Congress in New York 
for term, 1885-87, but resigned after a few months’ 
service; delegate to Cincinnati Liberal Republican Con¬ 
vention, which nominated Horace Greeley for president, 
after that a Democrat; advocated the “National ” (gold- 
standard) Democratic ticket, 1896. In 1903, endowed 
with $1,000,000 Columbia College School of Journalism. 
Died, 1911. 

Pupin, Michael Idvorsky, professor of electro¬ 
mechanics, Columbia, since 1901; born in Idvor, Banat, 
Hungary, October 4, 1858; graduate of Columbia, 1883; 
studied physics and mathematics under von Helmholtz, 
University of Berlin (Ph. D., Berlin). Wrote: “Os¬ 
motic Pressure and Free Energy,” “Electrical Oscilla¬ 
tion of Low Frequency and Their Resonance,” “Reson¬ 
ance Analysis of Alternating Currents,” “Electro¬ 
magnetic Theory,” "Propagation of Long Electrical 
Waves,” “Wave Propagation Over Non-uniform Con¬ 
ductors.” 



BIOGRAPHY 


479 


Purdy, Milton Dwight, lawyer, government official; 
born in Mogadore, O., November 3, 1866; graduate of 
University of Minnesota, 1891, law department of same, 
1892. Admitted to bar, 1892; assistant city attorney, 
Minneapolis, 1893-97; assistant county attorney, Hen¬ 
nepin County, Minn., 1897-98; assistant United States 
attorney, 1898-1901; United States attorney, 1901-02, 
for Minnesota; assistant attorney-general of United 
States, April 1, 1903, to July 27, 1905; assistant to 
the attorney-general of United States, 1905-08, and 
prominent as a trust prosecutor. 

Putnam, Herbert, librarian of Congress; born in 
New York, September 20, 1861; graduate of Harvard, 
1883 (Litt. D., Bowdoin, 1898; LL. D., Columbian, 
1903; University of Illinois, 1903; University of Wis¬ 
consin, 1904); partial course at Columbia Law School; 
admitted to Minnesota bar, 1886; bar of Suffolk County, 
Mass., 1892; practiced law, Boston, 1892-95. Librarian 
of Minneapolis Athenaeum, 1884-87; Minneapolis Pub¬ 
lic Library, 1887-91; Boston Public Library, 1895-99; 
appointed librarian of Congress, 1899; president of 
American Library Association, 1898, 1904; overseer, 
Harvard College, 1902-06. Has published numerous ar¬ 
ticles in reviews and professional journals. 

Putnam, Israel, an American patriot and Revolu¬ 
tionary general, was born in Salem, Mass., in 1718. 
He early served in the frontier war, fought against the 
French, and, on the outbreak of the Revolution, fought 
with distinguished valor at Bunker Hill. In 1775, he 
was appointed major-general, and, in 1777, commanded 
the army of the New York Highlands, and supervised 
the erection of the fortifications at West Point. Died, 
1790. 

Pyle, Howard, artist, author; born in Wilmington, 
Del., in 1853; educated in private schools and Art 
Students’ League, New York; contributed as artist and 
author to leading New York periodicals. Author and 
illustrator: “The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood,” 
"Pepper and Salt, or Seasoning for Young Folks,” 
"Within the Capes,” “The Wonder Clock,” “The Rose 
of Paradise,” “Otto of the Silver Hand,” “A Modern 
Aladdin,” “Men of Iron,” "Jack Ballister’s Fortunes,” 
"Twilight Land,” “The Garden Behind the Moon,” 
"Semper Idem,” “Rejected of Men,” Also many mag¬ 
azine stories and articles. Died, 1911. 

Pyrrhus, King of Epirus; born about 318 B. C.; 
came to the throne in 306 B. C.; was expelled a few 
years later, but restored by the help of Ptolemy Soter 
in 295; held the kingdom of Macedonia for a short 
time, and, in 281, went to Italy to help Tarentum 
against the Romans. He was at first successful (through 
his elephants and the phalanx), but was finally defeated 
in 275. After this he again mastered Macedonia, but 
was killed by a tile in a night attack on Argos, in 272. 

Pythagoras, Greek philosopher, born in Samos, 
which he left for Crotona, in Southern Italy, where he 
exercised so much influence as an opponent of democ¬ 
racy that his followers were exposed to persecution and 
exile. He left no writings, but his doctrines of the 
“Kosmos,” “Metempsychosis,” and the “Music of the 
Spheres” are well known, the first being the beginning 
of physical science. Died, about 500 B. C. 

Quesnay, Francois, born in 1694; an eminent 
French physician, at the time of his death first physician 
to Louis XVI. He is now remembered, however, as a 
writer on political economy, to which science he is said 
to have given its name. Although he wrote in the 
infancy of the science, and many of his opinions are not 
now maintained, his system is described by Adam 
Smith as being, “with all its imperfections, the nearest 
approximation to the truth that has yet been published 
on the subject of political economy.” Died, 1774. 

Quincy, Josiah, American statesman, born in Boston, 
1772; was bred to the bar, and entered Congress in 1804, 
where he distinguished himself by his oratory as leader 
of the Federal party, as the sworn foe of slave-holding, 
and as an opponent of the admission of the Western 
States into the Union; in 1812, he retired from Congress, 
gave himself for a time to purely local affairs in Massa¬ 
chusetts, and at length to literary labors, editing his 
speeches for one thing, without ceasing to interest him¬ 
self in the anti-slavery movement. Died, 1864. 

Rachel (fClisa Rachel Felix), actress, of Jewish de¬ 
scent; born in Switzerland in 1821. As a child 
she sang for bread in the streets of Lyons. In 
1838, she appeared in Paris as Camille in Corneille’s 
“Les Horaces,” and was henceforward the unrivaled 
exponent of the classical school, her great part being 
Ph£dre. Died, 1858. 

Racine, Jean, the greatest French dramatist of the 
classical school, was born in La Fertti-Milon in 1639, 
and educated at Port Royal. His ode on the marriage 
of Louis XIV. (1660) was rewarded by a pension from 


the king. He first exhibited his genius in “ Andro- 
maque,” which was followed by a brilliant series of 
tragedies, closing with “Phedre.” His single comedy, 
“Les Plaideurs,” appeared in 1668. In 1677, he was 
led by religious motives to cease writing for the stage, 
but, in 1691, he published a sacred drama, “Athalie,” 
which is by many considered his masterpiece. Died, 
1699. 

Ragozin, Zenaide Alexeievna, author; born in 
Russia; she traveled extensively in Europe; came to 
United States, 1874, and became naturalized citizen. 
Author: “Story of Chaldea,” “Story of Assyria,” 
“Story of Media, Babylon, and Persia,” “Story of Vedic 
India ” (in the “ Stories of the Nations ” series), “ History 
of the World ” (first and second parts: “Earliest Peoples 
and Early Egypt”), “Siegfried, the Hero of the Nether¬ 
lands,” “Beowulf, the Hero of the Anglo-Saxons,” 
“Frithjof, the Viking of Norway,” “ Roland, the Paladin 
of France,” “Salammbo, the Maid of Carthage” (in 
“Tales of Heroic Ages” series). Translated from 
French, Anatole Leroy Beaulieu’s “The Empire of the 
Tsars and the Russians.” 

Raleigh, or Ralegh, Sir Walter, statesman, navi¬ 
gator, and author; born near Budleigh in 1552; studied 
at Oriel College, Oxford; fought in support of the Protes¬ 
tants in France (1569); distinguished himself against 
the rebels in Ireland, 1580-81; rose rapidly in Eliza¬ 
beth’s favor; in 1585, despatched an expedition to 
America, which discovered Virginia, so named in honor 
of the queen; took part in the repulse of the Spanish 
Armada (1588); in 1595, went to Guiana in search of 
gold, and sailed some distance up the Orinoco; held a 
command in the attack on Cadiz (1596). After the 
accession of James I. he was accused of complicity in 
the plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne, and 
imprisoned in the Tower for thirteen years (1603-16), 
during which he wrote his “History of the World.” 
In 1616, he was permitted to lead an expedition to 
Guiana against the Spaniards, but his pardon was made 
dependent on his success, and, as the attempt was a 
failure, he was executed on his return (1618). 

Ranke, Leopold von, German historian; born in 
Thuringia in 1795; educated at Leipzig, was appointed 
extraordinary professor at Berlin in 1825, ordinary pro¬ 
fessor in 1834, and in 1841, became royal historiographer. 
Among his chief works are the “History of the Popes,” 
the “History of Germany during the Reformation,” and 
the "History of England: Chiefly in the Seventeenth 
Century.” Died in 1886. 

Raphael, Raffaello Santi, or Sanzlo, born in 1483; 
son of Giovanni Santi; a painter; studied under Pietro 
Perugino; in 1504, went to Florence, where he attached 
himself to Fra Bartolommeo, and was much influenced by 
the works of the Florentine school; in 1508, was sum¬ 
moned to Rome by Julius II. to adorn with frescoes the 
walls of the Vatican, which occupied him till 1513. He 
was much employed by Leo X., who succeeded Julius in 
1513. To this period belong the cartoons at Hampton 
Court. Raphael also displayed genius as an architect, 
and after the death of Bramante (1514), superintended 
the building of the new cathedral of St. Peter’s. Died in 
1520. 

Rawlinson, George, born in 1812; canon of Canter¬ 
bury, historian, and Orientalist; was educated at Ox¬ 
ford, where he was appointed Camden professor of an¬ 
cient history in 1861. Among his chief works are his 
version of Herodotus (1858-60), and histories of “The 
Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World,” 
and “Ancient Egypt.” Died, 1902. 

Rayner, Isidor, United States senator, lawyer; born 
in Baltimore, April 11, 1850; educated at University of 
Virginia; admitted to bar, 1871; elected to Maryland 
legislature, 1878, State Senate, 1886; member of Con¬ 
gress, 1887-89, 1891-95; attorney-general, Maryland, 
1899-1903; counsel for Rear-Admiral Schley befpre 
investigation commission, 1901; elected United States 
senator for terms, 1905-11, 1911-17. Died, 1912. 

Reade, Charles, novelist and dramatist; born in 
Oxfordshire in 1814;' was educated at Magdalen College, 
Oxford, of which he became Fellow. Among his novels, 
most of which were intended to expose some social abuse, 
were "Peg Woffington,” “ It is Never Too Late to Mend,” 
“The Cloister and the Hearth,” and “Griffith Gaunt.” 
Died, 1884. 

Reclus, Jean Jacques Elisee, a French geographer; 
born in Sainte-Foix la Grande, France, March 15, 1830. 
In consequence of his extreme democratic views he left 
France after the coup d’etat of 1851, and spent the next 
seven years in England, Ireland, North and Central 
America, and Colombia. He returned to Paris in 1858, 
and published an introduction to the “Dictionary of the 
Communes of France” (1864). While living in exile in 
Switzerland he began his masterpiece, “New General 




480 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Geography.” Reclus wrote another great work, a 
physical geography, entitled ‘‘The Earth.” Died, 1905. 

Reed, Thomas B„ a prominent legislator; born in 
Portland, Me., October 18, 1839; educated at Bowdoin 
College; studied law, and began practice in 1865. Dur¬ 
ing the war was acting assistant paymaster in the West¬ 
ern River Navy. He entered the Maine House in 1868, 
and the Senate in 1870; was sent to Congress in 1877, 
where he remained until 1899. He gradually became a 
leader of the Republican members, and was chosen 
speaker of the 51st Congress, in which he made the fa¬ 
mous new rule that all members present should be counted 
to make a quorum, whether voting or not. Retired from 
Congress in 1899, and died in 1902. 

Rehan, Ada, actress; born in Limerick, Ireland, 
April 22, 1860; came to United States in childhood; 
made first appearance on stage at 14, in Newark, 
N. J.; played in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Albany, and 
Louisville stock companies. Engaged by Augustin 
Daly in 1879, filling leading positions in Daly’s Theater 
until his death, in 1899, playing such characters in Shakes- 
perean and old comedies as Rosalind, Katherine, Viola, 
Beatrice, Portia, Lady Teazle, Peggy in the Country Girl, 
and many high-clags modern comedy parts. 

Reid, Whitelaw, born in 1837; American diplomatist; 
became editor of the ‘‘New York Tribune” in 1872; 
from 1889-92, was United States minister to France; 
ambassador to Great Britain, 1905-12. Author: ‘‘Af¬ 
ter the War, a Southern Tour,” ‘‘Ohio in the War,” 
“Schools of Journalism,” “Newspaper Tendencies,” 
“Town Hall Suggestions,” “Two Speeches at the Queen’s 
Jubilee,” “Some Consequences of the Last Treaty of 
Paris,” “Our New Duties,” “Later Aspects of Our New 
Duties,” “A Continental Union,” “Our New Interests,” 
“Problems of Expansion.” Died, 1912. 

Rembrandt van Rijn, born in 1607; an eminent 
painter and engraver; was the son of a miller near Ley¬ 
den. He studied for three years under Jacob van Swan- 
enburch, and was afterwards the pupil of Peter Lastman 
at Amsterdam, and of Jacob Pinas at Haarlem. In 1630, 
he settled in Amsterdam, where he died in 1669. Among 
his chief works are ‘‘The Anatomical Lesson,” and “The 
Night Watch.” 

Remington, Frederic, artist, author, sculptor; born 
in Canton, N. Y., October 4, 1861; educated at Yale Art 
School and Art Students’ League, New York; was clerk 
in store, then cowboy and stockman on ranch in the West; 
subsequently illustrator for magazines, treating military 
and western American subjects, and, during 1897-98, 
Cuban scenes; well known as a painter; among his lead¬ 
ing works in sculpture are “The Broncho Buster” and 
“The Wounded Bunkie.” Author: “Pony Tracks,” 
“Crooked Trails,” “Frontier Sketches,” “John Ermine 
of the Yellowstone ” (novel). Died, 1909. 

Remsen, Ira, president, 1901-12, and professor 
of chemistry since 1876, Johns Hopkins; born in New 
York, February 10, 1846; graduated from college of 
city of New York 1865; M. D., College of Physicians 
and Surgeons, New York; Ph. D., University of Gottin¬ 
gen, Germany (LL. D., Columbia, 1893, Princeton, 1896, 
Yale, 1901, Toronto, 1902); professor of chemistry, 
Williams, 1872-76; founder, 1879, and since editor, 
“American Chemical Journal.” Author: “The Prin¬ 
ciples of Theoretical Chemistry,” “An Introduction to 
the Study of the Compounds of Carbon, or Organic 
Chemistry,” “The Elements of Chemistry,” “Inorganic 
Chemistry,” “Introduction to the Study of Chemistry,” 
“A Laboratory Manual,” “Chemical Experiments,” and 
many scientific articles and addresses. 

Renan, Joseph Ernest, Orientalist, historian, and 
essayist; born in 1823 in Treguier, in Brittany; in 1842, 
he entered the seminary of St. Sulpice, but later gave 
up the priesthood. His first important work, “Averroes 
et 1’ Averro'isme,” appeared in 1852. Appointed pro¬ 
fessor of Hebrew in the College de France, 1862, was 
removed, 1863, for unorthodoxy, and reappointed in 
1870. The “Vie de Jesus,” which gave rise to much 
discussion, was afterwards expanded into “Histoiredes 
Origines du Christianisme.” He also published “Le 
Judaisme,” and numerous other works. Died, 1892. 

Rennie, John, civil engineer; born in Phantassie, East 
Lothian, Scotland, in 1761; employed by the firm of Messrs. 
Boulton & Watt, at Soho, Birmingham, and entrusted by 
them to direct in the construction of the Albion Mills, Lon¬ 
don, he became at once famous for his engineering ability, 
and was in general request for other works, such as the 
construction of docks, canals, and bridges, distinguishing 
himself most in connection with the last, of which 
Waterloo, Southwark, and London over the Thames, 
are perhaps the finest. Died, 1821. 

Reuter, Baron Paul Julius, born in Cassel in 1821; 
in 1849, established an office at Aix-la-Chapelle for sup¬ 
plying news by telegraph, and thereby revolutionized 


the press of Europe. In 1851, he transferred his business 
to London. He laid several important telegraphic cables. 
Died, 1899. 

Revere, Paul, an American patriot; was born in 
Boston, Mass., in 1735, and bred a goldsmith. He was 
conspicuous for his zeal against the mother country, and 
one of the first actors in the revolt. Died, 1818. 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, painter; born in Plympton, 
in Devonshire, in 1723; studied under the portrait- 
painter Hudson; removed to London in 1746; traveled 
in Italy, 1749-52; on his return to London was imme¬ 
diately recognized as the greatest portrait painter of the 
day. He was the first president of the Royal Academy 
(1768-92), and in 1784, was appointed painter to the 
king. Among his intimate friends were Johnson, Burke, 
Goldsmith, and other eminent literary men. His fifteen 
“Discourses on Painting” were delivered before the 
Royal Academy between 1769 and 1790. Died, 1792. 

Rhees, Rush, president of University of Rochester 
since July 1, 1900; born in Chicago, February 8, 1860; 
graduated from Amherst, 1883, A. M., 1897, LL. D., 1900; 
graduated from Hartford Theological Seminary, 1888; 
(D. D., Colgate University, 1901); Walker instructor 
of mathematics, Amherst, 1883-85; ordained, 1889; 
pastor Middle Street Baptist Church, Portsmouth, N. H., 
1889-92; associate professor New Testament interpreta¬ 
tion, Newton Theological Institution, Newton Centre, 
Mass., 1892-94; professor of same, 1894-1900. Author: 
“The Life of Jesus of Nazareth, a Study,” “St. Paul’s 
Experience as a Factor in His Theology,” and other 
articles in several journals and periodicals. 

Rhodes, Cecil, statesman; born in Hertfordshire in 
1853; son of a vicar; went to South Africa; became 
director of the diamond mines at Kimberley, and amassed 
a large fortune; entered the Cape Parliament, and be¬ 
came prime minister in 1890; he was active and suc¬ 
cessful in extending the British territories in South Africa, 
aiming at destroying the race prejudices that prevail in 
it, and at establishing among the different colonies a 
federated union; founded the Rhodes scholarships at 
Oxford University. Died, 1902. 

Rhodes, James Ford, author; born in Cleveland, 
O., May 1, 1848; educated at public schools. University 
of New York, University of Chicago; was not graduated. 
(LL. D., Adelbert College, Western Reserve University, 
1893; Harvard, 1901; Yale, 1901; University of Wisconsin, 
1904; Litt. D., Kenyon, 1903); Loubet prize, Berlin 
Academy of Science, 1901. Author: “History of the 
United States from the Compromise of 1850” (volumes 
I to VII, 1850-77). 

Ricardo, David, born in 1772; political economist, 
son of a Jewish broker; entered parliament in 1819. 
His “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,” 
containing his famous theory of rent, was published in 
1817. Died, 1823. 

Richard. The name of three kings of England. 
Richard I. (Coeur de Lion) was born 1157, third son of 
Henry II.; succeeded his father, 1189. He led the 
English contingent in the third crusade to the Holy Land, 
and while on his return, 1192, was imprisoned by the 
Emperor of Germany, being ransomed after two years. 
He was killed at the siege of Limoges, 1199. Richard 
II., son of the Black Prince, was born at Bordeaux, 
1366; succeeded his grandfather, Edward III., 1377, and 
was deposed in favor of Henry IV. He is believed to 
have died in prison about 1400. Richard III., son of 
Richard, Duke of York, born, 1452, was the last of the 
Plantagenet line. He usurped the throne on the death 
of his brother, Edward IV., 1483, imprisoning, and it is 
believed ordering the murder of his two young nephews. 
Defeated by Henry, Earl of Richmond, at Bosworth, 
Richard was killed on the field and was succeeded by the 
victor, as Henry VII. 

Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Due de, born 

in Paris, 1585, French cardinal and statesman, became 
bishop of Lu^on in 1607; in 1615, entered the service of 
the Queen-mother, Marie de’ Medici, and in 1616, became 
secretary of state for war and foreign affairs. He fol¬ 
lowed Marie de’ Medici to Blois (1617), and was exiled 
to Avignon, but was soon afterwards recalled, and 
effected a reconciliation between the king and queen, 
receiving as his reward a cardinal’s hat. In 1624, he 
became chief minister, an office which he retained till his 
death (1642). During this period he established the abso¬ 
lute power of the king, and crushed the Calvinistic party, 
although he was led by political motives to support the 
Protestants in Germany. 

Ridley, Nicholas, English reformer; born in Northum¬ 
berland, about 1500, studied at Cambridge, Paris, and 
Louvain; returned to Cambridge in 1529; became chap¬ 
lain to Cranmer, in 1537, and, about 1540, master of 
Pembroke Hall; was appointed Bishop of Rochester, in 
1547, and of London, in 1550; took a leading part in 



BIOGRAPHY 


481 


composing the liturgy and drawing up the forty-two 
articles; favored the attempt to place Lady Jane Grey 
on the throne, and was imprisoned in the Tower; was 
condemned to death for heresy, and burnt, with Latimer, 
at Oxford, in October, 1555. 

Riis, Jacob August, journalist, author; born in 
Ribe, Denmark, May 3, 1849, and was educated in 
Latin school there. He came to New York and became 
police reporter for “New York Sun’’; active in small 
parks and playgrounds movement; executive officer of 
Good Government clubs, 1896-97. Author: “How the 
Other Half Lives,” “The Making of an American,” 
“The Children of the Poor,” “The Children of the Slum,” 
“The Children of the Tenements,” “Peril and Preserva¬ 
tion of the Home,” “Roosevelt, the Citizen,” “Is There 
a Santa Claus?” and numerous magazine articles on 
social and economic subjects. 

Riley, James Whitcomb, author; born in Green¬ 
field, Ind., in 1853; educated at the public schools; 
began contributing poems to Indiana papers, 1873, and 
has long been known as “ the Hoosier poet ” ; much of his 
verse is in the Middle-Western or Hoosier dialect; his 
earlier Hoosier dialect verse, and his first book, appeared 
under the pen-name “Benj. F. Johnson, of Boone” 
(M. A., Yale, 1902; Litt. D., University of Pennsylvania, 
1904). Author: “The Old Swimmin’ Hole and ’Leven 
More Poems,” “The Boss Girl and Other Sketches,” 
“Afterwhiles,” “Old-Fashioned Roses” (published in 
England); “Pipes o’ Pan at Zekesbury,” “Rhymes of 
Childhood,” “Flying Islands of the Night,” “Green 
Fields and Running Brooks,” “Armazindy,” “A Child- 
World,” “Neighborly Poems,” “Home Folks,” “Poems 
Here at Home,” “Rubaiyat of Doc. Sifers,” “The 
Book of Joyous Children,” “ An Old Sweetheart of Mine,” 
“Out to Old Aunt Mary’s,” “A Defective Santa Claus.” 

Ristori, Adelaide, born in 1822; Italian actress, the 
child of strolling players; married, in 1847, the Marquis 
Capranica del Grillo, but afterwards returned to the stage. 
Having established her reputation in Italy, she visited 
Paris, 1855, London, 1856, and other European capitals, 
as well as the United States and South America. In 
America she played with Edwin Booth. Died, 1906. 

Robbia, Luca della, born about 1399, an Italian 
sculptor; famous for his work in enameled terra-cotta. 
Died, 1482. His nephew, Andrea, born 1438, excelled 
in the same art. Died, 1528. 

Robert Bruce, King of Scotland; born in 1274, was 
the grandson of Balliol’s rival in 1292. In 1306, he mur¬ 
dered the regent, Comyn, and was crowned at Scone, 
but was defeated by Edward I. the same year. After many 
years of hardship and ill-fortune, he gained a final victory 
over Edward II. at Bannockburn, in 1314. By the 
Treaty of Northampton (1328), the complete independ¬ 
ence of Scotland was recognized. Died, 1329. 

Roberts, Frederick, Lord, an English military offi¬ 
cer; born in Cawnpore, India, September 30, 1832. He 
was taken to England when two years old, educated 
at Clifton, Eton, Sandhurst, and Addiscombe, and en¬ 
tered the Bengal Artillery in 1851. His first taste of 
actual warfare was in the hot time of the siege of Delhi, 
during the mutiny, and he took an active part in the 
subsequent operations down to the relief of Lucknow. 
He discharged the duties of assistant quartermaster- 
general in the Abyssinian expedition of 1868, and in the 
Lushai expedition of 1871-72. On the outbreak of 
the Afghan War in 1878, Roberts, now major-general 
was appointed to command the Kurram division of the 
army. He forced in brilliant fashion the Afghan posi¬ 
tion on the peak of Peiwar Kotal (8,500 feet above sea- 
level). After the murder of Sir Louis Cavagnari and 
the escort of the British mission at Kabul, he was given 
command of the force sent to avenge them. He de¬ 
feated the Afghans at Charasia on October 6th, took 
possession of Kabul on the 12th, and assumed the gov¬ 
ernment of the country. On August 9th, Sir F. Roberts 
set out on his memorable march through the heart of 
Afghanistan to the relief of Kandahar, which he reached 
three weeks later. He immediately gave battle to Ayub 
Khan and routed him completely, capturing all his 
artillery and his camp; was appointed commander-in- 
chief of the Madras army (1881), and held the rank 
of commander-in-chief in India (1885-93). He was 
appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland 
in 1895; and in 1899 took command of the English 
forces in South Africa, capturing Cronje, relieving 
Kimberley, and annexing the two republics. He re¬ 
turned to England and was made commander-in-chief 
to succeed Lord Wolseley. 

Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore ( rob'aiz - 
peer), a French revolutionist, was born at Arras, 1758. 
After studying law and gaining some distinction as an 
advocate, he entered the States-General in 1789, as one 
of the representatives of Artois. In that assembly he 


soon made his mark as a rabid Democrat, and attached 
himself to the Jacobin body. In 1792, the City of Paris 
elected him one of its deputies to the convention, 
where he speedily became the leader of the Mountain 
party, in its struggles with the Girondins. Over the 
latter, with the help of the Commune of Paris and the 
mob, he achieved a decisive triumph in June, 1793. 
After this he inaugurated the Reign of Terror, by con¬ 
stituting himself president of the committee of public 
safety, and associating along with him Couthon and Saint- 
Just. In 1794, being by this time in possession of almost 
unlimited power, Robespierre opened the regime of the 
guillotine by first sacrificing his Girondist rivals, and 
then sending indiscriminately to their death thousands 
of innocent persons of both sexes. The excesses of this 
monster at last raised against him a strong combination 
of opponents, and the convention declaring him an 
outlaw, Robespierre perished under the guillotine, July 
28, 1794. 

Rochambeau, JTean Baptiste Donatien de Vlmeur, 
Comte de, born in 1725, marshall of France; distin¬ 
guished himself in Seven Years’ War and the American 
War of Independence; in 1790, became commander of 
the army of the north, but resigned in 1792, and narrowly 
escaped execution during Reign of Terror. Died, 1807. 

Rockefeller, John Davison, capitalist; born in 
Richford, N. Y., July 8, 1839; moved to Cleveland, 
Ohio, 1853; public school education; married in Cleve¬ 
land, Ohio, September 8, 1864, Laura C. Spelman. Was 
clerk in forwarding and commission house; at 19, part¬ 
ner in firm of Clark & Rockefeller, commission mer¬ 
chants; firm became Andrews, Clark & Co., and engaged 
in oil business; in 1865, the firm, then William Rocke¬ 
feller & Co., built Standard Oil Works, Cleveland; this 
was consolidated with others in Standard Oil Company, 
1870; other interests were later aquired and the Stan¬ 
dard Oil Trust was formed, 1882, but dissolved, 1892, the 
various Standard Oil companies afterward being operated 
separately, wjth Rockefeller at the head. In 1911 
he resigned presidency of Standard Oil Company. He 
has given about $25,000,000 to the University of Chicago; 
a, $100,000 building, 3,000 volumes on Greek art and 
literature, and money donations to Vassar; $1,375,000 
to Barnard College; $250,000 to American Baptist Mis¬ 
sionary Union and Home Missionary Society; $43,000,000 
to General Education Board; $1,000,000 to Yale, 1905; 
endowed Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 
New York, etc. 

Rockefeller, John Davison, Jr., capitalist; born in 
1874; son of John Davison and Laura C. (Spelman) 
Rockefeller; graduate of Brown University; married, in 
1901, Abby Greene Aldrich. Associated with his father 
in business enterprises; member of board of managers of 
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad Company; 
director of Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, American 
Linseed Company. 

Rockefeller, William, capitalist; born in Richford, 
Tioga County, N. Y., May 31, 1841; educated at Owego, 
N. Y., and Cleveland, Ohio; was bookkeeper and later 
partner in produce commission trade; soon after joined 
his brother, John D. Rockefeller, in oil business; from 
1865 to 1911, at head of the business in New York; also 
president of the Standard Oil Co. of New York until 
1911. He is trustee or director of many railroads and 
other corporations. 

Rodin, Auguste, sculptor, president of international 
society of painters, sculptors, and engravers, was born of 
a poor family in Paris in 1840. At an early age he dis¬ 
played great taste for art. He studied under Barye and 
Carrier-Belleuse. At the age of twenty-two he modeled 
the “Man with a Broken Nose”, one of the best of his 
works. He began to exhibit at the salon in 1875. In 
1877 he exhibited “The Age of Bronze” which was pur¬ 
chased by the state and is now in the Luxembourg gallery. 
In 1880 he completed his statue of St. John also in the 
Luxembourg gallery. Possibly the most elaborate of all 
his works is his “Portal of Hell ” upon which he worked 
twenty years. It is a bronze door for the museum of 
decorative art, Paris. His works include: “Burgesses of 
Calais”, “The Kiss”, statue of Balzac, busts of Jean 
Paul Laurens, Victor Hugo, and many others. In 1900 
the city of Paris erected a building in which most of his 
works were exhibited at the Paris exhibition. 

Roebliug, John A. ( rob'Ung ), an American civil 
engineer, was born in Miihlhausen, Prussia, 1806. He 
emigrated to the United States in 1831, and in course of 
years became the designer and constructor of many 
great public works; among them the canal aqueduct 
across the Allegheny River, and the Monongahela sus¬ 
pension bridge, both at Pittsburg; the suspension bridge 
at Niagara, the Ohio bridge at Cincinnati, etc. Roebling 
died in 1869, having just before projected the bridge 



482 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


over the East River, to connect the cities of New York 
and Brooklyn, completed by his son and opened to travel 
in 1883. 

Roebling, Washington Augustus, engineer; born 
in Saxonburg, Pa., May 26, 1837; graduate of Rens¬ 
selaer Polytechnic Institute, 1857; joined his father in 
construction of Pittsburgh suspension bridge across Alle¬ 
gheny River; served, 1861-65, in Union Army, private 
to brevet colonel; resigned January, 1865, to assist his 
father in building Cincinnati and Covington suspension 
bridge. The Brooklyn bridge was undertaken by the 
father, but his death, July 22, 1869, before the work had 
been begun, left the entire construction to his son, who 
directed it to completion. He was president of The 
John A. Roebling’s Sons Company, manufacturers of 
iron and steel wire and wire rope, Trenton, N. J. Author: 
“Military Suspension Bridge,’’ etc. Died, 1912. 

Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, the discoverer of the 
X-Rays, is of Dutch origin, and was born in 1845. 
He began his university studies at Zurich, and from there 
followed Professor Kundt to Wurzburg, and afterwards 
to Strassburg, in which university he acted as Kundt’s 
assistant in 1873. In 1875, he became professor of 
physics and mathematics at the Agricultural Academy 
in Wiirttemberg; in 1876, he returned to Strassburg; in 
1879, became professor at Giessen, in 1885 at Wurzburg, 
and at Munich since 1899. He has written several 
works on scientific subjects, and of late years has studied 
the effects of electricity when passed through various 
gases; also the absorption of heat rays by steam and 
gases. His discovery of the rays which he has named 
X-Rays came by chance when he was experimenting 
with vacuum tubes. He studied them thoroughly, how¬ 
ever, before making his discovery public. 

Roger II., King of Sicily; born in 1097. He gained 
some territory from his cousin, William of Apulia, after 
whose death, in 1127, he was acknowledged as Duke of 
Apulia, Calabria, and Naples, receiving his investiture 
from Pope Honorius II. (1128). Soon afterwards the 
Prince of Capua did homage to him as his over-lord. 
In 1129, he received from the anti-pope, Anacletus, the 
title of King of Sicily. Died, 1154. 

Rogers, Henry H., capitalist; born in Fairhaven, 
Mass.; was a large stockholder and vice-president 
and director of Standard Oil Company; president and 
director of Amalgamated Copper Company, National 
Transit Company, Natural Fuel Gas Company, New 
York Transit Company, Richmond Light and Railroad 
Company; vice-president and trustee of Anaconda Cop¬ 
per Mining Company; vice-president and director of 
Brooklyn Union Gas Company, United Metals Selling 
Company; trustee of Mutual Life Insurance Company 
of New York; director of United States Steel Corpora¬ 
tion, Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6 Railroad Company, 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company, 
Union Pacific Railroad Company, New Jersey & Staten 
Island Ferry Company, Rapid Transit Ferry Company, 
Staten Island Ferry Company, Atlas Tack Company, 
Farmers’ Loan and Trust Company, Guaranty Trust 
Company, Mutual Alliance Trust Company, National 
Bank of Fairhaven, New York, Carbide and Acetylene 
Company. He made many gifts to his native town, 
including a library, town hall, schools, churches, etc. 
Died, 1909. 

Rogers, Henry Wade, dean law department of Yale 
since 1903; born in Holland Patent, N. Y., October 10, 
1853; graduate of University of Michigan, 1874 (A. M., 
LL. D., Wesleyan University, Conn.). Admitted to 
bar, 1877; professor law in law school, University of 
Michigan, 1883; dean of same, 1885-90; president of 
Northwestern University, 1890-1901; professor of law, 
Yale, 1901-03. Author: “Illinois Citations,” “Expert 
Testimony,” also numerous articles for law journals 
and reviews. 

Roland, Marie Jeanne Plilipon, born in 1754; 

was daughter of an engraver at Paris, and married Roland 
in 1780. She sympathized with his revolutionary ideas, 
and exercised much influence over the policy of the 
Girondist party. On the proscription of the Girondists 
she was confined in the Abbaye, and, after five months’ 
imprisonment, put to death in 1793. Her “Memoires” 
were written during her confinement. 

Romanes, George John, naturalist; born in Kings¬ 
ton, Canada, in 1848; took an honors degree in science at 
Cambridge; came under the influence of Darwin, whose 
theory of evolution he advocated and developed in 
lectures and various works, e. g., “Scientific Evidences 
of Organic Evolution,” “Mental Evolution in Animals,” 
“ Mental Evolution in Man ” ; his posthumous “Thoughts 
on Religion ” reveal a marked advance from his early 
agnosticism towards a belief in Christianity; founded 
the Romanes Lectures at Oxford. Died, 1894. 


Romanzoff, Peter Alexandrovltsch ( ro-man'taof ). 
Count de, a Russian general, was born about 1730, and 
entered the army at a very early period. After having 
acquired reputation in subordinate ranks, he was, in 
1769, appointed to command the army against the 
Turks. In four campaigns he obtained several victories, 
and conquered several fortresses; he crowned his labors 
by compelling the grand vizier to sign, in 1774, the 
treaty of Kainardji. In 1788 he was again placed at 
the head of an army against the Ottomans; but he was 
thwarted by Potemkin, and resigned in disgust. He died 
in 1796. 

Romney, George, painter, born at Dalton, in Lan¬ 
cashire, 1734; after receiving some lessons from a coun¬ 
try artist, went to London in 1762; visited France in 
1764, and Italy, 1773-75; on his return became the rival 
of Reynolds as a portrait painter; also gained distinc¬ 
tion as. a painter of historical pictures. Died, 1802. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, twenty-sixth President, was 
born in New York City, October 27, 1858, the son of 
Theodore and Martha (Bullock) Roosevelt. Though 
physically delicate in youth, he entered Harvard Uni¬ 
versity at 18, and was graduated in 1880. The year 
following he began the study of law, but in the same 
year was elected to the New York Legislature. He 
was twice reelected, and became the candidate of the 
minority party for speaker in his second term. In 1884 
he was chosen a delegate to the Republican National 
Convention, and later in the year went to North Dakota, 
where he spent several years on a ranch, raising cattle. 
In 1886 he was the unsuccessful candidate for Mayor of 
New York. President Harrison appointed him a mem¬ 
ber of the United States Civil Service Commission in 
1889, in which capacity he served until 1895, when he 
resigned to accept the presidency of the Police Commis¬ 
sion of New York City, under Mayor Strong. President 
McKinley appointed him Assistant Secretary of the 
Navy in April, 1897, and, upon the outbreak of the Span- 
ish-American War, in 1898, he resigned the post to assist 
in organizing the First U. S. Volunteer Cavalry (after¬ 
wards known as Roosevelt’s Rough Riders), of which 
he became lieutenant-colonel, and later colonel, for gal¬ 
lantry in the battles of Las Guasimas and San Juan, 
Cuba. In September, 1898, he was mustered out, with 
his regiment, at Montauk, Long Island. Shortly follow¬ 
ing he was nominated for governor of New York, and 
elected, November, 1898. Two years later he was unani¬ 
mously nominated for vice-president of the United 
States by the Republican National Convention, at Phila¬ 
delphia, and elected. He succeeded to the presidency 
September 14, 1901, upon the death of President Mc¬ 
Kinley, and at the close of the term was unanimously 
nominated by his party to succeed himself, and elected 
November, 1904. His second term embraced a strenu¬ 
ous, successful campaign for political, industrial, and 
social reform. His efforts in bringing about a treaty of 
peace between Japan and Russia in 1905 were import¬ 
ant and effective. After the inauguration of President 
Taft, he headed a large hunting party to Africa for the 
Smithsonian Institution. In 1910 he returned through 
Europe, enjoying a magnificent triumph. His speeches 
at Cairo, Paris, and the Guildhall, London, were not¬ 
able, as well as his review of the German army. The 
Smithsonian Institution received over 23,000 specimens 
as the result of this trip, making its East African collection 
the most complete in the world. In 1912 he was presi¬ 
dential candidate of the Progressive party which he had 
organized. During the campaign he was shot at Mil¬ 
waukee, but was not fatally wounded. He has con¬ 
tributed widely to periodical and general literature. 
Contributing editor of the Outlook since 1909. Among 
his important publications are: “Winning of the West,” 
“History of the Naval War of 1812,” “Hunting Trips 
of a Ranchman,” “Life of Thomas Hart Benton,” “Life 
of Gouverneur Morris,” “ Ranch Life and Hunting Trail,” 
“History of New York,” “American Ideals and Other 
Essays,” “The Wilderness Hunter,” “TheRough Riders,” 
“Life of Oliver Cromwell,” and “The Strenuous Life.” 
He has been twice married: first, to Alice Lee, in 1880, 
who died in 1884; second, to Edith Kermit Carow, 
in 1886. 

Root, Elihu, an American statesman and lawyer: 
born in Clinton, N. Y., February 15, 1845; was graduated 
at Hamilton College in 1864, and after teaching for a 
while entered the New York University Law School and 
was graduated in 1867. On August 1, 1899, he was ap¬ 
pointed secretary of war by President McKinley, and on 
March 5, 1901, was reappointed. After the Spanish- 
American War, Secretary Root represented the United 
States Government in all official communications with 
Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. In August, 
1903, he resigned the office of secretary of war, his resigna¬ 
tion to take effect in January, 1904. In 1905, President 




BIOGRAPHY 


483 


Roosevelt appointed him secretary of state, and while 
discharging the duties of that office he did much to unify 
the Pan-American countries. In 1907, he visited 
Mexico in the interests of a closer relationship between 
that country and the United States. United States sen¬ 
ator from New York, 1909-1915. 

Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, fifth earl 
of; born in 1847; was chief commissioner of works in 
1885, and was chairman of the first London County 
Council; became foreign secretary under Mr. Gladstone 
in 1886 and 1892; succeeded to the premiership in 1894, 
resigned in 1895, and retired from the leadership of the 
Liberal party, October, 1896; since then he has been 
prominent on several important occasions, notably dur¬ 
ing the Fashoda crisis and the Transvaal negotiations, 
in both of which he supported Lord Salisbury; has 
delivered many notable speeches on literary and social 
subjects. In 1900, published an interesting study of 
“Napoleon—The Last Phase.” In December, 1901, 
returned to political life, with a speech at Chesterfield, 
and became president of the Liberal League. Has been 
a vigorous critic of Mr. Chamberlain’s policy, especially 
on imperial grounds. 

Rosecrans, William Starke, American general, 
born at Kingston, Ohio, 1819; trained as an engineer, he 
had settled down to coal-mining when the Civil War 
broke out; joined the army in 1861, and rapidly came to 
the front; highly distinguished himself during the cam¬ 
paigns of 1862-63, winning battles at Iuka, Corinth, and 
Stone River; but defeated at Chickamauga he lost his 
command; reinstated in 1864 he drove Price out of Mis¬ 
souri; was minister to Mexico, a member of Congress, 
and 1885-1893 registrar of the United States Treasury; 
died near Los Angeles, Cal., 1898. 

Rossetti, Gabriele (ros-set'te), born at Vasto, in the 
province of Chieti, Italy, 1783, an eminent Italian author, 
chiefly celebrated as a commentator on Dante, and as the 
author of several volumes of poems, which are popular 
in Italy. He went to England as a political refugee in 
1824, and was for several years (till 1845) professor of 
Italian Literature in King’s College, London. Died in 
London, 1854. His son, Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti, 
born in London, 1828; died at Birchington-on-the-Sea 
April 9, 1882; attained considerable eminence as an 
artist, and also as a poet. His poems are contained in 
two volumes—“Poems” (1870), and “Ballads and 
Sonnets ” (1881). He also wrote “Dante and his Circle ” 
(1861 and 1874.) Christina Rossetti, daughter and sister 
of the two above, died December 29, 1894, at the age of 
sixty-four. She wrote “.The Prince’s Progress,” etc., 
and many well-known religious poems and books, 
children’s stories, etc. 

Rossini, Gioachino Antonio ( ro8-.8e'ne ), the great¬ 
est of the Italian opera composers, was born 1792. He 
was the son of a strolling horn-player. He studied music 
under Mattei at the Lyceum of Bologna. Among his 
chief operas are “Tancredi” (1813), “II Barbiere di 
Seviglia ” (1816), and “Guglielmo Tell ” (1829). He also 
composed a “Stabat Mater” (1842), and other Church 
music. From 1824 onwards he lived chiefly in Paris. 
Died, 1868. 

Rothschild ( Ger. pron. rdt'shilt), the name of a cele¬ 
brated Jewish family of bankers and financiers. Meyer 
Anselm Rothschild, was born at Frankford, 1743, died, 
1812. Was designed for the priesthood, but showed more 
aptitude for commercial pursuits, and laid the founda¬ 
tions of his family’s fortune by his success as the banker 
of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel. His son, Nathan, born 
1777, died 1836, went to England in 1800 as agent for his 
father, after whose death he greatly extended his busi¬ 
ness, acting in co-partnership with his brothers, who 
resided in various European capitals. His eldest son, 
Lionel de Rothschild, was born 1808, died 1879, was 
elected Whig member for the City of London in 1847, but 
did not take his seat until the passing of the Jewish Dis¬ 
abilities Bill (1858). Nathaniel Meyer, was born 1840, 
eldest son of Lionel, was raised to the peerage in 
1885. 

Rousseau, Jean Jacques ( Rd-so '), French philoso¬ 
pher, was born 1712, son of a watchmaker at Geneva; 
was apprenticed to an engraver, but made his escape 
into Savoy (1728), where he was found by a priest, who 
entrusted him to the care of Madame de Warens at 
Annecy. During the ensuing years the greater part of 
his time was spent in her house, but he finally quarreled 
with her and went to Paris (1741), whence in 1742 he 
accompanied the French ambassador to Venice as sec¬ 
retary. In 1750 he gained a prize, offered by the Acad¬ 
emy of Dijon, by an essay attacking the influence of the 
arts and sciences on society. Of his subsequent writings 
the following are the most famous — “Julie, ou la Nou- 
velle H^loise,” a romance (1760), “Du Contrat Social” 
(1762), and “Emile,” a philosophical romance treating 


of education (1762). The years 1766-67 he spent in Eng¬ 
land as the guest of Hume, but quarreled with him, and 
returned to France. Died, 1778. 

Royce, Josiah, professor of history of philosophy, 
Harvard; born in Grass Valley, Nevada County, Cal., 
November 20, 1855; graduate of University of Califor¬ 
nia, 1875 (Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1878; LL. D., Uni¬ 
versity of Aberdeen, Scotland, 1900; LL. D., Johns 
Hopkins, 1902). Instructor in English literature and 
logic, University of California, 1878-82; instructor and 
assistant professor, Harvard, 1882-92; professor since 
1892. Author: “Religious Aspect of Philosophy,” 
“ History of California ” (in “ American Commonwealth ” 
series), “The Feud of Oakfield Creek” (novel), “The 
Spirit of Modern Philosophy,” “The Conception of God ” 
(joint author), “The World and the Individual ” (2 vola.), 
“The Conception of Immortality,” “Studies of Good 
and Evil,” “Outlines of Psychology,” “Herbert Spencer, 
an Estimate and a Review,” etc. 

Rubens, Peter Paul, a distinguished Flemish painter; 
born in Siegen, Westphalia, June 29, 1577. He went to 
Antwerp in 1608, and was soon after made court painter 
to the Archduke Albert, Spanish governor of the Low 
Countries. In 1621 he was employed by the Princess 
Marie de’ Medici to adorn the gallery of the Luxembourg 
with a series of paintings illustrative of the principal 
scenes of her life. While thus engaged he became known 
to the Duke of Buckingham, who purchased his museum. 
He was afterward employed by the Infanta Isabella and 
the King of Spain in some important negotiations which 
he executed with such credit as to be appointed secretary 
of the Privy Council. He acquired immense wealth, and 
was twice married, the second time, in 1630, to a girl of 
sixteen. Rubens, beyond all comparison, was the most 
rapid in execution of all the great masters, and was incon¬ 
testably the greatest perfector of the mechanical part of 
his art that ever existed. His works are very numerous, 
and very diversified in subject. There are nearly 100 
in the picture gallery at Munich. “The Descent from 
the Cross,” at Antwerp, is perhaps his masterpiece. He 
died in Antwerp, May 30, 1640. 

Rudolf, or Rodolf I., King of Germany, founder of 
the Habsburg Dynasty, was born 1218; was elected 
emperor in 1273, and, by his concessions to Gregory X. 
at his coronation, ended the feud with the pope. A war 
with Ottocar, King of Bohemia, was terminated by the 
defeat and death of the latter in 1278. His son, Wen- 
ceslaus, did homage to Rudolf for Bohemia and Moravia. 
Rudolf curbed the power of the nobles, and granted 
charters to many towns. Died, 1291. 

Rudolf II., German emperor, son of Maximilian II., 
born in Vienna in 1552; became King of Hungary in 1572, 
and of Bohemia three years later; ascended the imperial 
throne in 1576; indolent and incapable, he left the 
empire to the care of worthless ministers; disorder and 
foreign invasion speedily followed; persecution inflamed 
the Protestants; by 1611, his brother, Matthias, sup- 

g orted by other kinsmen, had wrested Hungary and 
iohemia from him; had a taste for astrology and al¬ 
chemy, and patronized Kepler and Tycho Brahe. Died, 
1612. 

Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count, was 

born in Woburn, Massachusetts, March 26, 1753. He 
was an American scientist, noted especially for his suc¬ 
cessful endeavors to apply the principles of natural phi¬ 
losophy to practical uses. He was originally a teacher 
at Rumford, near Concord, in his native State; but, 
having taken part in the political movements of the 
time, he was sent to England by General William Howe 
as the bearer of despatches. There he occupied for a 
time the position of under-secretary of state in the 
colonial office; and then returned to America, where he 
fought on the royal side. Afterwards he entered the 
service of the King of Bavaria, and effected many reforms 
in that kingdom, in return for which he was created 
Count of the Holy Roman Empire, choosing Rumford 
for his titular designation. In 1795 he was once more 
in London, where he assisted in founding the Royal Insti¬ 
tution. In 1802 he took up his residence in Paris, where 
he married the widow of the celebrated chemist, Lavoi¬ 
sier; but, having separated from that lady, he removed 
to Auteuil, where he remained until his death. His only 
literary works of importance are: “ Essays, Political, Eco¬ 
nomical, and Philosophical” (1797-1802), and a volume 
of “Papers on Natural Philosophy and Mechanics” 
(1802). Died, 1814. 

Rune berg, Johan Ludvig, born in 1804; Swedish 
poet; studied at the University of Abo; was rector of 
the College of Borga, 1847-50; published idylls, lyrics, 
and other poems. Died, 1877. 

Rupert, Prince Robert, of Bavaria, was born 1619. 
He was a son of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, by Eliza- 




484 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


beth, eldest daughter of James I., of England, and whose 
sister is known in English history as the Electress Sophia 
of Hanover. He took a prominent part in the civil wars 
of England under his uncle, Charles I., and was distin¬ 
guished for his rash courage and impetuosity. In the 
reign of Charles II. he served in the fleet, and was after¬ 
wards appointed Governor of Windsor. In his last years 
he amused himself with scientific pursuits; and is said 
to have invented pinchbeck, sometimes called prince’s 
metal, and the curious scientific toys called Prince Ru¬ 
pert’s drops. He is buried in Henry the Seventh’s 
Chapel, Westminster. Died, 1682. 

Rush, Benjamin, American physician and politician, 
born at Philadelphia, 1745. He studied at Edinburgh; 
was a member of Congress in 1776, and signed the 
Declaration of Independence; became professor in the 
Institute of Medicine at Philadelphia in 1791. Among 
his works are. “Essays, Literary, Moral, and Philo¬ 
sophical’’; “Medical Inquiries and Observations”; and 
“A History of the Yellow Fever.” Died, 1813. 

Ruskin, John, was born in London, 1819, and edu¬ 
cated at Oxford. In 1843 appeared the first volume of 
“Modern Painters,” which created a revolution in modern 
art and the estimation of artistic qualities. The remain¬ 
ing volumes were published in 1846, 1856, and 1860. Of 
Ruskin’s other works on art, the chief are the “Seven 
Lamps of Architecture,” and “Stones of Venice.” About 
1860 he became deeply interested in the social problems 
of the age, and published “Unto tins Last,” and “Munera 
Pulveris.” Among his later works are “Sesame and 
Lilies,” “The Ethics of the Dust,” and “The Crown of 
Wild Olive,” and “Prseterita,” a charming, though 
uncompleted autobiography. Mr. Ruskin was appointed 
Rede Lecturer, at Cambridge, in April, 1867, and the 
senate conferred the degree of LL. D. upon him, May 
15th. From 1869 to 1879, and during 1883-84 he was 
Slade Professor of Fine Arts at Oxford. He was 
obliged to resign the post in 1884 on account of failing 
health. For several years prior to his death he lived 
in retirement at Brantwood, on Lake Coniston. Died, 
1900. 

Russell, Annie (Miss), actress; born in Liverpool, 
England, in 1869; first stage appearance in Montreal 
when 7; afterward at New York in juvenile “Pinafore” 
company; went to South America and West Indies in 
varied repertory; returned to United States and joined 
Madison Square Theater Company; became famous in 
“Esmeralda” and George Parsons Lathrop’s “Elaine”; 
retired for several years on account of ill health; since 
1895, has appeared in several leading roles; first appear¬ 
ance in London, 1898. Has since appeared as star in 
“Miss Hobbs,” “A Royal Family,” “The Girl and. the 
Judge,” etc. 

Russell, John, Earl, statesman, third son of the 
sixth Duke of Bedford, was born 1792. He was educated 
at Westminster and Edinburgh; entered parliament as 
a Whig in 1813; became an advocate of parliamentary 
reform; was instrumental in the repeal of the Test and 
Corporation Acts (1828), and the passing of the Catholic 
Relief Act (1829); was paymaster-general under Lord 
Grey, 1830-34, and drew up the Government Reform Bill 
(1832); was home secretary (1835-39), and colonial sec¬ 
retary (1839-41) under Lord Melbourne; led the Oppo¬ 
sition (1841-46); was prime minister (1846-52); went as 
British plenipotentiary to the Vienna Conference (1855); 
was foreign secretary under Lord Palmerston (1859-65); 
again became prime minister in 1865, but resigned on 
the defeat of his Reform Bill in 1866. Earl Russell 
published an “Essay on the History of the English Gov¬ 
ernment and Constitution,” and numerous other works. 
Died, 1878. 

Russell, Lillian, opera singer; born (Helen Louise 
Leonard) in Iowa in 1861; educated in Convent Sacred 
Heart, Chicago; sang in church choir, and, in 1879, 
was engaged by E. E. Rice to play in “Pinafore.” 
Later, sang ballads at Tony Pastor’s Theater, New York; 
joined MeCaull Opera Company, of which she was prima 
donna until her own company was organized; has since 
starred in various operatic rdles in United States and 
England; married, first, Harry Braham, musical con¬ 
ductor; second, Edward Solomon, composer; third, Sig. 
Perugini, operatic tenor; fourth, A. P. Moore. 

Ruysdaal ( rois'dal ), or Ruysdael, Jacob van, one of 
the most distinguished Dutch landscape painters, born 
at Haarlem, probably about 1625, died in the poorhouse 
of his native place 1682. His paintings, but little appre¬ 
ciated during his lifetime, now bring great prices. Fine 
examples of his works are to be seen in the National 
Gallery at London, and in the Louvre at Paris. Land¬ 
scapes with dark clouds hanging over them, lakes and 
rivulets surrounded by overhanging trees, etc., are his 
subjects, and are represented with true poetic feeling 


and admirable technique. It is said that the figures in 
his paintings were executed by A. van de Velde, Philip 
and Pieter Wouwerman, C. Berghem, and others. 

Ruyter ( roi'ter ), Michael Adriaanszoon de, a cele¬ 
brated Dutch Admiral, born at Flushing in 1607, died, 
1676, in the port of Syracuse from a wound received in an 
engagement with the French. He rose to his rank from 
the situation of cabin-boy, and distinguished himself for 
remarkable seamanship and bravery in many naval 
battles, but more especially in 1653, in 1666, and in 1672, 
against the British fleet. 

Ryan, Patrick John, Roman Catholic archbishop, 
was born near Thurles, Ireland, in 1831. He was or¬ 
dained deacon and completed his studies in St. Louis, 
Mo., and was raised to the priesthood in 1853. In 
1872 was elected coadjutor bishop of St. Louis; arch¬ 
bishop, 1883. His administration was energetic and 
successful. He was transferred to Philadelphia in 1884. 
He was distinguished as a graceful and eloquent 
speaker. Author of “ What Catholics Do Not Be¬ 
lieve”; “The Causes of Modern Skepticism,” etc. 
Died, 1911. 

Ryan, Thomas Fortune, financier; born in Nelson 
County, Va., October 17, 1851. Began business life, 
1868, Baltimore dry goods house; entered Wall Street, 
1870; member of New York Stock Exchange, 1874; 
afterwards interested in consolidation and extension of 
street railway and lighting systems, New York, Chicago, 
and other cities, and in reorganization of various rail¬ 
ways in the South, coal properties in Ohio and West 
Virginia, and railways in Ohio. Purchased controlling 
interest of the stock of Equitable Life Assurance Society 
of United States, 1905. Delegate from Virginia, Demo¬ 
cratic National Convention, 1904. In 1908, retired as 
officer or director of more than thirty corporations in 
which he was the controlling factor. He gave $1,000,000 
for Roman Catholic church, New York city, in 1912. 

Sagasta, Praxedes Mateo, born in 1827; Spanish 
statesman, was obliged to leave the country for his 
share in the rising of 1856, and again, ten years later, 
to seek refuge in France. On his return he changed 
his views and joined General Prim, and held the port¬ 
folio of the interior for several years. After the acces¬ 
sion of Alfonso XII., he formed a Liberal-constitution¬ 
alist party, and having, in 1880, joined a new Liberal 
combination, formed a coalition with Campos, which 
lasted till 1883. In 1885, Sagasta again became head 
of a ministry, and continued almost uninterruptedly 
down to 1902. Died, 1903. 

Sage, Margaret Olivia Slocum (Mrs.), born in 
Syracuse, N. Y., September 8, 1828; daughter of Joseph 
and Margaret Pierson (Jermain) Slocum; educated in 
schools of Syracuse; graduate of Troy Female Seminary, 
1847 (degree, Mistress of Letters, New York University, 
1904); married in Watervliet, N. Y., November 24,1869, 
to Russell Sage. President of Emma Willard Associa¬ 
tion; member of Society of Mayflower Descendants. 
Has added large sums to the endowment of Troy Fe¬ 
male Seminary, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and 
other institutions. Gave $50,000 to Syracuse agricul¬ 
tural school in 1912. 

Saint Clair, Arthur, an American general, was born 
in Scotland, in 1734. He emigrated to America, 
became a citizen of Pennsylvania, and a brigadier- 
general in the Revolutionary army, serving with dis¬ 
tinction at the battles of Trenton and Princeton. In 
1777, he became major-general, and entered Congress in 
1785, of which body he was elected president two years 
later. In 1789, he was made governor of Northwest 
Territory, and two years afterwards suffered a defeat 
with heavy loss, at the hands of the Miami Indians. 
Died, 1818. 

Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin, born in 1804; 

French critic; after having been a surgeon, wrote verses 
for the “Revue des Deux Mondes” and other period¬ 
icals, and, in 1840. became Mazarin librarian. In 1849, 
he joined the “ Constitutionel,” in which appeared his 
“Causeries du Lundi.” He w T as one of the editors of 
the “Dictionnaire Historique de la Langue Francaise.” 
Died. 1869. 

Saint Gaudens, Augustus, sculptor; born in Dub¬ 
lin, Ireland, in 1848; came to United States in infancy; 
learned trade of cameo cutter; studied drawing at 
Cooper Institute, 1861; student at National Academy 
of Design, 1865-66 (hon. LL. D., Harvard; L. H. D., 
Princeton); at Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1867-70. 
In Rome, 1870-72, producing there, 1871, his first 
figure, “Hiawatha”; settled in New York, 1872. 
Among his works are “Adoration of the Cross” (in St. 
Thomas’ Church, New York), “The Puritan,” “Diana” 
(on tower of Madison Square Garden, New York); 
statues of Abraham Lincoln and John A. Logan, Chii- 



BIOGRAPHY 


485 


cago; Admiral Farragut, New York; Peter Cooper, 
New \ork; Colonel R. G. Shaw, Boston; monument 
to General Sherman, New York, and numeroua other 
statues, busts, etc. Died, 1907. 

Saionji, Marquis* former Japanese premier, belongs 
to an illustripus family which, in the past, has had mar¬ 
riage connections with the imperial family. Born in Kioto 
in 1849, as a youth of 18 he gathered volunteers and 
fought for the emperor in the revolution. He then 
went to Paris, was a student in the Latin Quarter, 
and returned to Japan in his 33d year. He at once 
started a daily paper at Tokio, and proclaimed himself 
a Liberal of the European type. Subsequently, the 
marquis became minister to Austria-Hungary and then 
to Germany. On his return to Japan he joined the 
first Ito cabinet as minister of education, a post which 
he again occupied in the second Ito cabinet, having 
been minister of foreign affairs in the interval. A 
great friend of Marquis Ito, Marquis Saionji assisted 
him to form the Constitutional Association (1900), 
and became its leader in 1903. At three difficult crises 
the mikado has called Marquis Saionji to be prime 
minister pro tem. Resigned premiership of Japan, 1912. 

Salisbury, 31arquis of, an eminent British states¬ 
man; was born at Hatfield in 1830. He was graduated 
from Christ Church College, Oxford, in 1849, and sat in 
parliament for Stamford, 1853—68. He was secretary 
for India, 1866-67, and again 1874—76. In the latter 
year he was special ambassador to the Porte, and was 
practically the leader of the Conference of Constanti¬ 
nople. In 1878 he was appointed foreign secretary, and, 
with Lord Beaconsfield, took a prominent part in the 
congress of Berlin. After the latter’s death he became 
the principal leader of the Conservatives in the House of 
Lords, and later rose to the rank of premier. *His death 
occurred in 1903. 

Sallust, Roman historian; born at Amiternum, in 
the territory of the Sabines, and attained the quaestor- 
ship and the tribunate, though a plebeian; for a misde¬ 
meanor was expelled from the senate; joined Caesar’s 
party in the civil war, and became governor of Numidia; 
enriched himself by extortions, and returned to Rome 
a rich man, and gave himself to literature; wrote the 
“Catiline Conspiracy,” and the “War with Jugurtha,” 
among other works, in a terse and forcible style, and was 
the precursor of Livy and Tacitus; as a writer he affects 
the moralist, though he lived in vice, 86-35 B. C. 

Samuel, a Jewish prophet, born of the tribe of Levi, 
about 1155 B. C.; consecrated by his mother from earliest 
years to the service of the Lord; became a judge 
when he was 40, anointed first Saul and then David to 
be king over the till then disunited tribes of Israel, and 
thus became the founder of the Jewish monarchy. 

Sand, George, nom de plume of Madame Dudevant; 
born in 1804; French novelist; separated from her hus¬ 
band in 1831, in which year was published, under the 
pseudonym “Jules Sand,” a novel written in collabora¬ 
tion with Sandeau. Next year she began to write under 
the well-known signature, her chief works being “Con- 
suelo,” “La Comtesse de Rudolstadt,” “Les Sept Cordes 
de la Lyre,” “La Petite Fadette,” “Elle et Lui,” “ Le 
Marquis de Villemer,” and other plays, and “Impres¬ 
sions et Souvenirs.” Died, 1876. 

Santa Ana or Anna, Antonio Lopez de, born in 
1795; Mexican general; fought at first for the Span¬ 
iards, but in 1829, defeated their expedition, and be¬ 
came president in 1833. He recognized the independence 
of Texas, and defended Vera Cruz against the French 
in 1838, but, after having been dictator from 1841 to 
1844, was banished. He returned to conduct the war 
against the United States, and in 1853-55 was again 
dictator. He was afterwards banished once more for 
intriguing against Juarez. Died, 1876. 

Santos-Dumont, Alberto, a Brazilian of means and 
leisure, whose ambition it is to establish that an airship 
for aerial navigation “ is not a mere plaything but a prac¬ 
tical invention, capable of being applied in a thoroughly 
useful fashion.” He won the Deutsch prize, offered to 
the first aeronaut who should go to and return from the 
Eiffel Tower, the Aerostatic Park, in Paris, being the 
starting-point, on October 19, 1901. In November, 
1901, the Brazilian Congress voted him £5,000 in recog¬ 
nition of his great services to aerostatic science. Chev¬ 
alier of the Legion of Honor, 1904. He is now devoting 
himself to flying machines. 

Sardou, Victorien, born in 1831; French dramatist, 
whose first comedy, produced at the Oddon in 1854, was 
a failure; won a reputation by “M. Garat,” and other 
pieces, produced at the Ddjazet Theater, and was ad¬ 
mitted to the Academy in 1877. Among his best-known 
plays are “Les Pattes du Mouche,” the original of “A 
Scrap of Paper,” “Nos Intimes,” of “Peril,” “Dora,” of 


“Diplomacy,” “Odette,” “.Fedora,” “La Tosca,” and 
“Rabagas, a satire on Gambetta. Died, 1908. 

Sargent, Dudley Allen, director of physical training; 
born at Belfast, Maine, 1849; A. B., Bowdoin College, 
1875, A. M., 1887; M. D., Yale, 1878. Director Hemen- 
way gymnasium since 1879, assistant professor physical 
training, 1879-89, Harvard; director of Normal school of 
physical training, Cambridge, Mass., since 1881. Inven¬ 
tor of modern gymnasium apparatus. Author: “Health, 
Strength and Power,” “Physical Education,” etc. 

Sargent, John Singer, artist; born in Florence, 
Italy, 1856; educated in Italy and Germany; studied 
painting at Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Italy, and 
in Paris under Carolus Duran. Exhibited portrait of 
Carolus Duran in Paris Salon of 1877; traveled in Spain. 
1879, and on return opened studio in Paris; removed 
to London, 1884, and has since resided there. Has 
painted many portraits, English and American, one of 
recent note being that of President Roosevelt, painted 
in 1903; also various other pictures, of which his Japan¬ 
ese dancing girl was awarded a grand medal at Paris 
Exposition, 1889. 

Saul, the son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, the 
first King of the Israelites, was anointed by Samuel, B. C., 
1091, and after a reign of forty years, filled with various 
events, was slain with three of his sons on Mount Gilboa. 
He was succeeded by David, who was his son-in-law, 
and whom he had endeavored to put to death. His 
history is contained in I. Samuel, x. to xxxi. 

Savage, Minot Judson, Unitarian clergyman: born 
in Norridgewock, Me., June 10, 1841; graduated from 
Bangor Theological Seminary, 1864 (D. D., Harvard, 
1896); Congregational home missionary in California, 
1864-67; pastor at Framingham, Mass., 1867-69; Han¬ 
nibal, Mo., 1869-73; became Unitarian; pastor of Third 
Unitarian Church, Chicago, 1873-74; Church of the 
Unity, Boston, 1874-96; Church of the Messiah, New 
.York, 1896-1906; retired. Author: “Christianity, the 
Science of Manhood,” “The Religion of Evolution,” 
“Light on the Cloud,” “Bluffton, a Story of To-day,” 
“Life Questions,” “The Morals of Evolution,” “Talks 
About Jesus,” “Poems,” “Belief in God,” “ Beliefs About 
Man,” “Beliefs About the Bible,” “The Modern Sphinx,” 
“Man, Woman, and Child,” “The Religious Life,” “So¬ 
cial Problems,” “These Degenerate Days,” “My Creed,” 
“Religious Reconstruction,” “Signs of the Times,” 
“Helps for Daily Living,” “Life,” “Four Great Ques¬ 
tions Concerning God,” “The Irrepressible Conflict Be¬ 
tween Two World-Theories,” “The Evolution of Chris¬ 
tianity,” “Is this a Good World?” “Jesus and Modern 
Life,” “A Man,” “ Religion for To-day,” “Our Unitarian 
Gospel,” “Hymns,” “The Minister’s Hand-book,” 
“Psychics, Facts, and Theories,” “Life Beyond Death,” 
“ The Passing and the Permanent in Religion,” “ Living 
by the Day,” “Men and Women,” “Can Telepathy 
Explain?" “ Life’s Dark Problems,” Editor: “Sacred 
Songs for Public Worship” (with Howard M. Dow), 
“Unitarian Catechism.” 

Savonarola, Fra Girolamo, Italian preacher; born 
in Ferrara in 1452; acquired great political influence in 
Florence, where he denounced abuses of all kinds. He 
was twice sent as envoy to Charles VIII. of France, and 
after the expulsion of Piero de’ Medici was real ruler of 
the state, but, having been prohibited preaching and 
excommunicated by Alexander VI., he was attacked in 
his priory of San Marco, with his friends, and burnt, 
after being put to the torture in 1498. 

Saxe, Maurice, Comte de, born in 1696; marshal 
of France; was a natural son of Augustus II. of Saxony 
and Poland. His greatest achievements were the vic¬ 
tories of Fontenoy, Laffeld, and Raucoux, and the 
capture of Maestricht. He left a work entitled “Mes 
Reveries,” which was published in 1757, and subsequently 
translated. Died, 1750. 

Schaeberle, John Martin, astronomer; born in 
Germany, 1853; removed to Ann Arbor, Mich., 1854; 
apprentice in Chicago machine shop, 1868-71; became 
interested in astronomy; studied at Ann Arbor High 
School; constructed a number of telescopes; graduated 
from University of Michigan, C. E., 1876 (LL. D., Uni¬ 
versity of California, 1898); private assistant to Pro¬ 
fessor Watson, 1876-78; assistant in Ann Arbor Obser¬ 
vatory, instructor in astronomy and acting professor of 
astronomy in University of Michigan, 1878-88; astrono¬ 
mer Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, 1888-97, acting 
director, 1897-98; had charge of eclipse expeditions of 
Liek Observatory, 1889, 1893, Cayenne and Chile, and 
in 1896 to Japan; has discovered three comets, and has 
done much original work; extensive contributor to 
astronomical journals. 

Schiff, Jacob Henry, banker; born in Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, Germany, 1847; educated in schools of 
Frankfort; came to the United States, 1865; settled in 



486 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


New York; member of firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co., 
bankers; director of Western Union Telegraph Company, 
Woodbine Land and Improvement Company, President 
Montefiore Home for Chronic Invalids; vice-president 
and trustee of Baron De Hirsch Fund; vice-president of 
New York Chamber of Commerce; founded Jewish Theo¬ 
logical Seminary, the Semitic Museum, Harvard, Nurses’ 
Settlement, New York. 

Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, one of 

the greatest of German national poets, was born in Mar- 
bach, 1759. After completing his studies he early 
adopted the medical profession, and, while serving as an 
army surgeon, produced, in 1781, his tragedy of “The 
Bobbers,” a work which established his reputation as a 
dramatist. After quitting the army, he, in 1783, as¬ 
sumed literature for a means of livelihood, and became 
writer to the theater at Mannheim, in which capacity he 
produced his tragedy of “ Fiesco.” Two years after¬ 
wards, he took up his residence in Leipzig, and wrote his 
“Ode to Joy.” In 1789, upon the recommendation of 
his friend Goethe, Schiller entered upon the professorship 
of history at Jena University; and, three years later, 
published his “History of the Thirty Years’ War”; and, 
in 1799, his masterpiece, the tragedy of “Wallenstein.” 
In 1799, he took up his abode in Weimar, where he com¬ 
posed his dramas of “Mary Stuart,” “The Maid of 
Orleans,” and “The Bride of Messina,” as well as his 
exquisite poem “The Song of the Bell.” Finally, in 
1804, appeared one of the most popular of his dramas, 
“.William Tell.” Died, 1805. The ballads of Schiller 
are the finest things of the kind in the German language. 

Schley, Winfield Scott, rear-admiral of United States 
Navy; born near Frederick, Md., October 9, 1839; 
Berved in West Gulf blockading squadron from 1861; 
was in engagements leading to capture of Port Hudson, 
La., 1863; remained in Southern waters until 1864. 
Then, until 1866, in Pacific station as executive officer 
of gunboat “ Wateree ”; suppressed insurrection among 
Chinese coolies on Chincha Islands, 1864, and in 1865, 
landed 100 men at San Salvador to protect United States 
consulate and custom house during revolution. In 1872, 
was placed at head of department of modern languages 
at Annapolis; served in Europe, west coast of Africa 
and the South Atlantic States and, 1884, took command 
of Greely Relief Expedition and rescued Lieutenant 
Greely and six survivors at Cape Sabine. Commanded 
‘{Baltimore” and settled trouble at Valparaiso, Chile, 
1891, when several American sailors were stoned by a 
mob. Carried Ericsson’s body to Sweden, August, 1891, 
for which he received gold medal from King of Sweden. 
Placed in command of the “Flying Squadron” in war 
with Spain. Was in immediate command at the de¬ 
struction of Cervera’s fleet off Santiago, July 3, 1898. 
Promoted to rear-admiral, 1899; was presented with a 
gold sword by people of Pennsylvania; a silver sword 
by the Royal Arcanum; a gold and jeweled medal, with 
the thanks of the Maryland Legislature; a silver service, 
etc., for services at battle of Santiago. Retired at age 
limit, 1901. Author: “Rescue of Greely,” “Forty-five 
Years Under the Flag.” Died, 1911. 

Schofield, John McAllister, lieutenant-general in 
United States Army; born in Gerry, N. Y., 1831; entered 
West Point, 1849; graduated, 1853 (LL. D., Chicago 
University). Served in garrison in South Carolina and 
Florida until 1855; assistant professor of natural philos¬ 
ophy, West Point, 1855-60; under leave of absence, 
professor of physics, Washington University, St. 
Louis, until April, 1861; in the Civil War became 
brigadier-general, November, 1861, and major-general, 
November, 1862, of volunteers; commanded a depart¬ 
ment and army in the field; was in the Atlanta cam¬ 
paign and later commanded at the battle of Franklin, 
Tenn., for which he was made brigadier-general and 
brevetted major-general in regular army. After war be¬ 
came division commander; was secretary of war, 1868-69, 
commanded the army of the United States, 1888-95; 
was made lieutenant-general, 1895; retired from active 
service by operation of law, September 29,1895. Author: 
“Forty-six Years in the Army.” Died, 1906. 

Schurman, Jacob Gould, president of Cornell 
University since 1892; born in Freetown, Prince Edward 
Island, May 22, 1854; graduate of University of London, 
A. B. and A. M., in course, 1877 and 1878, and 1877-78 
studied at Paris and University of Edinburgh, D. Sc. in 
course. Studied two years at Heidelberg. Berlin and 
Gottingen, and in Italy (LL. D., Columbia University, 
1892; Yale University, 1901; University of Edinburgh, 
1902). Was, 1880-82, professor of English literature, 
political economy and psychology, Acadia College; 
1882-86, professor of metaphysics and English literature, 
Dalhousie College; 1886-92, Sage professor of philosophy 
and latter part of time dean of Sage School of Philosophy, 
Cornell; appointed, January, 1899, by the president, 


chairman of United States Philippine Commission, and 
spent most of 1899 in the Philippines. Author: “Kan¬ 
tian Ethics and the Ethics of Evolution,” “The Ethical 
Import of Darwinism,” “Belief in God,” “Agnosticism 
and Religion,” “A Generation of Cornell,” “Report (to 
Congress) of the Philippine Commission” (joint author), 
four volumes, 1900; “Philippine Affairs — A Retrospect 
and Outlook.” Appointed U. S. minister to Greece, 1912. 

Schurz, Carl, publicist; born in Liblar, near Cologne, 
1829; educated at gymnasium, Cologne, University of 
Bonn (LL. D., Harvard, and of University of Missouri; 
LL. D., Columbia University, 1899). Published a 
liberal newspaper at Bonn; took part in revolutionary 
movements in 1848-49, and was compelled to leave Bonn, 
1849; joined revolutionary army, but finally had to flee 
to Switzerland. Newspaper correspondent, Paris, 1851; 
teacher in London. Came to the United States, 1852; 
settled in Watertown, Wis.; was defeated as Republican 
candidate for lieutenant-governor of Wisconsin, 1857; 
member of Republican National Convention, 1860; 
United States minister to Spain, 1861; resigned to enter 
army; appointed brigadier-general, April, 1862; major- 
general, March 14, 1863; commanded division at Second 
Bull Run and at Chancellorsville, and a corps at Gettys¬ 
burg. Washington correspondent to “New York 
Tribune,” 1865-66; founded “Detroit Post,” 1866; 
editor of “St. Louis Westliche Post,” 1867; temporary 
chairman of Republican National Convention, Chicago, 
1868; United States senator from Missouri, 1869775; 
one of the organizers of Liberal party, 1872; presided 
over convention at Cincinnati which nominated Greeley 
for president; supported Hayes, 1876; secretary of the 
interior, 1877-81; editor “New York Evening Post,” 
1881-84. One of leaders of Independent movement, 
1884; supported Cleveland for president; contributor 
to “Harper’s Weekly,” 1892-98; Author: “Speeches,” 
“Life of Henry Clay,” “.Abraham Lincoln, an Essay.” 
Died, 1906. 

Schwab, Charles 31., capitalist, ex-president of 
United States Steel Corporation; born in Williamsburg, 
Pa., April 18, 1862; childhood from 5th year at Loretto, 
Pa.; educated in village school and St. Francis College; 
as a boy drove stage from Loretto to Cresson, Pa., five 
miles; entered service of Carnegie Co., as stake-driver in 
engineering corps of Edgar Thompson steel works; rose 
steadily: superintendent of Homestead works, 1892-97; 
president of Carnegie Steel Co., Ltd., 1897-1901; presi¬ 
dent, 1901-03, of United States Steel Corporation; built 
new Catholic church, costing $150,000, at Loretto, Pa.; 
established Homestead, Pa., Industrial School, etc. 

Scipio, Africanus, Publius Cornelius, born in 234 
B. C.; Roman general; took Carthago Nova and con¬ 
quered Spain, became consul in 205 B. C., and brought 
to a conclusion the second Punic War by the defeat of 
Hannibal at Zama (202 B. C.). He became a second 
time consul, but his popularity passed away on account 
of the arrogance of his later years. Died, 183 B. C. 

Scott, Sir Walter, Bart., born in 1771; novelist: 
was the son of a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, and 
practiced for a few years as an advocate, being appointed 
clerk of the Court of Session in 1806. After some transla¬ 
tions from the German, he began to write ballads, the 
“Lay of the Last Minstrel,” being followed by “Mar- 
mion,” “.The Lady of the Lake,” and other poems. In 
1814, he published “Waverley,” anonymously, and in 
succeeding years appeared the series called by that name. 
In 1820, Scott was made a baronet, but six years after 
he was ruined by the bankruptcy of Messrs. Constable, 
and he spent his later years in an honorable and suc¬ 
cessful attempt to meet his liabilities by means of his 
“Life of Napoleon.” “Tales of a Grandfather,” and con¬ 
tributions to the “Quarterly Review.” His life was 
written by his son-in-law, Lockhart, and his “.Journal” 
was published in 1890. Died, 1832. 

Scott, Winfield, born in 1786; American general; 
was made prisoner and wounded in the War of 1812-14, 
and, after further services, became commander-in-chief, 
in 1841. Having conducted the war against Mexico, 
he was Republican candidate for the presidency in 1852, 
but was not elected. He retired from the army in 1861, 
and died at West Point, 1866. 

Seawell, 31olly Elliot, author; born in Gloucester 
County, Va., October 23, 1860; daughter of John 
Tyler Seawell (a nephew of President Tyler); educated 
at home. Her father died and she and her mother 
removed to Washington, D. C. Began writing sketches 
and stories in 1886. Published first novel in 1890. 
In 1890, her “Little Jarvis” took a prize of $500 offered 
by “Youth’s Companion” for the best story for boys, 
and, in 1895, her “Sprightly Romance of Marsac” took 
a prize of $3,000 offered by the “New York Herald.” 
Author: “Little Jarvis,” “Midshipman Paulding,” 




BIOGRAPHY 


487 


“Paul Jones,” “Maid Marion,” “Decatur and Somers,” 
“A Strange, Sad Comedy,” “The Sprightly Romance 
of Marsac,” “A Virginia Cavalier,” “The Rock of the 
Lion,” “Gavin Hamilton,” “The House of Egremont,” 
“Papa Bouchard,” “Francezka,” “Children of Destiny,” 
“Fifi,” “The Great Scoop.” Plays: “Maid Marion,” 
“Sprightly Romance of Marsac.” 

Seeley, John Robert, historian; born in 1834. In 
1863, he was appointed professor of Latin at University 
College, London, and, in 1869, became Regius professor 
of modern history at Cambridge. In 1865, he published 
anonymously “Ecce Homo,” and he also wrote “Life 
and Times of Stein,” “The Expansion of England,” 
and “Greater Greece and Greater Britain.” Died, 1895. 

Sembrich, Marcella, born in 1858; Austrian singer; 
made her debut at Athens in 1877, in “ I Puritani,” 
and afterwards sang at Vienna, Dresden, London, and 
New York, her favorite parts being Susanna, Martha, 
and Zerlina. 

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, born about 4 B. C.; stoic 
hilosopher; was banished from Rome on a false charge, 
ut, returning after eight years, became tutor to Nero. 
Being accused of conspiracy, he died, 65 A. D., by open¬ 
ing his veins and suffocating himself in a warm bath. 
His works consist of treatises and epistles, but the 
tragedies ascribed to him are of doubtful authenticity. 

Servetus, Michael, born in 1511; Spanish theologian; 
escaped from the Inquisition at Vienna to Geneva, 
where he was burnt to death for his Arianism by the 
orders of Calvin, in 1553. 

Seward, William Henry, born in 1801; American 
statesman; was elected governor of New York in 1838, 
and, in 1849, became United States senator. He now 
headed the Republican party, and, having been an 
unsuccessful candidate for the presidential nomination, 
became secretary of state under Lincoln, in 1861. He 
was attacked at the same time as the latter, but recover¬ 
ed. He wrote a “Life of John Quincy Adams,” and 
other works. Died, 1872. 

Shafter, William Rufus, major-general in United 
States Army, retired; born in Galesburg, Mich., October 
16, 1835. Entered Union army as first lieutenant. 
Brevetted brigadier-general, March 13, 1865, for gallant 
and meritorious services during the war; mustered 
out of volunteer service, November 2, 1865; entered 
regular army as lieutenant-colonel, January 26, 1867; 
brevetted colonel, United States Army, March 2, 1867, 
and given Congressional medal of honor for gallant 
and meritorious services at battle of Fair Oaks, Va. 
Major-general of volunteers, May, 1898; went to Tampa, 
Fla.; thence to Cuba, where he commanded the military 
operations ending in capitulation of General Linares’ 
army and surrender of Santiago de Cuba, July, 1898. 
Retired, June 30, 1901, as major-general. Died, 1906. 

Shah-Jehan (“King of the World”), fifth of the 
Mogul emperors of Delhi; succeeded his father in 1627; 
a man of great administrative ability and a skilled 
warrior; conquered the Deccan and the kingdom of 
Golconda, and generally raised the Mogul Empire to 
its zenith; his court was truly Eastern in its sumptuous 
magnificence; the “Peacock Throne” alone cost $35,- 
000,000. Died in prison in 1666, a victim to the perfidy 
of his usurping son, Aurungzebe. 

Shakespere, or Shakspeare, William, the greatest 
of the English dramatic poets, was born in Stratford-on- 
Avon, Warwickshire, in 1564. Of the incidents of his 
youth almost nothing is known, excepting that he mar¬ 
ried in his 19th year, and soon afterwards resorted to 
London, where he became an actor of repute at the 
Globe and Blackfriars theaters. In 1593, he inaugu¬ 
rated his literary career by the publication of his poem 
“Venus and Adonis”; and, in the following year, his 
first published play appeared, the precursor of a suc¬ 
cession of works which constitute the crowning glory 
of English dramatic literature. Shakespere enjoyed 
the favor of Queen Elizabeth and James I., and the 
friendship of Southampton, Raleigh, Ben Jonson, and 
other of the principal of his contemporaries. After 
realizing an easy fortune by his contributions to the 
stage, he retired to his native town, and there died in 
1616. Shakespere’s tragedies of “Hamlet,” “Macbeth,” 
“Othello,” “Romeo and Juliet,” and “King Lear” are 
wonderful examples of his power of expressing the 
strongest passions of the human soul; while, on the 
other hand, his comedies, particularly “The Merry 
Wives of Windsor,” “Much Ado About Nothing,” 
“Twelfth Night,” “The Taming of the Shrew,” etc., 
are unsurpassed in the English language. Of his dramas, 
strictly so called, perhaps the finest are “As You Like 
It,” “The Merchant of Venice,” and “The Tempest.” 

Shaler, Nathaniel Southgate, scientist; born in 
Newport, Ky., in 1841; graduate of Lawrence Scientific 
School, Harvard, 1862, Sc. D., 1865; served two years 


as artillery officer in Union army during the Civil War; 
instructor in zoology and geology, Lawrence Scientific 
School, 1868-72; professor of palaeontology, 1868-87, 
and afterward professor of geology, Harvard; director 
of Kentucky geological survey, 1873-80, devoting part 
of each year to that work ; from 1884 to 1906, geologist 
in charge of Atlantic division of United States geological 
survey. Author: “A First Book in Geology,” “Ken¬ 
tucky, a Pioneer Commonwealth,” “The Nature of 
Intellectual Property,” “The Story of Our Continent,” 
“The Interpretation of Nature,” “Illustrations of the 
Earth’s Surface,” “Sea and Land,” “The United States 
of America: a Study of the American Commonwealth,” 
“Fossil Brachiopods of the Ohio Valley,” “American 
Highways,” “Features of Coasts and Oceans,” “Domes¬ 
ticated Animals: Their Relation to Man,” “The Indi¬ 
vidual: Study of Life and Death,” “The Neighbor,” 
“The Citizen,” etc. Died, 1906. 

Shaw, Albert, editor of “American Monthly Review 
of Reviews”; born in Shandon, Butler County, O., 
July 23, 1857; graduate of Iowa College, 1879; took 
course in history and political science, Johns Hopkins 
(Ph. D., 1884; LL. D., University of Wisconsin, 1904). 
Editorial writer with “Minneapolis Tribune,” 1883-88, 
1889-90; studied in Europe, 1888-89. Established, 
1891, and has ever since conducted, “American Review 
of Reviews.” Member of numerous learned societies; 
has lectured in many universities and colleges. Author: 
“Icaria — A Chapter in the History of Communism,” 
“Local Government in Illinois,” “Cooperation in the 
Northwest,” “Municipal Government in Great Britain,” 
“Municipal Government in Continental Europe.” 
Editor: “The National Revenues”; also many articles 
on political science and economics, and particularly on 
municipal governments, in magazines, etc. 

Shaw, George Bernard, was born in Dublin, July 
26, 1856, and went to London in 1876. He published 
a few novels, “Cashel Byron’s Profession,” etc., which 
attracted little attention; joined the Fabian Society in 
1884; wrote musical critiques in the “London Star,” 
1888-90, and the “World,” 1890-94; edited Fabian 
essays in 1889, and, in 1895, began his work as a dra¬ 
matic critic, writing in the “Saturday Review.” In 
1898, he published “Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant,” 
and since then his chief literary work has been writing 
for the stage. His plays include “Man and Superman,” 
“John Bull’s Other Island,” “Major Barbara,” “The 
Doctor’s Dilemma,” “Caesar and Cleopatra.” 

Shaw, Henry Wheeler, an American humorist; 
born in Lanesborough, Mass., April 21, 1818. In 1859, 
he began to write, and, in 1860, sent “An Essa on the 
Muel, bi Josh Billings” to a New York paper. It was 
reprinted in several comic journals, and extensively 
copied. His most successful literary venture, however, 
was a travesty on the “Old Farmers’ Almanac,” 127,000 
copies of which were sold in its second year. He began 
to lecture in 1863, and for twenty years previous to his 
death, contributed regularly to the New York “World.” 
He died in Monterey, Cal., October 14, 1885. 

Shays, Daniel, an American insurgent; born in 
Hopkinton, Mass., in 1747; served as ensign at the 
battle of Bunker Hill, and attained the rank of captain 
in the Continental army. He took a leading part in 
the popular movement in Western Massachusetts for 
the redress of alleged grievances, appearing before 
Springfield, Mass., at the head of 1,000 men, to prevent 
the session of the Supreme Court at that place, and 
commanding the rebel party at Pelham and at the 
engagement with the militia at Petersham. After the 
rebellion was put down, however, he was pardoned by 
the government, and later, in his old age, was allowed 
a pension for his services during the Revolutionary 
War. He died in Sparta, N. Y., September 29, 1825. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, one of the most eminent of 
English poets, was born of a noble family, in County 
Sussex, in 1792. He was early distinguished by his 
original turn of mind for speculative inquiry, and was 
expelled from Oxford University on an alleged charge 
of atheism. Refusing to recant certain philosophical 
opinions he had formed, and which had given rise to 
his expulsion, he incurred the displeasure of his father 
and family. Retiring to London, he there entered 
upon authorship by the production of his fine poem of 
“Queen Mab,” and contracted an unfortunate marriage 
with a person of humble rank, from whom he soon sepa¬ 
rated. In 1816, after the death of his first wife, he 
married the daughter of William Godwin, so celebrated 
as the authoress of “Frankenstein”; and, in the follow¬ 
ing year, gave to the world his principal work, “The 
Revolt of Islam.” In 1818, he quitted England never 
to return, and took up his residence in Italy, where he 
became the associate of Lord Byron and Leigh Hunt, 
and where he wrote his tragedy of “The Cenci”; the 



488 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


‘‘Prometheus Unbound,” together with many of his 
minor and most exquisite poems. In 1822, he perished 
by the capsizing of his boat, while sailing in the Gulf 
of Leghorn. 

Shepard, Edward Morse, lawyer; born in New 
York, in 1850; graduate of College of City of New York, 
A. B., 1869. Civil service commissioner, Brooklyn, 
1883-85, chairman, 1888-90; New York State forestry 
commissioner, 1884-85; Democratic candidate for mayor 
of Greater New York, 1901; afterward proposed for 
gubernatorial and other nominations of his party. Was 
director of numerous railway and other corporations. 
Author: “Martin Van Buren ” (American Statesmen 
series), “Memoirs of Dugdale,” and many reviews, 
magazine and other articles and addresses on political, 
industrial, and educational topics. Died, 1911. 

Sheridan, Philip Henry, born in 1831; American 
general; distinguished himself during the Civil War at 
Stone River, and by his victory of Cedar Creek (October 
19, 1864), and afterwards under Grant at Five Forks 
(April 1, 1865), and Sailor’s Creek. In 1867, he quar¬ 
reled with President Johnson, was removed, and took 
command of the department of the Missouri. Died, 1888. 

Sherman, James Schoolcraft, was born in Utica, 
N. Y., October 24, 1855; received an academic and col¬ 
legiate education, graduating from Hamilton College in 
the class of 1878; was admitted to the bar in 1880; was a 
practicing lawyer; also president of the Utica Trust and 
Deposit Company; served in these public positions: 
Mayor of Utica, 1884-85; delegate to the Republican 
National Convention in 1892; chairman of New York 
State Republican Convention in 1895, in 1900, and in 
1908; chairman of the Republican National Congressional 
Committee in 1906; was elected to the Fiftieth, Fifty- 
first, Fifty-third, Fifty-fourth, Fifty-fifth, Fifty-sixth, 
Fifty-seventh, Fifty-eighth, Fifty-ninth, and Sixtieth 
Congresses. In 1908, was elected Vice-President of the 
United States. Renominated in August, 1912, and died 
October 30th following. 

Sherman, William Tecumseh, born in 1820; 
American general; served with distinction in California, 
and, having in the interval been occupied in various 
pursuits, commanded a brigade at Bull Run (July 21, 
1861), was wounded at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), and 
having led the expedition against Vicksburg, took 
Arkansas Post at the head of the 15th Corps. He com¬ 
manded the left wing at Chattanooga (November 23-25, 
1863), and was soon after made head of the army of the 
Tennessee. He was repulsed by Johnston at Kenesaw 
Mountain (June 27, 1864), but defeated his successor, 
Hood. After further victories he became lieutenant- 
general, and, in 1869, became commander-in-chief, a 
position which he held till 1884. Died, 1891. 

Siddons, Sarah, born in 1755; English actress, nee 
Kemble; joined Garrick in 1775, and acquired a rapid 
reputation. In 1812 she retired with a fortune, having 
given unrivaled renderings of the greatest characters in 
the tragedies of Shakespere and other writers. Died, 
1831. 

Siegel, Henry, merchant; born in Eubigheim, Ger¬ 
many, March 17, 1852; educated in Germany, and in 
night school, Washington; came to United States, 1867; 
obtained place in clothing store, Washington, at $3.50 
per week, worked there four years until he received $15 
per week; went to work for his brothers who had a store 
at Parkesburg, Pa.; later partner in store established 
by brothers at Lawrenceburg, Pa.; moved to Chicago, 
1876, establishing cloak manufacturing firm of Siegel, 
Hartsfeld & Company, later Siegel Brothers; with 
Frank H. Cooper, Peoria merchant, established Siegel, 
Cooper & Company, department store, Chicago, moving 
finally, 1893, into the “Big Store,” State and Van Buren 
streets; in 1896, established store of Siegel-Cooper Com¬ 
pany, New York; purchased Simpson-Crawford Com¬ 
pany store, New York, January, 1902, and in August, 
1902, a half interest in Schlesinger & Mayer, Chicago. 

Sigsbee, Charles Dwight, naval officer; born in 
Albany, N. Y., January 16, 1845; Naval Academy, 1859- 
63; promoted ensign, October 1, 1863; served in West 
Gulf squadron, 1863-64, and was present at battle of 
Mobile Bay; in North Atlantic squadron, 1865, and at 
both attacks on Fort Fisher and final assault on same; 
after Civil War, 1874-78, sounded and explored the 
Gulf of Mexico; introduced numerous inventions and 
new methods in deep sea exploration, for which he later 
received decoration of Red Eagle of Prussia from 
Emperor William I., and received gold medal from 
abroad. Took command, April 10, 1897, of battleship 
“Maine,” which was blown up and destroyed in 
Havana harbor, February 15, 1898; commanded bat¬ 
tleship “St. Paul,” September, 1898, to January, 1900; 
rear-admiral, 1903; was member Naval Construction 
Board and Naval General Board. Author: “Deep Sea 


Sounding and Dredging,” “Personal Narrative of the 
Battleship ‘Maine,’ ” etc. 

Silliman, Benjamin, an American naturalist; born 
in Connecticut in 1779; graduated at Yale College in 
1796; chosen professor of chemistry there in 1802; 
studied in Philadelphia and later abroad, preparing for 
his professorship, in which position he gained great 
celebrity. In 1818, he founded “The American Jour¬ 
nal of Science and Arts,” the first of its kind in the 
United States. Died in 1864. His son Benjamin suc¬ 
ceeded his father at Yale. Born, 1816; died, 1885. 

Simpson, Sir James Young, Bart., M. D., born in 
1811; physician; made a speciality of obstetrics. He 
discovered the amesthetic properties of chloroform. 
Besides several medical works he was author of “ Archaeo¬ 
logical Essays.” Died, 1870. 

Sismondi, Jean Charles Simonde de, historian 
and economist; was born in Geneva in 1773; was im¬ 
prisoned there in 1794, as an aristocrat, and fled to Tus¬ 
cany, but in 1800, returned to his native place. His 
chief works are “.History of the Italian Republics of 
the Middle Ages,” “History of the French,” “History 
of the Literature of the South of Europe,” and some 
economical works. Died, 1842. 

Sitting Bull, a chief of the Sioux Indians; born about 
1837; was regarded as a great “medicine man ” by his 
tribe, and was an obdurate foe of the whites. He was 
conspicuous in the Sioux massacre of 1862; was con¬ 
stantly on the war path for fourteen years; was a leader 
in the Indian outbreaks of 1876; and was in command 
at the battle of the Little Big Horn in which General 
Custer and his entire force were killed. With his band 
he escaped into Canada, but continued even there to 
incite rebellion among the Sioux. In 1880, receiving 
the promise of pardon, he returned to Dakota and sur¬ 
rendered to General Miles. He again incited the Indians 
to renewed outbreaks. His arrest was ordered and the 
Indian police were detailed on this duty. In attempting 
to resist them, he was killed December 15, 1890. 

Sixtus IV., born in 1414; was elected pope in 1471; 
equipped a fleet against the Turks, supported the Pazzi 
against the Medici, and Venice against Ferrara, but ex¬ 
communicated the former for not agreeing to a peace. 
He built the Sistine chapel. Died, 1484. 

Sixtus V., born in 1521; was originally a shepherd 
boy near Ancona, by name Felice Peretti, but became 
successively general of the Cordeliers at Bologna, con¬ 
fessor to Pius V., and cardinal, being elected successor 
to Gregory XIII. in 1585. He excommunicated Henry 
of Navarre, Conde, and Henri III. of France, and ap¬ 
proved the expedition of Philip II. against England; 
and at Rome rebuilt the Vatican library, established the 
press, spent large sums in improving and adorning the 
city, and put down brigandage in his dominions. He 
also fixed the number of cardinals at seventy. Died, 
1590. 

Smalley, George Washburn, American correspond¬ 
ent to London “Times ” since July, 1895; born in Frank¬ 
lin, Norfolk County, Mass., 1833; graduated from Yale, 
1853 (A. M.); Harvard Law School, 1855; practiced 
law in Boston, 1856-61; in Civil War, 1861-62, war 
correspondent to “New York Tribune”; organized 
European Bureau, “New York Tribune,” 1866-67; in 
charge of its European correspondence until 1895; 
special United States commissioner at Paris Exposition, 
1878. Author: “London Letters,” “Studies of Men.” 

Smith, Goldwin, author; born in Reading, England, 
August 23, 1823; graduated from Magdalen College, 
Oxford University, 1845; M. A. (D. C. L., Oxford, 1882; 
LL. D., Princeton, 1896); called to English bar, 1847; 
Regius professor of modern history, Oxford, 1858-66; 
active champion of North during American Civil War; 
visited United States, 1864; came to United States, 
1868; lecturer, 1868-71, and later honorary professor 
of English and constitutional history, Cornell; lived 
in Toronto from 1871 until his death. Author: 
“Irish History and Irish Character,” “Rational Re¬ 
ligion and the Rationalistic Objections of the Bramp¬ 
ton Lectures for 1858,” “Does the Bible Sanction 
American Slavery?” “The Empire,” “On the Morality 
of the Emancipation Proclamation,” “A Letter to a 
Whig Member of the'Southern Independence Association,” 
“England and America,” “The Civil War in America,” 
“Three English Statesmen,” “Essays on Reform,” “The 
Reorganization of the University of Oxford,” “The Irish 
Question,” “The Relations Between America and Eng¬ 
land,” “William Cowper,” “Jane Austen,” “Lectures 
and Essays,” “The Conduct of England to Ireland,” 
“False Hopes,” “Lpyalty, Aristocracy, and Jingoism,” 
“The Political Destiny of Canada,” “Canada and the 
Canadian Question,” “William Lloyd Garrison; a Bio¬ 
graphical Essay,” “A Trip to England,” “History of the 
United States,” “Oxford and Her Colleges,” M Bay 




BIOGRAPHY 


489 


Leaves: Translations from the Latin Poets,” ‘‘Speci- j 
mens of Greek Tragedy,” “Essays on Questions of the 
Day,” “Guesses at the Riddle of Existence,” “The 
United Kingdom,” “Shakespere: The Man,” “Com¬ 
monwealth or Empire,” “In the Court of History,” 
“The Founder of Christendom,” “Lines of Religious 
Inquiry,” “My Memory of Gladstone,” and numerous 
articles in magazines. Died, 1910. 

Smith, Herbert Knox, lawyer, government official; 
born in Chester, Mass., November 17, 1869; graduated 
from Yale, A. B., 1891, post-graduate department, 1891- 
93, Yale Law School, LL. B., 1895; practiced law, Hart¬ 
ford, Conn., 1895-1903; served two terms, Hartford 
common council, 1900-02, chairman Hartford Republican 
town committee, January to December, 1903; member 
Connecticut legislature, 1903-05; commissioner of cor¬ 
porations, department of commerce and labor, 1907-12. 

Smith, Hoke, United States senator; born at Newton, 
North Carolina, 1855; educated in preparatory school 
conducted by his father; moved to Georgia, 1872; admit¬ 
ted to bar, 1873; practiced at Atlanta, Georgia, 1873- 
1909; delegate to Democratic National Convention, 
1892; secretary of the interior, 1893-96; governor of 
Georgia, 1907-09; reelected governor for term, 1911-13; 
resigned as governor, 1911, to become United States 
senator. 

Smith, John, Captain, born in 1580; colonist; was 
taken prisoner by the Turks when in the Hungarian 
service, but after his escape from the Crimea went out 
to colonize Virginia in 1606. He was captured by the 
Indians, and only saved from death by Pocahontas, the 
Indian girl, and after his release and explorations in 
Chesapeake Bay, was made president of the Colonial 
Council. He fell into the hands of the French in 1615, 
and on his return to England met Pocahontas, and pre¬ 
sented her to the queen. His “History of Virginia, 
New England, and the Summer Isles” appeared in 1624. 
He wrote various autobiographical works. Died, 1631. 

Smith, Joseph, born in 1805; founder of Mormon- 
ism; was the son of a farmer in Vermont State, built 
Nauvoo on the Mississippi, where he was arrested for 
treason and murdered by the mob (1844). The “Book 
of Mormon ” was, according to his account, a translation 
of records written on thin plates of metal, to the dis¬ 
covery of which he was supernaturally guided. 

Smollett, Tobias George, born in 1721; novelist 
and historian; was several years in the navy, but after¬ 
wards became an author, his chief novels being “Roder¬ 
ick Random” and “Peregrine Pickle.” He also con¬ 
tinued Hume’s “History of England,” translated “Don 
Quixote” and “Gil Bias,” and was employed as a writer 
against the Whigs. Died, 1771. 

Socrates, born about 469 B. C., Athenian philosopher; 
worked at first as a sculptor, but afterwards devoted him=- 
self to gratuitous teaching. He served as a soldier in the 
Peloponnesian War, saving the lives of his pupils, Alci- 
biades and Xenophon, at Potidsea and Delium; was 
finally condemned to drink hemlock on a charge of 
impiety and the corruption of youth, 399 B. C. 

Solomon, king of Israel from 1015 to 975 B. C.; 
second son of David and Bathsheba, and David’s suc¬ 
cessor; in high repute far and wide for his love of wisdom 
and the glory of his reign: he had a truly Oriental passion 
for magnificence, and the buildings he erected in Jerusa¬ 
lem, including the Temple and a palace on Mount Zion, 
he raised regardless of an expense which the nation 
resented after he was gone; the burden of which it would 
seem had fallen upon them, for when his successor, follow¬ 
ing in his courses, ascended the throne, ten of the tribes 
revolted, to the final rupture of the community, and the 
fall of first the one section and then the other under 
alien sway. 

Solyman II., surnamed “The Magnificent” born in 
A. D. 1496; Sultan of Turkey, from 1520 to 1566. He 
was the greatest of the Turkish sultans, and was scarcely 
less remarkable for the wisdom and justice of his internal 
administration than for the extent of his conquests. He 
encouraged literature, and was himself a poet of no mean 
rank. He died, September 5, 1566, of fever while be¬ 
sieging the town of Szigeth, in Hungary, two days before 
the capture of the town. 

Sophocles ( sof'o-klez ), a famous Athenian tragic poet, 
was born in 495 B. C. He succeeded iEschylus in his 
improvement of the drama, and raised it to its highest 
pitch of excellence in Greece. We possess but seven 
of his plays, two of which belong to the-trilogy of (Edipus. 
Died, 406 B. C. 

Sothem, Edward H., actor; born in New Orleans, 
La., 1859; son of Edward A. S., famous comedian; first 
appeared in small parts with his father, Abbey’s Park 
Theater, New York; later played in'! One of Our Girls.” 
First took leading r61e, Lyceum Theater, New York, May 
23, 1887, as Jack Hammerton inThe Highest Bidder,” 


and since has starred with his own company in " Lord 
Chumley ” “ The Maisteh of Woodbarrow,” The Prisoner 
of Zenda,” “Under the Red Robe,” etc.; married Vir¬ 
ginia Harned, his leading woman, 1896, Julia Marlowe, 
1911. 

Sousa, John Philip, musician; born in Washington, 
D. C., November 6, 1854; studied music; teacher at 15 
and conductor at 17; was one of the first violins of Jacques 
Offenbach’s orchestra when the latter was in the United 
States; band leader of United States Marine Corps, 
1880-92; since 1892, director of Sousa’s Band; has 
composed and published many marches, orchestral suites, 
“Te Deums,” songs, waltzes and the light operas “El 
Capitan,” “Bride Elect” (libretto and music), “The 
Charlatan,” and “Chris, and the Wonderful Lamp.” 
Author; “.The Fifth String,” “Pipetown Sandy.” 

Southey, Robert, born in 1774, poet and biographer, 
son of a linendraper at Bristol; settled at Keswick in 
1803, and there wrote “The Curse of Kehama,” and all 
his chief poems, except “Thalaba,” as well as his lives of 
Nelson and of Wesley, “The Doctor,” and contributions 
to the “Quarterly.” He became poet laureate in 1813 
and received a pension in 1835. He was twice married, 
first to Edith Fricker, sister of his friend Coleridge’s wife, 
and secondly to Caroline Bowles, romance-writer and 
poet, who died in 1854. Died, 1843. 

Sparks, Edwin Erie, educator, historian; was born 
in Licking County, O., 1860; was graduated from the 
Ohio State University, 1884; A. M., 1891; Ph. D., 
University of Chicago, 1900; was instructor in the Ohio 
State University, 1884-85; professor Pennsylvania State 
College, 1890-95; lecturer, instructor, and later professor 
American History, University of Chicago, 1895-1908, 
and dean of University College, 1905-06; president 
Pennsylvania State College, since 1908; member 
American Historical Association, Illinois Historical 
Society (director): and councilor American Institute of 
Civics. Author: “ Expansion of the American People”; 
“The Men Who Made the Nation”; “Formative Inci¬ 
dents in American Diplomacy”; “The United States of 
America”; “ Foundations of National Development,” etc. 

Sparks, Jared, born in 1789; American writer: 
became professor of history at Harvard in 1839, ana 
president of the college in 1849. His chief work was 
“Life and Writings of Washington.” Died, 1866. 

Spartacus, died, 71 B. C.; a Thracian, who headed 
the revolt of the gladiators at Capua. After some suc¬ 
cesses he was defeated by Crassus and slain. 

Spencer, Herbert, born in 1820; utilitarian philoso¬ 
pher; was for some years a civil engineer before engaging 
in literature. Going to London he became intimate 
with George Eliot and G. H. Lewes, and in 1850, 
published “Social Statics.” He undertook a lecturing 
tour in America, in 1882, previous to which had appeared 
“Principles of Psychology,” “First Principles,” “Educa¬ 
tion,” “Principles of Biology,” “The Study of Sociology,” 
“The Data of Ethics,” “The Man vs. The State,” and 
other works followed. Died, 1903. 

Spenser, Edmund, born in 1552; English poet; 
went to Ireland in 1580, as secretary to Lord Grey de 
Wilton, and lived in Cork County in the intervals till the 
rebellion of Tyrone. The “Faerie Queene ” was partly 
printed in 1590, his other chief works being “The Shep¬ 
herd’s Calendar,” "Colin Clout’s Come Home Again,” 
and “ View of the State of Ireland.” Died, 1599. 

Speyer, James, banker; born in New York, 1861; 
educated at Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. Entered 
family’s banking house in Frankfort-on-the-Main at age 
of 22; later transferred to Paris and London branches 
to receive thorough business education before returning 
to take charge of New York house; he is now senior of the 
Speyer houses. One of founders and treasurer of The 
Provident Loan Society, which lends money to needy 
people on personal property at legal rates of interest. 
Trustee or director of numerous corporations; member 
New York Chamber of Commerce. 

Spofford, Ainsworth Rand, chief assistant librarian 
of Congress; born in Gilmanton, N. H., September 12, 
1825; classical education from private tutors (LL. D., 
Amherst, 1882). Bookseller and publisher, Cincinnati; 
associate editor of “Cincinnati Daily Commercial,” 1859- 
61; first assistant librarian of Congress, 1861-64; 
librarian-in-chief, 1864-97; since then chief assistant 
librarian. Editor: “Catalogues of the Congressional 
Library,” “Annual American Almanac, 1878-89,” 
edited, with others, “Library of Choice Literature” (ten 
volumes), “Library of Historic Characters and Famous 
Events” (ten volumes), “Library of Wit and Humor” 
(five volumes), Author: “Practical Manual of Parlia¬ 
mentary Rules,” “A Book for all Readers — an aid to 
collection, use, and preservation of books, and the forma¬ 
tion of libraries,” numerous articles in reviews and cyclo¬ 
paedias, lectures, etc. Died, 1908. 




490 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Spreckels, Claus, sugar refiner; born in Lamstedt, 
Hanover, 1828; came to the United States in 1846; was 
employed at Charleston, S. C., and New York; went to 
San Francisco, 1856; conducted a store, and later a 
brewery. Established Bay Sugar Refinery, 1863, pro¬ 
curing raw material from Hawaii; invented new refining 
processes; acquired sugar properties in Hawaii; built 
new refineries; had a beet-sugar farm of 1,500 acres and 
factory at Watsonville, Cal., and was large owner in 
Oceanic Steamship Company, plying between San Fran¬ 
cisco and Honolulu. Died, 1908. 

Spring-Rice, Sir Cecil Arthur, British diplomat; 
born, 1859; educated at Eton and at Balliol college, 
Oxford. . Secretary at Brussels, Washington, Tokio, 
Berlin, and Constantinople; charge d’affaires, Teheran, 
1900; British commissioner of public debt, Cairo, 1901; 
first secretary of embassy at St. Petersburg, 1903-05; 
minister and consul-general, Persia, 1906-08; envoy extra¬ 
ordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Sweden, 1908- 
12; British ambassador at Washington since 1913, suc¬ 
ceeding the Rt. Hon. James Bryce. 

Spurgeon, Charles Haddon, born in Essex in 1834; 
Baptist preacher; went to London in 1853, the Metro¬ 
politan Tabernacle being opened in 1861. His sermons 
were published weekly almost from the beginning, and 
had a large sale. In 1887, he withdrew from the Baptist 
Union. Died, 1892. 

Standlsh, Miles, one of the Puritan fathers, of 
Lancashire birth, and a cadet of a family of knightly 
rank in the country, served in the Netherlands as a 
soldier, and came to America in the “Mayflower,” in 
1620, and was helpful to the colony in its relations 
both with the Indians and the mother country. Stan- 
dish is the hero of a poem of Longfellow’s. 

Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, born in 1815; divine, 
son of Edward, Bishop of Norwich (died, 1849); author 
of “Familiar History of Birds”; was educated at 
Rugby and Balliol, and became professor of ecclesiastical 
history at Oxford in 1858. He visited the East in 
1853 and 1862, and was appointed dean of Westminster 
in 1863. Among his works were “Life of Dr. Arnold,” 
“Sinai and Palestine,” and ‘‘Essays on Church and 
State.” Died, 1881. 

Stanley, Henry Morton, D. C. L., African explorer; 
born in Wales in 1841; took the name of his adopted 
father in place of that of Rowlands, and having served 
in the American Civil War, and been a war correspond¬ 
ent in Turkey and Abyssinia, was, in 1870, sent to find 
Livingstone, whom he met at Ujiji (November 10, 1871), 
and having explored with him, came home in 1872. 
In 1874, he again went to Africa, and in the course of 
four years explored Victoria and Albert Nyanza, and 
the Congo. In 1879-84, he once more visited the latter, 
and, in 1887, went to relieve Emin Pasha. “How I 
Found Livingstone,” “Through the Dark Continent,” 
and “In Darkest Africa” describe his expeditions. 
Died, 1904. 

Stanton, Edwin M., an American statesman, was 
born in Steubenville, O., in 1814. He practiced law 
with success in his native town until 1847, when be 
settled in Pittsburgh, Pa., and there became leader of 
the bar. In 1857, he took up his abode in Washington, 
and, in 1860, was made attorney-general of the United 
States, and, in 1862, secretary of war. This arduous 
post he filled throughout the Civil War with conspicuous 
energy, industry, and ability. He retained office after 
the death of President Lincoln, until 1867, when be was 
suspended by President Johnson, who appointed General 
Grant in his place ad interim. The latter, however, 
only held the appointment a few months, that is to say, 
till Stanton’s reinstation by the senate in January, 1868. 
In May, he definitely retired from tbe secretaryship, 
and, in December, 1869, was appointed an associate 
justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and 
died during the same month. 

Stead, William Thomas, English journalist, was 
born at Embleton, Northumberland, 1849, the son of a 
Congregational minister. At an early age he entered 
journalism, and in 1871 became editor of the Darlington 
“Northern Echo.” He was assistant editor of “Pall Mall 
Gazette,” 1880-83, editor, 1883-89. In 1890 he founded 
the English “Review of Reviews,” and was its editor 
from 1890 to 1912. Among his publications are: “Maiden 
Tribute of Modern Babylon,” “The Truth about Russia,” 
“The Pope and the New Era,” “The Story that Trans¬ 
formed the World,” “If Christ Came to Chicago,” “The 
Labor War in the United States,” “Satan’s Invisible 
World,” “The Americanization of the World.” He lost 
his life on the ill-fated Titanic in 1912. 

Stedman, Edmund Clarence, poet, critic; born in 
Hartford, Conn., in 1833; educated at Yale, class of 
1853, A. M. (L. IJ. D., Columbia, LL. D., Yale). Editor I 
of Norwich (Conn.) “.Tribune,” 1852-53; Winsted j 


(Conn.) “Herald,” 1854-55; on staff of New York 
“Tribune,” 1859-61; war correspondent for “World,” 
1861-63; filled a position under United States Attorney- 
General Bates; member of New York Stock Exchange, 
1869-1900. Delivered initiatory course of lectures of 
Turnbull Chair of Poetry, Johns Hopkins, later re¬ 
peated at Columbia and University of Pennsylvania. 
Author: “Poems, Lyric and Idyllic,” “Alice of Mon¬ 
mouth— an Idyl of the Great War,” “.The Blameless 
Prince,” “Poetical Works,” “Hawthorne, and Other 
Poems,” “Lyrics and Idyls, with Other Poems,” "Poems 
Now First Collected,” “Mater Coronata,” also volumes 
of poems. Critical works: ‘‘Victorian Poets,” “Poets 
of America,” “The Nature and Elements of Poetry.” 
Editor: “Cameos from the Poems of Walter Savage 
Landor” (with T. B. Aldrich), “Poems of Austin Dob¬ 
son,” “A Library of American Literature” (eleven vol¬ 
umes, with Ellen M. Hutchinson), 1888-89; “The Works 
of Edgar Allan Poe ” (ten volumes, with Professor G. E. 
Woodbury), “A Victorian Anthology,” “An American 
Anthology,” “History of New York Stock Exchange.” 
Died in New York in 1908. 

Stephen, Leslie, born in 1832, son of Sir James; 
was for several years fellow and tutor of Trinity College, 
Cambridge; edited the “Cornhill” for eleven years, 
and, in 1882, undertook the editorship of the “Diction¬ 
ary of National Biography,” which he resigned in 1891. 
Among his works are “History of English Thought in 
the Eighteenth Century,” “The Science of Ethics”; 
lives of Johnson, Pope, and Swift in the “Men of Letters ” 
series, and a “.Life of Henry Fawcett.” Died, 1904. 

Stephens, Alexander Hamilton, an American 
statesman, was born in Georgia in 1812. Sent to Con¬ 
gress by the Whig party in 1843, he retained his seat 
in that body till 1859, during which period he supported 
the annexation of Texas, promoted the passage of the 
Kansas and Nebraska Act of 1854, and joined the Dem¬ 
ocratic party in upholding the measures of President 
Buchanan. In 1860, he opposed the secession of his 
State, but in the following year, gave in his adhesion 
to sectional views, and was elected vice-president of the 
so-called Southern Confederacy. After the collapse of 
the latter, Stephens suffered a brief imprisonment in 
Fort Warren, and after being reelected senator to Con¬ 
gress, in 1866, was not allowed to take his seat. In 1869, 
he published “A History of the War of Secession,” and, 
in 1870, “A Constitutional View of the War Between 
the States.” Died, 1883. 

Stephenson, George, engineer; was born in Wylam 
in 1781; worked as a collier and a brakesman. The in¬ 
vention of a safety lamp, in 1815, brought h im fame 
and a public testimonial of 1,000 pounds. His first 
engine had been constructed before this, and, in 1829, 
he won a prize of £500 for the best engine, his loco¬ 
motive, the “Rocket,” being fitted with the “blast- 
pipe.” Died, 1848. 

Stephenson, Robert, born in 1803; son of the above; 
won the mathematical prize in a six-months’ course at 
Edinburgh University, and returned to help his father. 
He constructed the “Planet,” the model of the modern 
locomotive, and won world-wide reputation as a con¬ 
structor of bridges, and in connection with railways. 
He entered parliament for Whitby as a Conservative 
in 1847. Died, 1859. 

Stepniak, Sergius Dragomanoff, born in 1852; 

Russian writer; was removed from his professorship of 
Kieff and exiled in 1876, for his political opinions, and 
then settled in Geneva. Among his works are "Hio- 
mada” (“Common Things”), “Tyrannicide in Russia,” 
and “The Turks Within and Without,” “.Underground 
Russia,” etc. Died, 1895. 

Sterne, Laurence, born in 1713; Irish divine and 
writer, author of “Tristram Shandy” (1759-67), “The 
Sentimental Journey,” and “Letters to His Friends” 
(posthumous), etc. Died, 1768. 

Stevenson, Adlai Ewing, Vice-President of the 
United States, 1893-97; born in Christian County, Ky., 
October 23, 1835; educated in common schools and 
Center College, Danville, Ky.; was not graduated; 
family removed to Bloomington, Ill., when he was 17 
years old; admitted to bar, May, 1857; master in chan¬ 
cery, 1860-64; member of Congress, 1875-77; delegate 
to Democratic National Convention, 1884 and 1892; 
first assistant postmaster-general, 1885-89; after term 
as vice-president, appointed in 1897 member of the 
commission to Europe to try to secure international 
bimetallism. Democratic nominee for vice-president of 
the United States, 1900. 

Stevenson, Robert Louis, born in Edinburgh, 1850* 
novelist, poet, and son of a Scottish engineer j gave up 
the family profession and traveled, afterwards writing 
the following works, among others: “An Inland 
Voyage, Virgmibus Puerisque,” “New Arabian Nights,” 




BIOGRAPHY 


491 


“Treasure Island,” “A Child’s Garden of Verse,” “Prince 
Otto,” “Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,” 
“Kidnapped,” “The Master of Ballantrae,” “The 
Wrecker,” “A Footnote to History.” In 1890, he went 
to live in Samoa, where he died in 1895. 

Steyn, Martinus Theunis, a Boer statesman; born 
in Winburg, Orange Free State, October 2, 1857; worked 
on his father’s farm till 1876, when he went to England 
to study. He returned to Africa in 1882, and practiced 
law in Bloemfontein till 1889, when he was made second 
puisne judge and state attorney. Later, he became 
first puisne judge, and. in 1896, was chosen last Presi¬ 
dent of the Orange Free State. 

Stillman, James, former president of National City 
Bank;born in Brownsville, Tex., June 9,1850; youthspent 
in Hartford, Conn., and in private school at Sing Sing, 
N. Y.; partner, 1871-73, in Smith, Woodman & Still¬ 
man, and since 1873 in their successors, Woodman & 
Stillman, cotton commission merchants; director New 
York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company, 
Chicago & North-Western Railway Company, Baltimore 
& Ohio Railroad, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
Railroad Company (member board of managers), Western 
Union Telegraph Company, Hanover National Bank, 
Riggs National Bank (Washington), Southern Pacific 
Company, United States Trust Company, Lincoln National 
Bank, Northern British & Mercantile Insurance Company, 
Queen Insurance Company, and many railway, financial, 
insurance, and other corporations, etc. He has lived 
much abroad, especially in France. 

Stimson, Frederic Jesup (“J. S. of Dale”), lawyer, 
author; born in Dedham, Mass., July 20, 1855; grad¬ 
uate of Harvard, 1876; Harvard Law School, 1878. 
Member of New York and Boston bars; assistant attor¬ 
ney-general, Massachusetts, 1884-85; general counsel to 
the United States Industrial Commission, 1898-1902. 
Professor of comparative legislation, Harvard. Besides 
writing law books, he has written several novels (the 
earlier ones under the pen-name, “J. S. of Dale”), 
essays, etc. Author: “Rollo’s Journey to Cambridge,” 
“Guerndale,” “The Crime of Henry Vane,” “American 
Statute Law” (two volumes), “The Sentimental Calen¬ 
dar,” "First Harvests,” “Stimson’s Law Glossary,” 
"In the Three Zones,” “Government by Injunction,” 
“Labor in Its Relation to Law,” “Mrs. Knollys and 
Other Stories,” “Handbook to the Labor Law of the 
United States,” “Uniform State Legislation,” “Pirate 
Gold,” “King Noanett,” “Jethro Bacon of Sandwich,” 
also a series of magazine articles on “The Ethics of 
Democracy,” etc. 

Stolypin, Peter Arkazhevich, Russian prime min¬ 
ister; born in 1863; the son of a popular general, he had 
a brilliant career at the University of St. Petersburg, 
and, after graduating, in 1884, obtained an appointment 
at the Ministry of the Interior. After two years he was 
transferred to the Ministry of Agriculture, where he re¬ 
mained another two years, then retiring for a time into 

E rivate life, and devoting himself to the management of 
is estate in Kovno Government. He served as marshal 
of the district nobility, president of the arbitration 
board and justice of the peace, and in 1899 became 
marshal of the provincial nobility. He was appointed 
vice-governor of Grodno in 1902, governor of Saratoff 
in 1903, and from Saratoff he was called to St. Peters¬ 
burg to take up the portfolio of the interior. He was 
one of the few ministers to whom the Duma was ready 
to listen. When M. Goremykin resigned in 1906, M. 
Stolypin succeeded him as premier, and was thanked 
by the czar for his services and appointed a member of 
the Council of the Empire, January 13, 1907. His in¬ 
tegrity and equity are recognized by all. Died, 1911. 

Stone, Marcus, English painter, born in 1840. At 
an early age illustrated books by Dickens, Trollope, and 
others. His pictures are mostly subjects of human and 
historical interest. He has exhibited in more than fifty 
exhibitions of the Royal Academy. Most of his works 
have been engraved; he has received medals at exhibi¬ 
tions in all parts of the world. 

Storey, Moorfleld, lawyer; born in Roxbury, Mass., 
March 19, 1845; graduated from Harvard, 1866, A. M., 
1869; studied at Harvard Law School; admitted to bar, 
September, 1869; private secretary to Charles Sumner, 
1867-69; editor, “American Law Review,” 1873-79; 
overseer, Harvard College, 1877—88, and 1892—1910; 
president of American Bar Association, 1896; president 
of Massachusetts Reform Club, 1898-1901; independent 
in politics. President of Anti-Imperialist League since 
1905; president bar association, city of Boston, 1909-12. 
Author: “Life of Charles Sumner” (statesman series), 
“The American Legislature,” “A Year’s Legislation,” 
“,The Government of Cities,” pamphlet "Politics as a 
Duty and as a Career” and various other pamphlets and 
occasional addresses. 


Story, Joseph, a distinguished American jurist; 
born in Marblehead, Mass., in 1779; graduated at Har¬ 
vard College in 1798, and after being called to the bar 
rapidly rose to eminence as a special pleader. In 1808, 
he entered Congress, and in 1811, became one of the 
justices of the United States Supreme Court. As a jurist, 
and an exponent of international law, Judge Story stands 
in the front rank, not only in his own country, but also 
in Europe. His published works embrace the masterly 
“Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws,” “Commen¬ 
taries on the Constitution of the United States,” “Com¬ 
mentaries on Equity Jurisprudence,” “A Treatise on the 
Law of Agency,” etc. Died, 1845. 

Story, William Wetmore, born in 1819; son of the 
above; published “Contracts not under Seal,” and other 
legal works, but afterwards devoted himself to literature 
and sculpture. Among his publications are several 
poems, “Origin of the Italian Language and Literature,” 
“Conversations in a Studio,” etc., and he has executed 
numerous monuments, statues, and busts. Died, 1895. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, an American novelist; 
was born in Litchfield. Conn., in 1811; a daughter of 
Dr. Lyman Beecher, and married, in 1836, Professor C. 
E. Stowe of Andover. In 1851, she made a sensation 
in the literary world by the publication of “Uncle Tom’s 
Cabin,” a work of fiction which had quite an astonishing 
success, and was translated into almost every language 
of Europe. To this book she added a “Key” in 1853. 
Her later productions comprise “Dred, a Tale of the 
Great Dismal Swamp,” “The Minister’s Wooing,” 
“Agnes of Sorrento,” and “Oldtown Folks.” In 1869, 
she brought out a brochure entitled “The True Story 
of Lord Byron’s Life,” in which she accused Lord Byron 
of incest. This article evoked a storm of literary criti¬ 
cism, which was by no means allayed by the publication, 
in 1869, of Mrs. Stowe’s work, entitled “Lady Byron 
Vindicated.” In 1871, appeared “ Oldtown Fireside 
Stories,” “Pink and White Tyranny,” and “My.Wife 
and I,” or “Harry Henderson’s History.” Died, 1896. 

Strathcona, Baron, Canadian statesman; born in 
1820; joined the Hudson Bay Company at an early age, 
and acted as special commissioner in Red River Re¬ 
bellion; became governor of the company and director 
of Canadian Pacific and other Canadian railways; honor¬ 
ary president Bank of Montreal; chancellor of Aberdeen 
University and McGill University; represented Selkirk 
and Montreal in the Dominion House, and was high 
commissioner for Canada, 1896-1911. Raised Strath- 
cona’s Horse for service in South African War; has been 
a munificent benefactor to Canada. With Lord Mount- 
Stephen, gave an endowment of £16,000 a year to the 
king’s hospital fund. 

Straus, Oscar S., secretary of commerce and labor, 
1906-09; was born December 23, 1850; graduated from 
Columbia College (now Columbia University), New York 
City, and Columbia Law School; practiced law 1873-81; 
engaged in mercantile pursuits as a member of the 
New York firm of L. Straus & Sons; minister to 
Turkey, 1887-89, 1898-1901, 1909-11; appointed by 
President Roosevelt, in 1902, as a member of the perma¬ 
nent court of arbitration at The Hague in the place of 
ex-President Harrison, deceased. Progressive candidate 
for governor of New York, 1912. Author of numerous 
publications dealing with history and international law: 
“The Origin of Republican Form of Government in the 
United States,” “Roger Williams, the Pioneer of Re¬ 
ligious Liberty,” “The Development of Religious Liberty 
in the United States,” “United States Doctrine of Citi¬ 
zenship and Expatriation,” “Reform in the Consular 
Service,” etc; Litt. D., Brown University, and LL. D., 
University of Pennsylvania, Washington and Lee, and 
Columbia universities. 

Strauss, Richard, musical composer; was born 
June 11, 1864, in Munich, where his early studies began, 
his father being first horn player in the orchestra of the 
Court opera house. Appointed conductor at Meiningen 
in 1885; from 1889 to 1894, he was Hofkapellmeister 
(with Eduard Lassen) at Weimar, and later conductor 
at the Munich opera house. He has wri'ten many 
charming songs, but his distinctiveness as a modern 
composer is chiefly due to extraordinarily elaborate in¬ 
strumental works. A Richard Strauss festival was held 
at St. James’s Hall, London, England, in June, 1903, 
when “Ein Heldenleben,” “ Also Sprach Zarathustra,” 
and other symphonic poems from his pen were per¬ 
formed. His opera “Salome,” based on Oscar Wilde’s 
work, has provoked much discussion. 

Stua 
in 1755 
and liv< 

executed portraits of George III., George IV., Louis XVI., 
Washington, Reynolds, and others. Died, 1828. 


rt, Gilbert Charles, “American Stuart”; born 
; portrait-painter; went to England when young, 
ed there till 1793. He was a pupil of West, and 



492 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Stuart* James E. B., born in 1833; American gen¬ 
eral; celebrated for his services to the Confederates, 
his chief exploits being the night attack of August, 1862, 
when General Pope’s papers were captured, and the raid 
across the Potomac in the same year. He was mortally 
wounded at Yellow Tavern; died at Richmond, 1864. 

Stubbs, William, D. D., born in 1825; historian 
and divine; became Regius professor of modern history 
at Oxford in 1866, Bishop of Chester in 1884, and of Ox¬ 
ford in 1889. His chief works are “Select Charters,” 
“Constitutional History of England to 1485,” and edi¬ 
tions of the “Chronicles” of Benedict of Peterborough 
and Roger of Hoveden. Died, 1901. 

Sudermann, Hermann, German dramatist and 
novelist, was born in Matzicken, in East Prussia, Septem¬ 
ber 30, 1857; studied in the universities of Konigsberg 
and Berlin, and became a teacher and journalist. He 

S ublished a series of tales, of which “Frau Sorge,” “Der 
iatzensteg,” and “Es War,” are the most impressive. 
The drama “Sodom’s Ende” was produced in 1890, and 
was followed by “Die Heimat,” which, translated as 
“Magda,” has been represented by Duse, Sarah Bern¬ 
hardt, and Mrs. Patrick Campbell. His later works 
include “Das Gluck im Winkel,” “ Reiherfedern,” 
“Morituri,” “Johannes,” and “ Das Johannisfeuer.” In 
October, 1906, “Das Blumenboot” was produced in 
Berlin, and “Rosen” at Vienna in October, 1907. 

Sue, Eugene, an eminent French novelist, was born 
in Paris, 1804. His most popular works are, “The 
Mysteries of Paris,” and “The Wandering Jew.” 
Died, 1857. 

Sully, Thomas, an eminent American painter, was 
born in County of Lincoln, England, in 1783. While a 
boy he emigrated to America, and studied his art at 
Charleston, afterwards successively taking up his resi¬ 
dence in Richmond, Va., New York, and Philadelphia. 
As a portrait painter, he enjoyed great reputation, many 
of the most illustrious personages of the time being 
among his sitters. His chief historical work i3 “Wash¬ 
ington Crossing the Delaware,” now in the Boston 
Museum. Died, 1872. 

Sumner, Charles, born in 1811; American states¬ 
man and jurist; delivered a powerful speech against war 
in 1845, “The True Grandeur of Nations,” and in 1851 
was elected United States senator. In 1856, he made a 
speech, “The Crime Against Kansas,” which caused a 
personal attack upon him by a Southern delegate. In 
1860, he made his oration, “The Barbarism of Slavery,” 
waschairmanof Committee on Foreign Relations,1861-71; 
was a strong supporter of the American claims in the 
“Alabama” case. Died, 1874. 

Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of the “New 
Church,” was born in Stockholm, 1688, and occupied 
himself as a scientific engineer until 1743, from which time 
he began to write, when living in Sweden or England, 
among his numerous works being “Arcana Coelestia,” 
“De Cultu et Amore Dei,” “The True Christian Relig¬ 
ion,” and several scientific treatises. Died, 1772. 

Swift, Jonathan, The greatest of English satirists; 
born in Dublin, Ireland, 1667. He was the posthumous 
son of Jonathan Swift, an Englishman; and was educated 
at Kilkenny and at Trinity College, Dublin. In 1701, 
he took his doctor’s degree, and in 1704, he published 
anonymously his famous “Tale of a Tub,” to which was 
appended the “Battle of the Books.” In 1710, Swift 
began his “Journal to Stella,” which constitutes a 
splendid commentary on his own history. He wrote 
many political pamphlets supporting the Tory policy of 
his day, the most powerful of which was “The Conduct 
of the Allies.” His celebrated “Drapier’s Letters” 
made him the idol of the Irish people. His famous 
“Gulliver’s Travels,” appeared in 1726. Swfift did 
much to make public opinion a governing power in 
English politics. He died in Dublin (1745), bequeathing 
the greatest part of his fortune to a hospital for lunatics 
and idiots. 

Swinburne, Algernon Charles, son of Admiral 
Swinburne, was born in London, 1837. Educated at 
Balliol College, Oxford. Visited Florence, and passed 
some time there. His first productions were two plays 
“Queen Mother,” and “Rosamond.” These were fol¬ 
lowed by two tragedies, “Atalanta in Calydon,” and 
“ Chastelard,” and “ Poems and Ballads,” which met with 
severe criticism. His later works are “ A Song of Italy,” 
“William Blake, a critical essay”; “Songs Before Sun¬ 
rise,” in which he glorifies Pantheism and Republicanism; 
“Studies in Song,” “A Century of Roundels,” “Life of 
Victor Hugo,” a poem on “The Armada,” “A Study of 
Ben Jonson,” “Astrophel, and other Poems,” “Studies 
in Prose and Poetry,” “The Tale of Balen,” “ Rosamund, 
Queen of the Lombards,” “A Channel Passage, and other 
Poems,” and “Love’s Cross-Currents.” Died, 1909. 


Sybel, Heinrich von, born in 1817; German histo¬ 
rian and politician, held chairs at Marburg, Munich, and 
Bonn, and in 1875, became director of state archives. 
He opposed Bismarck’s Polish policy in the “ Prussian 
Landtag,” and entered the Reichstag in 1867. His chief 
work is " History of the French Revolution,” Died, 1895. 

Sylvester, James Joseph, D. C. L., F. R. S. ? etc., 
born in 1814; mathematician, after holding chairs at 
University College, in the University of Virginia, at 
Woolwich, and at the Johns Hopkins University, Balti¬ 
more, became Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, 
in 1883. He discovered the “theory of reciprocants,” 
invented the plagiograph and other instruments. Pub¬ 
lished “Laws of Verse” and other works. Died, 1897. 

Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, born in 55 A. D.; Roman 
historian; married the daughter of the consul Agricola, 
was quaestor under Vespasian, sedile under Titus, praetor 
under Domitian, and consul under Nerva. His chief 
works are the “Life of Agricola” and the “Germania,” 
both written about 98, the “Histories” extending from 
68 to 96, and the “Annals,” extending from 14 to 68. 
Died about 117. 

Taft, Lorado, sculptor; born in Elmwood, Ill., April 
29, 1860; graduate of University of Illinois, 1879; 
studied at ficole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1880-83. In¬ 
structor in Chicago Art Institute since 1886; lecturer on 
art University Extension Department of University of 
Chicago, 1892-1902. Author: “The History of Ameri¬ 
can Sculpture.” 

Taft, William Howard, twenty-seventh President 
of the United States; born in Cincinnati, September 15, 
1857; graduate of Yale, B. A., 1878; Law School, Cincin¬ 
nati College, LL. B., 1880 (LL. D., University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 1902, Yale, 1903): admitted to Ohio bar, 1880; 
law reporter Cincinnati Times, and later of Cincinnati 
Commercial, 1880-81; assistant prosecuting attorney, 
Hamilton County, Ohio, 1881-82; collector internal 
revenue, first district, Ohio, 1882-83; practiced law, Cin¬ 
cinnati, 1883-87; assistant county solicitor, Hamilton 
County, 1885-87; judge Superior Court of Ohio, 1887-90; 
solicitor-general of United States, 1890-92; dean and 
professor in law department, University of Cincinnati, 
1896-1900; United States circuit judge, sixth circuit, 
1892-1900; president of United States Philippine Com¬ 
mission, 1900-01; first civil governor of Philippine 
Islands, 1901 to 1904; secretary of war, United States, 
1904-08. On November 3, 1908, he was elected 
President of the United States, and inaugurated March 
4, 1909. In 1912 he was nominated for president by the 
republican party, but was defeated. Made Kent pro¬ 
fessor of law, Yale, 1913. 

Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe, French writer, born in 
1828; became professor, School of Fine Arts, Paris, 1864. 
He published a “History of English Literature,” “The 
Origin of Contemporary France,” etc. Died, 1893. 

Tait, Peter Guthrie, born in 1831; a man of science, 
educated at Cambridge, became professor of natural phi¬ 
losophy at Edinburgh, in 1860. He published works 
on “Quaternions,” “Heat and Light,” a “Treatise on 
Natural Philosophy,” written in conjunction with Sir 
William Thomson, and other works. Died, 1901. 

Takahira, Kogoro, Japanese diplomat; born in 
Japan, 1854; educated in Tokio; entered foreign office 
as student attach^, 1876; appointed attache, 1879, sec¬ 
retary 1881, charge d’affaires, 1882, legation at Washing¬ 
ton; secretary of foreign office, 1883, charge d’affaires 
in Korea, 1885-87, acting consul-general, 1888-89; chief 
political bureau, foreign office, 1890-91; consul-general 
at New York, 1892; minister resident to Holland and 
Denmark, 1893-94; envoy extraordinary and minister 
plenipotentiary to Italy, 1894-95, 1906-07, to Austria 
and Switzerland, 1896-99; vice-minister for foreign 
affairs, 1889-1900; envoy extraordinary and minister 
plenipotentiary to United States, 1900-06 and 1908-09. 

Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon, born in Reading, in 
Berkshire, 1795; an English judge, distinguished also as 
a graceful novelist. He was the author of a tragedy; 
“Letters of Charles Lamb, -with a Sketch of his Life,” 
“Final Memorials of Charles Lamb,” and several other 
works. Died, 1854. 

Talma, Francois Joseph, born in 1763; French 
actor; made his d^but at the Com^die Frangaise, in 1787. 
He confined himself to tragedy in his later years. Among 
his finest impersonations were Marigny in “Les Tern- 
pliers,” and Charles IX. Died, 1826. 

Tamerlane, or Timour, surnamed The Great, an 
Asiatic conqueror, was born of Mongol race, at Kesh in 
Independent Tartary, 1336. After subjecting to his 
arms Khorasan, Armenia, and the greater part of Persia, 
he defeated the Bashkirs, took Bagdad and Damascus, 
subjugated Georgia, and advanced into Russia as far as 
Moscow. In 1398, he invaded India, where he defeated 
the army of the Grand Mogul near Delhi. After gaining 



BIOGRAPHY 


493 


in 1402, a decisive and sanguinary battle in Angora, over 
the Ottoman Turks commanded by their sultan Bajazet, 
Tamerlane died, 1405, on his march towards China, which 
country he next intended to invade. 

Tarquinius, Lucius Priscus ( tar-kwln'e-us ), the 
fifth King of Rome, according to the legends, succeeded 
Ancus Martius, 616, and died 578 B. C. Tarquinius 
Lucius Superbus was a grandson of the preceding. He 
had married one of the daughters of Servius Tullius, but 
her sister, whose ambition resembled his own, by a series 
of horrid crimes, secured him as her husband, and urged 
him to the murder of her father to secure the throne, 
534 B. C. He reigned as a tyrant; but in the end it was 
the rape of Lucretia, by his son Sextus, which over¬ 
threw at once both him and the kingly rule in Rome. 
The date of the Regifuge or expulsion of the Tarquins 
was said to be 510 B. C. 

Tasso, Torquato, Italian poet, was born in Sorrento, 
1544, and studied law at the university of Padua, where 
he published his earliest poem, “ Rinaldo,” in 1562. In 
1565, he entered the service of Cardinal Luigi d’Este, and 
was invited to the court of his brother, Alfonso, Duke of 
Ferrara. While there he wrote his pastoral drama 
“Aminta,” and in 1575, finished his great epic, “La 
Gerusalemme Liberata,” describing the first Crusade, 
which was published in 1581. In 1577 he was imprisoned 
by Alfonso in a convent, from which he escaped. In 
1579, he returned to Ferrara, but was confined in a mad¬ 
house, where he remained till 1586, when he was released 
at the intercession of the Duke of Mantua and other 
princes. In 1594, Clement VIII. summoned him to 
Rome to receive a laurel crown, but he died soon after 
his arrival (1595). 

Taussig, Frank William, professor of political 
economy. Harvard; born in St. Louis, December 28, 
1859; graduate of Harvard, 1879 (Ph. D., 1883; 
LL. B., 1886). Author: “Tariff History of United 
States,” “Silver Situation in United States,” “Wages 
and Capital,” etc. Editor of "Quarterly Journal of 
Economics.” 

Taylor, Bayard, an American author and traveler, 
was born in Chester County, Pa., 1825. In 1847, he 
became one of the editors of the “New York Tribune,” 
and later traveled extensively, giving the results of his 
observation in numerous works, prominent among 
which are “El Dorado, or Adventures in the Path of 
Empire,” or “Mexico and California,” “Central Africa,” 
“Greece and Russia,” “India, China, and Japan,” and 
“Lands of the Saracen.” He is author also of sev¬ 
eral novels, volumes of poetry, etc. Some of his works 
have been translated into French, German, and Russian. 
Taylor was appointed United States minister at Berlin, 
in 1878, and died the same year. 

Taylor, Hannis, lawyer; born in Newbern, N. C., 
September 12, 1851; educated in University of North 
Carolina (LL. D., Edinburgh, Dublin); admitted to 
bar, 1870; practiced at Mobile, Ala., 1870-92; minister to 
Spain, 1893-97. Special counsel for Government of 
United States before Spanish Treaty Claims Commis¬ 
sion, 1902, and before the Alaskan boundary commission, 
1903. Author: “The Origin and Growth of the English 
Constitution,” “International Public Law,” “Jurisdic¬ 
tion and Procedure of the Supreme Court of the United 
States.” 

Taylor, Jeremy, divine; born in Cambridge in 1613; 
after studying in the university of that town, attracted 
the attention of Archbishop Laud, who presented him 
to a fellowship at Oxford (1636). He soon afterwards 
became chaplain to Charles I., was rector of Uppingham, 
1638-42, and accompanied the king to Oxford. About 
1645, he withdrew into Wales, where he kept a school 
at Newton, in Caermarthenshire, and afterwards found 
a shelter in the house of the Earl of Carbery. He re¬ 
moved to Ireland in 1658, and, after the Restoration, 
was made bishop of Down and Connor. His chief 
works are “Rules and Exercises of Holy Living and 
Dying,” the “Liberty of Prophesying,” “Ductor Dubi- 
tantium,” and his “Sermons.” Died, 1667. 

Taylor, Robert Love, lawyer, United States senator; 
born in Happy Valley, Carter County, Tenn., in 1850; 
educated in Pennington, N. J.; admitted to Tennessee 
bar, 1878; member of Congress, 1879-81; elector at 
large on Cleveland ticket, 1884; pension agent at Knox¬ 
ville, 1885-87; elected governor, 1886, as Democrat, 
his opponent being his brother, Alfred A. Taylor; was 
governor, 1887-91; practiced law, 1891-96; presidential 
elector on Cleveland ticket, 1892; again governor, 1897- 
99; United States senator, 1907-12. Was editor 
Taylor-Trotwood Magazine. Died, 1912. 

Taylor, Zachary, American general, and twelfth 
President of the United States; born in Orange County, 
Va., in 1784; was educated in Kentucky, and, after 
entering the army in 1808, obtained the rank of colonel 


in 1832, and fought in the Black Hawk War. After 
defeating the Seminoles at Okechobee in 1837, he was 
given the chief command in Florida in the following 
year. In 1846, he was entrusted with the command of 
the army which entered Mexico; there he gained the 
battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Buena 
Vista, a,nd brought the campaign to a successful con¬ 
clusion in 1847. In the following year he was returned 
as Whig candidate for the presidency. His tenure of 
office was chiefly signalized by the passing of Clay’s 
Compromise Bill with regard to the admission of Cali¬ 
fornia into the Union. Died, 1850. 

Tecumseh, a famous Shawnee chief, was born on 
the Scioto River, Ohio, about 1768. He headed an Indian 
alliance against the whites in the Northwest, and was 
defeated by the American General Harrison at Tippe¬ 
canoe, in 1811. In the War of 1812, he became an ally 
of the English, obtained the rank of brigadier-general in 
their service, and commanded the right wing in the 
battle of the Thames, in 1813, where he fell mortally 
wounded. 

Tempest, Marie Susan (Mrs. Cosmo Stuart), opera 
singer; born in London, July 15, 1866; daughter of 
Edwin and Sarah Etherington; musical education in 
Convent des Ursulines, Thildonck, Belgium, and Royal 
Academy of Music, London; first sang in concert, but 
soon went into light opera in leading roles; came to 
United States as prima donna in New York Casino 
Company; has appeared in comic opera in principal 
American cities; more recently in England; received 
numerous medals for Italian and declamatory English 
singing; married, 1898, to Cosmo Charles Gordon- 
Lennox (Cosmo Stuart), son of Lord Alexander Gordon- 
Lennox. Created Nell Gwyn in “ English Nell,” and 
Becky Sharp. 

Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, was the son of the Rev. 
George Tennyson, rector of Somersby in Lincolnshire, 
where he was born in 1809. He was educated at Louth 
grammar school, and, in 1827, published “Poems by 
Two Brothers,” partly the work of his brother Charles. 
In 1828, he matriculated at Cambridge, where he gained 
the chancellor’s medal. “Poems: Chiefly Lyrical” was 
followed in 1833, by a volume containing “The Palace 
of Art,” “CEnone,” and other of his best known pieces. 
“The Gardener’s Daughter,” “Locksley Hall,” and 
other poems were added in 1842, and, in 1847, appeared 
“The Princess, a Medley,” in blank verse. “In Memor- 
iam,” a tribute to the memory of Arthur Hallam, was 
published in 1850. In the same year, Tennyson suc¬ 
ceeded Wordsworth as poet-laureate. Among his sub¬ 
sequent poems were “Maud,” “The Idylls of the King,” 
“Enoch Arden,” “Becket,” a drama, and “Demeter,” 
“The Foresters,” etc. In 1884, he was created a peer. 
Died, 1892. 

Terry, Ellen (Mrs. Carew), English actress; born 
February 27, 1848; first appearance, April, 1856, at 
Princess Theater, London, under Charles Kean’s man¬ 
agement; in 1867, first acted with Henry Irving in 
“The Taming of the Shrew,” at Queen’s Theater, then 
acted at Haymarket Theater; retired for seven years; 
reappeared at Queen’s Theater in “The Wandering 
Heir”; played Olivia, among others, at Court Theater 
(John Hare’s management), and Portia, among others, 
at Prince of Wales Theater (Bancroft’s management); 
played Ophelia, December 30, 1878, for first time at 
Lyceum with Henry Irving; visited America with him, 
1883, and many times subsequently; remained at 
Lyceum until its dissolution in 1901; produced Ibsen’s 
“The Vikings,” 1903, and Shakesperean plays with her 
own company at Imperial Theater; in 1905, played 
at Duke of York’s Theater in J. M. Barrie’s “Alice-sit- 
by-the-fire.” Celebrated her stage jubilee in 1906. 

Tesla, Nikola, an American electrical inventor: 
born in Smiljan, Austria-Hungary, in 1857; studied 
engineering in Gratz; and, in 1884, came to the United 
States, and for several years was employed at Edison’s 
laboratory, near Orange, N. J. He then opened a 
laboratory of his own. In 1888, he completed his dis¬ 
covery of the rotating magnetic field by the invention 
of the rotary field-motor, the multi-phase system of 
which is used in the 50,000 horse power plant built to 
transmit the water power of Niagara Falls to Buffalo 
and other cities. He invented many methods and 
appliances for the use of electricity, among them the 
production of efficient light from lamps without fila¬ 
ments, and the production and transmission of power 
and intelligence without wires. In November, 1898, 
Tesla announced the discovery of, and, on May 1, 1900, 
patented, a method of transmitting electrical energy 
without wires. Working along the same line, William 
Marconi invented his wireless telegraphy. In 1901 
Tesla discovered that the capacity of the electrical 
conductor is variable. Since 1903, has been engaged 



494 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


in developing his system of world telegraphy and 
telephony. 

Tetrazzini, Signora Luisa, operatic prima donna, 
was born in Florence. She was educated under Cecherini. 
First appeared in Florence, 1895; at Covent Garden, 
1907. Has toured in South America, Russia, and other 
countries. Some roles that made Patti famous were 
never successfully sung since her retirement until Tetraz¬ 
zini appeared upon the scene. Her voice is remarkable 
for its purity and range. 

Thackeray, William Makepeace, novelist; born 
in Calcutta in 1811; was educated at the Charterhouse 
and Cambridge; studied art in Paris, but determined 
to devote himself to literature, and, in 1837, became 
connected with “Fraser’s Magazine,” to which he con¬ 
tributed the “Great Hoggarty Diamond.” In 1840, he 
published the “Paris Sketch-book,” and, in 1842, began 
to write for “Punch,” in which appeared his “Book of 
Snobs.” His first great novel, “Vanity Fair,” was 
followed by “Pendennis,” “Esmond,” “The Newcomes," 
and others. He delivered a series of lectures in England 
and America on the “English Humorists of the Eigh¬ 
teenth Century,” and “The Four Georges,”- and edited 
the “Cornhill Magazine.” Died, 1863. 

Thales ( tha'lez ), a celebrated Grecian philosopher, 
flourished in the Seventh and Sixth Centuries B. C. 
He was one of the seven wise men of Greece; and he 
also predicted the famous eclipse of the sun, which 
happened in 585 B. C. 

Thierry, Jacques Nicholas Augustin, born in 
Blois, May 10, 1795; an eminent French historian, best 
known as the author of “The History of the Conquest 
of England by the Normans.” He was the author of 
numerous other historical works, his last being “An 
Essay on the Formation and Progress of the Third 
Estate.” For the last twenty-five years of his life he 
was afflicted with total blindness. Died, May 22, 1856. 

Thiers, Louis Adolphe ( te-air '), an eminent states¬ 
man and historian, and president of the French Repub¬ 
lic; born of humble parentage in Marseilles in 1797; 
was educated for the law, but discarding the idea of 
following that profession, he, at an early age, entered 
the field of journalism as a contributor to the columns 
of the “ Constitutionnel.” Between the years 1823-27, 
appeared his “History of the French Revolution,” a 
work which stamped him an historian of the first order. 
He largely contributed to the Revolution of 1830. In 
1832, he was made minister of the interior; in 1834, he 
was admitted into the French Academy; and from Feb¬ 
ruary to August, 1836, filled the post of president of the 
council and minister for foreign affairs. In March, 1840, 
he was recalled to power, but being unable to prevail 
upon Louis Philippe to support his Eastern policy, he 
resigned office in October and employed his leisure in 
writing his “History of the Consulate and Empire” 
(twenty volumes, 8vo.), one of the greatest historical 
works of the age. In July, 1870, he resolutely opposed 
the impending war against Germany. In 1871, he suc¬ 
ceeded in effecting peace on the best terms possible 
under the circumstances, and, in the same year, was 
elected president of the new republic. In 1873, after 
an adverse vote of the legislative body, he resigned, 
and was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon. Died, 1877. 

Thomas, 31. Carey (Miss), president of Bryn Mawr 
College; born in Baltimore, January 2, 1857; daughter 
of Dr. James Carey and Mary (Whitall) Thomas; grad¬ 
uate of Cornell, 1877; studied in Johns Hopkins, 1877- 
78; Leipzig University, Germany, 1879-83 (Ph. D., 
University of Zurich, 1883; LL. D., Western University 
of Pennsylvania, 1896). Since 1885, professor of Eng¬ 
lish, 1885-95 dean, and since 1895, president of Bryn 
Mawr College; first woman trustee of Cornell, 1895-99; 
trustee of Bryn Mawr College since 1903. Author: 
“Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight,” “Education of 
Women.” Also “Should the Higher Education of 
Women Differ from That of Men?” and “The College,” 
in “Educational Review”; also various educational 
addresses. 

Thompson, William Oxley, president of Ohio State 
University; born in Cambridge, O., November 5, 1855; 
graduated from Muskingum College, 1878; Western 
Theological Seminary, Allegheny City, Pa., 1882 (A. 
M., 1881; D. D., 1891, Muskingum College; LL. D., 
Western University of Pennsylvania, 1897); ordained 
to Presbyterian ministry, 1882; president of Miami 
University, 1891-99; president of Ohio State University 
since 1899. 

Thomson, Elihu, electrician; born in Manchester, 
England, March 29, 1853; graduated from Central High 
School, Philadelphia, 1870 (A. M.; honorary A. M., 
Yale; Ph. D., Tufts College); professor of chemistry 
and mechanics, Philadelphia Central High School, 1870- 
80; since 1880 electrician for Thomson-Houston and 


General Electric companies, which operate under his 
inventions, more than 500 patents having been obtained: 
inventor of electric welding, which bears his name, and 
many other important inventions in electric lighting, 
power, etc. 

Thomson, Sir William (Lord Kelvin), born in Bel¬ 
fast in 1824; was educated at Glasgow and Cambridge; 
became professor of natural philosophy at Glasgow in 
1846. From 1846 to 1851, he edited the “Cambridge 
and Dublin Mathematical Journal,” to which he contrib¬ 
uted several important papers. Some of his chief dis¬ 
coveries are announced in the “Secular Coating of the 
Earth,” and the Bakerian lecture, the “Electrodynamic 
Qualities of Metals.” He invented the quadrant, 
portable, and absolute electrometers, and other scientific 
instruments. To the general public he is best known 
by his work in connection with submarine telegraphy. 
In January, 1892, he was raised to the peerage as Lord 
Kelvin. Died, 1907. 

Thoreau, Henry David, born in 1817; American 
naturalist; was a friend of Emerson, and a member of 
the Transcendental school. In 1845, and the following 
years he lived a life of complete solitude, described in 
“Walden.” He became acquainted with John Brown 
in 1859, and devoted the rest of his life to the Liberation- 
ist cause. Died, 1862. 

Thorwaldsen, Albert Bertel, born in 1770; Danish 
sculptor, of Icelandic origin; studied at the free school 
of the Academy of Copenhagen, and was sent by that 
body to Rome in 1796. His first great work was his 
“Jason.” Except for a visit to Denmark in 1819-20, 
when he executed the statues of “Christ and the Twelve 
Apostles ” for the Frue Kirke at Copenhagen, he remained 
in Rome till 1838. After that date he, for the most part, 
lived in Denmark. His masterpieces include the “ Entry 
of Alexander into Babylon,” the statue of “ Prince Ponia- 
towski,” and the “Dying Lion ” at Lucerne. Died, 1844. 

Thucydides, Greek historian; born at Athens, about 
471 B. C.; is said to have been descended from Olorus, 
King of Thrace. At the outbreak of the Peloponnesian 
War he received a command, but failed to relieve Amphi- 
polis when besieged by Brasidas, and was banished (423 
B. C.). After twenty years of exile, during which he is 
supposed to have written his “ History of the Pelopon¬ 
nesian War,” he returned to Athens about 403. Died 
about 400 B. C. 

Thwing, Charles Franklin, president of Western 
Reserve University and Adelbert College since 1890; 
born in New Sharon, Me., November 9, 1853; graduated 
from Harvard, 1876; Andover Theological Seminary, 
1879 (D. D., LL. D.); pastor North Avenue Congrega¬ 
tional Church, Cambridge, Mass., 1879-86; Plymouth 
Church, Minneapolis, 1886-90. Author: "American 
Colleges: Their Students and Work,” “The Reading of 
Books,” “The Family” (with Mrs. Thwing); “The 
Working Church,” “Within College Walls,” “The Col¬ 
lege Woman,” “The American College in American Life,” 
“The Best Life,” “College Administration,” “The 
Youth’s Dream of Life,” “ God in His World,” “ If I Were 
a College Student,” “The Choice of a College,” “A Liberal 
Education and a Liberal Faith,” “College Training and 
the Business Man.” Associate editor of “Bibliotheca 
Sacra,” contributor to magazines and speaker on educa¬ 
tional topics. 

Ticknor, George, born in 1791; American author; 
traveled in Europe (1815-19); was professor of modern 
languages at Harvard (1819-35). He wrote a “History 
of Spanish Literature,” and a “Life of Prescott." Died, 
1871. 

Tilden, Samuel Jones, born in 1814; American 
politician; was called to the bar in 1841; became chair¬ 
man of the Democratic State Convention in 1866; took 
a leading part in exposing the “Tammany Ring”; was 
elected governor of New York in 1874, and was elected 
president of the United States in 1876, but failed to be 
seated on account of alleged irregularities in Louisiana. 
Died, 1886. 

Tillman, Benjamin Ryan, United States senator, 
farmer; born in Edgefield County, S. C., August 11, 
1847; academic education; joined Confederate States 
Army, July, 1864, but was stricken with severe illness 
which caused the loss of his left eye and kept him an 
invalid for two years, so that he saw no military service; 
followed farming as his sole pursuit until 1886, when he 
became prominent in an agitation for industrial and 
technical education and other reforms. Elected gov¬ 
ernor of South Carolina in 1890 and 1892; United States 
senator since 1895. Founded Clemson Agricultural 
and Mechanical College at Calhoun’s old home, Fort 
Hill, and also Winthrop Normal and Industrial Col¬ 
lege at Rock Hill; the former for boys, the latter for girls; 
they are the two largest schools of the kind in the South; 
author of the dispensary system of selling liquor under 




BIOGRAPHY 


495 


State control; was central figure in the South Carolina 
Constitutional Convention, 1895, which instituted edu¬ 
cational qualification for suffrage; one of the leaders 
in securing the insertion of advanced positions in Demo¬ 
cratic platform of 1896. Prominent in Democratic Na¬ 
tional conventions of 1900 and 1904, and in latter was 
active in work of harmonizing contending factions of 
Democracy. 

Tilly, Johann Tserklaes, Count of, one of the 
great generals of the Thirty Years’ War; born in Bra¬ 
bant in 1559; was designed for the priesthood and edu¬ 
cated by Jesuits, but abandoned the church for the army. 
He was trained in the art of war by Parma and Alva, 
and proved himself a born soldier. He reorganized the 
Bavarian Army, and, devoted to the Catholic cause, 
was given command of the Catholic Army at the out¬ 
break of the Thirty Years’ War, during the course of 
which he won many notable battles, acting later on in 
conjunction with Wallenstein, whom, in 1630, he suc¬ 
ceeded as commander-in-chief of the imperial forces, 
and in the following year sacked with merciless cruelty 
the town of Magdeburg, a deed which Gustavus Adol¬ 
phus was swift to avenge by crushing the Catholic forces 
in two successive battles — at Breitenfeld and at Rain — 
in the latter of which Tilly was mortally wounded (1632). 

Titian, Tiziano Vecelli, born in 1477; Venetian 
painter; studied under Giovanni Bellini, and was much 
influenced by his fellow-pupil Giorgione; in 1512, was 
employed in decorating the ducal palace at Venice; 
in 1514, was invited to the court of Alphonso, Duke of 
Ferrara, for whom he executed several works; painted 
the portrait of Charles V. during his visit to Bologna in 
1530: visited Rome 1545-46, and was afterwards several 
times summoned to Germany by Charles V. Among his 
masterpieces is the “Bacchus and Ariadne” in the Na¬ 
tional Gallery, London. Died, 1576. 

Togo, Count Heihacliiro, admiral in command of 
the Japanese fleet — the Nelson of Japan — was born in 
1847. After Nogi’s guns from the land had completed 
the destruction of the Port Arthur fleet, Togo hid his 
ships for three months, pending the arrival of the 
Baltic fleet. Numerically the Russians were his superior, 
notably in battleships; but in speed, manoeuvring, gun¬ 
fire, and discipline, the advantage was all with the 
Japanese. The battle of the Sea of Japan was fought May 
27-28,1905, when of the Baltic fleet twenty ships were sunk, 
six captured, two demolished and six disarmed and in¬ 
terned. Admirals Rojestvensky and Nebogatoff were 
captured with some 8,000 men, while 4,000 Russians were 
killed. The Japanese losses were three torpedo boats 
sunk, 116 men killed, and 538 wounded. Madecount, 1907. 

Tolstoi, Leo Nikolaievitch, born in 1828; Russian 
author and social reformer; studied at the University of 
Kazan; served in the Crimean War; published “War 
and Peace,” “Anna Karenina,’' “The Kreutzer Sonata,” 
also several essays in moral philosophy, including “ My 
Religion.” Died, 1910. 

Torricelli (tor-re-chel'le), Evangelista, a distin¬ 
guished Italian philosopher; born in the Romagna in 
1608; succeeded Galileo as professor of mathematics at 
Florence in 1641, and made for himself a title to celebrity 
as the inventor of the barometer. Died, 1647. 

Toussaint L’Ouverture, Francois Dominique, 
born in 1743; son of African slaves, in San Domingo. He 
was, in 1796, appointed by the Directory chief of the army 
of San Domingo and afterwards established his au¬ 
thority throughout the island, which he ruled with justice 
and vigor. When Bonaparte sought to restore slavery 
in San Domingo (1801), Toussaint resisted, but was 
forced to surrender, and was sent to France, where he 
died in prison in 1803. 

Tree, Herbert Beerbohm, actor, is the son of a 
grain merchant named Beerbohm, and was born in Lon¬ 
don in 1853. Shortly after entering his father’s office, 
in 1870, he became a member of the irrationals amateur 
dramatic club, and joined the profession in 1877. His first 
hit was as the timid curate in “The Private Secretary,” 
and immediately after he played the grim spy Macari 
in “Called Back.” Taking the Comedy Theater (1887), 
he produced “ The Red Lamp ”; and in the autumn of the 
same year took the Haymarket Theater. In April, 1897, 
he opened his new theater, “His Majesty’s,” in the Hay- 
market. Here he has produced the greatest of his suc¬ 
cesses: “Julius Caesar,” “King John,” “A Midsummer 
Night’s Dream,” and “Herod,” “Twelfth Night,” “The 
Merry Wives of Windsor,” with Miss Ellen Terry and 
Mrs. Kendal in the cast, “Ulysses,” “The Eternal City,” 
“King Richard II.,” “The Darling of the Gods,” “The 
Tempest,” “Much Ado About Nothing,” “Business is 
Business,” “Oliver Twist,” “Nero,” and “Colonel New- 
come.” In 1905, he inaugurated a Shakespere Festival, 
which is now one of the annual arrangements of the 
theater. During the Shakespere celebrations in 1906, he 


revived “Hamlet,” “Julius Caesar,” “Twelfth Night,” 
“Much Ado About Nothing,” “Henry IV.” (Part I.), 
and “The Tempest.” In April, 1907, he produced 
several of Shakespere’s plays in Berlin, and was received 
by the German Emperor. His wife, an admirable Greek 
scholar formerly connected with Queen’s College, is a 
very refined actress. 

Tripler, Charles E., physicist, inventor; born in 
New York, 1849; educated in New York; made special 
study of physical sciences and phenomena; established 
private physical laboratory; experimented in electricity 
and mechanics and later in the study of gases: greatest 
achievement is the manufacture of “liquid air,” which 
he experimentally applied to the operation of an engine 
with remarkable results, this product being obtained 
by compression of atmospheric air at a temperature of 
over 300 degrees below zero. Died, 1906. 

Trollope, Anthony, born in 1815, a popular Eng¬ 
lish novelist, the author of a large number of works, 
all of which exhibited ingenuity, if not genius. He was 
the third son of Mrs. Frances Trollope, herself a novelist 
of some eminence; and received his education first at 
Winchester School, and subsequently at Harrow. For 
many years he held a position in the post-office. Besides 
his novels, he was the author of a “Life of Cicero,” and 
of several other works. Died, December 6, 1882. 

Troubetzkoy, Amelie, Princess (Amalie Rives), 
novelist; born in Richmond, Va., August 23, 1863; 
daughter of Alfred Landon Rives, engineer; educated by 
private tutors, married, in 1888, John Armstrong Chanler 
of New York, from whom she was divorced; married 2d, 
the Prince Troubetzkoy (Russian). Author: “The 
Quick or the Dead.” “A Brother to Dragons,” “Vir¬ 
ginia of Virginia,” “Herod and Mariamne,” “Witness of 
the Sun,” “According to St. John,” “Barbara Dering,” 
“Athelwold,” “Tanis,” “Sekin6,” magazine articles, etc. 

Trumbull, John, a distinguished American painter, 
was born in Connecticut, 1756. After passing some 
time in the army, during which he acted as aide-de-camp 
to Washington, 1775, he became a pupil of Benjamin 
West, in London. His principal works are to be found in 
the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington, numbering 
among them “The Surrender of Cornwallis,” “The Decla¬ 
ration of Independence,” and “The Surrender of Bur- 
goyne.” Died, 1843. 

Tupper, Sir Charles, a Canadian statesman; born in 
Amherst, Nova Scotia, July 2, 1821; studied medicine 
in Edinburgh University and practiced his profession in 
his native town. In 1855, he was made a member of the 
provincial legislature and was prime minister of Nova 
Scotia in 1864-1867. He warmly advocated the forma¬ 
tion of the Dominion of Canada, which took place in 1867 
and became a member of Sir John A. Macdonald’s cabinet 
in 1870; became minister of public works in 1878; and 
in 1879-1884 was minister of railways and canals. While 
filling the latter office he promoted the construction of 
the great Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1884, he was 
appointed high commissioner for Canada in London. 
He was one of the negotiators of the fisheries treaty with 
the United States in 1887-1888, and was created a baronet 
in the latter year. In 1895, he represented Canada at 
the International Railway Conference in London. In 
1896, was premier of Canada. 

Turenne, Henri de la Tour d’Auvergne, Vicomte 
de, born in 1611; French general, son of the Due de 
Bouillon, and grandson of William I., Prince of Orange; 
entered the French army in 1630; became mardchal de 
camp in 1635; in 1643 was placed in command of the 
forces in Germany, where he remained till the close of 
the Thirty Years’ War, distinguishing himself by his 
retreat from Marienthal and his victory at Nordlingen; 
opposed Cond6 with success in the war of the Fronde; 
was made marshal-general in 1660; became a Roman 
Catholic in 1668; greatly distinguished himself in the 
war with Holland, in the course of which he was killed 
by a cannon shot (1675). 

Turgenieff, Ivan Sergyevitch, born in 1818; Rus¬ 
sian novelist, studied at the University of Berlin; after 
the Franco-German War removed to Paris, where he 
mainly resided till his death. Among his novels are 
“A Nest of Nobles,” “Fathers and Sons,” and “Virgin 
Soil.” Died, 1883. 

Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, born in Paris, May 
10, 1727; a distinguished French statesman and econo¬ 
mist; from 1774 to 1776, comptroller-general of France 
under Louis XVI. By his enlightened measures he did 
much during his brief period of office to ameliorate the 
condition of the people and to reform the revenue; but 
he was driven from power by a combination of the privi¬ 
leged classes, to whom his schemes were odious. The 
last years of his life were devoted chiefly to literary 
pursuits. His “Life” was written by Condorcet. Died, 
March 20, 1781. 



496 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Turner, Joseph Mallord William, born in 1775; 
landscape painter; son of a hairdresser in Co vent Garden, 
studied at the schools of the Royal Academy; became 
A. R. A. in 1769, and R. A. in 1802, and soon won a repu¬ 
tation as a painter both in water-colors and in oils. In 
1807, he began the “Liber Studiorum,” a series of prints 
for the most part executed by himself. For “England 
and Wales,” the “Southern Coast,” and other series of 
engravings, he prepared drawings, which are now highly 
prized. Among the finest of his oil-paintings in the 
National Gallery, London, are “Dido Building Carthage,” 
and “The Sun Rising in a Mist.” Died, 1851. 

Tyler, John, American statesman; born in Virginia, 
1790; entered Congress in 1816; became vice-president 
under Harrison in 1840, and president in 1841, upon the 
death of President Harrison. During his government 
Texas was annexed to the United States. On the out¬ 
break of the war he espoused the side of the South. 
Died, 1862. 

Tyndall, John, man of science; born in County Car- 
low, Ireland, 1820; joined the Irish Ordnance Survey in 
1839; was a railway engineer 1844-47; studied at the 
Universities of Marburg and Berlin (1848-51); became 
professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Institution 
in 1853. After an expedition to Switzerland with Pro¬ 
fessor Huxley in 1856 wrote, in conjunction with him, a 
treatise “On the Structure and Motion of Glaciers,” 
presided at the meeting of the British Association at 
Belfast, in 1874. Among his works are “ Heat as a Mode 
of Motion,” and “Fragments of Science.” Died, 1893. 

Underwood, Oscar W., Democratic floor leader of 
the House of Representatives, was born in Louisville, 
Kentucky, 1862. Educated at Rugby school, Louisville, 
and at University of Virginia; admitted to bar, 1884; 
member of 54th to 63rd congresses (1895-1915), 9th Ala¬ 
bama district. 

Untermyer, Samuel, lawyer; born in Lynchburg, 
Va., March 2, 1858; educated in New York public schools, 
College of the City of New York and Columbia University 
Law School. Admitted to bar, 1879, and since prac¬ 
ticing in New York; now member of law firm of Gug- 
genheimer, Untermyer & Marshall; organized and is 
counsel for many trade combinations. Member of Metro¬ 
politan Museum of Art. 

Urban II. (Eudes), elected pope in 1088, when 
Bishop of Ostia; continued the policy of Gregory VII., 
and opposed the Emperor Henry IV., who set up an anti¬ 
pope against him, and took Rome; convened the Council 
of Clermont in 1095, at which the first crusade was pro¬ 
claimed, and Philip I. of France was excommunicated; 
in 1098 made the Norman counts of Sicily apostolic 
legates, and in the same year held the Council of Bari. 
Died, 1099. 

Usher, James, born in 1580; Irish divine; be¬ 
came bishop of Meath in 1620, and four years later 
archbishop of Armagh. His chief work was “Annales 
Veteris et Novi Testamenti,” the author, by Cromwell's 
order, being buried in Westminster Abbey. Died, 1656. 

Van Buren, Martin, American statesman, and 
eighth President of the United States; was born of 
Knickerbocker stock, in Columbia County, N. Y., 1782. 
After studying law and becoming a member of the bar, 
he was elected by the Democratic party to the State 
Senate in 1812, and became attorney-general in 1815. 
In 1816, he largely contributed to the organization of 
the so-called Albany regency, a political body which 
maintained a political ascendancy for many years in the 
State. In 1821, Van Buren entered the National Senate, 
and was reelected in 1827. As a senator he supported 
the protective tariff of 1828, and in the same year was 
elected governor of New York. In 1829, he became 
secretary of state in President Jackson’s cabinet, re¬ 
signing the same in April, 1831. After the rejection by 
the senate of his nomination as minister to England, he 
was elected in the Jackson interest vice-president of the 
republic, and in 1836, became the successful Democratic 
candidate for the presidential chair. During his tenure 
of office occurred the financial crisis of 1837 and the 
suspension of specie payments by the banks, a state 
of things which induced the president to recommend to 
Congress the establishment of an independent treasury — 
a measure carried into effect in 1840. In the latter year, 
Van Buren’s renomination for the presidency was de¬ 
feated by General Harrison, and in 1841, he temporarily 
retired into private life. His third candidature for the 
presidency, in 1844, was frustrated by the Southern vote, 
and he subsequently seceded from the Democrats to be¬ 
come a Free-soiler, and the unsuccessful nominee of the lat¬ 
ter party in the presidential election in 1848. Died, 1862. 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, American capitalist; born 
near Stapleton, Staten Island, N. Y., May 27, 1794; 
early engaged in steamboat transportation between 
Staten Island and New York and so enlarged his business 


that he soon gained the complete control of the New York 
and Staten Island lines. Later, he started steamboats 
in various waters — the Hudson, the Delaware, Long 
Island Sound, and established steamboats and other con¬ 
nections between New York and California. In 1864, he 
withdrew his capital from shipping and invested it in 
railroads. He secured the management of one railroad 
after another and, in 1877, controlled stocks representing 
an aggregate capital of $150,000,000, of which he owned 
fully one-half. In 1861, he presented the swift $800,000 
steamship “Vanderbilt” to the United States Govern¬ 
ment to be used for the capture of Confederate privateers. 
Later he endowed Vanderbilt University, founded at 
Nashville, Tenn., in 1872, with $500,000, afterward in¬ 
creased to $700,000. At the time of his death in New 
York City, January 4, 1877, his fortune was estimated at 
nearly $100,000,000, and he was supposed to be the 
richest man in the world. 

Vanderbilt, William Kissam, capitalist; born in 
Staten Island, December 12, 1849; academic education; 
studied several years in Geneva, Switzerland. Was in 
the office of C. C. Clarke, treasurer of Hudson River 
Railroad; learned bookkeeping; second vice-president 
of New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, 1877- 
83. Chairman of board of directors of Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Railway, from 1883. Member of 
Colonia and Defender syndicates ; united with his broth¬ 
ers in founding the Vanderbilt Clinic. One of the organ¬ 
izers of Metropolitan Club. ^ Member of Union and 
other leading clubs of New York; has traveled exten¬ 
sively. Director of New York Central & Hudson River 
Railroad, New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad 
Company, Michigan Central Railroad Company, Lake 
Erie & Western Railroad Company, Chicago & North¬ 
western Railway Company, Chicago, St. Paul, Minneap¬ 
olis & Omaha Railway Company, Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
Chicago & St. Louis Railway Company, Detroit & Chi¬ 
cago Railroad Company, New York & Harlem Railroad 
(president), Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad Company, 
West Shore Railroad Company, The Pullman Company, 
and officer or director in numerous financial corporations. 

Van Dyck, or Vandyke, Sir Anthony ( v&n-dlk ), a 
painter of the Flemish school, distinguished by his sur¬ 
passing excellence in portraiture; was born in Antwerp, 
1599, and became a pupil of Rubens. In 1632, he became 
court painter to Charles I. of England, was knighted 
by that monarch, married a daughter of the Earl of 
Gowrie, and lived in great magnificence. His “Cruci¬ 
fixion ” (at Antwerp), is his greatest historical work, and 
his full-length picture of “Charles I. on Horseback” 
(now at Warwick Castle), his “ chef d’oeuvre ” as a limner. 
Died in London, 1641. 

Van Dyke, Henry Jackson, an American educator; 
born in Germantown, Pa., in 1852; was graduated at 
Princeton University in 1873, at the Princeton Theo¬ 
logical Seminary in 1877, and at Berlin University in 
1879; and soon afterward assumed the pastorate of the 
United Congregational Church in Newport, R. I. He 
was chosen pastor of the Brick Presbyterian Church in 
New York City in 1882, and continued in that charge till 
1900, when he resigned to become professor of English 
Literature in Princeton University. His publications 
include: “The Reality of Religion,” “The Poetry of 
Tennyson,” “The Ruling Passion,” “The Blue Flower,” 
“The School of Life,” etc. 

Van Dyke, John Charles, author, educator; born 
in New Brunswick, N. J., April 21, 1856; privately 
educated; studied at Columbia (L. H. D., Rutgers, 
1899). Admitted to New York bar, 1877, but turned 
attention to literature; since 1878, librarian of Sage 
Library, New Brunswick, N. J.; studied art many years 
in Europe; traveled much on both continents and has 
written extensively on both art and nature; professor 
of history of art, Rutgers College; lecturer in Columbia, 
Harvard, Princeton, etc. Editor “The Studio,” 1883- 
84; “Art Review,” 1887-88; “College Histories of Art,” 
“History of American Art.” Author: “Books and 
How to Use Them,” “Principles of Art,” “How to 
Judge of a Picture,” “Notes on Sage Library,” “Serious 
Art in America,” “Art for Art’s Sake,” “History of 
Painting,” “Old Dutch and Flemish Masters,” “Modern 
French Masters,” “Nature for Its Own Sake,” “The 
Desert,” “Italian Painting,” “Old English Masters,” 
with Cole’s engravings, “The Meaning of Pictures.” 

_ Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva, born in 
Seville in 1599; a distinguished Spanish painter. He 
was principal painter to Philip IV., to whom he became 
also chamberlain. His works consist chiefly of por¬ 
traits, and of historical and classical subjects. Died in 
Madrid, August 6, 1660. 

Vesalius, Andreas, anatomist; born in Brussels in 
*514_; _ accompanied Charles V. in his campaigns as 
physician, and also attended Philip II. He died in 1564, 





BIOGRAPHY 


497 


in Zante, where he had been wrecked on his return from 
Jerusalem. His great work was “ De Corporis Humani 
Fabrica.” 

Vespasian, Titus Flavius Sabinus (vls-pa'zhe-an ), 
w T as Emperor of Rome from 70 to 79 A. D. He distin¬ 
guished himself in many military commands before he 
became emperor, and was engaged in the war with the 
Jews when he was raised to the throne. His govern¬ 
ment was highly beneficial to the state. 

Victor Emmanuel II., first King of Italy, born in 
1820; became King of Sardinia on the abdication of 
his father in 1849, and immediately began to reorganize 
the kingdom and to enforce toleration. He sent a 
contingent during the war with Russia to help the allies 
in the Crimea, and, in 1859, he secured the alliance of 
France in his struggle with Austria. The price agreed 
on was the cession of Savoy and Nice, but the result 
was the union of 'Italy under the ruler of Sardinia. 
By the help of Prussia the liberation of Venice was 
gained in 1866, and Rome was evacuated by the French 
in 1870. Victor Emmanuel was called by his people 
“ Rd Galantuomo.” Died, 1878. 

Victoria Alexandrina, Queen of Great Britain and 
Empress of India; born in 1819; daughter of Edward, 
Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III.; was crowned 
on June 28, 1838. She married, in 1840, Prince Albert 
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who died in 1861, by whom she 
had nine children. The chief events of the reign have 
been the establishment of the penny post, the repeal 
of the corn laws, the annexation of the Punjaub, the 
great exhibition, the Crimean War, the Indian mutiny, 
followed by the assumption of sovereignty over India, 
the second and third reform bills, wars in Afghanistan, 
China, South Africa, and Egypt, and the Fenian and 
home rule agitations in Ireland. The jubilee of the 
queen’s accession was celebrated in 1887, and her dia¬ 
mond jubilee in 1897. Five attempts were made on 
her life, in 1840, 1842 (three), and 1882. She died at 
Osborne House, Isle of Wight, in 1901. 

Vincent de Paul, St., a French philanthropist and 
ecclesiastic reformer; was born in Landes, in 1576. 
Captured by Tunisian pirates in 1605, he remained for 
two years in slavery. After his escape he repaired to 
Paris, where he became curate of Clichy, and preceptor 
to the celebrated Cardinal de Retz, and engaged himself 
in various works of benevolence and Church improve¬ 
ment. He established a foundling hospital at Paris in 
1638; organized the congregation of the Missions, and 
instituted the order of Sisters of Charity. Died in 1660, 
and was canonized by Pope Clement XII. in 1737. 

Vincent, John Heyl, bishop of Methodist Episcopal 
Church and chancellor of Chautauqua system; born in 
Tuscaloosa, Ala., in 1832; educated in Lewisburg and 
Milton, Pa.; began to preach at 18; studied in Wes¬ 
leyan Institute, Newark, N. J. (S. T. D., Ohio Wesleyan; 
LL. D., Washington and Jefferson; S. T. D., Harvard); 
joined New Jersey Conference, 1853; ordained deacon, 
1855; elder, 1857; transferred to Rock River Confer¬ 
ence; pastor at Galena, Chicago, etc., 1857-65; estab¬ 
lished “Northwest Sunday School Quarterly,” 1865; 
“Sunday School Teacher,” 1866; corresponding secre¬ 
tary of Sunday School Union and editor of Sunday 
School publications, 1868-84; one of founders, 1874, of 
Chautauqua Assembly; founder, 1878, of Chautauqua 
Literary and Scientific Circle, and its chancellor ever 
since. Preacher to Harvard, Yale, Cornell, Wellesley, 
and other colleges; in 1900, made resident bishop in 
charge of European work of Methodist Episcopal Church; 
retired from active episcopate in 1904. Author: “The 
Modern Sunday School,” “Studies in Young Life,” 
“Little Footprints in Bible Lands,” “The Church School 
and Sunday School Institutes,” “Earthly Footsteps of 
the Man of Galilee,” “Better Not,” “The Chautauqua 
Movement,” “To Old Bethlehem,” “Our Own Church,” 
“Outline History .of England,” “Outline History of 
Greece,” “The Church at Home,” “Family Worship 
for Every Day in the Year,” etc. 

Vinci, Leonardo-da ( vln'che ), one of the most emi¬ 
nent of Italian painters, was born in Vinci, near Flor¬ 
ence, in 1452. He early became a sort of universal 
genius, exhibiting a talent for anatomy, astronomy, 
botany, mathematics, music, and engineering, and, in 
1482, entered the service of Ludovico Sforza, Duke of 
Milan, who made him director of an academy of arts 
and sciences. In 1498, he painted at Milan his master¬ 
piece, the picture of “The Last Supper,” and, in 1516, 
entered the service of Francis I., accompanying that 
monarch to France, in which country he died in 1519. 
Leonardo surpassed all his predecessors as a master of 
chiaroscuro, and was the author of “Trattato della 
Pittura,” an excellent treatise on painting, which has 
been translated into English. 

Virchow, Rudolf, born in 1821 ; German pathol¬ 


ogist; after being involved in trouble on account of 
his share in the movement of 1848, obtained chairs of 
pathological anatomy at Wurzburg and Berlin (1856), 
having recently published his “Cellular, Pathology.” 
Three years later he returned to politics, and ultimately 
became leader of the Liberal opposition in the Prussian 
Assembly, and was challenged to a duel in 1865 by 
Bismarck. In 1878, he retired from public life. He 
was much consulted during the illness of the Emperor 
Frederick. Died, 1902. 

Virgil, Publius Virgilius Maro, Roman poet; 
born near Mantua in 70 B. C. Found patrons in Maece¬ 
nas and Augustus, who restored to him his estate. He 
died in Brundusium, on his return from a visit to Greece. 
His chief works were “The Eclogues” or “Bucolics,” 
“The Georgies,” and the “.Eneid,” the latter of which 
has been translated by, among others, Dryden, Coning- 
ton, and William Morris. Died, 19 B. C. 

Vittoria Colonna, the most celebrated poetess of 
Italy, was born at Marino, in 1490. At 17 she was 
married, and after her husband’s death, in the battle of 
Pavia, found her chief consolation in solitude and the 
cultivation of her poetical genius. Her poems were 
chiefly devoted to the memory of herhusband. Died, 1547. 

Volta, Alessandro, born in 1745; natural philoso¬ 
pher; was for thirty years professor at Pavia, and be¬ 
came F. R. S. Besides making other discoveries, he 
invented the voltaic pile or electrical column. Died, 
1826. 

Voltaire, whose original name was Frangois Marie 
Arouet; was born in Paris in 1694; educated by the 
Jesuits, and became a protege of Ninon de l’Enclos. In 
1717, he was imprisoned in the Bastille on suspicion 
of writing a libel on the king, and “iEdipe” was pro¬ 
duced in 1718. After another imprisonment, he went 
to England, where, in 1728, the “Henriade” was pub¬ 
lished. He escaped prosecution by disavowing his 
writings, and, in 1736, began to correspond with Frederick 
the Great. After the rise of the Pompadour he secured 
a reception at court and at the Academie. In 1750, he 
went to the court of Berlin, where he stayed three years, 
the result being a historical quarrel. Soon after this 
he settled at Ferney, where the rest of his life was spent, 
but before his death he visited Paris, and was received 
as a popular hero. He wrote numerous plays and ro¬ 
mances (Candide, Zadig), etc., “ Histoire de Charles XII.,” 
“Sifecle de Louis XIV.,” and other historical works, and 
“Essai sur les Moeurs et l’Esprit des Nations.” Died, 
1778. 

Volterra, Daniele de, born in 1509; Italian artist, 
pupil of Michel Angelo. His masterpiece, “The Descent 
from the Cross,” was torn by the French, who attempted 
to. take it from Trinita de Monti at Rome. Died, 1566. 

Wagner, Richard, a popular German composer; 
born in Leipzig in 1813; became chapel master at Dres¬ 
den in 1843, and later took up his residence at Munich, 
upon the invitation of his admirer and patron, the King 
of Bavaria. His well-known operas, “ Rienzi,” “Tann- 
hauser,” and “Lohengrin,” have elicited great, but 
comparatively undeserved, praise. Wagner wrote his 
own librettos, and his aesthetic theories on music and 
dramatic art involved him in much critical controversy. 
Died, 1883. 

Wallace, Alfred Russel, F. R. S., born in 1823; 
scientific writer; visited South America and the Malay 
Archipelago, publishing the results of his observations 
on his return, among his other works being “Contribu¬ 
tions to the Theory of Natural Selection,” “On Miracles 
and Modern Spiritualism,” “Land Nationalization,” 
and “Darwinism.” The discovery of the evolution 
hypothesis was arrived at by him at the same time as by 
Darwin. 

Wallace, Lewis, born in 1827; American general, 
diplomatist, lawyer, and author. He served as first 
lieutenant in the Mexican War; engaged in the practice 
of law in Indiana from 1848; became a brigadier-general 
in 1861; served through the Civil War. From 1881 to 
1885, he was United States minister to Turkey. Author 
of “The Fair God,” “Ben Hur,” “The Boyhood of 
Christ,” “The Prince of India.” Died, 1905. 

Wallace, Sir William, born about 1274; Scotch 
hero; headed the rising of 1297 against the English, 
and won a victory at Cambus Kenneth, after which he 
crossed the border, and was named guardian of Scotland 
on his return. Next year, however, he was defeated 
by Edward I. at Falkirk, after which, deserted by the 
nobles, he carried on a guerilla warfare for seven years. 
After being imprisoned in France, whose aid he had 
sought, he was declared an outlaw in 1304, and having 
been captured next year was sent to London and hanged. 
Died, 1305. 

Wallenstein, Albrecht, Graf von Waldstein, 
born in 1583; Duke of Friedland, Imperialist general, 



4^8 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of noble Bohemian family; after serving against the 
Turks, the Venetians, and Bethlen Gabor, raised an 
army at his own expense, in 1626, for the emperor, and 
defeated Mansfeld and the Danes. In 1630, he was de¬ 
rived of his command by the jealousy of the League, 
ut was soon recalled to oppose Gustavus Adolphus. 
The Swedish king was victorious at Breitenfeld (1631), 
and Wallenstein was defeated at Liitzen, where Gustavus 
fell. After his defeat he negotiated with France, and 
having been outlawed by the emperor, was assassinated 
at Eger, 1634. 

Walter, Thomas Ustick, an American architect; 
born in Philadelphia, Pa., September 4, 1804. In 1833, 
he made the designs for the Girard College building, 
which on its completion in 1847, was pronounced the 
finest specimen of classic architecture in the United 
States. His next great work was the breakwater at 
La Guayra for the Venezuelan Government. In 1851, 
his design for the extension of the National Capitol at 
Washington, D. C., was adopted. Having been ap¬ 
pointed government architect, he removed to Washing¬ 
ton, and remained there till the completion of the work 
in 1865. While in Washington he also designed the ex¬ 
tensions of the patent office, treasury, and post-office 
buildings, the dome of the capitol, and the government 
hospital for the insane. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., 
October 30, 1887. 

Ward, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, author; born in 
Boston, Mass., August 31, 1844; daughter of Rev. Austin 
and Elizabeth Stuart Phelps; married October 20, 1888, 
Herbert D. Ward; began to write for press when 13 
years old. Author: “The Gipsy Series ” (four volumes), 
“The Gates Ajar,” “Men, Women, and Ghosts,” “The 
Trotty Book,” “Hedged In,” “The Silent Partner,” 
“What to Wear,” “Trotty’s Wedding-Tour and Story 
Book,” “Poetic Studies,” “The Story of Avis,” “Sealed 
Orders,” “Friends,” "Doctor Zay,” “Beyond the Gates,” 
“Songs of the Silent World,” “Old Maids, and Burglars 
in Paradise,” “The Madonna of the Tubs,” “The Gates 
Between,” “Jack the Fisherman,” “The Struggle for 
Immortality,” “Come Forth” (with Herbert D. Ward), 
“The Master of the Magicians” (with Herbert D. Ward), 
“ Fourteen to One,” “ Donald Marcy,” “ A Singular Life,” 
“The Supply at St. Agatha’s,” “Chapters from a Life,” 
“The Story of Jesus Christ,” “Within the Gates,” “Suc¬ 
cessors to Mary the First,” “Avery,” “Trixy,” “A Lost 
Hero” (with Herbert D. Ward). Died, 1911. 

Warren, Samuel, born in 1807; English lawyer and 
writer, whose chief works were “ Passages from the Diary 
of a Late Physician,” “Ten Thousand a Year,” and 
“The Moral and Intellectual Development of the Age”; 
was appointed master in lunacy in 1859. Died, 1877. 

Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of, “the king¬ 
maker”; born about 1428; was created earl in 1449, 
and joined the Yorkists, getting Edward IV. crowned 
by his influence, and defeating his enemies at Towton 
(1461); quarreled with Edward, and restored Henry VI. 
in 1470, but was defeated and slain (1471), at Barnet 
next year. 

Washington, Booker Taliaferro, principal of 
Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute since 1881; 
born near Hale’s Ford, Va., about 1859; of African 
descent; graduated from Hampton Institute, Virginia, 
1875 (A. M., Harvard, 1896; LL. D., Dartmouth, 1901); 
was teacher at Hampton Institute until elected by State 
authorities as head of Tuskegee Institute, which he organ¬ 
ized and has made successful; is writer and speaker on 
racial and educational subjects. Author: “Sowing and 
Reaping,” “Up From Slavery,” “ Future of the American 
Negro,” “Character Building,” “Story of My Life and 
Work,” “Working With Hands,” “Tuskegee and Its 
People.” 

Washington, George, illustrious American patriot, 
general, and statesman, and first President of the United 
States; was born in Westmoreland County, Va., February 
22, 1732. He descended from an old English family, 
one of whose younger sons — his great-grandfather 
John — emigrated to Virginia in 1657. Washington 
inherited a considerable farm on the banks of the Rap¬ 
pahannock, and, after leaving school in 1747, passed much 
of his time with Lord Fairfax, and the latter’s cousin, 
Sir William, both great feudal proprietors in the colony. 
Between 1748-1751, young Washington was employed 
by Lord Fairfax in surveying certain outlying properties 
of his beyond the Blue Ridge, and, at the age of 19, was 
appointed adjutant-general (holding the rank of major) 
of one of the military districts formed in Virginia at the 
outbreak of the war with France. In 1754, Washington, 
as lieutenant-colonel, defeated the French on the frontier, 
and afterwards accompanied General Braddock as aid- 
de-camp in his untoward expedition against Fort Du- 
quesne. In the following year he was made commander- 
in-chief of the forces ordered to be raised by the Assembly 


of Virginia for the defense of the provinces, and com¬ 
manded a division of the force which took Fort Duquesne 
in 1758. Marrying in the next year, Washington re¬ 
signed his commission, and settled down at Mount Vernon 
as a planter, and occupied himself for some years in the 
cultivation of his enlarged estate. Though long a member 
of the House of Burgesses, Washington does not appear 
to have taken any prominent part in its deliberations; 
although, in 1773, he became one of the delegates to the 
Williamsburg Convention, met to declare the right of the 
colonists to self-government, and in 1774, one of the 
five representatives of Virginia at the General Congress 
in Philadelphia. 

On the breaking out of armed resistance to the home 
country, the Continental Congress at once conferred the 
chief command upon Washington. The latter found 
himself entrusted with a task of no ordinary weight and 
responsibility. In the face of well-appointed and suc¬ 
cessful British armies already on American soil, he had to 
oppose to them undisciplined and raw militia, ill-found 
in war material, and with a government to fall back upon 
almost destitute of both money and credit. He, how¬ 
ever, proved himself equal to the exigency of the situa¬ 
tion, and met the enemy at Long Island, N. Y., where he 
was defeated with heavy loss, and compelled to make a 
disastrous retreat through the Jerseys into Pennsylvania. 
In 1776-77, he gained advantage at Trenton and Prince¬ 
ton, only to be badly defeated at Brandywine, on Septem¬ 
ber 11th of the latter year, thus allowing the British troops 
to occupy Philadelphia. The surrender of Burgoyne at 
Saratoga, in the following month, served to brighten the 
American cause, since it procured for the colonists the 
support of France. In 1778, Washington fought an 
indecisive battle at Monmouth Court-house with Sir 
Henry Clinton, after which he was compelled to remain 
in defensive inactivity, in consequence of the destitute 
condition of his army and the exhaustion of the public 
treasury, until July, 1780, when a French army of 6,000 
men arrived to the assistance of the insurgents. In that 
year, too, occurred the treason of General Arnold, and 
the sad episode of the fate of Andre. In 1781, the 
Articles of Confederation between the States were ratified, 
and the w r ar was transferred to the South with varying 
success. This state of things lasted until September of 
that year, when, reinforcements having arrived from 
France, the combined American and French armies 
advanced upon Yorktown, where the British command¬ 
er-in-chief, Lord Cornwallis, was forced to capitulate, 
surrendering his entire force of 7,000 men. This event 
closed the war; a definitive treaty of peace being signed 
at Paris, September 3, 1783, in which the English Gov¬ 
ernment recognized the independence of the United 
States. 

In the December following, General Washington 
resigned his commission and retired into private life, 
from which he was again called forth, in 1787, to preside 
over the National Convention assembled in Philadelphia 
to consolidate the National Constitution and place the 
federal system of government upon a firm and permanent 
basis. This accomplished, on February 4, 1789, General 
Washington was elected to the presidency of the newly 
constituted nation, and in 1792, reelected to the same 
high office. The chief events which signalized his 
administration were the rise of the two great political 
parties, the Federalists and the Democrats (or Republic¬ 
ans), to the former of wffiich Washington naturally 
belonged, both by principle and policy; and a new 
treaty entered into with England, in 1795, which 
evoked great animosity against Washington and his 
government on the part of the Democratic party 
headed by Jefferson, on account of his hostile attitude 
against the Jacobinism of revolutionary France. Wash¬ 
ington declined a third nomination to the presidency, in 
1796, and, after a “ Farewell Address to the People of the 
United States,” the “Father of his Country” sought his 
well-won repose, passing the close of his days at Mount 
Vernon, where he died, December 14, 1799. 

Watson. John (“Ian Maclaren”), born in 1850; till 
1893, Dr. Watson was known as a popular preacher and 
able minister, and in that year he acquired additional 
distinction and wider fame by writing a series of Scotch 
idyls for the “British Weekly”; under the title of “Be¬ 
side the Bonnie Brier Bush ” they became widely popu¬ 
lar in the United States and Great Britain. “The Days 
of Auld Lang Syne,” a second series of idyls, published 
in 1895, also reached a large circulation. A novel from 
Dr. Watson’s pen, “ Kate Carnegie and Those Ministers,” 
was published in 1896. “The Upper Room” and “The 
Life of the Master ” are perhaps his best known religious 
works. Died, 1907. 

W T atson, Thomas E., lawyer, ex-congressman; 
born in Georgia, in 1856; studied two years in Mercer 
College; taught school; admitted to bar, 1875; prac- 



BIOGRAPHY 


499 


ticed in Thomson, Ga.; member Georgia Legislature, 
1882-83; Democratic elector-at-large, 1888; member 
Congress, 1891-93, as Populist; was candidate and 
claims election (on honest count), at elections in 1892 
and 1894, but his opponent was given the certificate; 
resumed practice of law, 1895. While in Congress se¬ 
cured first appropriation for free delivery of mails in 
rural districts that Congress ever passed. Nominated 
for vice-president of United States at St. Louis Populist 
Convention which endorsed Bryan for president, 1896; 
for some time conducted Populist paper at Atlanta. 
Nominated for president by People’s party, 1904, and 
made active campaign to revive the party; began pub¬ 
lication of “Tom Watson’s Magazine,” in New York, 
1905. Author: “ The Story of France,” “ Life of Thomas 
Jefferson,” “Life of Napoleon,” “Life and Times of 
Thomas Jefferson,” “Bethany, a Study and Story of the 
Old South.” 

Watt, James, an eminent British engineer and me¬ 
chanical inventor; was born at Greenock in 1736. He 
early developed extraordinary talents in practical me¬ 
chanics, and, in 1765, perfected his grand discovery of 
the condensation of steam by means of an air-tight 
cylinder, and likewise invented an apparatus to depress 
the piston of an engine by steam instead of atmospheric 
pressure. For some years he occupied himself in the 
surveying and engineering of various public works in 
Scotland, and in 1774, entered into partnership with 
the Messrs. Boulton of Soho, Birmingham, for the manu¬ 
facture of steam engines, perfecting numerous and great 
improvements in their mechanism — among others the 
regulator by centrifugal force, the throttle valve, the 
machinery of parallel motion, and the steam barometer. 
In 1782, he invented the double-acting engine, and re¬ 
tired from business in 1800. Died, 1819. 

Watterson, Henry, American journalist; born in 
Washington, D. C., February 16, 1840. His first work 
as journalist was with the “Democratic Review,” and 
"The States,” in Washington, D. C. He edited news¬ 
papers in Nashville, Tenn., before and after the Civil 
War, in the interim serving with distinction in the 
Confederate Army. He edited, in Louisville, Ky., the 
“Louisville Journal” during 1868; and the Louis¬ 
ville “Courier-Journal” since then. He published 
“History of the Spanish-American War,” "Abraham 
Lincoln,” etc., and continues to be one of America’s most 
brilliant journalists. 

Watts, George Frederick, R. A., born in 1817; 
painter, gained a reputation by his “Caractacus Led in 
Triumph through the Streets of Rome.” Among his 
chief works are “Fata Morgana,” “Love and Death,” 
“Time, Death, and Judgment,” and portraits of 
Joachim, Manning, William Morris, etc. Died, 1904. 

Watts, Isaac, an English dissenting minister and 
poet, the “very father of English hymnology,” was born 
in 1674, and died, 1748. 

Wayne, Anthony, an American general of the 
Revolutionary epoch; was born in Chester County, Pa., 
in 1745. He entered the army as a colonel, in 1775, 
and, after serving with distinction in the Canadian cam¬ 
paign, commanded a division at the battle of Brandy¬ 
wine, and the right wing at Germantown, 1777. After 
distinguishing himself at Monmouth in the following 
year, he captured by assault the fortified works at 
Stony Point on the Hudson, in 1779, and received the 
thanks of Congress therefor. After participating in the 
capture of Cornwallis’ army at Yorktown, 1780, he put 
down the Indians in Georgia, and in 1794, gained a 
signal victory over the Miami Indians in Ohio. Died, 
1796. 

Webster, Daniel, an illustrious American statesman, 
jurist, and orator, w'as born in Salisbury, N. H., in 1782, 
of respectable but comparatively humble parentage. 
After receiving his rudimentary education at Exeter 
and Boscawen academies, he entered Dartmouth Col¬ 
lege, in 1797, as a freshman, and, after graduating in 
1801, entered upon the study of the law at Salisbury and 
Boston, in which latter city he was called to the bar in 
1805. In 1807, he went into practice at Portsmouth, 
and, after earning a high legal reputation, was elected by 
the Federal party to the lower house of Congress in 1812, 
where he opposed the war with England, and at once 
rose into prominence as an able debater. Reelected in 
1815, he shared in the discussion of the United States 
Bank Charter and specie payment questions. Mean¬ 
while he had risen to the highest rank in his profession 
as a constitutional lawyer, and as a consummate leader 
in criminal causes. In 1820, he served as a member of 
the Convention met to revise the Constitution of 
Massachusetts, and in 1822, was reelected to Congress, 
where, as chairman of the Judiciary Committee, he 
rendered eminent assistance in the entire revision of 
the United States criminal code. In 1827, he became 


senator, and in 1830, in opposing the Nullification 
doctrine advanced by South Carolina statesmen, delivered 
perhaps the most Splendid outburst of patriotic oratory 
ever heard within the Congress of the American 
Union. In 1834, Webster became a prominent leader 
of the Whig party, and, in 1841, was appointed secretary 
of state under President Harrison, retaining the office 
during Tyler’s chief magistracy, and again under Fill¬ 
more, in 1850. The most remarkable event of his official 
term was the so-called Ashburton Treaty with England, 
in the settlement of the northeastern boundary ques¬ 
tion. Iteelected to the senate in 1844, he opposed alike 
the admission of Texas into the Union and the prosecution 
of the war with Mexico, and supported Henry Clay’s 
“Compromise Measures” of 1850, in relation to the 
extension of slavery to new territories. He was unsuc¬ 
cessfully nominated for the presidency by the National 
Whig Convention of 1852. Died, October 24, in the 
latter year. 

Web'ster, Noah, author and philologist; born in 
Hartford, Conn., in 1758, and educated at Yale College. 
He was admitted to the bar in 1781, but engaged in 
scholastic and literary occupations. Employed in 
teaching a school at Goshen, N. Y., he prepared his 
“Grammatical Institutes of the English Language,” 
published in three parts, and edited “Governor Win- 
throp’s Journal.” In 1784, he wrote “Sketches of 
American Policy,” advocating the formation of a new 
constitution, and gave public lectures on the English 
language, which were published 1789. In 1807, he 
published “ A Philosophical and Practical Grammar of the 
English Language,” and commenced his American “Dic¬ 
tionary of the English Language,” but finding difficulties 
in etymology, he devoted ten years to its study, and pre¬ 
pared a “Synopsis of Words in Twenty Languages,” 
then began his dictionary anew, and, in seven years, 
completed it. His “Elementary Spelling-Book,” found¬ 
ed on his “Institutes,” up to 1862, had been sold to 
the extent of 41,000,000 copies. A new and thoroughly 
revised and enlarged edition of his dictionary was fin¬ 
ished in 1890, and it is now one of the most complete 
dictionaries of the English language published. Web¬ 
ster also published a popular “History of the United 
States,” and a “Manual of Useful Studies.” He was a 
judge and a member of the State Legislature, and one of 
the founders of Amherst College. Died in New Haven 
in 1843. 

Welch, William Henry, professor of pathology at 
Johns Hopkins; born in Norfolk, Conn., April 8, 1850; 
graduate of Yale, A. B., 1870; M. D., College of Physi¬ 
cians and Surgeons, New York, 1875 (LL. D., Western 
Reserve, 1894; Yale, 1896; Harvard, 1900; Toronto, 
1903; Columbia, 1904). Author: “General Pathology 
of Fever”; also numerous papers on pathological and 
bacteriological subjects. 

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley [Wesley], Duke of, 
was born 1769, was educated at Eton and the Military 
Academy of Angers, and entered the army in 1787. As 
lieutenant-colonel he served in Holland (1794), and in 
1796 was sent to India. In 1799, under General Harris, 
he stormed Seringapatam, defeated the Mahrattas at 
Assaye in 1803, and returned home two years later. 
After sitting in parliament for two years (being Irish 
secretary in 1807), and serving at Copenhagen, he 
was sent to Portugal in 1808. Having won the victo¬ 
ries of Rolica and Vimeiro, he was superseded, but in 
1809 was again in the Peninsula. He was made a peer 
for the victory of Talavera, and won the battle of Busaco 
in 1810, after which he constructed the lines of Torres 
Vedras. This was followed by Fuentes d’Onoro (1811), 
the capture of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz (1812), and 
the victory of Salamanca in the same year. He was now 
created marquis, and after the battle of Vitoria drove 
the French across the Pyrenees. After being made field- 
marshal and duke, he attended the Congress of Vienna, 
which he left to meet Napoleon at Waterloo. In 1827, 
he became commander-in-chief, and in 1828 was for the 
first time premier. After yielding on the Catholic ques¬ 
tion, he resigned in 1830 on that of Reform, incurring 
great unpopularity. In 1834, he again held office, but 
resigned next year, and in 1841 joined the cabinet of Sir 
R. Peel. He attended the House of Lords to the last, 
and received a state funeral at St. Paul’s Cathedral. 
Died, 1852. 

Wenceslas, or Wenzel ( ven'-tael ), a German emperor, 
of the house of Luxemburg, born in Nuremberg in 1361. 
He was the eldest son of Chains IV., was crowned King 
of Bohemia in his third year, and in 1378 succeeded his 
father as emperor. He annulled all debts due to Jews on 
the payment to himself of fifteen to thirty per cent, of the 
amount. The mob of Prague having slaughtered 3,000 
Jews, he appropriated their property. In 1394, he was 
imprisoned at Prague by a conspiracy among the nobles, 




600 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


headed by Jodocus of Moravia, but the German princes 
secured his release. He joined France in urging the abdi¬ 
cation of Boniface IX. and Benedict XIII., in order that 
a new pope might take their place. Hereupon several 
German princes deposed him in 1400, electing Rupert of 
the Palatinate. He abdicated his claims to the imperial 
crown in favor of his brother Sigismund in 1410, and 
indulged in excesses till he died of apoplexy in 1419. 

Wesley, John, was born at Epworth, in Lincolnshire, 
June 17, 1703; an eminent evangelist and divine, the 
founder of ",the people called Methodists.” He was the 
son of a clergyman of the Church of England; and he 
himself became a clergyman, after having been educated 
at the Charterhouse School, and at Christ Church, Oxford. 
The year after he took orders (1725) he was chosen a 
Fellow of Lincoln College, and was appointed lecturer 
on Greek; but shortly afterwards he became curate to 
his father, and labored at Epworth and in the neighbor¬ 
hood, where his father was vicar, till he returned to 
Oxford in 1729. It was during his residence at Oxford 
that the first Methodist Society was formed, he and his 
brother Charles (born, 1708; died, 1788), being accus¬ 
tomed to meet together, with a few others, for the pur¬ 
pose of mutual edification. Wesley continued to act as 
tutor at Oxford till 1735, when he was induced to visit 
Georgia, in North America. After about two years he 
returned to England, and soon after commenced preach¬ 
ing in association with his friend George Whitefield, from 
whom, however, he separated in 1740 on account of a 
difference in theological belief. His labors were inces¬ 
sant. During fifty years he traveled all over the country 
everywhere preaching the gospel, and founding societies; 
at the same time he administered the affairs of an organi¬ 
zation which at the time of his death embraced no fewer 
than 80,000 members; and during the whole period he 
was a very copious writer — his works, when first col¬ 
lected, amounting to no fewer than thirty-two volumes. 
During the whole of his career he continued still, pro¬ 
fessedly, a minister of the Church of England. Wesley 
died in the house adjoining his chapel in the City Road, 
London, and in the adjoining graveyard he was buried. 
His brother Charles, who died three years before him, is 
chiefly celebrated as the author of numerous hymns, 
some of which are considered among the best in the 
language. Died, 1791. 

West, Benjamin, was born at Springfield, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, October 10, 1738; an eminent painter, who settled 
in England in 1763, and in 1792 succeeded Sir Joshua 
Reynolds as President of the Royal Academy, an office 
which he held until his death. His works were formerly 
very highly esteemed, and he is still considered one of the 
reatest painters whom America has produced. He is 
uried in St. Paul’s Cathedral. Died in London, 1820. 

Westcott, Brooke Foss, D. D., was born near Bir¬ 
mingham, England, in January, 1825, and was educated 
at Trinity College, Cambridge. He obtained the Nor- 
riBian Prize in 1850, and was ordained deacon and priest 
in the following year. He was elected Fellow of his col¬ 
lege in 1849, and proceeded M. A. in 1851, B. D. in 1865, 
and D. D. in 1870. Doctor Westcott received from 
Oxford University the honorary degree of D. C. L. in 1881 
and that of D. D. from Edinburgh University at its ter¬ 
centenary commemoration in 1883. He was elected 
regius professor of divinity at Cambridge, November 7, 
1870, on the retirement of Doctor Jeremie. Doctor 
Westcott was nominated honorary chaplain to the queen 
in 1872, and a chaplain in ordinary in 1879. In May, 
1881, was published, under the title “The New Testa¬ 
ment in Greek,” the result of the twenty-eight years’ 
joint labor of Doctors Westcott and Hort upon the 
Greek text. In October, 1883, he was nominated to the 
canonry of Westminster, and in 1890 he became 
bishop of Durham. He was one of the company for 
the revision of the authorized version of the New Testa¬ 
ment. Died, 1901. 

Westinghouse, George, inventor and manufacturer; 
born in New York in 1846; educated in public and high 
schools; spent much time in his father’s machine shop, 
inventing, at 15, a rotary engine. Served in Union 
army, 1863-64; assistant engineer in United States Navy, 
1864-65; then attended Union College to sophomore 
year (Ph. D., 1890). Invented, 1865, a device for re¬ 
placing railroad cars on the track; invented and success¬ 
fully introduced, 1868, the Westinghouse air brake, 
which he has since greatly improved; has also made 
other inventions in railway signals, steam and gas en¬ 
gines, steam turbines, and electric machinery. Was 
pioneer, against great opposition, in introducing alter¬ 
nating current machinery in America, which has rend¬ 
ered possible the great development of water powers 
for long distance, electrical transmission; built the great 
generators at Niagara Falls and those for elevated rail¬ 
way and rapid transit system in New York; has estab¬ 


lished large works in United States, England, France, 
and Germany for manufacturing air brakes, electrical 
and steam machinery; president of numerous corpora¬ 
tions, employing about 50,000 people and with a capital¬ 
ization of about $120,000,000. His inventions of the air 
brake and of automatic railway signals have been 
largely instrumental in the possibility and safety of 
modern high-speed railroading. 

Whately, Richard, was born in London, February 1, 
1787; an eminent prelate, theologian, and mental and 
moral philosopher; from 1831 to his death archbishop of 
Dublin. In 1822, he was made Bampton lecturer, and 
in that capacity preached his sermons on “The Use and 
Abuse of Party Feeling in Religion.” In 1825, he became 
principal of St. Alban’s Hall, Oxford; and four years 
later was appointed professor of political economy, an 
office which he held till his appointment to the arch¬ 
bishopric. Whately’s intellectual activity was remark¬ 
able. In 1820, he wrote "Historic Doubts Relative to 
Napoleon Bonaparte,” a logical satire upon historical 
scepticism; in 1826 he published in a separate form his 
admirable treatises on “Logic and Rhetoric,” both of 
which had already appeared in the “ Encyclopaedia Met- 
ropolitana”; and in 1856-59 he published his annotated 
editions of Bacon’s “Essays” and Paley’s “Moral Phi¬ 
losophy,” both admirable specimens of criticism, and full 
of interesting original discourse. Died in Dublin, 1863. 

Wheatstone, Sir Charles, was born at Gloucester, 
1802; an eminent electrician and physicist, for many 
years professor of natural philosophy in King’s College, 
London. He was the first to introduce and to give prac¬ 
tical application to the electric telegraph in England, his 
experiments having been made, in conjunction with Mr. 
Cooke, when he was quite unaware of the experiments 
being made about the same time by Professor Morse in 
America. He was also the inventor of the stereoscope. 
He received his knighthood in 1868, and was for some 
years a vice-president of the Royal Society, of which he 
had been elected a Fellow in 1836. He twice received 
the Royal Medal at the Royal Society, and in 1868 won 
the Copley Medal. Died, 1875. 

Wheeler, Benjamin Ide, president of the University 
of California since 1899; born at Randolph, Mass., 1854; 
A. B., Brown University, 1875, A. M., 1878; Ph. D., 
University of Heidelberg, 1885; LL. D. from nine col¬ 
leges and universities. Instructor Latin and Greek, 
Brown University,1879-81; instructor German, Harvard, 
1885-86; acting professor classical philology, 1886-87, 
professor comparative philology, 1887-88, Greek and 
comparative philology, 1888-89, Cornell University. 
Professor Greek literature, American school of classical 
studies, Athens, 1895-96; Roosevelt professor, University 
of Berlin, 1909-10. Author: “The Greek Noun Accent,” 
“Analogy in Language,” “Introduction to the History of 
Language,” “Organization of Higher Education in the 
United States,” “Life of Alexander the Great.” 

Wheeler, Joseph, an American military officer; born 
in Augusta, Ga., September 10, 1836; was graduated at 
the United States Military Academy in 1859; served in 
the cavalry till the outbreak of the Civil War, when he 
entered the Confederate army, in which he was commis¬ 
sioned major-general and senior commander of cavalry. 
He won great distinction during the Civil War as a raider. 
After the war he entered the law profession; held a seat 
in Congress in 1881-99; and was made major-general 
of volunteers in May, 1898. During the Santiago cam¬ 
paign in Cuba he commanded the cavalry division; 
participated in the battles of Las Guasimas and San Juan 
Hill; was appointed senior member of the commission 
to make arrangements for the surrender of the Spanish 
army; served in the Philippines as commander of the 1st 
brigade, 2d division, from August, 1899, to Januarv, 
1900; was appointed a brigadier-general, U. S. A., June 
16, 1900, and was retired on September 10, following. 
Died, 1906. 

Whewell, William, Qiu'el), was born at Lancaster, 
1794; an eminent writer on many various subjects; 
from 1841 to his death Master of Trinity College, Cam¬ 
bridge. In 1833 he published his Bridgewater Treatise, 
on “.Astronomy and General Physics Considered in Ref¬ 
erence to Natural Theology”; and this was followed by 
a “History of the Inductive Sciences” (1837), and “The 
Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences” (1840), “Lectures 
on Political Economy” (1861), undoubtedly his three 
greatest works, displaying equal learning and inde¬ 
pendent power. Died, 1866. 

Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, painter, bom in 
Lowell, Mass., in 1834; was educated at the United States 
Military Academy; studied drawing and painting in Paris, 
France,, and in 1863 settled in London, England. He 
held original views concerning his art, and made inter¬ 
esting experiments with color, in quest of novel effects. 
He also gained celebrity as an etcher, and is the author' 




BIOGRAPHY 


601 


of etchings and paintings of established reputation and 
worth. His paintings include many portraits, among 
which are “The White Girl,” “Portrait of my Mother,” 
“Nocturne in Blue and Gold,” “Harmony in Gray and 
Green,” etc. In 1890, he wrote the “Gentle Art of 
Making Enemies.” Died in London, 1903. 

White* Andrew Dickson, American diplomatist and 
educator; born in Homer, N. Y., November 7, 1832. He 
was graduated at Yale in 1853; traveled in Europe; 
attach^ to legation of the United States, St. Petersburg, 
1854-1855; studied in the University of Berlin; pro¬ 
fessor of history and English literature, University of 
Michigan, 1857-1863; returned to Syracuse and elected 
State Senator, 1863-1867; was first president of Cornell 
University, 1867—85; has in addition to the presidency 
filled the chair of modern history; was appointed by 
President Grant commissioner to Santo Domingo to 
study and report on question of annexation, 1871; by 
President Hayes, minister to Berlin, 1879-1881; by 
President Harrison, minister to St. Petersburg, and con¬ 
tinued under President Cleveland, 1892-1894; member 
of the Venezuelan Commission 1896-97; ambassador to 
Berlin under President McKinley, 1897, resigned August 
5, 1902; president of the American delegation to the 
International Peace Congress at The Hague in 1899. 
His best-known works are “Warfare of Science with 
Theology,” “The New Germany,” and “Studies in 
General History.” 

White, Edward Douglass, an American jurist; born 
in the parish of Lafourche, La., November 3, 1845; was 
educated at Mount St. Mary’s College, Md., and at the 
Jesuit College in New Orleans. During the Civil War 
he served in the Confederate army. After the war he 
practiced law. He was State Senator of Louisiana in 
1874; associate justice of the Supreme Court of Louis¬ 
iana in 1878; and United States Senator, 1891-94. 
While still in the senate he was appointed an associate 
justice of the United States Supreme Court. He was 
appointed chief-justice by President Taft in 1910. 

White, Horace, journalist; born in Colebrook, N. H., 
August 10, 1834; graduate of Beloit College, Wis., 1853; 
for many years with “Chicago Tribune” and was its 
editor and one of its chief proprietors, 1864-74; in 1883, 
became connected with “New York Evening Post” as 
president of company, editorial writer, and editor-in- 
chief; retired January 1, 1903. Edited “Bastiat’s 
Sophismes Economiques,” and “Luigi Cossa’s Scienza 
delle Finanze.” Author: “Money and Banking Illus¬ 
trated by American History,” “The Roman History of 
Appian of Alexandria.” 

White, James WTlliam, physician, surgeon; born 
in Philadelphia, November 2, 1850; M. D., Ph. D., Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania, 1871. On staff of Professor Louis 
Agassiz, during Hassler expedition to West Indies, the 
Straits of Magellan, both coasts of South America, the Gal¬ 
apagos Islands, etc., 1871-72; resident physician of 
Philadelphia Hospital, 1873; surgeon to Eastern State 
Penitentiary, 1874-76; surgeon to first troop of Phila¬ 
delphia city cavalry, 1878-88; has been teacher and 
writer in surgery during whole professional life; was 
first professor of genito-urinary surgery, then professor 
of clinical surgery; now John Rhea Barton professor of 
surgery—all in University of Pennsylvania. Joint 
author: “American Text-book of Surgery” (Keen and 
White), “Genito-Urinary Surgery” (White and Martin). 
Has written numerous articles on medical and surgical 
subjects in medical journals. 

White, William Allen, owner and editor “Emporia 
Daily and Weekly Gazette”; born in Emporia, Kan., 
in 1868; educated in common schools, El Dorado, Kan., 
and State University, Lawrence, Kan. Contributor to 
magazines and newspapers. Author: “The Real Issue 
and Other Stories,” ".The Court of Boyville,” “Strata¬ 
gems and Spoils.” 

Whitney, Eli, inventor, born in Westborough, Mass., 
December 8, 1765. In 1792 he was graduated at Yale, 
went to Georgia, and for a time read law, while living on 
the plantation of the widow of General Nathanael Greene. 
Here he invented the cotton gin, but owing to litigation 
growing out of the claims of fraudulent imitators, and 
despairing of obtaining his rights in the South, Whitney 
went to New Haven, Conn., in 1798, where he became 
engaged in the manufacture of firearms, introducing the 
extension of machinery in place of manual labor. Died 
at New Haven, Conn., 1825. 

Whitney, William Dwight, a distinguished Ameri¬ 
can philologist, born in 1827 at Northampton, Mass., 
studied at Williams College, Williamstown, and at Yale 
College, giving special attention to Sanskrit. He also 
studied Sanskrit in Germany from 1850 to 1853, returning 
in the latter year to America. The first fruits of his 
studies in Sanskrit was an edition of the Atharva-Veda 
in conjunction with Roth (1856). He had previously 


(1854) been made professor of Sanskrit and of compara¬ 
tive philology at Yale College. Among his independent 
works may be mentioned: “Language and the Study of 
Language” (1867), “Oriental and Linguistic Studies” 
(1872-74), “Life and Growth of Language ” (1875), “San¬ 
skrit Grammar” (a highly important work), “German 
Grammar,” etc. He was editor of the “Century Diction¬ 
ary of the English Language.” He died in 1894. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, American poet, was born 
of Quaker parents in 1807 at Haverhill, Mass., and edu¬ 
cated at the academy of his native place. In his younger 
days he worked on his father’s farm and learned the shoe¬ 
making trade, but early began to write for the press, and 
in 1831 published his first work, “Legends of New Eng¬ 
land ” in prose and verse. He carried on the farm him¬ 
self for five years, and in 1835-36 he was a member of the 
Legislature of Massachusetts. After having edited sev¬ 
eral other papers he went to Philadelphia to edit the 
“Pennsylvania Freeman,” an anti-slavery paper, the 
office of which was burned by the mob in 1838. In the 
following year he returned to his native State, settling at 
Amesbury, where (or at Danvers, Mass.) he chiefly re¬ 
sided until his death. Among the numerous volumes of 
poetry which he from time to time gave to the world the 
following may be mentioned: “Moll Pitcher,” “Lays 
of my Home,” “Miscellaneous Poems,” “The Voices of 
Freedom,” “Songs of Labor,” “The Chapel of the Her¬ 
mits,” “Home Ballads,” and poems “Snow Bound,” 
“In War-time,” “National Lyrics,” “Ballads of New 
England,” “Miriam,” “Mabel Martin,” “Hazel Blos¬ 
soms,” “The King’s Missive,” “Poems of Nature,” etc. 
Died, 1892. 

Wiggin, Kate Douglas, author; born in Philadel¬ 
phia, September 28, 1859; graduate of Abbott Academy, 
Andover, Mass., 1878; married, March 30, 1895, George 
C. Riggs. Organized the first free kindergartens for 
poor children on the Pacific coast; has been interested 
in that work ever since. Continues her name of “Kate 
Douglas Wiggin” in her literary work. Author: “The 
Birds’ Christmas Carol,” “The Story of Patsy,” “A 
Summer in a Canon,” “Timothy’s Quest,” “The Story 
Hour” (with Nora A. Smith), “Children’s Rights” 
(with same), “A Cathedral Courtship,” “Penelope’s 
English Experiences,” “Polly Oliver’s Problem,” “The 
Village Watch Tower,” “Froebel’s Gifts” (with Nora 
A. Smith), "Froebel’s Occupations” (with same), 
“Kindergarten Principles and Practice” (with same), 
“Nine Love Songs and a Carol,” "Marm Lisa,” “Pene¬ 
lope’s Progress,” “Penelope’s Experiences in Ireland,” 
“The Diary of a Goose Girl,” “Rebecca,” “The Affair 
at the Inn” (collaboration), “Rose o’ the River.” 
Editor (with Nora Archibald Smith): ‘IGolden Num¬ 
bers,” “The Posy Ring.” 

Wilberforce, Samuel, D. D., was born in 1805, was 
third son of W. Wilberforce, and an active High Church 
leader, who became Bishop of Oxford in 1845, and of 
Winchester in 1869. He was an able speaker in the 
House of Lords, and had much social influence. Died, 
1873. 

Wilberforce, William, was born 1759; philan¬ 
thropist, entered parliament in 1780, and seven years 
later entered upon the movement against the slave trade, 
his abolition motion in 1789 gaining the support of the 
leaders of every party in the House, though it was not 
carried for eighteen years. Just before his death slavery 
itself was abolished in the British dominions. Died, 
1833. 

Wilcox, Ella Wheeler, an American poet and writer, 
was born in 1855 near Madison, Wis., and educated at 
the State University in that city. She was for many 
years a contributor to the Milwaukee and Madison papers, 
of poems, sketches, etc., the demand for her productions 
steadily increasing, and extending to the leading journals 
and periodicals of the country. Author of “ An Am¬ 
bitious Man,” “ Sweet Danger,” “ Poems of Passion,” 
“Poems of Pleasure,” “Kingdom of Love,” “Men. 
Women and Emotions,” “A Woman of the World,” etc. 

Wiley, Harvey Washington, chief of bureau of 
chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1883- 
1912; born in Kent, Ind., in 1844; graduate of Han¬ 
over College, 1867 (Ph. D., LL. D.); Harvard, 1873; 
professor of chemistry, Purdue University, and State 
chemist of Indiana, 1874-83; professor of agricul¬ 
tural chemistry in graduate school, Columbian (now 
George Washington) University, since 1899. Author: 
“Principles and Practice of Agricultural Chemistry,” 
“Songs of Agricultural Chemists”; also 60 government 
bulletins and 225 scientific papers, etc. 

Wilhelmina, Helene Pauline Marie ( Vil-hel- 
me'nah), Queen of the Netherlands, only child of William 
III., by his second wife, born at The Hague, August 31, 
1880. Her mother was Regent until August 31, 1898, 



502 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


the queen’s majority; crowned September 6, 1898. 
Married Duke Henry of Mecklenberg-Schwerin, 1901. 

Wilkes, Charles, American naval officer, was born 
in 1798; discovered several islands in Antarctic region, 
and in 1861 caused a dispute with Great Britain by his 
seizure of Confederate commissioners on the “.Trent,” a 
British vessel. Died, 1877. 

Willard, Frances Elizabeth, was born near Roch¬ 
ester, N. Y., September 28, 1839; died in New York, 
February 18, 1898. After some years spent in teaching 
she became professor of sesthetics in the Northwestern 
University, and was made dean of the Woman’s College 
in 1871; she began her active temperance work in 1874, 
as secretary of the National Woman’s Christian Temper¬ 
ance Union; in 1879, she was made president of that 
organization and held the office till her death; she was 
chosen president of the World’s Christian Temperance 
Union in 1888, and, in 1892, visited England as the guest 
of Lady Henry Somerset, the well-known temperance 
worker; she was an orator of great eloquence, humor, 
and power; her executive ability and genius for organi¬ 
zation were wonderful and by her work for temperance 
and social purity she left an impressive mark on her 
country as one of its greatest social reformers. 

Wiliiam I., surnamed the Conqueror, King of Eng¬ 
land, founder of the Norman Dynasty, was born, 1027. 
He was the bastard son of Robert I. or II., Duke of Nor¬ 
mandy, and a tanner’s daughter of Falaise named Arietta, 
and succeeded to the dukedom when eight years old. 
He claimed the throne of England through Emma, sister 
of his grandfather and mother of Edward the Confessor. 
When Harold, son of Earl Godwin, visited the Norman 
court about 1065, he was compelled to swear fealty to Wil¬ 
liam; but on Edward’s death, in 1066, Harold procured 
his own elevation to the throne. William then prepared 
to enforce his pretension by arms, and on September. 28, 
1066, landed at Pevensey with 60,000 men. On October 
14th was fought the battle of Senlac or Hastings, in 
which the Saxons were defeated and their king was slain. 
William was crowned in London, December 25th. At 
first his rule was mild and just, but after the sanguinary 
suppression of a league of the Saxon nobles he treated 
the Saxons as a conquered nation, distributed their 
estates among his Norman followers, and deposed the 
principal Saxon clergy. He was long at war for his con¬ 
tinental possessions with his rebellious son Robert 
Courthose, and most of the latter part of his reign was 
passed in Normandy. His last dispute was with the 
King of France, some of whose vassals had plundered 
Norman territory. In retaliation he burned Mantes. 
While riding over the ruins, he was ruptured by the 
plunging of his horse, which caused his death several 
weeks later, 1087. 

William I., first German Emperor, and seventh King 
of Prussia, second son of Frederick William III., born 
March 22, 1797. At an early age he began the study of 
military affairs; took part in the campaign of 1814-15 
under Blucher; married in 1829 Princess Augusta of 
Saxe-Weimar; became heir-presumptive to the throne 
of Prussia on his father’s death in 1840; was commander 
of the forces which suppressed the revolutionary move¬ 
ment (1849) in Baden; created regent in 1858, and on 
the death of the king, his brother, in 1861 he succeeded to 
the throne of Prussia. During his reign Prussia defeated 
Denmark (1864), annexing the duchies of Schleswig- 
Holstein; quarreled with Austria, and engaged in a 
campaign which ended in the victory of Sadowa (1866); 
and went with the rest of Germany to war with France in 
1870. In this war the operations of the Prussian 
generals were under the personal supervision of the 
king. It was at Versailles, during the siege of Paris 
(January 18, 1871), that he was proclaimed German Em¬ 
peror. Died, 1888. 

William II., or Friedrich Wilhelm Victor Al¬ 
brecht, King of Prussia and German Emperor, eldest 
son of Frederick III. and Victoria, princess royal of 
England, was born January 27, 1859; educated at 
Cassel and Bonn, married Augusta Victoria of Schleswig- 
Holstein-Augustenburg in 1881, and succeeded his father, 
June 15, 1888. Since his accession he has taken con¬ 
siderable interest in social questions, and the strong 
initiative which he had adopted in political affairs brought 
about the dismissal of Prince Bismarck in 1890. His 
independence, ability, and aggressiveness have placed 
Germany in the foremost rank of the enlightened world 
powers. In 1907, he spoke of the German nation as 
“ the block of granite upon which the Lord our God can 
build up and complete His work of civilizing the world.” 
Early in 1908, he established a winter residence on the 
Island of Corfu. 

William III. of England, born in 1650. Having mar¬ 
ried Mary, daughter of James II., was regarded as a 
Protestant reserve against the latter, and, in 1688, was 


called in to replace him. He defeated James at the 
Boyne in 1690, obtained the acknowledgment of his 
title from Louis XIV. by the Peace of Ryswick (1697), 
but had prepared a grand alliance to renew the war 
with him just before he died, Louis having favored the 
claim of James Edward. Died, 1702. 

Williams, George Fred, lawyer; born in Dedham, 
Mass., July 10, 1852; graduate of Dartmouth, 1872; 
studied at Heidelberg and Berlin; admitted to bar; 
practices in Boston. Edited “Williams’s Citations of 
Massachusetts Cases”; edited volumes 10 to 17 “An¬ 
nual Digest of the United States”; member of Massa¬ 
chusetts Legislature, 1889. Member of Congress, 1891-93. 

Williams, John Sharp, senator; born in Mem¬ 
phis, Tenn., July 30, 1854; educated in Kentucky 
Military Institute, University of the South, University 
of Virginia, and University of Heidelberg, Germany; 
studied law at University of Virginia and in Memphis, 
Tenn.; admitted to Tennessee bar, 1877; removed to 
Yazoo City, Miss., 1878; has since practiced law; is 
also a cotton planter; delegate to Democratic National 
conventions, 1892, 1904; temporary chairman of St. 
Louis Convention, July 6-9, 1904; member of Congress 
from Mississippi from 1893 to 1911; elected United 
States senator for term 1911-17. 

Williams, Roger, founder of the State of Rhode 
Island, United States, was born in Wales in 1600. Being 
a Puritan, he fled from the country to escape persecution, 
and settled in New England, where he hoped to enjoy 
the religious freedom he was denied at home, but was 
received with disfavor by the earlier settlers as, from 
his extreme views, a “troubler of Israel,” and obliged 
to separate himself and establish a colony of his own. 
This he did at Providence by favor of an Indian tribe 
he had made friends of, and under a charter from the 
Long Parliament of England, obtained through Sir Henry 
Vane. Here he extended to others the toleration he 
desired for himself; he was characterized by Milton, 
who knew him, as “that noble champion of religious 
liberty.” Died, 1683. 

Wilson, Francis, actor; born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
February 7, 1854; first professional appearance in a 
minstrel company; engaged in legitimate comedy at 
Chestnut Street Theater, 1877-78, Philadelphia; as 
Cool in “London Assurance,” 1878-79; with Annie 
Pixley in “M’liss,” 1879; with “Mitchell’s Pleasure 
Party,” 1880-83; started in comic opera as Sir Joseph 
Porter in “Pinafore”; became leading comedian of 
McCaull Opera Company and of Casino, New York, 1885- 
89, where he created the character of Cadeaux in 
“Erminie.” Subsequently organized his own company 
in which he has since taken leading comedy roles in “The 
Oolah,” “The Merry Monarch,” “The Lion Tamer,” 
“Erminie” (a revival), “The Chieftain,” “Devil’s Dep¬ 
uty,” “Half a King,” and more recently “The Little 
Corporal,” “Cyrano de Bergerac,” "The Monks of Mala¬ 
bar,” “The Strollers,” “The Toreador,” and “Cousin 
Billy.” Author: “The Eugene Field I Knew,” “Recol¬ 
lections of a Player,” “Going on the Stage.” 

Wilson, Henry, an American senator; born in 
Farmington, N. H., in 1812, of poor parents; received 
scanty education, and was taught the trade of shoe¬ 
maker. Elected to the Massachusetts House of Repre¬ 
sentatives by the Whig party, in 1840, he there became 
a prominent anti-slavery advocate, and largely contrib¬ 
uted to the formation of the Free-soil party in 1848. In 
1855, he succeeded Edward Everett as United States 
senator, and became one of the leaders of the Republican 
party. In 1872, he was nominated by the Republican 
Convention a candidate for the vice-presidency of the 
United States, on the same ticket with General Grant, 
and was elected. Died, 1875. 

Wilson, James, United States secretary of agricul¬ 
ture, 1897-1913; born in Ayrshire, Scotland, 1835; 
came to United States, 1851, settling in Connecticut 
with parents; in 1855 went to Tama County, la. In 
1861, engaged in farming; member 12th, 13th, and 
(speaker) 14th assemblies of Iowa; has been State rail¬ 
way commissioner; member Congress, 1873-77, and 
1883-85; regent State University of Iowa, 1870-74; for 
six years director Agricultural Experiment Station 
and professor of agriculture, Iowa Agricultural College, 
Ames, la.; LL. D., University of Wisconsin, 1904. 

Wilson, Woodrow, educator, 28th president of the 
United States; born in Staunton, Va., December28,1856; 
A. B., Princeton, 1879, A. M., 1882; LL. B., University 
of Virginia, 1882; Ph. D., Johns Hopkins, 1886; LL.D., 
Wake Forest College, 1887, Tulane University, 1898, 
Johns Hopkins, 1902, Rutgers, 1902, University of Penn¬ 
sylvania, 1903, Brown University, 1903, Harvard, 1907, 
Williams, 1908, Dartmouth, 1909; Litt. D., Yale, 1901; 
practiced law, Atlanta, Ga., 1882-83; associate professor 
of history and political economy, Bryn Mawr College, 



BIOGRAPHY 


503 


1885-88, professor same, Wesleyan University, 1888-90; 
professor of jurisprudence and politics, Princeton, 
1890-1902; president of Princeton University 1902-10; 
governor of New Jersey, 1911-13. In August, 1912, he 
was nominated by the Democratic National Convention 
at Baltimore for president of the United States and 
elected November 5th. Author: “Congressional Gov¬ 
ernment, a Study in American Politics,” “The State: 
Elements of Historical and Practical Politics,” “Division 
and Reunion,” “An Old Master and Other Political 
Essays,” “Mere Literature and other Essays,” “George 
Washington,” “A History of the American People,” 
“The New Freedom.” 

Winslow, Erving, commission merchant; born in 
Boston, 1839; educated at English High School, Boston, 
and Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard; was assistant 
United States Coast Survey; assistant in Dudley Ob¬ 
servatories, Albany, N.Y.; since 1868, merchant, Boston. 
Translator: “Maeterlinck’s ‘Pell6as et Melisande;’ ” 

founder, and joint editor, two years, “Time and the 
Hour.” Contributor to various literary magazines, 
reviews, weeklies, and newspapers. 

Winthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts colony, 
was born in Suffolk, England, 1588; became a lawyer; 
in 1629 chosen governor by Massachusetts Bay Com¬ 
pany. Came to America with 900 others, 1630; served 
as governor 1630-34, 1637-40, 1642-44, and 1646-49. 
His influence on the history of New England was very 
great. Died at Boston, 1649. 

Wirt, William, an eminent American advocate and 
author; was born at Bladensburg, Md., 1772. He be¬ 
came a member of the bar of Virginia, was a leading 
counsel in the prosecution of Aaron Burr, and from 1817 
to 1829, filled the position of attorney-general of the 
United States. In 1832, he was the unsuccessful nomi¬ 
nee of the Anti-Masonic party for the presidency. His 
"Life of Patrick Henry” is held in much favor. Died, 
1834. 

Wiseman, Nicholas, Cardinal, born of Irish par¬ 
ents at Seville, 1802. He was educated at Waterford 
and the Roman Catholic College, Ushaw, near Durham; 
joined the English College then newly formed (1818) at 
Rome; became professor of Oriental languages and 
(1828) rector of the English College; returned to Eng¬ 
land (1835), and was appointed successively rector of 
Ushaw, vicar apostolic of the central district of England, 
and Roman Catholic archbishop of Westminster (1850). 
He was the author of “Lectures on the Connection be¬ 
tween Science and Revealed Religion,” “Letters on 
Catholic Unity,” “Papal Supremacy,” “Fabiola,” 
“ Four Last Popes,” and joint-editor for many years of 
the Dublin “Review.” Died, 1865. 

Wister, Owen, author; born in Philadelphia, July 
14, 1860; graduated from Harvard, 1882, A. M., LL. B., 
1888. Admitted to Philadelphia bar, 1889; engaged 
in literary work, 1891. Author: “The Dragon of Want- 
ley: His Tail,” “Red Men and White,” “Lin McLean,” 
“The Jimmy John Boss,” “U. S. Grant, a Biography,” 
“The Virginian,” “Philosophy 4,” “Journey in Search 
of Christmas”; also much prose and verse in magazines. 
Collaborator: “MuskOx, Bison, Sheep and Goat” 

(Whitney’s American Sportsmen’s Library). 

Witte, Count Sergiej Juliewitsh, Russian states¬ 
man; is of German origin, and was born in 1849, at 
Tiflis; educated at Odessa in mathematics and physics; 
entered the railway administration, and first gained 
distinction by his clever organization of the transport 
of troops in the war of 1877-78; was called to St. Peters¬ 
burg for employment there in 1879, and appointed in 
1886 director of Russian southwest railways. In 1888 he 
became head of the railway department in the ministry 
of finance, chairman of commission on tariffs; in 1892, 
minister of means of communications, and in 1893, 
minister of finance. In August, 1903, he was removed 
from the ministry of finance and made president of the 
committee of ministers. He was one of the Russian 
plenipotentiaries in the negotiations for peace with 
Japan in 1905, and was afterwards made a count and 
appointed president of the new ministry, although in 
May, 1906, he was superseded. He is author of a book 
on “The Principles of Railway Rates,” and on “Fried¬ 
rich Liss, the Economist.” 

Wolfe, James, a distinguished English general; was 
born in Kent, 1727. After serving with high distinction 
during the Seven Years’ War, he was appointed com- 
mander-in-chief of the army sent against the French in 
Canada, 1759, and fell, mortally wounded, in the mo¬ 
ment of victory, on the Plains of Abraham at Quebec; 
his opponent in command, the Marquis de Montcalm, 
was also carried from the field in a dying condition. 
This battle terminated the French possession of Canada. 


Wolseley, Garnet Joseph, Viscount, born in 1833; 
served in Burmah, in the Crimean War, the Indian Mu¬ 
tiny, and the Chinese War of 1860; commanded the Red 
River expedition (1870); commanded on the Gold Coast 
during Ashanti War (1873); governor of Natal, and, 
later, Cyprus; gave up latter post to command in the 
South African War of 1879-80. Commanded Egyptian 
expedition (1882), and Gordon Relief expedition (1884). 
While commanding in Ireland was made field-marshal, 
and commander-in-chief after retirement of the Duke 
of Cambridge (1895); term expired November, 1900. 
Died, 1913. 

Wolsey, Thomas, born in 1471; ecclesiastical states¬ 
man; was employed diplomatically by Henry VII., and 
made Dean of Lincoln, becoming in the next reign suc¬ 
cessively Dean of York, Bishop of Lincoln, and Arch¬ 
bishop of York, while holding at the same time the sees 
of Bath and Wells, Durham and Winchester. He be¬ 
came also chancellor (1515), cardinal, and papal legate, 
and aimed at being pope. His overthrow, in 1529, wa 3 
caused by the jealousy of the great nobles and his dis¬ 
agreement with the king on the divorce question. He 
founded Christ Church (Cardinal College), Oxford, where 
there is a portrait of him by Holbein, and built a palace 
at Hampton Court. Died, 1530. 

Wood, Leonard, army officer; born in Winchester, 
N. H., October 9, 1860; graduated from Harvard Medical 
School, 1884; LL. D., Harvard, 1899, Williams, 1902, 
University of Pennsylvania, 1903; appointed first lieu¬ 
tenant and assistant surgeon, United States Army, 1886; 
recruited and commanded the “Rough Riders,” 1898; 
brigadier-general volunteers, 1898, for gallant service 
at Las Guasimas and San Juan Hill; major-general vol¬ 
unteers, 1898; military governor Santiago, 1898-99; 
military governor of Cuba, 1899 to 1902; honorary dis¬ 
charge as major-general United States Volunteers, 1899; 
appointed brigadier-general United States Army, 1901, 
major-general, 1903; appointed governor of Moro Prov¬ 
ince, 1903; of Philippines, 1906; of department of East 
in United States, 1908; chief of staff, 1910. 

Woolsey, Theodore Salisbury, professor of inter¬ 
national law, Yale, 1878-1911; born in New Haven, 
Conn., October 22, 1852; graduated from Yale, 1872 
(A. M., 1877), Yale Law School, 1876 (LL. D., Brown 
University, 1903); instructor of public law, Yale, 1877. 
Editor: “Woolsey’s International Law,” “Pomeroy’s 
International Law.” Author: “America’s Foreign 
Policy,” also many articles in magazines, journals, etc. 

Worcester, Joseph Emerson, born in 1784; Amer¬ 
ican lexicographer. His “Dictionary of the English 
Language” was published in 1860. Died, 1865. 

Wordsworth, William, poet; was born in Cumber¬ 
land, 1770; visited France in the early years of the 
revolution 1790-91, and later gained the friendship 
of Coleridge by the publication of his first poems, and 
went to live near him in Somersetshire. The friends 
went on a walking tour, the result of which was “ Lyrical 
Ballads,” published in 1798, at Bristol. After a tour in 
Germany, Wordsworth and his sister lived at Grasmere 
till 1808, the poet being married in 1802, and “The 
Prelude” (begun in 1799) being finished in 1805. In 
1813, Wordsworth was named distributor of stamps for 
Westmoreland, and henceforth lived at Rydal Mount. 
"The Excursion” appeared next year, and in 1815 “The 
White Doe of Rylstone ” was published. Other poems 
followed, but the whole fragment of “The Recluse” was 
not published till 1888. In 1843, Wordsworth became 
poet-laureate. Died, 1850. 

Wren, Sir Christopher, born in East Knoyle, in 
Wiltshire, October 20, 1632; an eminent English archi¬ 
tect, best known as the architect of St. Paul’s cathedral. 
He was, however, the architect of numerous other 
churches, and of many public buildings. He received 
his knighthood in 1672. He is buried in the crypt of St. 
Paul’s, with the appropriate inscription, “ Si monumen- 
tum requiris, circumspice (If you seek a monument, look 
around). Died at Hampton Court, February 25, 1723. 

Wright, Carroll Davidson, educator, economist, 
statistician; born in Dunbarton, N. H., July 25, 1840; 
academic education (A. M., LL. D., Tufts; Ph. D., 
Dartmouth; LL. D., Wesleyan and Clark universities); 
served in Civil War, private to colonel, 14th New Hamp¬ 
shire Volunteers; member of Massachusetts Senate, 
1872-73; chief of Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of 
Labor, 1873-88; United States Commissioner of Labor, 
1885-1902; also, 1893-97, completed eleventh United 
States Census. Honorary professor of social economics, 
Catholic University of America, 1895-1904; professor of 
statistics and social economics, school of comparative 
jurisprudence and diplomacy, Columbian University, 
1900; university lecturer on wage statistics, Harvard 
University, 1900-01; president of Clark College, Worces¬ 
ter, Mass., 1902-1909. Appointed by President member 



504 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and recorder of United States anthracite strike commis¬ 
sion, 1902. Trustee of Carnegie Institute, Washington. 
Author: “The Factory System of the United States,” 
“ Relation of Political Economy to the Labor Question,” 
"The Social, Commercial, and Manufacturing Statistics 
of the City of Boston,” “History of Wages and Prices 
in Massachusetts, 1752-1883,” “ The Industrial Evolu¬ 
tion of the United States,” “The Public Records 
of Parishes, Towns, and Counties in Massachusetts,” 
“Outline of Practical Sociology,” “History and Growth 
of the United States Census.” Died, 1909. 

Wright, Orville, aeronaut; born at Dayton, Ohio, 
August 19, 1871; educated at public schools. Since 
1903, has devoted attention mainly to Wright Bros.’ 
aeroplane flying machine. His first successful flight was 
made at Kitty Hawk, N. C., in 1903; successful 
long distance test near Dayton, Ohio, 1905; has since 
made many flights in United States and abroad and been 
awarded many medals. Employed by the United States 
government in perfecting the machine and instructing 
army officers in its construction and operation for pur¬ 
poses of war. 

Wright, Wilbur, aeronaut; was born near Millville, 
Ind., April 16, 1867; son of a clergyman, was educated 
in high schools of Richmond, Ind., and Dayton, Ohio. 
From 1903 to 1912 engaged with his brother Orville in a 
scientific and experimental study of the possibilities of 
the heavier-than-air flying machine, patented by Wright 
Bros, in the leading countries of the world. Made 
numerous flights in United States and abroad; sold a 
machine to United States government for $30,000. 
Awarded gold medal by French Academy of Sciences, 
1909; also many others. The brothers achieved remark¬ 
able results, and their machines are now used by the 
leading aeronauts of the world. They completely demon¬ 
strated the practicability of the heavier-than-air 
machine. Died, 1912. 

Wu Ting-Fang, Chinese lawyer, diplomat and states¬ 
man, was born in the Hsin-hin district of Kwang-tung, 
China, 1842. He was educated at St. Paul’s College, 
Canton; later entered the colonial service. He studied 
law at Lincoln’s Inn from 1874 to 1877, when he was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar. In 1882 he became a member of the 
official staff of Li Hung Chang, then governor-general of 
Chihli, and grand chancellor of the empire. He took 
part in the negotiations which led up to the treaty of 
Shimonoseki, which ended the Chinese-Japanese war. 
He was vice-president of the imperial clan court, vice- 
president of the board of war, and superintendent of 
railways. From 1897 to 1902 he was minister of China 
to the United States, Spain, and Peru; reappointed to 
the United States, 1907. Has written numerous articles 
on China in American magazines. 

Wycliffe, John, born in 1324; divine; actively op¬ 
posed the Mendicant Friars, and, in 1361, was elected 
master of Balliol College; obtained the favor of John of 
Gaunt by his reply to the pope’s claim for tribute, and, 
in 1374, obtained the living of Lutterworth. In 1377, 
he was summoned to St. Paul’s to answer a charge from 
the pope of heretical opinions, but was protected by the 
court. Next year he was again accused but with no 
effect, and after this he was occupied with his transla¬ 
tions of the Bible and attacks on transubstantiation, his 
opinions on which he was forced partially to withdraw, 
and was expelled from Oxford. Died, 1384. 

Xavier, St. Francis ( zav-e-a '), a Jesuit missionary, 
styled usually the “Apostle of the Indies,” was born in 
1506, of a noble family, in the north of Spain. He was 
a student of Sainte-Barbe in Paris, took to philosophy, 
became acquainted with Ignatius Loyola, and was 
associated with him in the formation of the Jesuit Society. 
He was sent, in 1541, under sanction of the pope, by 
John III. of Portugal, to Christianize India, and arrived 
at Goa in 1542, from whence he extended his missionary 
labors to the Eastern Archipelago, Ceylon, and Japan, 
in which entei^rises they were attended with signal 
success. On his return to Goa, in 1552, he proceeded 
to organize a mission to China, in which he experienced 
such opposition and so many difficulties that on his way 
to carry on his work there he sickened and died, and was 
buried at Goa. Xavier was beatified by Paul V. in 1619, 
and canonized by Gregory XV. in 1622. 

Xenophon, born in 430 B. C.; a Greek historian and 
philosopher. Xenophon played an important part in the 
adventurous retreat known in history as the “ Retreat of 


the Ten Thousand,” the description of which he wrote in 
“Anabasis.” His other works are, “Memorabilia,” or 
‘‘Recollections of Socrates”; “Hellenica,” a continuation 
of Thucydides’history of the Peloponnesian War; and the 
“ Cyropaedia,” or “Education of Cyrus.” Died, 357 B. C 

Xerxes I., King of Persia; came to the throne in 485 
B. C., invaded Greece in 480, but was defeated at Salamis. 
He was murdered in 465 B. C. 

Yonge, Charlotte M., born in 1823; novelist and 
historical writer; author of “The Heir of Redclyffe,” 
“The Dove in the Eagle’s Nest,” and other stories, 
besides “ Landmarks of History,” “Cameos from English 
History,” etc. Died, 1901. 

Young, Brigham, born in 1801; Mormon “prophet,” 
son of a New England farmer; became president on the 
death of Smith, in 1844, and two years later led his fol¬ 
lowers to Salt Lake Valley, Utah, Salt Lake City being 
built soon after. In 1852, he proclaimed polygamy, 
which had been condemned by the Mormon Church, and 
in 1857, after having been territorial governor of Utah 
for several years, he was removed from office by 
President Buchanan. Died, 1877. 

Zangwill, Israel, born in 1864; once elementary 
teacher in Spitalfields; he became famous by his stories 
of the Jews, of which “Children of the Ghetto” is best 
known. English art and politics are treated in “The 
Master” and “The Mantle of Elijah.” President of the 
Jewish Territorial Organization. His play, “Merely 
Mary Ann,” was one of the successes of 1904. “Ghetto 
Comedies,” published in 1907, displayed throughout the 
hand of a master craftsman. 

Zeller, Eduard, born in 1814; German philosopher; 
having held chairs at Marburg and Heidelberg, was ap¬ 
pointed professor at Berlin, in 1872. His chief works are 
“History of Greek Philosophy” (of which an English 
version appeared in 1881), “History of German Philoso¬ 
phy since Leibnitz,” “The Contents and Origin of the 
Acts of the Apostles.” Died, 1908. 

Zeno, a Greek philosopher, of Elea (Velia), in Italy, 
who lived in the Fifth Century before Christ. He was 
one of the reputed founders of the Eleatic school of 
philosophy. Only fragments of his writings have come 
down to us. 

Zeno, a Greek philosopher, who flourished in the 
Third Century before Christ. He was a native of Citium, 
in the island of Cyprus, but most of his life was spent in 
Athens. He was the founder of the Stoic school of 
philosophy, a name derived from the Painted Porch 
(Stoa Poikile), in which he was accustomed to meet his 
disciples. He is said to have lived to the age of 98 years. 

Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (Third Century), married 
Odenathus, who was named “Augustus” by Gallienus 
in 264, and on his death, three years later, reigned alone; 
but in 272 Aurelian invaded her territories, defeated 
and captured her and took her to Rome in 274. 

Zinzendorf, Nicolaus von, Graf, born in 1700; 
founder Moravian settlement at Herrnhut; traveled 
much in America for religious purposes; in 1737 went to 
London where he met John Wesley. Died, 1760. 

Zola, Emile, born in 1840; French novelist of the 
"naturalist” school, began life as an employ^ of the 
Hachette firm, but in 1864 published “Contes a Ninon.” 
Among his chief works are“Thdrfese Raquin,” “Les Rougon 
Macquart,” a seriesof which “L’Assommoir” and “Nana,” 
“Germinal,” “La Terre,” “La B6te Humaine,” “La 
Debacle,” etc., are the most striking. Died, 1902. 

Zoroaster, an ancient philosopher, of whose history 
little or nothing that is authentic is known. There are 
supposed to have been several of the name. The most 
celebrated, however, the Zerdusht of the Persians, is 
believed to have been the reformer of the Magian system 
of religion, and the author of the Zendavesta, which 
contains the doctrines that he taught. Irreconcilable 
differences exist among the learned as to the time in 
which he flourished. Volney fixes his birth 1250 B. C. 

Zwingle, or Zwingli, Ulrich, born in 1484; Swiss 
reformer; served in Italy as a soldier, visited Erasmus 
at Basel, in 1514. and two years later at the monastery 
of Einsiedeln began to preach freely. In 1518, he was 
appointed to the cathedral at Zurich, having previously 
opposed the sale of indulgences by Sansom. Attempts 
were made to prohibit his preaching, but the reformation 
grew at Zurich. In 1529, Zwingle met Luther and 
Melanchthon at Marburg, but two years later he fell in 
the battle of Kappel in the war with Berne. 1531. 











TAJ MAHAL—SHRINE OF NUR JEHAN, “LIGHT OF THE WORLD 
















































GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


Africa ( af're-kah ), the second largest of the 
continents of the Old World lies nearly due 
south of Europe and southwest of Asia. It is of 
a compact form, being nearly equal at its ex¬ 
treme points in length and breadth. The north 
section of the continent, however, has an average 
breadth of nearly double the south. This great 
change of form arises mostly from the greater 
projection of the upper part toward the west, and 
the transition on this side from the broad to the 
narrow section is effected suddenly by an inward 
turn of the west coast, which faces south for 
nearly 20° of longitude, forming the Gulf of 
Guinea, the greatest indentation of the coast. 
Africa is united to Asia at its northeast extremity 
by the Isthmus of Suez, now crossed by a great 
ship canal. From this point the coast runs in a 
westerly and somewhat northerly direction to 
the Strait of Gibraltar, the point of greatest prox¬ 
imity to Europe. This north coast forms the 
south shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and brings 
all the north countries of Africa into close prox¬ 
imity with the European and Asiatic countries 
lying contiguous to that great ocean highway, 
which formed the chief medium of communi¬ 
cation between the principal divisions of the 
ancient world. 

The center of Africa possesses an exuberant 
tropical vegetation. The open pastoral belt at 
the extremities of the tropics is distinguished by 
a rich and varied flora. A special characteristic 
of the vegetation of the south extremity of Africa 
is the remarkable variety, size, and beauty of 
the heaths, some of which grow to twelve or fif¬ 
teen feet in the fertile parts of Nubia. 

The fauna of Africa is extensive and varied, 
and numerous species of mammals are peculiar 
to the continent. According to a common view 
of the geographical distribution of animals, the 
north of Africa belongs to the Mediterranean 
sub-region, while the rest of the continent forms 
the Ethiopian region. Africa possesses numer¬ 
ous species of the order quadrumana (apes and 
monkeys), most of whicn are peculiar to it. 
They abound especially in the tropics. The 
most remarkable are the chimpanzee and the 
gorilla. The lion is the typical carnivore of 
Africa. Latterly he has been driven from the 
coast settlements to the interior, where he still 
reigns king of the forest. There are three varie¬ 
ties, the Barbary, Senegal, and Cape lions. The 
leopard and panther rank next to the lion among 
carnivora. Hyenas of more than one species, 
and jackals, are found all over Africa. Ele¬ 
phants in large herds abound in the forests 
of the tropical regions, and their tusks form 
a principal article of commerce. These are 
larger and heavier than those of Asiatic ele¬ 
phants. The elephant is not a domestic animal 
in Africa as it is in Asia. The rhinoceros 
is found, like the elephant, in Middle and South¬ 
ern Africa. Hippopotami abound in many of 
the large rivers and the lakes. The zebra and 
quagga used to abound in Central and Southern 


Africa, but the latter is said to be now entirely 
extinct. Of antelopes, the most numerous and 
characteristic of the ruminating animals of Africa, 
at least fifty species are considered peculiar to 
this continent, of which twenty-three used to 
occur in Cape Colony. The giraffe is found in 
the interior, and is exclusively an African ani¬ 
mal. Several species of wild buffaloes have 
been found in the interior, and the buffalo has 
been naturalized in the north. The camel, com¬ 
mon in the north as a beast of burden, has no 
doubt been introduced from Asia. The horse 
and the ass are natives of Barbary. The cattle 
of Abyssinia and Bornu have horns of immense 
size, but extremely light. In Barbary and the 
Cape of Good Hope the sheep are broad-tailed ; 
in Egypt and Nubia they are long-legged and 
short-tailed. Goats are in some parts more 
numerous than sheep. The ibex breed extends 
to Abyssinia. Dogs are numerous, but cats 
rare, in Egypt and Barbary. 

There is a marked distinction between the 
races in the north and east of the great desert 
and those in the central Soudan and the rest of 
Africa and the south. The main elements of 
the population of North Africa, including Egypt 
and Abyssinia, are Hamitic and Semitic, but in 
the north the Hamite Berbers are mingled with 
eoples of the same race as those of prehistoric 
outhern Europe, and other types of various 
origins, and in the east and southeast with the 
peoples of the negro type. The Semitic Arabs 
are found all over the north region, and even in 
the Western Sahara and Central Soudan, and far 
down the east coast, as traders. The Somalis 
and Gallas are mainly Hamitic. In the Central 
Soudan and the whole of the country between the 
desert and the Gulf of Guinea the population is 
pure negro—people of the black, flat- or broad- 
nosed, thick-lipped type, with narrow heads, 
woolly hair, high cheek-bones, and prognathous 
jaws. Scattered among them are peoples of a 
probably Hamitic stock. Nearly the whole of 
the narrow south section of Africa is inhabited 
by what are known as the Bantu races, of which 
the Zulu or Kaffir may be taken as the type. 
The languages of the Bantu peoples are all of 
the same structure, even though the physical 
type vary, some resembling the true negro, and 
others having prominent noses and comparatively 
thin lips. The Bushmen of South Africa are of 
a different type from the Bantu, probably the 
remains of an aboriginal population, while the 
Hottentots are apparently a mixture of Bushmen 
and Kaffirs. Scattered over Central Africa, 
mainly in the forest regions, are pigmy tribes,- 
who are generally supposed to be the remains 
of an aboriginal population. The bulk of the 
inhabitants of Madagascar are of Malay affini¬ 
ties. The total population is estimated at about 
150,000,000. 

Political Divisions. Only two independent 
governments exist in Africa, Abyssinia and 
Liberia. With these two exceptions, the whole 




508 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


continent is subject to European domination. 
By recent arrangements, mainly since 1884, 
great areas in Africa have been allotted to Great 
Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, 
and Italy, as coming within their respective 
spheres of influence, in addition to colonial pos¬ 
sessions proper. The following table exhibits 
the present division of Africa among the Euro¬ 
pean powers: 



| Area 

Population 

British Africa: Union of 
South Africa, Rhodesia; 
Basutoland, Bechuanaland, 
and Swaziland; East Africa, 
Uganda, Nyasaland, Somal¬ 
iland, and Zanzibar protec¬ 
torates; Nigeria, Gold Coast, 
Sierra Leone and Gambia; 
Mauritius,Seychelles, Ascen¬ 
sion and St. Helena islands,* 

2,187,275 

34,999,986 

French Africa: Tunis, Al¬ 
geria, Morocco, West Africa 
and the Sahara, Congo, Sen¬ 
egal, Somali Coast, Madagas¬ 
car and islands,. 

4,640,934 

29,576,850 

German Africa: Togo, Kam- 
erun, Southwest Africa, 
East Africa,. 

931,460 

13,419,500 

Italian Africa: Tripoli, Eri¬ 
trea and Somaliland. 

591,330 

2,150,000 

Portuguese Africa: East 
Africa, Angola, Guinea, and 
islands, . 

793,980 

8,248,527 

Spanish Africa: Rio de Oro 
and Adrar; Guinea; Cana¬ 
ries and other islands, . . . 

88,621 

655,653 

Turkish Africa: Egypt and 
the Sudan,*. 

1,384,520 

13,739,978 

Belgian Africa: Congo In¬ 
dependent State, . 

909,654 

15,000,000 

Total. 

11,527,674 

117,790,494 


* Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan, although nomi¬ 
nally under the suzerainty of Turkey, are really con¬ 
trolled by Great Britain, and it is only a matter of time 
as to when they will be incorporated into the British 
Empire. Adding Egypt and the Sudan to the Empire 
would increase the figures above given to 3,571,775 
square miles and 48,739,964 population. 

The remaining territory of Africa unoccupied is a part 
of the Great Desert of Sahara and the Independent States 
of Abyssinia and Liberia. Even this territory, except 
the last, is destined to pass under the power of 
Europeans. 

Over a great part of the continent civilization 
is at a low ebb, and in the Congo region cannibal¬ 
ism is extensively prevalent. Yet in various 
regions the natives who have not come in con¬ 
tact with a higher civilization show considerable 
skill in agriculture and various mechanical arts, 
as in weaving and metal working. Among 
articles exported from Africa are gold and dia¬ 
monds, palm oil, ivory, wool, ostrich feathers, 
esparto, cotton, caoutchouc, etc. The total 
annual trade has been estimated at $500,000,000. 

Alaska is now an organized Territory in 
the Western Division of the North American 
Union, comprising the extreme northwestern 
part of the American continent; bounded by 
the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, Bering Sea, British 
‘Columbia, and the Northwest Territories of Can¬ 
ada; gross area, as far as determined, 581,107 
square miles; purchased from Russia, in 1867, 
for $7,200,000; given a territorial district gov¬ 
ernment in 1884 and enlarged political powers in 
1906. Congress in 1912 passed an act creating 
a legislative assembly and fixing the city of 
Juneau as the seat of the territorial government. 
The population by latest census was 64,356. 


The total value of the commerce for 1912 was 
over $60,000,000. 

Gold production, and business activities con¬ 
nected therewith, are hastening the develop¬ 
ment of the country, and the yield of the 
precious metal promises to be a large factor 
for many years to come. 

The waters of Alaska contain over 100 species 
of food fish, but the principal fisheries are those 
confined to salmon—the packing of which is the 
leading industry—cod, and herring. In con¬ 
nection with the Alaska coast there are at least 
125,000 square miles of cod fishing banks, the 
greater part of which still awaits development. 
Whales and halibut also abound, but as yet they 
do not support distinct industries. 

When the United States acquired this region, 
and until gold mining set in, fur sealing was the 
only industry. So far there has been but little 
systematic farming. Congress has made appro¬ 
priations to investigate agricultural possibilities. 
Oats, wheat, rye, barley, and buckwheat, among 
cereals; potatoes, turnips, peas, onions, and many 
minor vegetables; several kinds of fruits and 
excellent hay are among the crops successfully 
cultivated. 

Algiers, the capital of Algeria, founded by 
the Arabs in 935, called the “ silver city/’ from 
the glistening white of its buildings, presenting a 
striking appearance as seen sloping up from the 
sea, was for centuries under its Bey the head¬ 
quarters of piracy in the Mediterranean. This 
began to cease only when Lord Exmouth bom¬ 
barded the town and destroyed the fleet in the 
harbor. Since the city fell into the hands of the 
French, it has been greatly improved, the fortifi¬ 
cations strengthened, and its neighborbood has 
become a frequent resort of English people in 
winter. Population, 145,000. 

Alps, the greatest European mountain sys¬ 
tem, forming the watershed between the Medi¬ 
terranean and the Atlantic, and the North and 
Black seas, extending through 14° of longitude 
and 5° of latitude, with- spurs to the Apennines, 
Pyrenees, Vosges, Hartz, Sudetes, Carpathians, 
and the Balkan. They are of crescent-like form, 
and average in height about 7,700 feet; over 
400 peaks rise to the perpetual snow line, which 
averages from 8,000 to 9,000 feet. The central 
point of all the Alpine chains is the St. Gothard 
group, which is in a direct line 150 miles from 
the Mediterranean, 500 miles from the North 
Sea, and 550 miles from the Baltic. The prin¬ 
cipal Alpine divisions are: I. The Maritime 
Alps, consisting of two portions, the first (Ligu¬ 
rian Alps) extending from the vicinity of Nice 
to the Col de Lauzania in Piedmont; the second 
(upper Maritime Alps) terminating in Monte 
Viso, on the western frontier of Piedmont. II. 
The Cottian Alps, extending from Monte Viso 
to Mont Cenis, with Piedmontese and French 
territories on three sides. III. The Graian 
Alps, extending from Mont Cenis (11,755 feet) 
to the Col du Bonhomme, between Savoy on the 
west and Piedmont on the east. IV. The 
Pennine Alps, from the Col du Bonhomme to 
Monte Rosa, between Upper Savoy and the Swiss 
canton of Valais on one side, and Piedmont on 
the other, including Mont Blanc (15,781 feet). 
Monte Rosa (15,217), and the Matterhorn 





















GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


509 


(14,780). V. The Lepontine or Helvetian Alps, 
including the Bernese Alps. This division covers 
West Switzerland, one branch terminating at 
Monte Bernardino, the other uniting with the 
Jura, north of lake Geneva. This comprises the 
finest scenery, and includes the Finsteraarhorn 
(14,106 feet), Furca (14,037), Jungfrau (13,718;, 
Monch (13,498), Schreckhorn (13,386), and 
Monte Leon on the Simplon (11,541). VI. The 
Rhsetian Alps commence at Monte Bernardino, 
extend along the confines of Switzerland, Italy, 
and Germany, and terminate at the northeast 
end of Tyrol. VII. The Noric Alps, extending 
through Salzburg, North Carinthia, Styria, and 
Upper and Lower Austria. VIII. The Carnic 
Alps, extending on the confines of Venetia and 
Carinthia, from Pellegrino to Terglou. IX. 
From Terglou this chain is prolonged through 
Gorz and Carniola to Mt. Kleck, as the Julian 
or Pannonian Alps. X. A southern continua¬ 
tion, called Dinaric Alps, extends from Mt. Kleck 
through Croatia, Dalmatia, and Herzegovina, to 
the vicinity of the Balkan. Among the most cele¬ 
brated passes are those of the Great and Little 
St. Bernard, St. Gothard, Simplon, and Splugen. 
Over the Simplon Pass (6,628 feet high), Napo¬ 
leon constructed a road extending from Brieg 
to Domo d’Ossola, forty-six and one-half miles, 
connecting Geneva with Milan. Railway tun¬ 
nels have been cut through Mont Cenis, St. Goth¬ 
ard, and the Simplon. 

Amazon, Maranon, or Orellana, 
a river which traverses nearly the whole extent 
of the equatorial region of South America, run¬ 
ning chiefly from west to east, ana entering the 
Atlantic almost at the equator. It is one of the 
largest rivers in the world, running a course, 
including windings, of about 3,300 miles. The 
force of its current is so great that it overlies 
the ocean to a distance of more than 200 miles 
from the shore. With its enormous tributaries 
— the Rio Negro, the Madeira, the Japura, and 
many others — it is estimated that it affords an 
inland navigation of 50,000 miles. The area 
drained by its waters is probably not less than 
2,500,000 square miles. The width of its mouth, 
or mouths, is nearly 200 miles. 

Amsterdam, the metropolis of the Nether¬ 
lands, in the province of North Holland, on 
the river Amstel, is divided into small islands, 
connected by bridges, and is almost wholly built 
upon piles. The site of Amsterdam was origi¬ 
nally a peat-bog. About A. D. 1200 it was a 
small fishing village. It was formerly very 
strongly fortified, but now its only defense con¬ 
sists in its sluices, which can flood in a few 
hours the surrounding land. The approach to 
the city from the Zuyder Zee is intricate and dan¬ 
gerous, owing to the numerous shallows. In the 
Seventeenth Century Amsterdam was the center 
of the banking transactions of the world. It is 
still the chief commercial city of the Netherlands, 
and has a large trade with both the East and the 
West Indies. The diamond cutters of Amsterdam 
are greatly celebrated. Population, 557,614. 

Andes, the great mountain system of South 
America, extends along its west coast from Cape 
Horn to the Isthmus of Panama, with a breadth 
of from forty to four hundred miles, and covers 
with its offshoots, plateaus, and declivities, 


nearly a sixth part of that continent. The 
highest summit is Aconcagua, in Chile, 23,083 
feet high. The Andes are composed partly of 
granite, gneiss, mica, and clay slate, but chiefly 
of greenstone, porphyry, and basalt, with lime¬ 
stone, red sandstone, and conglomerate. Vol¬ 
canoes are numerous in the Chilean Andes, where 
there are no less than nineteen in a state of 
activity; and the mountains of Ecuador con¬ 
sist almost altogether of volcanic summits, 
either now or formerly in active eruption. Of 
these, the most dreaded is Cotopaxi. The Andes 
are celebrated for their mineral riches — pro¬ 
ducing gold and silver in large quantities, with 
platinum, mercury, copper, lead, tin, and iron. 
The limit of perpetual snow in the Andes reaches 
the height of 18,300 feet in the West Cordillera 
of Chile; near the equator it is 15,000 feet. The 
potato is cultivated at an elevation of 9,800 to 
13,000 feet; wheat grows luxuriantly at 10,000 
feet, and oats ripen in the vicinity of Lake 
Titicaca at an elevation of 12,795 feet. 

Antarctic Exploration. The search 
for land in the Antarctic regions was the motive 
of explorers as early as the seventeenth century. 
Up to 1910 the principal explorers were: 


Year 

Explorer 

South Latit 

1700 

Halley 

52° 

1739 

Bouvet 

54° 10' 

1774 

James Cook 

71° 10' 

1842 

Ross 

78° 10' 

1900 

Borchgrevink 

78° 50' 

1902 

Scott 

82° 17' 

1909 

Shackleton 

88° 23' 


The goal for three centuries was finally 
attained by Capt. Roald Amundsen, a Nor¬ 
wegian, who reached the South Pole and planted 
the Norwegian flag December 14, 1911. 

Amundsen left Norway in the summer of 
1910 on his ship the Fram equipped with pro¬ 
visions for seven years. No less than five 
expeditions were sent to the Antarctic regions 
the same year, one of the most important 
of which was that of Robert Scott, an English¬ 
man, who left London on the Terra Nova June 
1st. Capt. Scott with four of his companions 
reached the pole on January 18,1912, and found 
the hut and records left there by Amundsen in 
December, 1911. The return journey was one 
of struggle and heroism. One man became ill 
and died, another deliberately walked to his 
death for the safety of his companions. When 
within ten miles of a camp where shelter and 
supplies awaited them, Capt. Scott and the 
remaining two men perished amid a blinding 
storm. In February, 1913, the world learned 
of this tragedy through a relief expedition which 
recovered Scott’s last message, dated March 25, 
1912, and found on his body eight months later. 

The achievements of Amundsen and Scott 
have demonstrated that the Antarctic is essen¬ 
tially a land area, whereas the North Pole is 
surrounded by an open sea. 

Antarctic Ocean, the great water 
division of the globe within the Antarctic 
regions, which is in many respects the antithe¬ 
sis of the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded by 
the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. 
One vast land mass extends around the pole. 
The entire region lies under ice and snow, with 




510 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


almost no vegetation and no mammals. There 
are numerous birds, whales, seals and fish. 

Antioch, a city of Syria, in the vilayet of 
Aleppo, on the left bank of the Asi, formerly 
the Orontes. It derived its name from Antio- 
chus, a distinguished officer in the service of 
Philip of Macedon, and was one of the sixteen 
cities built by his son, Seleucus Nicator. Anti¬ 
och was a city of great magnificence. .It was 
the residence of the Syrian monarchs, and is 
said to have been then one of the largest cities 
in the world. In Roman times, it was the seat of 
the Syrian governor, and the center of a widely- 
extended commerce. It now exhibits scarcely 
any traces of its former grandeur, except the 
ruins of the walls built by Justinian, and of a 
fortress erected by the Crusaders. The modern 
name is Antakieh. Population, about 28,000. 

Antwerp (Dutch and German Antwerpen , 
French Anvers), the chief port of Belgium, and 
the capital of a province of the same name, on 
the Scheldt, about fifty miles from the open sea. 
It is strongly fortified, being completely sur¬ 
rounded on the land side by a semicircular inner 
line of fortifications, the defenses being com¬ 
pleted by an outer line of forts and outworks. 
The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of 
the largest and most beautiful specimens of 
Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Ru¬ 
bens’s celebrated masterpieces, the Descent from 
the Cross, the Elevation of the Cross, and The 
Assumption. The other churches of note are 
St. James’s, St. Andrew’s, and St. Paul’s, all 
enriched with paintings by Rubens, Vandyck, 
and other masters. Among the other edifices of 
note are the exchange, the town-hall, the palace, 
theater, academy of the fine arts, picture and 
sculpture galleries, etc. The harbor accom¬ 
modation is extensive and excellent, new docks 
and quays having been built in the past few 
years. The shipping trade has greatly advanced 
in recent times, and is now very large, the goods 
being largely in transit. There are .numerous 
and varied industries. Antwerp is mentioned as 
early as the Eighth Century, and in the Eleventh 
and Twelfth it had attained a high degree of 
prosperity. In the Sixteenth Century it is said 
to have had a population of 200,000. The wars 
between the Netherlands and Spain greatly 
injured its commerce, which was almost ruined 
by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt in 
accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). 
It was only in the Nineteenth Century that its 
prosperity had revived, and it is now one of the 
important active seaports of Western Europe. 
Population, 304,951. 

Aqueduct (Lat. aqua, water, duco, to lead), 
an artificial channel or conduit for the con¬ 
veyance of water from one place to another: 
more particularly applied to structures for con¬ 
veying water from distant sources for the supply 
of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used 
by the Romans, and many of them still remain 
in different places on the Continent of Europe. 

The following are the names of the Roman 
aqueducts, chronologically arranged: 

1. The Aqua Appia, begun by and named after 
the censor Appius Claudius about 313 B. C. It 
ran a course of between six and seven miles, its 
source being in the neighborhood of Palestrina. 


With the exception of a small portion near the 
Porta Capena, it was subterranean. No remains 
of it exist. 

2. Anio Vetus, constructed about 273 B. C. 
by M. Curius Dentatus. It also was chiefly 
underground. Remains may be traced both at 
Tivoli and near the Porta Maggiore. From the 
point at which it quitted the river Anio, about 
twenty miles above Tivoli, to Rome, is about 
forty-three miles. 

3. Aqua Marcia , named after the praetor Quin¬ 
tus Marcius Rex, 145 B. C., had its source be¬ 
tween Tivoli and Subiaco, and was consequently 
about sixty miles long. The noble arches which 
stretch across the Campagna for some six miles 
on the road to Frascati, are the portion of this 
aqueduct which was above ground. 

4. Aqua Tepula (125 B. C.) had its source near 
Tusculum, and its channel was carried over the 
arches of the last-mentioned aqueduct. 

5. Aqua Julia, constructed by Agrippa, and 
named after Augustus, 33 B. C. Like the Tepu- 
lan, it was carried along the Marcian arches, and 
its source was also near Tusculum. Remains of 
the three last-mentioned aqueducts still exist. 

6. Aqua Virgo, also constructed by Agrippa, 
and said to have been named in consequence of 
the spring which supplied it having been pointed 
out by a girl to some of Agrippa’s soldiers when 
in search of water. The Aqua Vergine, as it is 
now called, is still entire, having been restored 
by the popes Nicholas V. and Pius V., 1568. 
The source of the Aqua Virgo is near the Anio, in 
the neighborhood of Torre Salona, on the Via 
Collatina, and about fourteen miles from Rome. 
The original object of this aqueduct was to sup¬ 
ply the baths of Agrippa; its water now flows 
in the Fontana Trevi, that of the Piazza Navona, 
the Piazza Farnese, and the Barcaccia of the 
Piazza di Spagna. The water of the Aqua Virgo 
is the best in Rome. 

7. Aqua Alsietina, constructed by Augustus, 
and afterwards restored by Trajan, and latterly 
by the popes. This aqueduct, now called the 
Aqua Paolo, is situated on the right bank of the 
Tiber, and supplies the fountains in front of St. 
Peter’s and the Fontana Paola on the Montorio. 
Its original object was to supply the Naumachia 
of Augustus which was a sheet of water for the 
representation of sea fights. 

8. Aqua Claudia, commenced by Caligula and 
completed by Claudius, 51 A. D. A line of mag¬ 
nificent arches which formerly belonged to this 
aqueduct still stretches across the Campagna, 
and forms one of the grandest of Roman ruins. 
It was used as a quarry by Sixtus V. for the 
construction of the Aqua Felici, which now sup¬ 
plies the Fountain of Termini, and various others 
in different parts of the city. 

9. Anio Novus, which was the most copious 
of all the Roman fountains, though inferior to 
the Marcia in the solidity of its structure; it was 
also the longest of the aqueducts, pursuing a 
course of no less than sixty-two miles. By the 
two last-mentioned aqueducts the former supply 
of water was doubled. In addition to the aque¬ 
ducts already mentioned, there was the Aqua 
Trajana, which may, however, be regarded as a 
branch of the Anio Novus and several others of 
later construction, such as the Antoniana, Alex- 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


511 


andrina, and Jo via, none of which were to be 
compared with the older ones in extent and 
magnificence. 

Other great aqueducts were built in other 
parts of the Roman Empire. One of the most 
perfect was that of N'imes, including the bridge 
spanning the valley of the river Gard, and now 
known as the Pont du Gard. In the reign of 
Louis XIV. a magnificent aqueduct was con¬ 
structed for supplying Versailles. The bridge of 
Maintenon over which it is carried is seven-eighths 
of a mile long, upward of 200 feet high, and con¬ 
tains three tiers of arches, 242 in each tier, with 
fifty feet span. 

Among the most notable aqueducts of modern 
times are the following: The Old Croton aque¬ 
duct, in New York, completed in 1842 at a cost 
of $12,500,000; its length from its source at 
Croton river to the distributing reservoir at 5th 
Ave. and 40th St. is about 41 miles, its capacity 
115,000,000 gallons daily. The New Croton aque¬ 
duct, with a capacity of 302,000,000 gallons daily, 
was completed in 1893 at a cost of $20,000,000. 
The Catskill aqueduct takes water from the 
Esopus, Rondout, Schoharie and Catskill creeks 
and delivers it to Greater New York, under rivers 
and deep valleys, a distance of 127 miles. It taps 
the Ashokan reservoir which has a capacity of 
130,000,000,000 gallons. The entire aqueduct, 
built at a cost of about $200,000,000, is designed 
to give Greater New York a water supply of 500,- 
000,000 gallons daily. The Los Angeles aqueduct, 
246 miles in length, has its source in the Sierra 
Nevada mountains; it is carried over the Sierra 
at an elevation of 7,000 feet and the resulting 
fall is utilized to generate about 150,000 horse 
power of electrical energy. It has a capacity of 
about 200,000,000 gallons daily, and its cost is 
about $25,000,000. 

Architecture ( ar'-ki-tekt-yur ), the art of 
building, embracing every kind of structure 
designed for purposes of civil life. Throughout 
the globe remains of edifices proclaim an early 
ossession of certain degrees of architectural 
nowledge. The most remarkable vestiges of 
these primitive structures, save the Celtic monu¬ 
ments, were once supposed to be the works of 
giants or Cyclops like those mentioned in the 
Odyssey. By whom they were erected, however, 
is unknown, though they have been attributed 
to the Pelasgians. The walls of the cities and of 
the sacred enclosures and tombs were composed 
of blocks of stone of a polygonal form well 
adjusted. No cement was used, the interstices 
being filled with small stones. At times they 
present horizontal layers whose upright joints 
are variously inclined. At Mycenae and Tiryns 
several examples are to be found. No entire 
architectural monument has come down to us 
from Babylon or Nineveh, nor from the Pheni- 
cians, the Hebrews, the Syrians, the Philistines, 
and many other nations. Of the very ancient 
Chinese monuments, too, we have no trace. 
Japan, Siam, and the islands of the Indian Ocean 
abound in ancient ruins once sacred to the 
divinities of the Buddhist faith. The Hindoo 
structures are remarkable for their colossal 
size and their severe and grotesque appear¬ 
ance.— The architectural types of all other 
structures of antiquity sink into insignificance 


when compared with those of the Egyptians. 
Their earliest works are the hypogea or spea, 
wherein their dead were interred, and which 
served also as subterranean temples. These 
were the prototypes of the open-air temples, of 
which the most ancient example is perhaps that 
at Amada. The plan is very similar to that of 
the hypogea, or caves. The walls, ceilings, and 
columns were decorated with figures in bas-relief 
and hieroglyphics richly colored, generally with 
yellow, red, green, and blue. The palaces were 
constructed upon a plan very similar to that of 
the tpmples. Besides their wonderful cities of 
the dead, the Egyptians reared their stupendous 
pyramids, the most gigantic monuments existing. 
The pyramidal shape pervades most of their 
works, the walls of their temples inclining 
inward. Columns were employed to form porti¬ 
coes to their interior courts, and also to support 
the ceilings. The shafts, of different forms, 
being conical, or cylindrical, or bulging out at 
the base, sometimes presented a smooth surface; 
they were rarely fluted, and generally covered 
with hieroglyphics. The capitals resemble the 
lotus, either spreading out at the top or bound 
together, assuming the bulbous shape; above 
is a square tablet forming the abacus.—The 
Grecian monuments belonged to the states, 
and upon the public works the governments 
lavished fabulous sums. Hence the Grecian cities 
were adorned with temples, theaters, odeons, 
gymnasiums, choragic monuments, and the like. 

The earliest architectural remains of Greece 
are of unknown antiquity, and consist of mas¬ 
sive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In 
historic times the Greeks developed an archi¬ 
tecture of noble simplicity and dignity. This 
style is of modern origin compared with that of 
Egypt, and the earliest remains give indications 
that it was in part derived from the Egyptians. 
It is considered to have attained its greatest per¬ 
fection in the age of Pericles, or about 460-430 
B. C. The great masters of this period were 
Phidias, Ictinus, Callicrates, etc. All the extant 
buildings are more or less in ruins. The style 
is characterized by beauty, harmony, and sim¬ 
plicity in the highest degree. Distinctive of it 
are what are called the orders of architecture, by 
which term are understood certain modes of 
proportioning and decorating the column and 
its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had 
three orders, called respectively the Doric, Ionic, 
and Corinthian. Greek buildings were abun¬ 
dantly adorned with sculptures, and painting 
was extensively used, the details of the structures 
being enriched by different colors or tints. Low¬ 
ness of roofs and the absence of arches were dis¬ 
tinctive features of Greek architecture, in which, 
as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is an¬ 
other characteristic mark. The most remark¬ 
able public edifices of the Greeks were temples, 
of which the most famous is the Parthenon at 
Athens. Others exist in various parts of Greece 
as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia Minor, 
etc., where important Greek communities were 
early settled. Their theaters were semi-circular 
on one side and square on the other, the semi¬ 
circular part being usually excavated in the side 
of some convenient hill. This part, the audi¬ 
torium, was filled with concentric seats, and 




512 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. 
A number exist in Greece, Sicily, Asia Minor, 
and elsewhere. No remains of private houses 
are known to exist. By the end of the Pelopon¬ 
nesian War (say 400 B. C.) the best period of 
Greek architecture was over; a noble simplicity 
had given place to excess of ornament. After 
the death of Alexander the Great (323) the de¬ 
cline was still more marked. 

Among the Romans there was no original 
development of architecture as among the 
Greeks, though they early took the foremost 
place in the construction of such works as aque¬ 
ducts and sewers, the arch being in early and 
extensive use among this people. As a fine art, 
however, Roman architecture had its origin in 
copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian 
orders being introduced into Rome, and vari¬ 
ously modified. Their number, moreover, was 
augmented by the addition of two new orders— 
the Tuscan and the Composite. The Romans 
became acquainted with the architecture of the 
Greeks soon after 200 B. C., but it was not till 
about two centuries later that the architecture 
of Rome attained (under Augustus) its great¬ 
est perfection. Among the great works now 
erected were temples, aqueducts, amphitheaters, 
magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumen¬ 
tal pillars, etc. The amphitheater differed from 
the theater it being a completely circular or 
rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with 
ascending seats for spectators and leaving only 
the central space, called the Arena, for the com¬ 
batants and public shows. The Coliseum is a 
stupendous structure of this kind. The Thermae, 
or baths, were vast structures in which multi¬ 
tudes of people could bathe at once. Magnifi¬ 
cent tombs were often built by the wealthy. Re¬ 
mains of private residences are numerous, and 
the excavations at Pompeii in particular have 
thrown great light on the internal arrangements 
of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the 
successors of Augustus embellished Rome more 
or less, erected splendid palaces and temples, 
and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered 
countries with them. But after the period of 
Hadrian (117-138 A. D.) Roman architecture is 
considered to have been on the decline. The 
refined and noble style of the Greeks was neg¬ 
lected, and there was an attempt to embellish 
the beautiful more and more. This decline was 
all the more rapid latterly from the disturbed 
state of the empire and the incursions of the bar¬ 
barians. 

In Constantinople, after its virtual separation 
from the Western Empire, arose a style of art 
and architecture which was practiced by the 
Greek Church during the whole of the Middle 
Ages. This is called the Byzantine style. Then 
appeared the dome, the glory of the Byzantine 
school, the requirements of which led to the aban¬ 
donment in the ground plan of churches of the 
Latin cross in favor of the Grecian cross, whose 
branches are of equal length. The dogmas of 
the iconoclasts obliged the architects to seek 
some other means than sculpture of enriching 
their temples; hence the profusion of Mosaic 
work. Their ornaments represented foliage in 
bas-relief and interlaced lines. Under Belisa- 
rius and Narses the dome was introduced into 


Italy. The Byzantine style also became the 
basis of the new Persian, Russian, and Saracen 
schools. We find its peculiarities existing during 
the Middle Ages in Greece, Italy, SicilySpain, 
Arabia, and India. Among the chief edifices of 
this school are St. Sophia at Constantinople, St. 
Mark's at Venice, and San Vitale at Ravenna. 
The Saracens and Moors introduced into Eu¬ 
rope certain forms of architecture founded on the 
remains of the Grecian school, blended with the 
Oriental elements of the Byzantine. Their chief 
peculiarity was in the form given to the arch. 
The Saracenic arch was of greater depth than 
width. The Moorish style was distinguished by 
arches in the shape of a horseshoe or a crescent. 
Their mural ornamentations, styled arabesque, 
presented more varied designs of graceful and 
ingenious combinations of geometrical and floral 
traceries than had before been known. The 
Lombards, who possessed themselves of North 
Italy after the middle of the Sixth Century, origi¬ 
nated a complete and systematized style, which 
the people of each country where it was intro¬ 
duced modified to suit their climate, customs, and 
wants. Its branches are variously known as 
the Merovingian, Carlovingian, Saxon, Norman, 
etc., which together were styled old Gothic, and 
out of which grew the pointed style, after the 
introduction into Europe of the pointed arch. 
During the Middle Ages the study of the arts, 
sciences, and literature took refuge in the mon¬ 
asteries. The influence of the clergy declined, 
however, as free institutions arose, and the 
pointed Gothic must be regarded as the work 
rather of secular than of clerical architects. 
This change was doubtless made more complete 
by the increasing importance of the fraternity of 
Freemasons, who became in time sole directors 
or supervisors of all the religious structures. 
Protected by the Church, architecture in their 
hands passed from the old Gothic through vari¬ 
ous phases of the pointed style. This style is 
customarily divided into three periods: the first, 
or primary, dating from the end of the Twelfth 
Century; the second, or decorated, or rayonnant, 
from the commencement of the Fourteenth Cen¬ 
tury; and the third, or perpendicular, or flam¬ 
boyant, from the end of the Fourteenth to the 
Sixteenth Century. The essential element of 
this style is the pointed arch. It is during 
the first period that the spire surmounting the 
tower becomes of so great importance. But¬ 
tresses and flying buttresses also form a striking 
feature. 

The windows gradually assume a less pointed 
form; the clustered columns composing the col¬ 
umnar piers are more elaborate; and the ribs, 
bosses, and carved ornaments throughout have 
more relief and are more elegant. The third 
period is remarkable for its profuse ornamenta¬ 
tion. The panelled walls, with their niches, 
tabernacles, canopies, and screens, highly deco¬ 
rated, the flying buttresses enriched with pinna¬ 
cles and tracery, the corbelled battlements and 
turrets, and the balustrades intricately carved 
and pierced, are characteristic of the epoch. 

During the Fourteenth Century, or the trecento 
period, we discover in Italy, in the secular struc¬ 
tures more especially, numerous examples exhib¬ 
iting a return to the classic styles. At length, in 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


513 


the Sixteenth Century, the classic taste prevailed 
throughout Europe, and hence the different 
names, cinquecento, renaissance, revival, given 
to that style which supplanted everywhere the 
so-called Gothic architecture. Brunelleschi of 
Florence (died 1446) was among the first to 
encourage and disseminate this taste for a return 
to the classic architecture. He had numerous 
distinguished followers, among whom were 
Alberti, Bramante, Peruzzi, Sangallo, San Mich- 
eli, Palladio, and Scamozzi. In their produc¬ 
tions the different elements of the classic style 
are happily introduced. The application of 
these elements to ecclesiastical, and more es¬ 
pecially to secular, structures, accounts for the 
liberties taken with them, among which are the 
following: the great variety given to the inter- 
columniation of columns; the superposition of 
different orders, with and without broken entab¬ 
latures; the frequent use of engaged columns 
and pilasters; the various forms given to the 
pediments; the substitution of columns for piers 
supporting arcades; the decoration of blank 
walls with medallions, foliage, and scrolls of 
various sorts, together with designs of animals 
arranged in imitation of ancient arabesques. 
These and many other so-called liberties origin¬ 
ated a style peculiarly adapted to the wants of 
modern civilization. Michael Angelo made 
many innovations. Instead of superimposing 
several orders, distinguishing as many stories, 
he employed one, comprising the whole height 
of the edifice. 

The spirit of scientific inquiry of the last hun¬ 
dred years, having enlarged our knowledge of 
architectural forms and promoted a more ex¬ 
haustive study of the principles of the art, has 
given rise to two movements directed either to 
improving the so-called classical style, or to sup¬ 
planting it altogether. These movements are 
known as the Greek and the Gothic revival. Both 
took their origin in England. The Greek revival 
dates from 1762, when Messrs. Stuart and Revett 
published the results of their researches among 
the antiquities of Attica. The Gothic revival 
may be said to date from Horace Walpole’s works 
at Strawberry Hill about 1768 to 1797, but its 
modern development did not begin till about 
1820. In England and the United States the 
Greek revival was merely a reproduction of the 
Greek buildings or parts of buildings; but in 
France it showed enough vigor to throw aside 
the methods of the ancients, and to create a 
new style, which has been called the neo-grecque, 
or, to distinguish it from the Romanesque, 
founded upon Roman methods, the romantique. 
The column of July in Paris, parts of the Palais 
de Justice, the Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve, 
and the Palais des Beaux-Arts, by MM. Due, 
Labrouste, and Duban, are the typical monu¬ 
ments of this style. Meanwhile, in England, 
the Greek movement having failed, the as¬ 
cendancy of the Gothic style was finally estab¬ 
lished, when in 1840 it was decided to adopt it 
for the new houses of parliament. This great 
undertaking gave an immense impulse to the 
Gothic movement. Subsequent works show 
not only greater knowledge and skill, but more 
freedom of mind, both in secular and ecclesiasti¬ 
cal work; and the “Victorian Gothic,” as it has 


been called, differs as much from the various 
Gothic styles of the Middle Ages as they differ 
from each other. A similar movement has mean¬ 
while been going on in France and Germany, 
but less successfully. In Germany the proper 
ointed Gothic has been taken up, stimulated 
y the great works for the completion of the 
Cologne cathedral. The Votive Church at 
Vienna is perhaps the most noteworthy ex¬ 
ample of this movement. The adherents of the 
Gothic revival in this country are as numerous 
and devoted as those of the Greek revival; but 
there is less partisanship here than abroad, 
and it is more common for architects to practice 
in both ways at once. 

America can hardly claim to have produced 
a special school of architecture, but there are 
many public edifices that deserve to be men¬ 
tioned as specimens of architectural beauty. 
Many of our best architects are now designing 
in what is termed the “colonial” style, which 
is an adaptation of the Dutch style so much in 
vogue in this country during the last two 
centuries. Comparatively little attention was 
paid to architecture before the Civil War, but 
the growing taste and prosperity of the country 
have enabled architects to erect many hand¬ 
some dwelling-houses, which will in no way 
suffer by comparison with those of European 
cities. Brick, stone, and iron are now much 
used in this country, and the Gothic style has 
been widely adopted for church edifices. Trinity 
Church in New York, completed in 1846, one 
of the first great Gothic edifices of stone in the 
United States, Grace Church, and St. Patrick’s 
Cathedral, in the same city, are fine specimens 
of that style. The Temple Emmanuel is a re¬ 
production of Saracenic forms. The Roman 
Catholic Cathedral in Philadelphia is modeled 
after the Italian edifices of the time of Michael 
Angelo. Trinity Church, of Boston, is the 
best example of the Romanesque, influenced 
by the Byzantine, copied from edifices erected 
in France during the Twelfth Century. The 
new “Old South Church” in Boston, is a build¬ 
ing of strong form and decoration. The mus¬ 
eum of art in the same city inclines to the Vene¬ 
tian Gothic, and among the more prominent of 
the later renaissance buildings are the Boston 
and New York post-offices, built of granite, 
brick, and iron. The lofty “Tribune” building is 
a noticeable feature of the lower part of New 
York. The War, State, and Navy building, 
of Washington, D. C., the Grand Central 
railroad depot of New York, and the new Lowell 
and Providence depots in Boston, are splendid 
and well-appointed structures. The capitol 
at Washington, the corner stone of which was 
laid in 1793, is in the style of renaissance. Ex¬ 
tensive additions have been made to both wings 
since 1850. The material used is a handsome 
marble, the original building being of sandstone. 
The treasury building and the patent office are 
in the Greek style, as are the sub-treasury and 
custom-house at New York, Girard College, 
Philadelphia, and the Alabama State capitol. 
Of public buildings in Gothic form, a high rank 
must be given to the Connecticut State capitol 
at Hartford, the new capitol at Albany, N. Y., 
and the Ohio capitol at Columbus. In Florida 



514 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and California many examples of the Spanish 
type are to be found. Many fine buildings have 
been erected for commercial purposes in various 
cities of the United States which justly deserve 
the title of “business palaces,” and are well 
suited to accommodate our merchant princes. 
Although architects are somewhat fettered by 
the small lots of twenty-five feet in width, pre¬ 
vailing in most of our cities, many dwelling- 
houses present remarkably handsome exteriors 
and interiors. Fifth Avenue, in New York, is 
in this respect one of the finest thoroughfares 
in the world. The apartment houses, which 
have come into fashion since the late war, cover¬ 
ing more than one lot, have fared better in an 
artistic point of view, of which the Stevens 
house of New York is one of the notable examples. 
Many beautiful country residences are to be 
found at Newport, Long Branch, and scattered 
throughout the country. 

Arctic Exploration. Frobisher, Davis, 
Hudson, Bylot, and Baffin successively, were the 
first to engage in an effort to reach the North 
Pole. Then after, a lapse of nearly two cen¬ 
turies the record of Arctic research was taken 
up by such men as Ross and Parry (1818), who 
were followed by Sir John Franklin. Franklin set 
sail in command of the “Erebus” and “ Terror,” 
in May, 1845, and by the month of July reached 
Whalefish Islands in Davis' Strait. On the 26th 
of that month the ships were seen in latitude 
74° 48' north; longitude 66° 13' west; after 
which no further intelligence concerning them 
was received. It was not, however, till the be¬ 
ginning of 1847 that serious apprehensions were 
entertained regarding the expedition. The 
most strenuous efforts were then made by both 
the English and the Americans to obtain tidings 
of Franklin. Among the numerous expeditions 
sent out by sea and land in search of the missing 
navigator and his company were those of Rich¬ 
ardson and Rae (by land, 1847), of Moore (1848- 
52), of Kellet (1848-50), of Shedden (1848-50), 
of Sir James Ross (1848-49), of Saunders 
(1849-50), of Austin and Ommaney (1850-51), 
and of Penny (1850-51). In 1850, MacClure set 
out by Behring's Strait on a search expedition, 
and to him is due the honor of having ascertained 
the existence of the long-sought-for northwest 
passage. Other expeditions between 1850 and 
1855 were: Collinson's, Rae's, Kennedy's, Ma¬ 
guire's, Belcher's, MacClintock's, and Inglefield’s. 
In 1853, Rae, proceeding to the east side of King 
William Sound, obtained the first tidings of the 
destruction of Franklin's ships. In 1855, Ander¬ 
son, proceeding up the Great Fish River, also 
discovered relics of the “Erebus” and “Terror.” 
At length MacClintock (1857-59) set all doubts 
at rest regarding the fate of Sir John Franklin 
and his companions, by establishing the fact 
that they had died in 1847. Dr. Kane made 
some important observations during the prog¬ 
ress of his Arctic explorations, 1853-55. Then 
followed the expeditions of Dr. Isaac Hayes in 
1860 and 1869, and those of Captain Charles 
Hall in 1860 and 1864. Finally, Lieutenant 
Schwatka headed an overland expedition in 
1879-80 in search of the journals of the Franklin 
expedition. Of later expeditions may be men¬ 
tioned that of the unfortunate and ill-advised 


“Jeannette” (1879), sent out under the command 
of Lieutenant DeLong, to explore the Arctic Sea 
through Behring's Strait; those of Mr. Leigh 
Smith in 1880 and 1881, in the latter of which 
he lost his vessel; and that of Sir C. Young for 
the relief of the former. An expedition sent out 
by the United States under Greely (1881-84), 
reached 83° 24' north. In 1888, South Green¬ 
land was crossed by Nansen, and March 14, 
1895, he attained 83° 59'. In 1892, Peary traced 
Greenland to 82° north. 

In 1896, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, of Norway, re¬ 
turned from an Arctic expedition, after an ab¬ 
sence of more than three years. The most 
northerly point reached by him was 86° 14' 
north latitude, or 200 miles nearer the Pole 
than ever reached before. He found no indi¬ 
cations of land north of 82° north latitude, and 
in the higher latitudes no open sea, only narrow 
cracks in the ice. 

In 1906, Lieutenant Peary attained the far¬ 
thest north in the western hemisphere, latitude 
87° 6'. In 1902, he had pushed the advance 
on the American side beyond his own best 
record established in 1901, and sixty miles be¬ 
yond the point reached by Lockwood and 
Brainerd of the Greely expedition in 1882, 
which had stood as the American record for 
nineteen years. He encountered the greatest 
dangers in his efforts to reach the Pole, and 
showed ability and endurance which place him 
high in the rank of explorers. 

In September, 1909, Dr. Frederick A. Cook 
startled the world by his announcement of his 
discovery of the Pole on April 21, 1908, and 
five days later Peary announced that he too, a 
year after Cook, had reached the long sought 
goal. 

The best records of Arctic exploration pre¬ 
vious to the announcements of Cook and Peary 
are as follows: 


Year Explorers North Latitude 

1607. Hudson,. 80° 23' 0" 

1773. Phipps. 80° 48' 0" 

1806. Scoresby,. 81° 12' 42" 

1827. Parry. 82° 50' 0" 

1874. Meyer (on land),. 82° 0' 0" 

1875. Markham and Parr (Nares’ 

expedition),. 83° 20' 26" 

1876. Payer. 83° 07' 0" 

1882. Lockwood (Greely’s party), 83° 24' 0" 

1896. Nansen. 86° 14' 0" 

1900. Abruzzi. 86° 33' 0" 

1906. Peary,. 87° 6' 0" 


Arctic Ocean, or Northern Icy Sea, is 
that part of the ocean which extends from the 
Arctic circle, latitude 66° 30' north, to the North 
Pole; it washes the whole of the northern coasts 
of Europe, Asia, and America, and communi¬ 
cates on the northwest of Europe with the At¬ 
lantic; and on the northeast of Asia with the 
Pacific by Behring Strait. It forms the White 
Sea in Europe, and the gulfs of Kara, Obi, and 
Yenesei, in Siberia; in North America, where 
it takes the name of the “Polar Sea,” it forms 
Baffins’ Bay. During winter ice extends in 
every direction round the Pole, covering a space 
of from 3,000 to 4,000 miles in diameter; and 
even during the four months of summer the 
surface of this sea is at the freezing-point. Ice¬ 
bergs and fields of ice are continually drifting 












GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


515 


south into the Atlantic,— the former sometimes I 
extending to 100 miles in length, and from 
twenty-five to thirty miles in diameter. 

Argentine Republic, formerly called 
the United Provinces of La Plata, is a vast coun¬ 
try of South America; extreme length, 2,300 
miles; average breadth a little over 500 miles. 
It is bounded on the north by Bolivia; on the 
east by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the 
Atlantic; on the south by the Antarctic Ocean; 
and on the west by the Andes. With the excep¬ 
tion of the northwest, where lateral branches 
of the Andes run into the plain for 150 or 200 
miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is 
hilly, the characteristic feature of the country 
is the great monotonous and level plains called 
pampas. In the north, these plains are partly 
forest-covered, but all the central and south 
parts present vast treeless tracts, which afford 
pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and 
sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish 
swamps, in others by salt steppes. European 
grains and fruits, including the vine, have been 
successfully introduced, and are cultivated in 
most parts of the republic; countless herds of 
cattle and horses and flocks of sheep are pas¬ 
tured on the pampas, and multiply there very 
rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, 
and iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, 
and bitumen, are found in the mountainous 
districts of the northwest, while petroleum 
wells have been discovered on the Rio Vermejo; 
but the development of this mineral wealth has 
hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of 
proper means of transport. As a whole, there 
are not extensive forests in the country, except 
in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends 
also into Bolivia), where there is known to be 
60,000 square miles of timber. Thousands of 
square miles are covered with thistles, which 
grow to a great height in their season. Cacti 
also form great thickets. Peach and apple 
trees are abundant in some districts. The 
native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the 
tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, arma- 
dilos, the rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, 
etc. The climate is agreeable and healthful, 
97° being about the highest temperature experi¬ 
enced. As a whole, this vast country is very 
thinly inhabited, some parts of it as yet being 
very little known. The native Indians were 
never very numerous, and have given little 
trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of 
them yet in the savage state still inhabit the 
less-known districts, and live by hunting and 
fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said 
to be very fierce, and European travelers have 
been killed by them. The European element is 
strong in the republic, more than half of the 
population being Europeans or of pure European 
descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive 
from Southern Europe, the Italians having 
the preponderance among those of foreign 
birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas 
are the Gauchos, a race of half-breed cattle- 
rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost 
continually on horseback, galloping over the 
plains, collecting their herds and droves, 
taming wild horses, or catching and slaughter¬ 
ing cattle. In such occupations they acquire a 


marvelous dexterity in the use of the lasso and 
bolas. 

Arles ( arl ), a city of France, in the depart¬ 
ment of Bouches du Rhone, about forty-six 
miles northwest of Marseilles. Arles was the 
Arelate of the Romans. It was an important 
town at the time of Caesar’s invasion, about 59 
B. C., and afterwards received a Roman colony, 
of which there are many remains, including a 
magnificent amphitheater, and a palace built 
by the Emperor Constantine, about A. D. 306. 
Arles was the seat of the Merovingian kings in 
the Sixth Century. It now carries on a con¬ 
siderable trade, and has manufactures in silk, 
etc., besides furnishing a market for the products 
of the surrounding country. The population 
of the city is about 25,000. 

Armenia, a country of Western Asia, ex¬ 
tending from the Caucasus on the north to the 
mountains of Kurdistan on the south, and from 
the Euphrates on the west, to near the Caspian 
on the east. It is subdivided among the Turk¬ 
ish pashalics of Erzeroum, Kars, and Van, and 
parts of the Persian province of Azerbijan, and 
the Russian Government of Transcaucasia. 
The native Armenians, estimated at one-seventh 
of the whole population, are distinguished for 
their enterprise in commercial and banking 
transactions. The Armenian Christians mostly 
belong to an ecclesiastical establishment of their 
own, similar in many respects to the Greek 
Church; but many have adhered to the Roman 
Catholic faith. Chief towns, Kars and Erze¬ 
roum. Christian population about 1,000,000, 
with an equal number of Kurds, Turks, Tartars, 
etc. In 1878, after the Russo-Turkish War, 
Russia acquired the districts of Kars and Arda- 
han. The Armenians suffered severely in life 
and property from the invasion of Kurds in 1882, 
and in 1895, such frightful massacres took place 
that the great powers of Europe were moved 
to demand thorough measures of reform from 
the Sultan in the government of Armenia. 
The Sultan temporized and delayed until the 
powers sent armed ships to Constantinople. 

Athens, the capital of Greece, situated on 
a peninsula formed by the rivers Ilissus and 
Cephissus, about four miles from the eastern shore 
of the Gulf of Egina. It is built at the base of 
the hill on which stands the Acropolis, and has 
been greatly improved architecturally of late 
years, since the new kingdom of Greece was es¬ 
tablished. The royal palace, completed in 
1843, is one of its most imposing modern struc¬ 
tures ; the city is the seat of a bishopric of the 
Greek Church; and it has a university, attended 
usually by upwards of 2,500 students. Athens 
is, however, chiefly interesting on account of its 
history, and through its possession of those monu¬ 
ments of antiquity which still attest its former 
greatness. All these are on or close around the 
Acropolis. Chief of these are the remains of 
Pelasgic walls and dwellings; the Propyloea, or 
Gate; the Pinacotheka; Temple of Wingless 
Victory, and, above all, the Parthenon, built by 
Pericles, much destroyed by an explosion in the 
Seventeenth Century. Athens is said to have 
been founded about 1550 B. C. In the time of 
Pericles (460-429 B. C.), it contained 10,000 
houses, with a population estimated at from 




516 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


120,000 to 180,000; and even after its occupa¬ 
tion by the Romans it continued to be a great 
and flourishing city, and one of the chief seats 
of learning, till it was ravaged by the Goths, in 
the Fourth Century, falling ultimately, after 
many changes, into the hands of the Turks, under 
whose influence it remained from A. D. 1456 to 
1832. Of the ancient city, the principal remains 
are the Parthenon, or Temple of Athena, and a 
Temple of Theseus, both built also in the Fifth 
Century before Christ. There are also the re¬ 
mains of a grand temple to Zeus (Jupiter), to the 
southeast of the Acropolis, and a short distance to 
the west is the Areopagus. As the capital of the 
modern kingdom of Greece, the trade of Athens 
has considerably revived, and a railway now 
connects the city with the port of the Piraeus, 
or Porto Leone. Population, 128,735. 

Athos, a mountain on the coast of Mace¬ 
donia, at the extremity of the long peninsula 
which projects into the iEgean Sea, between 
the Gulfs of Contessa and Monte Santo. The 
mountain is now known as “ Monte Santo,” or 
Holy Mountain, from the large number of mon¬ 
asteries, convents, chapels, and other sacred 
spots, belonging to the Greek Church, that are 
scattered over its sides. These foundations are 
traced to the reign of the Emperor Constantine. 
The name “Athos” was, however, properly ap¬ 
plied to the whole mountainous peninsula, which 
is joined to the mainland by a low flat isthmus, 
not more than a mile and a half across, and only 
about fifteen feet above the sea level. When 
Xerxes invaded Greece (480 B. C.) he cut a 
channel across this isthmus, traces of which are 
still visible. 

Atlantic Ocean, one of the five great 
hydrographical divisions of the globe, occupies 
an immense longitudinal valley, and extends 
from the Arctic Circle on the north to the Ant¬ 
arctic Circle on the south; bounded west by the 
coast of America to Cape Horn, and thence by a 
line continued on the same meridian to the Ant¬ 
arctic Circle; and east by the shores of Europe 
and Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and thence 
prolonged on the meridian of Cape Agulhas till 
it meets the Antarctic Circle. Its extreme 
breadth is about 5,000 miles, and its area nearly 
30,000,000 square miles. The North Sea, or Ger¬ 
man Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Irish 
Sea, form portions of the Atlantic; but the Bal¬ 
tic and Mediterranean, which communicate 
with it by narrow channels, are properly con¬ 
sidered separate seas. The chief islands are, in 
Europe, the British Isles and Iceland; in Africa, 
the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands, and 
the archipelago of the Gulf of Guinea; in Amer¬ 
ica, the Antilles, Newfoundland, and the islands 
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The chief affluents 
are, in Europe, the Rhine, Loire, and Tagus; 
in Africa, the Senegal, Niger, and Congo; and 
in America, the St. Lawrence, Mississippi, Ori¬ 
noco, Amazons, and La Plata. The bed of the 
Atlantic Ocean is very unequal in elevation, in 
some places rising in immense sand-banks to 
within a few fathoms of the surface, and in others 
sinking to unfathomable depths. The trade 
winds blow regularly in the intertropical portion 
of the Atlantic; beyond these limits the winds 
are variable. Enormous numbers of fish are 


found in the Atlantic Ocean, and herring and 
cod fishing are important branches of industry 
in Northern Europe and America. Since the 
beginning of the sixteenth century the Atlantic 
has been the chief commercial highway of the 
world. Great progress has been made in its 
navigation, the voyage from New York to 
Southampton being made in about five days. 
In the higher latitudes of the North and South 
Atlantic, navigation is impeded by immense 
icebergs, which are floated from the polar 
regions; and, although these are generally 
melted before reaching the frequented parts of 
the ocean, they have occasionally been met with 
as far south as latitude 40° 45' in the North At¬ 
lantic, and in the vicinity of the Cape of Good 
Hope in the South Atlantic Ocean. 

Australasia, a division of the globe 
usually regarded as comprehending the islands 
of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New 
Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Solomon 
Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Admir¬ 
alty Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, 
besides numerous other islands and island 
groups; area, 3,259,199 square miles, popu¬ 
lation about six millions. It forms one of 
three portions into which some geographers 
have divided Oceania, the other two being 
Malaysia and Polynesia. 

Australia (older name, New Holland), the 
largest island in the world, a sea-girt continent, 
lying between the Indian and Pacific oceans, 
southeast of Asia; greatest length, from west 
to east, 2,400 miles; greatest breadth from 
north to south, 1,700 to 1,900 miles. It is sepa¬ 
rated from New Guinea on the north by Torres 
Strait, from Tasmania on the south by Bass 
Strait. It is divided into two unequal parts by 
the Tropic of Capricorn, and is occupied by 
what are known as the states of the Common¬ 
wealth of Australia. 

The area and the population (exclusive of 
aborigines) of the different states composing 
the Commonwealth of Australia in 1910 were as 
follows: 


States 

Area 

Sq. Mi. 

Pop. 

New South Wales,. 

Victoria,. 

Queensland,.. 

South Australia,. 

Northern Territory. 

Western Australia,. 

Tasmania,. 

310,372 

87,884 

670,500 

380,070 

523,620 

975,920 

26,215 

1,621,677 

1,303,357 

572,654 

412,808 

3,239 

273,543 

186,860 

Total,. 

2,974,581 

4,374,138 


Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, 
Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, Adelaide, 
the capital of South Australia, Perth, the capital 
of Western Australia, and Brisbane, the capital 
of Queensland, are the chief towns. Australia 
is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral 
wealth. Foremost come its rich and extensive 
deposits of gold, which, since the precious 
metal was first discovered, in 1851, have pro¬ 
duced a total of more than $1,350,000,000. 
The greatest quantity has been obtained in 
Victoria, but New South Wales and Queens¬ 
land have also yielded a considerable amount* 
Probably there are rich stores of gold as yet un- 


















GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


517 


discovered. Australia also possesses silver, cop¬ 
er, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, plum- 
ago, etc., in abundance, besides coal (in New 
South Wales) and iron. Various precious stones 
are found, as the garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, 
and even the diamond. Of building stone there 
are granite, limestone, marble, and sandstone. 
The Australian flora presents peculiarities which 
mark it off by itself in a very decided manner. 
Many of its most striking features have an 
unmistakable relation to the general dryness of 
the climate. The trees and bushes have, for 
the most part, a scanty foliage, presenting little 
surface for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves 
well fitted to retain moisture. The Australian 
fauna is almost unique in its character. Its 
great feature is the nearly total absence of all 
the forms of mammalia which abound in the 
rest of the world. 

Austria, or Austria-Hungary, is 

an extensive monarchy in Central Europe, 
inhabited by several distinct nationalities, and 
consisting of two semi-independent countries, 
each with its own parliament and government, 
but with one common sovereign, army, and 
system of diplomacy, and also with a parlia¬ 
ment common to both. Its greatest length 
from east to west is about 860 miles; its greatest 
breadth from north to south, with the exclusion 
of Dalmatia and part of Croatia, is about 400 
miles; bounded south by Turkey, the Adriatic 
Sea, and the kingdom of Italy; west by Switzer¬ 
land, Bavaria, and Saxony; north by Prussia 
and Russian Poland; and east by Russia and 
Rumania. On the shores of the Adriatic, along 
the coasts of Dalmatia, Croatia, Istria, etc., lies 
its only sea frontage. 

None of the European states, with the excep¬ 
tion of Russia, exhibits such a diversity of race 
and language among its population as does 
the Austrian Empire. The Slavs, who amount 
to above 19,000,000 or 40 per cent, of the 
total population, are the chief of the component 
nationalities of the monarchy in point of num¬ 
bers, forming the great mass of the population 
of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Galicia, Dalma¬ 
tia, the kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, and 
Northern Hungary, and half the population of 
Silesia and Bukowina. This preponderance, 
however, is only apparent, as none of the other 
races are split up into so many branches, differ¬ 
ing so greatly from each other in language, relig¬ 
ion, civilization, manners, and customs. These 
branches are the North Slavic Czechs, Mora¬ 
vians, and Slovaks, the Ruthenians and Poles, 
and the South Slavic Slovenians, Croats, Serbs, 
and Bulgarians. The Germans, about 10,570,- 
000 in number, are scattered over the whole 
monarchy, and form almost the sole population 
of the archduchy of Austria, Salzburg, the 
greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost 
the whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, considerable 
portions of Bohemia and Moravia, the whole of 
the west of Silesia, etc.; and they are also 
numerous in Hungary and Transylvania. The 
Magyars or Hungarians (7,440,000 in number, 
or about 16 per cent, of the total population) 
form the great bulk of the inhabitants of the 
kingdom of Hungary and of the east portion of 
Transylvania. To the Italic or Western Ro¬ 


manic stock belong the inhabitants of South 
Tyrol and parts of the coast lands and Dalmatia, 
numbering about 700,000 in all. A considerable 
ortion of the southeast of the empire is occupied 
y members of the Rumanian (or Eastern 
Romanic) stock, who number altogether about 
2,800,000, and form more than half the popu¬ 
lation of Transylvania, besides being spread 
over the southeast parts of Hungary, Bukowina, 
and part of Croatia and Slavonia. The num¬ 
ber of Jews is also very considerable (above 
2,000,000), especially in Galicia, Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Moravia. There are also several 
other races whose numbers are small, such as 
the Gypsies (95,000), who are most numerous in 
Hungary and Transylvania, and the Albanians 
in Dalmatia and neighboring regions. The 
population is thickest in Lower Austria, Bohe¬ 
mia, Silesia, and Moravia; thinnest in Salzburg. 
Generally speaking, it decreases in density from 
west to east. The principal cities are: Vienna, 
the capital; Budapest, Prague, Trieste, Reich- 
enburg, and Fiume. 

Baltic Sea is the great gulf or shut sea 
bordered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, and 
Sweden, communicating with the Kattegat and 
North Sea by the Sound and Great and Little 
Belts. Its length is from 850 to 900 miles, width 
from 100 to 200, and area, including Gulfs of 
Bothnia and Finland, 160,000 square miles. Its 
depth is, on an average, fifteen to twenty fath¬ 
oms, in many places not half so much, seldom 
more than forty or fifty, and never exceeding 
420. 

Baltimore, the seventh city of the United 
States, on the Patapsco river, in Maryland, 
thirty-seven miles northeast of Washington, 
and 100 miles southwest of Philadelphia. It 
was founded in 1729, and has been named the 
“monumental city,” from its fine public monu¬ 
ments. Among its many public buildings is 
the Peabody Institute, endowed by the late 
George Peabody, containing a library, art-gal¬ 
lery, etc., with a dome 115 feet high. The city is 
the seat of Johns Hopkins University. It has 
also a city hall, built of white Maryland marble, 
with a dome 227 feet high. The manufactures 
and commerce of Baltimore are very various. 
In its vicinity is found the finest brick-clay in 
the world; more than 100,000,000 bricks are 
made annually. It has some of the largest iron¬ 
works in the United States. Oysters, taken in 
the Chesapeake Bay, are largely exported. The 
city is also one of the largest flour-markets in the 
United States, and tobacco is a principal export. 
The harbor is very extensive. From east to 
west the city is nearly five miles long, and four 
miles broad from north to south. It was visited 
by a destructive fire in 1904, entailing a loss of 
$90,000,000. Population, 558,485. 

Bangkok, the capital city of Siam, situated 
on both banks of the Menam, about twenty 
miles from its mouth. The population is about 
600,000, nearly half of whom are Chinese. 
The foreign trade of Siam centers in Bangkok, 
and is mainly in the hands of the Europeans and 
Chinese. The approach to Bangkok by the 
Menam, which can be navigated by ships of 350 
tons burden (large sea-going ships anchor at 
Paknam, below the bar at the mouth of the 




518 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


river), is exceedingly beautiful. The internal 
traffic of Bangkok is chiefly carried on by means 
of canals, there being only a few passable streets 
in the whole city, though in recent years steel 
bridges, tramways and electric lights have been 
introduced. Horses and carriages are rarely 
seen, except in the neighborhood of the palaces. 
The native houses on land — of bamboo or 
other wood, like the floating houses — are 
raised upon piles, six or eight feet from the 
ground, and are reached by ladders. The cir¬ 
cumference of the walls of Bangkok, which are 
fifteen to thirty feet high, and twelve broad, is 
about six miles. 

Barcelona is the most important manu¬ 
facturing city in Spain. The streets of the old 
town, forming the northwest division, are 
crooked, narrow, and ill-paved. Those of the 
new are much more spacious and regular. There 
is a large suburb east of the town where the sea¬ 
faring portion of the population chiefly reside. 
It possesses the finest theater in Spain, and 
numerous ancient and elegant churches, with 
a cathedral which was begun in 1298. Barcelona 
manufactures silk, woolens, cottons, lace, hats, 
fire-arms, etc., which form its principal exports. 
It imports raw cotton, coffee, cocoa, sugar, and 
other colonial produce; also Baltic timber, salt- 
fish, hides, iron, wax, etc. The University 
of Barcelona has about 2,000 students. Popu¬ 
lation, 533,090. 

Bastille, formerly a general name for a 
fortress, or prison, in France; but applied more 
particularly to an old castle, originally the castle 
of Paris, which was built between A. D. 1369 and 
1383, and was used as a state prison i n the 
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. It was 
demolished by the enraged populace at the 
breaking-out of the French Revolution, July 15, 
1789. 

Belfast, a city and seaport of Ireland, 
principal town of Ulster, and county town of 
Antrim, is built on low, alluvial land on the left 
bank of the Lagan, at the head of Belfast Lough. 
Previous to about 1830 the cotton manufacture 
was the leading industry of Belfast, but nearly 
all the mills have been converted to flax spinning. 
The iron ship-building trade is also of impor¬ 
tance, and there are breweries, distilleries, flour 
mills, oil mills, foundries, print works, tan yards, 
chemical works, rope works, etc. The commerce 
is large. An extensive direct trade is carried on 
with British North America, the Mediterranean, 
France, Belgium, Holland, and the Baltic, be¬ 
sides ports of the British Islands. Belfast is 
comparatively a modern town. Population, 
385,492. 

Belgium, a kingdom of Europe, bounded 
north by Holland, northwest by the North Sea, 
west and south by France, and east by the 
duchy of Luxemburg, Rhenish Prussia, and 
Dutch Limburg; greatest length, 165 miles; 
greatest breadth, 120 miles. For administra¬ 
tive purposes it is divided into nine provinces 
— Antwerp, Brabant, East Flanders, West 
Flanders, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg, 
and Namur. The greater part of the country 
is only fairly adapted for agricultural opera¬ 
tions, but the inhabitants have so happily 
availed themselves of their natural advantages 


that they early began, and in some respects still 
deserve, to be regarded as the model farmers of 
Europe. The mineral riches of Belgium are 
great, and, after agriculture, form the most 
important of her national interests. They a-e 
almost entirely confined to the four provinces of 
Hainaut, Liege, Namur, and Luxemburg, and 
consist of lead, manganese, calamine or zinc, iron, 
and coal. All these minerals, however, are 
insignificant compared with those of iron and 
coal. The coal field has an area of above 
500 square miles. The export is about 5,000,- 
000 tons, forming one of the largest and most 
valuable of all the Belgium exports. Nearly 
the whole of the coal thus exported is taken by 
France. The industrial products of Belgium 
are very numerous, and the superiority of many 
of them to those of most other countries is con¬ 
fessed. The fine linens of Flanders, and lace of 
Brabant are of European reputation. Scarcely 
less celebrated are the carpets and porcelain 
of Tournay, the cloth of Verviers, the exten¬ 
sive foundries, machine works, and other iron 
and steel establishments of Liege, Seraing, 
and other places. The cotton and woolen man¬ 
ufactures, confined chiefly to Flanders and the 
province of Antwerp, have advanced greatly. 
Other manufactures include silks, beet sugar, 
beer. Principal cities: Brussels, Antwerp, 
Liege, Ghent, and Bruges. 

Bering Strait, the channel which sepa¬ 
rates Asia and America at their nearest approach 
to each other, and connects the Arctic with the 
Pacific Ocean (Bering Sea). It is thirty-six 
miles across. Shores are rocky, bare, and greatly 
indented. It was traversed in 1728, by Vitus 
Bering, a Russian navigator, who perished 
during a second expedition, 1741, on Bering’s 
Island, for whom it was named. 

Berlin, the capital of Prussia, and seat of 
the imperial government of Germany, one of 
the finest and most important cities of Europe, 
is situated on the Spree. Notwithstanding the 
natural disadvantages of its situation, the ad¬ 
vance of the city, especially in late years, has 
been extraordinary. The center of the city is 
now devoted almost exclusively to commerce, 
and round this part, extending considerably be¬ 
yond the city boundaries, are congregated the 
residences of the citizens. Berlin possesses a 
large number of very fine buildings. Of these 
may be mentioned the royal palace, the em¬ 
peror’s palace, and that of the crown prince; 
the royal library, which contains about 1,200,- 
000 volumes and 15,000 MSS.; the museums, 
the arsenal, and the guard-house. The Berlin 
Museum, of Fine Arts is rapidly becoming one 
of great importance. Its collection of casts 
from the antique and the renaissance is not 
surpassed by any in Europe. The city is adorned 
throughout with numerous statues of military 
heroes, the equestrian statue of Frederick the 
Great, by Rauch, being the most remarkable. 
The university established in 1810 possesses a 
very high reputation. Population, 2,101,933. 

Birmingham, the chief town in Britain 
for metallic manufactures, and supplying much 
of the world with hardwares, stands near the 
center of England, in the northwest of War¬ 
wickshire. It is one of the best drained towns 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 519 


in England, while the means which have been 
adopted for the prevention of smoke-contami¬ 
nation of the atmosphere are so far effectual 
that the air is unusually clear and salubrious. 
The older part of Birmingham is crowded with 
workshops and warehouses; but the modern is 
well built and possesses some architectural 
beauty. Its commercial importance dates from 
the Seventeenth Century, when the restoration 
of Charles II. brought from France a rage for 
metal ornaments, which Birmingham supplied. 
Population, 776,000. 

Bombay City occupies the entire breadth 
of the southern end of the island of Bombay, 
bordering at once on the harbor inside and on 
Back Bay outside. Parsees or Persians, de¬ 
scendants of fire-worshipers, driven from their 
homes by Mohammedan bigotry, rank next to 
the English in progressiveness and influence. 
Besides the dock-yard, which covers 200 acres, 
at the southeast of the European town, the 
objects most worthy of note are the townhall, 
the library of the Asiatic Society, the mint, 
cathedral, and custom-house; the post-office 
and public works office; the Rajabai Tower, 
the Elphinstone College, the Grant Medical 
College, the university, the Sassoon High 
School, the Secretariat, the High Court, St. 
George’s Hospital and Victoria Terminus. 
Population in 1901, 776,006. 

Boston, capital of the State of Massachu¬ 
setts; the commercial metropolis of New Eng¬ 
land; and the fifth city in population in the 
United States, during the last two decades, 
is built at the west end of Massachusetts Bay, 
and comprises Boston proper, East Boston, 
South Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Charles¬ 
town, Brighton, West Roxbury, and adjoining 
territory, giving it in 1900, an area of forty- 
three square miles. Old Boston, or Boston 
proper, occupied a peninsula of about 700 
acres, of uneven surface, and originally contain¬ 
ing three hills, known as Beacon, Copp, and 
Fort. These hills caused the early settlers to call 
the place Trimountain, since changed to Tre- 
mont. Boston, East Boston, Charlestown, and 
South Boston contain the slips of the ocean 
steamers. Extending about two miles along 
the harbor, and separated from Boston proper 
by an arm of it, is South Boston, containing 
large railroad docks and warehouses. Several 
bridges across Charles River connect the city 
with Charlestown and Cambridge. The harbor 
is an indentation of Massachusetts Bay, em¬ 
bracing about seventy-five square miles, with 
numerous arms, and containing many islands 
presenting picturesque views. Boston is es¬ 
pecially noted for its magnificent park system. 
Among the attractions of the system are the 
Common, a park of eighty-four acres in the 
heart of the city; the Public Garden, separated 
from it by Charles Street, and comprising twen¬ 
ty-two acres; the Back Bay Fens; the Jamaica 
Pond, Bussey Park, the Arnold Arboretum; 
Marine Park at City Point; and the Charles 
River Embankment. In the Common is a 
Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument, erected near 
the site of the famous Old Elm, which was 
destroyed in a gale in 1876. In the Public 
Garden are an equestrian statue of Washington, 


a bronze statue of Edward Everett, a statue 
of Charles Sumner, one representing “Venus 
Rising from the Sea,” and a monument com¬ 
memorating the discovery of ether as an anaes¬ 
thetic. The State House stands on Beacon 
Hill, and is a structure 490 feet long and 211 
feet wide, with a colonnade in front and an 
imposing gilded dome. Statues of Daniel Web¬ 
ster and Horace Mann ornament the terrace in 
front of the building, and within it are statues 
and busts of a number of the eminent men of 
Boston and Massachusetts, a collection of battle 
flags, and a variety of interesting historical arti¬ 
cles. The new building of the Public Library, 
which was occupied in 1895, is, next to the 
Library of Congress, the largest one in the 
country. The Old State-house, erected in 1748, 
at the head of State Street, contains an histori¬ 
cal museum in its upper floors, and business 
establishments in its lower. The City Hall, 
one of the most striking buildings of the city, 
on School Street, is built of white Concord 
granite in the Italian Renaissance style, and is 
surmounted by a dome over 100 feet high. 
What is considered the most interesting build¬ 
ing, historically, in the United States, next to 
Independence Hall in Philadelphia, is Faneuil 
Hall, known as “The Cradle of Liberty,” erected 
in 1742, destroyed by fire in 1761, rebuilt in 
1768, and remodeled to its present size in 1805. 
The basement of the building is now used as a 
market, and the second floor for large public 
gatherings. Occupying the site of the Old Re¬ 
doubt on Breed’s Hill, in the Charlestown dis¬ 
trict, is the famous Bunker Hill monument. 
In the Charlestown district also is located the 
United States Navy Yard, which, among other 
objects of interest, contains the largest rope 
walk in the country, and an immense dry dock. 
Boston is widely noted for the number and high 
character of its educational institutions. The 
institutions for higher education include Boston 
College, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
Boston Normal School, Massachusetts Normal 
Art School, Kindergarten Training School, and 
Training Schools for Nurses. Among the chief 
hospitals are: City Hospital, Children’s Hospital, 
Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts 
Homoeopathic Hospital, New England Baptist 
Hospital, New England Deaconesses’s Home 
and Hospital, New England Hospital for Women 
and Children, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Somer¬ 
ville Hospital, and Women’s Charity Club Hos¬ 
pital. Boston was settled in 1630 by a party 
of Puritans from Salem. It was named after a 
town in Lincolnshire, England, from which most 
of the colonists had come. In 1632 the first 
meeting house wg,s erected, and in 1635, a public 
school was built. In the same year, the first 
grand jury in the country met here. A mem¬ 
orable massacre occurred here in 1770, and in 
1773, several cargoes of English tea were thrown 
overboard in the harbor, by citizens exasperated 
by the imposition of taxes. During the early 
part of the Revolution the British were quar¬ 
tered in the town. The battle of Bunker Hill 
was fought on Breed’s Hill, within the present 
city limits, June 17, 1775. Washington forced 
the British to evacuate in 1776. The city char¬ 
ter was granted in 1822, and, in 1872, a great 



520 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


fire broke out in the business portion of the city 
and destroyed about sixty-five acres of build¬ 
ings. This part of the city was soon rebuilt, 
and, since then, Boston has been one of the most 

E rosperous cities in the United States. Popu- 
ition, 670,585. 

Brazil ( brd-zll '), republic of South Amer¬ 
ica, lying to the northeast of that continent, 
and bounded north and east by the Atlantic 
Ocean. It constitutes nearly one-half of South 
America, and occupies an area nearly equal 
to the whole of Europe. It is remarkable for 
its rivers and its forests, the former being un¬ 
surpassed both in number and in size in any 
other part of the globe, and the latter being of 
vast extent, some of them covering many thou¬ 
sands of miles of surface. Towards the coast 
line, and near the banks of the rivers, the land 
is low, but in the interior it rises, by gentle 
gradations, to the height of from two to three 
thousand feet above the level of the sea, and is 
crossed by hill ranges, which rise to a consider¬ 
ably greater elevation. In these regions, Euro¬ 
pean fruits and grains are produced in large 
quantities, while the intermediate valleys are 
found extremely favorable for the raising of 
sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, india rubber, and 
tropical plants. The forests abound in the 
greatest variety of useful and beautiful woods, 
as mahogany, logwood, rosewood, and brazil 
wood. Minerals are exceedingly abundant, 
comprising gold, silver, iron, and topazes, and 
most of the diamonds of commerce come from 
Brazil. These, with hides, agricultural produce, 
and the other products above mentioned, are 
the chief exports. The population of Brazil is 
about 21,500,000, of whom about 2,000,000 are 
negroes, 1,250,000 native Indians, and the 
remainder descendants of the Portuguese, 
or of mixed races. Slavery formerly prevailed 
largely in Brazil, but in 1871, a law was passed 
for its gradual abolition. Its greatest river is 
the Amazon, and the chief cities are Rio de 
Janeiro, Bahia, and Pernambuco. 

British Museum, the great national 
museum in London, owes its foundation to Sir 
Hans Sloane, who, in 1753, bequeathed his 
various collections, including 50,000 books and 
manuscripts, to the nation, on the condition of 
$100,000 being paid to his heirs. This offer was 
agreed to by parliament. The British Museum 
is under the management of forty-eight trustees, 
among the chief being the archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury, the lord-chancellor, and the speaker of 
the House of Commons. In all, the staff of the 
institution numbers over 320 persons. The mu¬ 
seum is open daily, free of charge. Admission 
to the reading-room as a regular reader is by 
ticket, procurable on application to the chief 
librarian, there being certain simple conditions 
attached. The institution contains something 
like 2,000,000 volumes in the department of 
printed books. A copy of every book, pamph¬ 
let, newspaper, piece of music, etc., registered 
at Stationers’ Hall, London, must be conveyed, 
free of charge, to the British Museum. 

Brussels, the capital of the kingdom of 
Belgium, and of the province of Brabant in 
that kingdom. It i§r a large and important 
city, often described as a miniature Paris. It 


is built partly on the slope of a hill, and partly 
on the plain at the foot. The upper town, on 
the hillside, is the newer and the more fashion¬ 
able, and there the royal palace and the man¬ 
sions of the foreign ministers are situated. The 
lower town is less healthful, but it contains 
most of the older buildings, and many churches 
and public edifices of architectural and historical 
interest. The town has extensive suburbs, and 
squares and promenades of great beauty and 
elegance. Its Church of St. Gudule dates from 
the Twelfth Century; and the Palace of Fine 
Arts, which was formerly the residence of the 
governors of Brabant, includes a picture gallery 
which contains many fine specimens of the 
Flemish school of painting, and a library with 
240,000 volumes, and upwards of 20,000 manu¬ 
scripts. There is also an observatory, one of 
the finest in Europe, and the imposing Palace 
of Justice. In the great market place is the 
Hotel de Ville, a splendid Gothic edifice of the 
Fourteenth Century, with a lofty turret, sur¬ 
mounted by a huge figure of St. Michael, in 
copper. Brussels is remarkable for its statues 
and fountains. Its most important manufac¬ 
tures are lace and carpets. Ten miles to the 
south of the city is the Field of Waterloo, and 
a few miles beyond lie Quatre Bras and Ligny. 
Population, including suburbs, 612,401. 

Budapest ( bod'-dd-pest ), a city of the 
Austro-Hungarian Empire, the capital of Hun¬ 
gary since 1873. It is situated on both sides 
of the River Danube, 130 miles southeast of 
Vienna. Buda, on the west side of the Danube, 
is built at the extremity of a spur from the 
Bakony forest range. It is an old-fashioned 
place, and carries on a considerable trade, 
chiefly in wines. A fine suspension bridge con¬ 
nects it with Pest, one of the handsomest cities 
in Austria. Pest is the seat of a university, 
and has manufactures of silk, woolen, leather, 
tobacco, and meerschaum pipes. Four great 
fairs are held in the city annually. The Diet 
assembles in a handsome building, and new 
boulevards and squares have been recently 
formed. During the Hungarian wars of the 
Nineteenth Century, Buda played a distinguished 
part. In January, 1849, the fortress was seized 
by the Austrian General Windischgratz; but in 
the following May it was taken by storm by the 
Hungarians under Gorgey. On their departure, 
the Russians took possession, but shortly after¬ 
wards handed the place over to the forces of 
the Austrians. Population, 732,322. 

Buenos Ayres, the capital of Argentine 
Republic, South America, stands on the west 
bank of the estuary of the Plata, about 150 
miles from the open sea. It is compactly and 
substantially built, having been greatly im¬ 
proved since its independence. It has a large 
number of public and private buildings that 
would honor any city, notably the cathedral, 
the provincial bank, the post office, the national 
penitentiary, several of the theaters, etc. Four 
lines of railroads connect it with the interior. 
Telegraphic cables extend to Montevideo, the 
Brazilian ports, and Europe, and overland wires 
cross the Andes to Chile, and so connect with 
the northern hemisphere by the Pacific coast 
lines. Buenos Ayres has a university, a national 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


521 


college, a normal school for ladies, with numer¬ 
ous other literary and scientific institutions, a 
museum of natural history, a public library, and 
a score of newspapers. Population, 1,034,781. 

Buffalo, a city of New York, county seat of 
Erie County, is at the east end of Lake Erie, 
and at the head of Niagara River, and 410 miles 
by shortest railroad line northwest of New York. 
It has a capacious harbor, protected by an 
outer breakwater, besides other breakwaters, 
piers, basins, and canals. The city is guarded 
by Fort Porter, which stands on a bluff over¬ 
looking the river. The International iron rail¬ 
way bridge spans Niagara River at Black Rock. 
The commercial importance of Buffalo dates 
from the completion of the Erie Canal, in 1825. 
The chief marine business is the receiving, 
storing, and transferring of grain. The live¬ 
stock trade is enormous, and the lumber trade 
(including the suburb of Tonawanda) is the 
largest in the world. Manufactories are numer¬ 
ous, embracing extensive machine shops, auto¬ 
mobile shops, car shops, stove foundries, brew¬ 
eries, flour mills, printing and lithographic es¬ 
tablishments, etc. Sixteen railroads enter the 
city, with over 660 miles of trackage in the 
city limits — more than in any other city in 
the world. Buffalo has wide streets, well paved 
and lighted, and generally lined with shade 
trees. Natural gas, piped from Pennsylvania 
and Canada, is much used. It has excellent 
sewerage, and extensive water-works, the sup¬ 
ply coming from Niagara River. Its healthful¬ 
ness is attested by a low death rate. A mag¬ 
nificent park system consists of three sections 
connected by boulevards which encircle the 
city. There are churches of all denominations, 
numerous public schools, high schools, and a 
State Normal School; various hospitals, dis¬ 
pensaries, orphan asylums, and the State Hos¬ 
pital for the Insane. Buffalo was founded in 
1801, by the Holland Land Company. It was 
burned in 1813, by the British and the Indians. 
It was incorporated as a city in 1832. Popu¬ 
lation in 1910, 423,715. 

Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, and 
the largest town in Africa, situated on the 
eastern bank of the Nile, twelve miles above 
the apex of the Delta. On the opposite bank 
of the river is the small town of Ghizeh, in the 
neighborhood of which are the three largest of 
the Egyptian pyramids. To the south of the 
city is the site of the ancient city of Memphis. 
It is the official residence of the Khedive. Its 
inhabitants are Turks, Arabs, Copts, Jews, 
Armenians, Syrians, etc., the ruling class being 
almost all Turks. Population, 570,062. 

Calcutta, the metropolis of British India, 
and chief commercial center of Asia, was founded 
by Governor Charnock in the year 1686. In 
1707, it had acquired some importance as a town, 
and was made the seat of a presidency. In 1756, 
however, a great misfortune befell the rising 
town; it was unexpectedly attacked by Surajah 
Dowlah, the nawab of Bengal, and, being aban¬ 
doned by a number of those whose duty it was 
to defend the place, it was compelled to yield 
after undergoing a two days’ siege. Only 146 
men, however, fell into the enemy’s hands; 
but these were treated with the most heart¬ 


less cruelty. Cast at night into a confined cell, 
twenty feet square—the notorious “Black Hole” 
—they endured the most unheard-of sufferings, 
and in the morning it was found that only twenty- 
three out of 146 had survived the horrors of 
that night. The city remained in the hands 
of the enemy until eight months afterward, 
when Clive arrived from England. In con¬ 
junction with Admiral Watson, Clive succeeded 
in recapturing Calcutta, and afterward concluded 
a peace with the nawab. During the last cen¬ 
tury the city has grown greatly in importance, 
and in its public institutions and architecture it 
now rivals the leading capitals of Europe. It is 
the seat of numerous learned societies. Calcutta 
became the capital and general seat of govern¬ 
ment of British India in 1773. In 1911 the 
capital was removed to Delhi. Population, 
1,321,664. 

Campanile ( ktim-pd-ne'le ), a tower for 
the reception of bells, principally used for church 
purposes, but now sometimes for domestic 
edifices. The most remarkable of the campaniles 
is that at Pisa, commonly called the “ Leaning 
Tower.” It is cylindrical in form, and surrounded 
by eight stories of columns, placed over one an¬ 
other, each having its entablature. The height is 
about 150 feet to the platform, whence a plumb- 
line lowered falls on the leaning side nearly 
thirteen feet outside the base of the building. 

The campanile of St. Mark, dominating all 
the surrounding buildings of St. Mark’s Square, 
Venice, was the most conspicuous landmark of 
the city for over 1,000 years. The tower was 
325 feet high and forty-two feet square at the 
base. On the morning of July 14, 1902, it fell 
with a great crash into the square. The 
church of St. Mark and the palace of the Doges 
were not hurt, but the campanile in falling car¬ 
ried away the Sansovino Loggetta and the library 
of the Royal Palace. It has since been splen¬ 
didly rebuilt. 

Canada, Dominion of. The Dominion 
of Canada includes the various Provinces of 
North America formerly known as Upper and 
Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec re¬ 
spectively), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, 
Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, and 
the territories of the Hudson Bay Company, 
now styled Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, 
the Northwest Territories, and the Yukon 
Territories; in fact, the whole of British North 
America except Newfoundland and Labrador. 
This territory, nearly as large as Europe, stretches 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and is 
estimated to contain a total area of 3,744,695 
square miles, and a population of 7,081,869. 
From a physical point of view the whole region 
may be divided into an eastern and a western 
division, the Red River Valley forming the 
separating line. The eastern division com¬ 
prises three areas, presenting radically distinct 
aspects: — (1) The southeastern area, bounded 
by the line of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence, 
from Belle Isle to Quebec, thence by a line run¬ 
ning directly south to Lake Champlain, which 
is generally hilly, and sometimes mountainous, 
with many fine stretches of agricultural and 
pastoral lands. (2) The southern and western 
area, presenting, in the main, a broad, level, 



522 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and slightly undulating expanse of generally 
fertile country, with occasional step-like ridges 
or rocky escarpments. The main hydrographi¬ 
cal feature is the chain of lakes, with an area of 
150,000 square miles, contributing to the great 
river system of the St. Lawrence. (3) The 
northern area, embracing nearly two-thirds of 
the Dominion, with an average elevation of 1,000 
feet above the level of the sea, preeminently a 
region of waterways, and including the great 
Laurentian mountain range. In this area are 
found the other great river systems, the Nelson 
and the Mackenzie. From the western edge of 
the Prairie to the Pacific coast is a distance of 
400 miles, and within this area are contained the 
Rocky Mountains and the Gold and Cascade 
Ranges, whose summits are from 4,000 to 16,000 
feet high, the country being on the whole densely 
wooded. The climate in the eastern and cen¬ 
tral portions of the Dominion presents greater 
extremes of cold and heat than in corresponding 
latitudes in Europe, but in the southwestern 
portion of the Prairie Region and the southern 
ortions of the Pacific slope the climate is milder, 
pring, summer, and autumn are of about seven 
to eight months’ duration, and the winter four 
to five months. The country possesses great 
mineral wealth, and coal, gold, silver, copper, 
nickel, lead, petroleum, and asbestos are pro¬ 
duced, while iron, phosphates, salt, graphite, etc., 
occur; the total value of the minerals produced 
in 1909 was more than $90,000,000. The soil 
is generally fertile; all the products of the tem¬ 
perate zone are cultivated. In 1881 there were 
thirty-five cities and towns of 5,000 inhabitants 
and up wards, having a total population of 660,040; 
in 1901 there were sixty-two such cities and 
towns, and their total population was about 1,330,- 
000. Montreal has a population of 466,197 
and Toronto, the capital of Ontario, has 376,240 
inhabitants. Ottawa had, in 1911, 86,340 in¬ 
habitants; Winnipeg, in Manitoba, 135,430; Que¬ 
bec, 78,067; Vancouver, in British Columbia, 
over 100,000; and the city of Dawson, the 
‘‘business center” of the Klondike gold region, 
which was a barren waste in 1897, had, in 1901, 
a population of 9,142. In facilities for com¬ 
munication, Canada is unrivaled. The St. 
Lawrence, with its lakes, puts a great part of it 
in connection at once with the most commercial 
portion of the United States and with the open 
ocean. The navigation of this great w T ater- 
system has been greatly assisted by numerous 
and extensive canals, of which the Cornwall, 
Rideau, and the Welland are the most impor¬ 
tant. There is, besides, an immense and steadily 
increasing network of railroads embracing 
several trans-continental lines. The Victoria 
Bridge, by which the Grand Trunk crosses the 
St. Lawrence at Montreal, is one of the wonders 
of the world. The completion of the Canadian 
Pacific Railroad, in 1885, gave railroad com¬ 
munication between or westward from Montreal, 
its eastern terminus, to Vancouver, in British 
Columbia, a distance of 2,893 miles, or from 
Quebec, a distance of 3,078 miles. 

Canossa ( ka-nos ' sa ), a town northwest of 
Bologna, in the courtyard of the castle of which 
the Emperor Henry IV. stood three days in the 
cold, in January, 1077, bareheaded and bare¬ 


footed, waiting for Pope Gregory VII. to remove 
from him the sentence of excommunication. 

Canton, a large commercial city and port 
in the south of China, and capital of the mari¬ 
time province of Kwang-tung, forms an irregular 
square, and is divided by a wall into the North 
and South, or Old and New City. The former 
is inhabited by the Tartar population, the latter 
by Chinese; and between the two communica¬ 
tion is maintained by four gates in the separating 
wall. Many of the streets are devoted to dis¬ 
tinct trades; thus there is “Carpenter” Street, 
“Apothecary” Street, etc. The Joss-houses, 
Buddhist Temples, are said to be about 124 in 
number. The largest of these, on Honam Is¬ 
land, covers seven acres, and has 175 priests 
attached. It is called “Hae Chwang Sze,” or 
“The Temple of the Ocean Banner.” Another 
famous structure is “The Temple of the Five 
Hundred Gods,” situated in the western suburbs. 
Until 1843 all the legitimate foreign trade of 
China centered at Canton, and its amount at one 
time exceeded $100,000,000 annually; but 
since other ports in China have been opened 
to foreigners this amount has decreased by 
nearly one half. Tea and silks are the staple 
articles of export to Europe, etc., after which 
come the precious metals, cassia, sugar, and 
many minor articles; population, 1,250,000. 

Cape of Good Hope, a British province 
formerly Cape Colony, lies at the southern 
extremity of Africa, and is washed on the west, 
south and east by the ocean. The colony 
extends about 450 miles from north to south and 
600 miles from east to west; the coast line is 
about 1300 miles. The area is 276,995 square 
miles; the population in 1911 was 2,563,024. 

The climate is temperate, dry, and salubrious. 
The province is better adapted for pasturage 
than for agriculture. Many kinds of vegetables 
and most fruits of temperate climates thrive 
excellently. The grapes are among the finest in 
the world while the fruit is produced in almost 
unrivaled abundance. Some excellent wines are 
made. The principal cereal crops are wheat, 
oats, barley, rye, mealies, and Kaffir corn. 
Sheep rearing is one of the chief industries. 
Cattle breeding is carried on to some extent, 
especially along the coasts and in the east and 
north districts. Manufactures are few. The 
mineral wealth of the country is very great, the 
most valuable of the minerals being the diamond. 
The chief exports are diamonds, gold, wool, cop¬ 
per ore, ostrich feathers, mohair, hides and skins. 

The European inhabitants consist in part of 
English, Scotch and Irish settlers and their 
descendants; the majority are of Dutch origin, 
while there are also many of German origin. The 
colored people are chiefly Hottentots, Kaffirs, 
Bechuanas, Basutos, Griquas, Malays, and a 
mixed race, the offspring of black women and 
white fathers. 

The Dutch, who had early fixed upon the 
Cape as a watering place for their ships, first 
colonized it under Van Riebeek in 1652. It was 
captured by the British in 1795, restored at the 
peace of Amiens, 1802, and again taken in 1806. 
From this time it has remained in the possession 
of Great Britain, to whom it was formally 
assigned in 1815, along with Dutch Guiana. 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


523 


Subsequently the area of the colony was gradu¬ 
ally enlarged by the annexation of the surround¬ 
ing districts. The constitution which was 
formed under the acts passed in the years 1853, 
1865 and 1872, by which the .colony enjoyed 
self-government, was annulled by the South 
Africa act of 1909, and in 1910 the colony 
became an original province of the Union of 
South Africa. 

Capitol (Lat. Capitolium), the great temple 
dedicated to Jupiter on the Tarpeian or Capito- 
line Hill at Rome. It is said to have been called 
the Capitolium, because a human head {caput) 
was found in digging the foundations. It was 
commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and fin¬ 
ished by Tarquinius Superbus, 507 B. C.; but 
it was three times burnt down, and, after its 
third destruction in the reign of Titus, it was 
again rebuilt by Domitian. The capitol in¬ 
cluded not only a temple to Jupiter, but one to 
each of his attendant deities, Juno and Minerva. 
It was one of the most imposing buildings in 
Rome. The consuls, on entering upon their 
office, offered sacrifices and took their vows in 
the capitol; and it was to the capitol that the vic¬ 
torious general on his return to the city, was car¬ 
ried, in his triumphal car, to return thanks for his 
victories. From that portion of the hill called the 
Tarpeian Rock, state criminals were thrown down. 
The modern building on the site, and partly on 
the foundations, of the ancient capitol, was 
erected from the designs of Michael Angelo. 

Capri ( kd'-pre .) (Anc. Caprcee.) A beauti¬ 
ful island in the Mediterranean, lying near the 
south entrance to the Neapolitan Gulf, about 
twenty miles from the city of Naples. It pro¬ 
duces a good light wine. The island is covered 
with remains of antiquity, including the ruins 
of the villa of Tiberius, the Roman Emperor. 

Caracas, the capital of the Republic of 
Venezuela, in South America. It stands a few 
miles from the northern coast of Venezuela, at an 
elevation of nearly 3,000 feet above the sea. Its 
climate is healthy, but earthquakes are frequent 
in the vicinity. In 1812, nearly the whole of 
the city was destroyed by an earthquake, and 
12,000 persons are said to have perished. The 
population of the city is about 90,000. 

Carisbrooke, a village in the Isle of Wight, 
about one mile south of Newport, and celebrated 
for its castle, which dates originally from the 
Sixth Century. In this castle (now in ruins) 
Charles I. was confined, and, after his execution, 
his two youngest children were also confined in 
the castle, and the Princess Elizabeth died there. 
The population of the parish is about 8,000. 

Carlsbad ( karlz'b&d .) [Ger., “Charles’s 
Bath.”] A town and fashionable spa of the 
Austrian empire, province Bohemia, one hundred 
sixteen miles west-northwest of Prague. It is 
finely built and romantically situated; its 
principal spring, the Sprudel, is the hottest in 
Europe, having a temperature of 165° Fahren¬ 
heit. Population, 16,000. 

Carmel, Mount, a mountain ridge of 
Palestine, which runs out into the Mediterra¬ 
nean, to the south of the Bay of Acre. Its name 
means, “The Garden of God.” On the summit 
of the ridge are oaks and pines, and, lower down 
laurels and olives. Near the top there is a 


monastery called Elias , after the prophet Elijah, 
the monks of which bear the name of Carmelites. 
The order was probably founded in the Twelfth 
Century, but legend ascribes its foundation to 
Elijah, and the Virgin Mary is said to have been 
a Carmelite nun. One of the distinctions of the 
order is that they walk bare-footed. 

Caspian Sea, a great inland sea or lake, 
the largest in the world, forming a portion of 
the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is 
730 miles long by from 150 to 270 miles broad. 
The surface of the Caspian is ninety-seven feet 
lower than the level of the Black Sea, which lies 
to the west, while the Sea of Aral, which lies to 
the east, is about forty feet above sea-level. 
Hence it is believed that at no distant period 
the Sea of Aral, the Caspian, and the Black Sea, 
formed one mass of water, which covered the 
intervening land. The water of the Caspian is 
salt, though less so than that of the ocean. 
The depth of its central portion is nearly 3,000 
feet, but it is shallow round the shores. The 
Caspian has no tides, but its navigation is peril¬ 
ous because of violent storms. The Volga, the 
Ural, and many other rivers, fall into the Cas¬ 
pian; and by a canal, which unites the head 
waters of the Volga with the rivers Tvertza and 
Schlina, the Caspian is connected with the Baltic. 
The shallow northern basin, however, is frozen 
over during the entire winter. The sea abounds 
in fish, and seals and tortoises are found on its 
upper coasts. Its area is 170,000 square miles, 
or 20,000 square miles more than that of the 
British Isles. It was known to the Greeks and 
Romans under its present name ( Caspium Mare), 
which was given to it from the Caspii, a people 
who inhabited its western shores. 

Castile ( kds-tel'), a central district of Spain, 
divided by the mountains of Castile into Old 
Castile in the north, and New Castile in the 
south: the former consisting of a high bare 
plateau, bounded by mountains on the north, 
and on the south, with a variable climate, yields 
wheat and good pasturage, and is rich in min¬ 
erals ; the latter, also table-land, has a richer 
soil, and yields richer produce, breeds horses 
and cattle, and contains besides the quicksilver 
mines of Almaden. Both were at one time oc¬ 
cupied by the Moors. They were created into a 
kingdom in the Eleventh Century, and united 
to the crown of Spain in 1469 by the marriage 
of Ferdinand and Isabella. 

Caucasus (The) {kd'-kh-sus), a great 
mountain range, stretching between the Caspian 
and the Black Seas, separating the two Russian 
provinces of Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia, 
and forming part of the boundary between Eu¬ 
rope and Asia. It has a continuous extent of 
about 700 miles, throwing off spurs, or lateral 
ridges, towards both Russia and Turkey in Asia. 
Its highest elevation is estimated at 18,500 feet, 
and its snow-limit at 11,000 feet. The Caucasus 
is generally remarkable for the picturesqueness 
of its scenery, and the wild independence of the 
tribes dwelling among its gorges. 

Cenis (sZ-ne'), a mountain belonging to the 
Graian Alps, between Savoy and Piedmont, 
11,755 feet high. It is famous for the winding 
road constructed by Napoleon I., which leads 
over it from France to Italy, and for an immense 



524 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


railway tunnel, which, after nearly fourteen 
years’ labor, was finished in 1871. The Mount 
Cenis Pass is 6,765 feet above the level of the 
sea, whereas the elevation of the entrance to the 
tunnel on the side of Savoy is only 3,801 feet, 
and that on the side of Piedmont 4,246 feet. 
The total length of the tunnel is nearly eight 
miles. The total cost amounted to about $15,- 
000 , 000 . 

Cevennes ( sa-ven'), a mountain chain in 
the south of France, running northward between 
the basins of the Rhone and the Loire, as far as 
the Plateau of Langres, in the department of 
Haute Marne. The height of the Cevennes 
averages from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, but Mont 
Mezenc, near the source of the Loire, reaches a 
height of 5,753 feet. The mountains are rich in 
minerals. The Cevennes are famous as the re¬ 
treats of the Albigenses, Waldenses, and Camis- 
ards, during the religious wars of France. 

Ceylon ( se-lon'), an island belonging to 
Great Britain in the Indian Ocean, about sixty 
miles southeast of the southern extremity of 
Hindustan, from which it is separated by the 
Gulf of Manaar and Palk’s Strait. Length, 
about 270 miles, north to south; average breadth 
100 miles; area, 25,332 square miles. 

Where the jungle has been cleared away and 
the land drained and cultivated, the country is 
perfectly healthy; where low wooded tracts, 
and flat marshy lands abound, covered with a 
rank, luxuriant vegetation, the climate is emi¬ 
nently insalubrious. 

Most of the animals found on the opposite 
continent are native to this island, excepting 
the royal tiger, which does not exist here. Ele¬ 
phants are numerous and are esteemed for their 
superior strength and docility. Bears, buffaloes, 
leopards, jackals, monkeys, and wild hogs are 
numerous. Crocodiles, serpents, and reptiles 
of all sorts abound. Of the snake tribe, con¬ 
sisting of about twenty-six different species, six 
only are venomous. Among the insects are the 
leaf and stick insects, the ant-lion, the white ant, 
etc. 

In the luxuriance of its vegetable productions, 
Ceylon rivals the islands of the Indian Archi¬ 
pelago, and in some respects bears a strong re¬ 
semblance to them; its most valuable products 
are tea, rice, coffee, cinnamon, and the cocoanut. 
Tea is being widely cultivated. Tobacco is 
raised principally in the north district, and is 
of excellent quality. Indigo grows wild, but is 
not sought after. 

Ceylon is one of the British crown colonies, 
its government being conducted by a governor 
and two councils, executive and legislative, of 
both of which the governor is president. The 
first is composed of five members, the other of 
seventeen members. The powers of the councils 
are limited, being wholly subservient to the 
governor, who can carry into effect any law 
without their concurrence. All laws must be 
approved by the Secretary of State for the Colo¬ 
nies before they can take effect. Any individual 
properly qualified may be appointed to the most 
responsible situation, without reference to serv¬ 
ice, nation, or religion, and native Singhalese 
have occupied some of the highest posts. 

Chartreuse, La Grande, a famous 


monastery of Franee, in the department of Isere, 
fourteen miles north of Grenoble among lofty 
mountains, at an elevation of 3,281 feet. The 
access is very difficult. It was built in 1084, 
but several times burnt down; the present 
building was erected after 1676. The monastery 
was suppressed in 1903 and the order expelled. 

Cherbourg ( shair'boorg ), a fortified sea¬ 
port and naval arsenal of France, department 
Manche, at the head of a bay of same name, 185 
miles west-northwest of Paris. The fortifica¬ 
tions here are of the most formidable character, 
and as a naval stronghold it may almost be con¬ 
sidered impregnable. Cherbourg possesses a 
magnificent harbor for ships of war, constructed 
by Napoleon I., at an immense cost, besides 
dockyards, dry-docks, etc. The roads afford 
secure anchorage to 400 sail at a time, and are 
protected by a magnificent breakwater began in 
1784, and completed by Napoleon III., in 1864. 
Population, 43,837. 

Chicago, second largest city of the United 
States, embraces all Cook County, on the south¬ 
west shore of Lake Michigan, and on both sides 
of Chicago River. It stands on a level plain, 
and is surrounded by a beautiful and fertile 
country. The Chicago River and its two 
branches separate the city into three unequal 
divisions, known as the North, the South, and 
the West, connected by numerous bridges and 
two tunnels under the river. The streets are 
wide and are laid out at right angles, many of 
them being adorned by rows of fine forest trees. 
The site of the city was originally unhealthy 
from its lowness, but a large portion of it has 
been artifically heightened (even while occupied 
by buildings), by eight or ten feet. The public 
parks have an area of nearly 3,000 acres. Among 
the chief buildings are the new city hall, and 
court-house, the custom-house and post-office, 
and the chamber of commerce. There is a uni¬ 
versity and a large number of higher-class col¬ 
leges and seminaries. To supply the town with 
water two tunnels have been constructed under 
Lake Michigan, and convey the pure water of 
that lake into the town, where it is pumped up to 
a height of 160 feet and distributed. There are 
also a number of artesian wells. From its po¬ 
sition at the head of the great chain of the Amer¬ 
ican lakes, and at the center of a net-work of 
railroads communicating with all parts of the 
Union, Chicago has always been more a com¬ 
mercial than a manufacturing city. There are 
extensive docks, basins, and other accommoda- 
dation for shipping. The industries embrace 
iron-founding, brewing, distilling, leather, hats, 
sugar, tobacco, agricultural implements, steam- 
engines, boots and shoes. In commerce Chicago 
is only second to New York. It has an enormous 
trade in pork-packing, and is the greatest market 
for grain and timber in America. Other articles 
for which it is a center of trade are flour, pro¬ 
visions, wool, hides, soft goods, and clothing. Be¬ 
fore 1831 Chicago was a mere trading station. 
Its charter is dated March 4, 1837, its population 
being then 4,170, but since then it has advanced 
at an altogether extraordinary rate. On Octo¬ 
ber 9, 1871, a great fire occurred which burned 
down a vast number of houses and rendered 
about 100,000 persons homeless and destitute. 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


525 


But the energy of its inhabitants and its favor¬ 
able situation enabled it to recover in a sur¬ 
prisingly short time. The World’s Columbian 
Exhibition was held in Chicago in 1893. It 
celebrated Columbus’ discovery of America. 
January 2, 1900, a ship and drainage canal was 
opened between this city and the Gulf; the cost 
was $35,000,000. Population, 2,185,283. 

Chile (sometimes, Chili). A southwestern 
republic of South America, forming a long, narrow 
strip of country lying between the Andes and the 
Pacific Ocean; mean breadth, from 80 to 100 
miles; area, 292,580 square miles. Chile is 
bounded north by Peru, east by Bolivia and 
Argentina, south and west by the Pacific. The 
climate is healthful, as a whole; a scarcity of rain 
is, however, often felt. Earthquakes are of 
common occurrence. The soil is of varying fertil¬ 
ity, most fertile toward the south and the foothills 
of the Andes, where luxuriant vegetation flour¬ 
ishes. Valuable hard woods abound; tropical 
fruits thrive excellently. Chile is rich in metals, 
especially copper, which is mined on an immense 
scale; silver, gold, cobalt and manganese are also 
obtained. The principal source of national 
wealth, however, is the abundant beds of nitrate 
of soda. This is mined and exported in large 
quantities for use as a fertilizer. Coal, borate of 
lime, salt, sulphur and guano are also found. 
Commerce is chiefly with Great Britain, Germany, 
and the United States. The chief cities and towns 
are: Santiago, the capital; Valparaiso, the chief 
port; Concepcion, Iquique, Talca, Chilian, and 
Antofagasta. The population in 1910 was 3,329,- 
030, chiefly of European extraction. In 1910 the 
trans-Andean railway from Valparaiso to Buenos 
Ayres was opened for traffic; in 1912 the notable 
Arica to La Paz railway was completed. These 
great engineering feats of scaling or tunneling 
mountain passes from 12,000 to 14,000 feet in 
altitude not only stand as monuments to the 
commercial possibilities of Chile, but signalize a 
new era in her relations with Bolivia, Argentina, 
and the world at large. 

China. A country of Asia, occupying the 
vast elevated plateau known as Eastern High 
Asia. China has an area of more than 4,275,- 
000 square miles, about one-fourth of the whole of 
Asia. It embraces China proper, Manchuria, 
Mongolia, and Tibet. China proper is bounded on 
the north by Mongolia; on the west by Mongolia, 
Tibet, and Burmah; on the south by Burmah, 
Tongking and the South China Sea; and on the 
east by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, and 
Manchuria. It contains several mountain ranges, 
from which proceed the Hoang-ho, the Yang-tse- 
kiang, the Peiho, and the Canton rivers. The 
climate of China is very varied, and in some 
parts of the country there is excessively cold 
winter, followed by excessively hot summer; 
but the soil is generally productive, the moun¬ 
tains are clothed with timber, and the hillsides 
and the plains are laid out in rice fields and gar¬ 
dens. Agriculture is the chief occupation of 
the people, and it is conducted by them with 
great skill and assiduity. Besides rice, which 
is grown most extensively in the south, wheat 
and barley are cultivated in the north, and 
the tea plant in the maritime provinces, the ex¬ 
ports of tea alone amounting in value to $25,000,- 


000 a year. Cotton is also grown in the neighbor¬ 
hood of Shanghai. In some of their manu¬ 
factures, the Chinese have never been surpassed. 
Their silks and porcelains have always been 
famous, and in certain arts requiring patience 
and ingenuity, such as the making of cardcases, 
snuffboxes, and fans, they are equaled only by 
the Japanese. There is a great caravan trade 
carried on with Russia and Farther India, and 
a large traffic by sea with British India, North 
and South America, Great Britain, and the 
other countries of Europe. From India opium 
is imported, and its effects upon the people are 
most deleterious. Internal communication is 
carried on chiefly by means of rivers, and of a 
Grand Canal which, commencing at the city of 
Hang-chow, runs northward for a distance of 
seven hundred miles. Railways and telegraphs, 
however, are now being generally introduced; 
at the beginning of 1912, fifteen lines of railways 
were open and eight under construction. The 
provinces of China are: Chihli, Shantung, Kiang- 
su, Chehkiang, Fukien, Kwangtung, Shensi, 
Anhwei, Honan, Shansi, Kansu, Szechuen, 
Hupeh, Kwang-si, Hunan, Kiangsi, Kweichow, 
and Yunnan. The capital of China proper and 
of the entire republic is Peking. Other towns of 
importance are Nanking, Canton, Chungking, 
Shanghai, Ning-po, Tientsin, Fuchau, Amoy, 
Hankow, King-te-chen, and Chefoo. The popu¬ 
lation is 439,214,000. 

Cincinnati, the “Queen City of the West,” 
is situated in the southwest part of Ohio, on 
the northern shore of the Ohio River. The lo¬ 
cation is fine, and the suburbs are not surpassed 
for beauty. This great emporium of the Central 
States is an aggregation of towns that have 
merged into one. It is composite also as to 
population, which is derived from many nations. 
The German element is very large. Here are 
established a famous college of music and a 
richly endowed art school. Five bridges connect 
Cincinnati with the cities of Covington, Newport, 
and Ludlow on the Kentucky shore. The archi¬ 
tectural achievements of the city are striking 
for splendor and variety. Among its other lead¬ 
ing industries are pork packing, brewing, dis¬ 
tilling, and manufactures of iron, stone, wood, 
clothing, food products, tobacco, soap, jewelry, 
and drugs. Among its interesting institutions 
are the university, public library, art museum, 
historical society, society of natural history, 
zoological garden, industrial exposition, May 
musical festival, city armory, medical colleges, 
hospitals, and crematory. Cincinnati is the 
site of one of the earliest astronomical observa¬ 
tories in the United States, founded about the 
same time as that of Harvard College and the 
Naval Observatory. Population, 364,463. 

Circassia, a country of Asia, comprehend¬ 
ing the northwestern division of the Caucasus, 
between the shores of the Black and Caspian 
seas. The whole country is mountainous. 
For nearly forty years the Circassians main¬ 
tained a brave struggle against the encroach¬ 
ments of the Russians, but were finally defeated, 
with the rest of the inhabitants of the Caucasus, 
in 1864, a defeat which lead practically to their 
extinction as a nation. After the close of the 
war, large numbers of them emigrated to Asia 




526 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Minor and other provinces of Turkey. The 
women of Circassia have long been famous for 
their beauty. 

Cleveland, the first city in Ohio in popula¬ 
tion, is situated on the south shore of Lake Erie, 
at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River. Its situa¬ 
tion is central to great deposits of coal, iron ore, 
petroleum, and limestone. The city has a har¬ 
bor at the mouth of the river giving safe anchor¬ 
age for a large number of ships. Great break¬ 
waters run out on each side of the river, forming 
commodious eastern and western harbors. The 
abundance of trees gives it the name of “The 
Forest City.” The Cuyahoga is spanned by 
several bridges, and in particular by the Via¬ 
duct, an elevated street and bridge erected at 
great expense. Among the buildings are the 
United States building, city hall, Case Hall, 
medical college, railway depot, etc. Cleveland 
is an important railway center, has an extensive 
lake traffic, and large manufactures, especially 
in iron and steel; petroleum-refining and pork¬ 
packing being also important industries. There 
is a harbor of refuge constructed by government. 
Population, 560,663. 

Cologne ( ko-lon') [Ger. Kdlri\. An ancient 
city of Prussia, formerly capital of an inde¬ 
pendent electorate of same name, and now 
of the Rhine provinces. It connects by a mag¬ 
nificent iron bridge with Deutz on the opposite 
bank of the Rhine, is strongly fortified, and 
presents architecturally a fine coup d’ceil of 
mediaeval quaintness. Its cathedral, begun 
about 1248, finished in 1880, at a cost of $10,- 
000,000, is the most imposing structure in Ger¬ 
many and the most imposing Gothic edifice in 
the world. Cologne has an extensive commerce, 
and is the chief entrepot between the Nether¬ 
lands and the cities of Germany. Cologne 
was founded by the Romans, and reached the 
height of its prosperity during the Middle Ages, 
and the subsequent zenith of the Hanseatic 
League. Population, 432,835. 

Colombia, a Republic of South America; 
area about 475,000 square miles; population 
(according to government estimate), 4,000,000; 
capital, Bogota. 

The surface of the country is extremely varied, 
with lofty mountains in the west, and vast plains 
in the east scarcely above the level of the sea. 

Columbia possesses all the climates of the 
world; perpetual snows cover the summits of 
the Cordilleras, while the valleys abound in the 
rich vegetation of the tropics. In the north 
departments and in the immense llanos of the 
east great herds of cattle, descended from those 
imported by the Spaniards, are reared; in the 
central districts shorthorns and other English, 
Dutch, and Norman cattle and horses have been 
introduced, and are largely raised throughout 
the temperate zone. Among the natural min¬ 
eral products are gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, 
coal, sulphur, zinc, antimony, arsenic, cinnabar, 
rock-salt, crystal, granite, marble, lime, gypsum, 
jet, amethysts, rubies, porphyry, and jasper; 
while much of the world’s platinum is obtained 
from the upper San Juan, and the principal source 
of the finest emeralds is at Muzo in Boyaca. 

Columbia, or Oregon, one of the largest 
of the North American rivers, rising in the 


Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, and 
emptying into the Pacific Ocean. It flows 
first northwest, then, doubling on itself, turns 
south through Washington, where it is joined 
by the Spokane and Snake rivers. For a con¬ 
siderable part of its course it forms the boundary 
between Washington and Oregon, being joined 
by the Willamette and other tributaries. The 
total length is about 1,400 miles. It is broken 
by rapids, but navigable to Vancouver, and up 
the Willamette to Portland. It is a famous 
salmon stream, Columbia River salmon giving 
rise to a great industry on the coast. It was 
explored by Lewis and Clark in 1804-5. 

Constantinople, called by. the Turks 
Stamboul, the capital of the Turkish Empire. 
It is said to have been founded in the Seventh 
Century before Christ, and it retained its name of 
Byzantium, derived from its founder, till its 
conquest (A. D. 330) by Constantine the Great, 
who built a new city on the site, and gave to it 
its present name. It came into the hands of 
the Turks in 1453. Situated on an arm of the 
sea called the Golden Horn, on the European 
side of the Bosphorus or Strait of Constanti¬ 
nople, the city holds a splendid position, and 
its appearance from the sea is very striking; 
but the streets are for the most part narrow 
and dirty, and the houses are mostly low, being 
built of wood and earth. It contains, however, 
some fine public buildings, such as the Seraglio, 
or Imperial Palace, and the Cathedral of St. 
Sophia, now converted into a mosque. Many 
of the mosques are very beautiful, and are 
generally surrounded with trees and gardens. 
The Golden Horn, on the north side of the city, 
forms one of the finest harbors in the world. 
On the northeast side of the harbor are the 
suburbs of Galata and Pera, where the English, 
the French, and other Europeans reside. Galata 
is the seat of the commercial establishments, 
Pera that of the diplomatic bodies. The inhabit¬ 
ants of Stamboul itself are Turks, Armenians, 
Greeks, and Jews, who have each particular 
quarters allotted to them. The objects of 
greatest attraction in 'Stamboul are the bazaars, 
or market-places, the fountains, and the baths. 
The Seraglio stands on the eastern side of the 
city, and is surrounded by public offices and 
government buildings, being altogether three 
miles in circumference. The principal entrance 
to the palace is called “the Porte.” There are 
upwards of 350 mosques in Constantinople, and 
about thirty-six Greek, Roman Catholic, and 
Protestant churches. There are more than 130 
ublic baths in the city, and 180 khans or lodging 
ouses of great size, chiefly occupied by for¬ 
eigners. Omnibuses and tramways have been 
introduced, and on the Pera side of the city many 
of the streets are well lighted. The old 
walls of the city are thirteen miles in circum¬ 
ference. Population about 1,125,000. 

Corinth, a city of ancient Greece, the 
capital of a small, but wealthy and powerful 
district in the Peloponnesus. It lay on the 
southeast of the Gulf of Corinth, which stretches 
along the northern shore of the Peloponnesus; 
and its position on the Isthmus of Corinth, 
which connects the Peloponnesus with the 
more northerly part of Greece, made it a place 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


527 


of great importance, and the emporium of the 
trade between Europe and Asia. The city 
was taken and destroyed by the Romans, 
about the middle of the Second Century before 
Christ. It was afterwards, in the First Century 
of our era, made into a Roman colony, and re¬ 
gained much of its former wealth, which led to 
its population becoming once more famed for 
their luxuriousness and licentiousness. Little 
now remains of the city except the ruins of a 
Doric temple, believed to be one of the earliest 
existing specimens of that style of architecture. 
The modern town is of no importance. 

Cossacks, a people inhabiting those parts 
of the Russian Empire which border on the 
northern dominions of Turkey, Poland, and 
the southern confines of Siberia. Both the name 
and the origin of this people are involved in 
great uncertainty, but they are believed to be 
of a mixed Caucasian and Tartar race. The 
country of the Don Cossacks, or Cossacks of 
the Don, to the north of the Sea of Azov and 
Caucasia, has an area of about 62,000 square 
miles, with a population of about 1,500,000. 
They pay no taxes to the government, but, in 
lieu of this, every Cossack of the Don, from 
15 to 60 years of age, is bound to render 
military service. Every Cossack is obliged to 
equip, clothe, and arm himself at his own ex¬ 
pense, and to keep his horse. The number of 
Don Cossacks in military service is computed 
at 66,000; and there are, besides, the Cossacks 
on the Black Sea, the Great Russian Cossacks 
on the Caucasian Line, the Ural Cossacks, the 
Orenburg Cossacks, the Siberian Cossacks, and 
the Bashkir Cossacks, the total number of Cos¬ 
sacks in military service being estimated at 
about 330,000, all of whom are fully organized, 
and are supposed to be prepared to enter the 
field, on being summoned, in the course of ten 
days. They are thus the most important part 
of the irregular troops of Russia, but otherwise 
they maintain considerable independence. 

Cotopaxi ( kd-to-p&x'l ), the most remark¬ 
able volcanic mountain of the Andes, in Ecua¬ 
dor, about sixty miles northeast of Chimborazo ; 
latitude 0° 43' south; longitude 78° 40' west; 
altitude 19,613 feet. It is the most beautiful 
of the colossal summits of the Andes, being a 
perfectly symmetrical, truncated cone, present¬ 
ing a uniform, almost unfurrowed field of snow 
of resplendent brightness. Several terrific erup¬ 
tions of it occurred in the course of the 
Eighteenth and the beginning of the Nineteenth 
Century. 

Coventry ( kUv'-en-tri ), a city in England, 
county of Warwick, eighty-five miles north¬ 
west of London. It was formerly surrounded 
with lofty walls and had twelve gates, and was 
the see of a bishop early conjoined with Lich¬ 
field. Parliaments were convened here by the 
earlier monarchs of England. Pageants and 
processions were celebrated in old times, and a 
remnant of these still exists in the processional 
show in honor of Lady Godiva. Population, 
69,877. 

Cracow ( kra'ko ), the old capital of Poland, 
in 1815-1846 capital of a republic of the same 
name now forming part of Austrian Galicia; 
is on the left bank of the Vistula, where it be¬ 


comes navigable, and consists of Cracow proper 
or the old city, and several suburbs. It is the 
see of a bishop, is well built and regularly forti¬ 
fied. The cathedral, a fine old Gothic edifice, 
contains monuments of many Polish kings, of 
Kosciusko, etc. The university was founded 
in 1364, but gradually fell into decay, and was 
reorganized in 1817. It has a library of 300,000 
volumes. On a hill near the town stands the 
monument of Kosciusko, 120 feet high. Popu¬ 
lation,^,836. 

Crecy ( kres'-i ), or Cressy, a small town 
of France, in the department of Somme, about 
twelve miles northeast of Abbeville, celebrated 
on account of the Battle of Crecy, won by Ed¬ 
ward III., of England, over the French, under 
the Count of Alengon, August 26, 1346. This 
battle was won by the prowess of the Black 
Prince under command of Edward III.; and 
the crest now used by the Princes of Wales 
(three ostrich feathers, with the motto, “Ich 
dien, ” I serve) is commonly said to have been 
adopted by the Black Prince after this victory, 
in which the King of Bohemia, to whom the crest 
belonged, was slain. Population about 1,500. 

Cronstadt ( kron'stat ), a maritime fortress 
of Russia, about twenty miles west of St. Peters¬ 
burg, in the narrowest part of the Gulf of Fin¬ 
land, opposite to the mouth of the Neva, on a 
long, narrow, rocky island, forming, both by its 
position and the strength of its fortifications, 
the bulwark of the capital, and being the most 
important naval station of the Empire. It was 
founded by Peter the Great, in 1710, and used 
to be the commercial port of St. Petersburg, 
but since the construction of a canal, giving 
large vessels direct access to the capital, it has 
lost this position. 

Cuba, the largest and most westerly of the 
West Indies. It stretches in the west, with a 
breadth varying from thirty miles to 100 miles, 
a coast line of 1,976 miles, and an area of about 
44,000 square miles, including adjacent islands 
(of which the Isle of Pines is the largest) and 
bays. Only about one-third of the coast line is 
accessible to vessels, the remainder being beset 
by reefs and banks. The shores, low and flat, 
are liable to inundations, but there are numerous 
excellent havens. A watershed running length¬ 
wise through the islands, rises into mountainous 
heights only in the southeast, where are the 
Sierra Maestra, shooting up in the Pico de 
Tarquino to 8,320 feet, and the Sierra del Cob re 
(copper). The mountains, composed of granite 
overlaid with calcareous rocks, and containing 
minerals, especially copper and iron, are clothed 
in almost perennial verdure, wooded to the sum¬ 
mits. The limestone rocks abound in caverns, 
with magnificent stalactites. Mineral waters 
are plentiful. The rivers, running north and 
south, are navigable for only a few miles by 
small boats, but are very serviceable for irriga¬ 
tion of the plantations, and supply excellent 
drinking water. The climate, more temperate 
than in the other West Indian Islands, is salubri¬ 
ous in the elevated interior, but the coasts are 
the haunt of fever and ague. No month of the 
year is free from rain, the greatest rainfall being 
in May, June, and July. Earthquakes are fre¬ 
quent in the east. Hurricanes, less frequent 



528 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


than in Jamaica, sometimes cause widespread 
desolation. 

The soil of Cuba is a marvel of richness, and a 
large part is still covered with virgin forest. 
The vegetation of Cuba also includes tamarinds, 
palms, ferns, lianas, etc. Among the cultivated 
products are sugar, tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, 
maize, cotton, esculent roots, and tropical fruits. 
Among the animals there is a species of tailless 
rat peculiar to Cuba, and an abundance of birds. 
Of noxious animals and insects there are the 
crocodile, scorpion, and mosquitoes. The rivers 
and seas are well stocked with fish, the turtle 
abounding in the shallows and sandy places of 
the beach. The staple production of the island 
is sugar. In a single year Cuba has produced 
1,520,226 long tons of this article for export. 

Tobacco ranks next to sugar as a staple. 
Cuba produces the standard quality of cigar 
leaf, owing to the exquisite adaptation of the 
soil and climate to the development of the plant. 
The normal production is 6,000,000 pounds of 
leaf, and over 350,000,000 cigars. The mineral 
wealth of Cuba is largely in the copper mines. 
There are almost inexhaustible deposits of this 
metal, part of which are found in the mountains 
near the east end, known as the Sierra del Cobre, 
or Copper Mountains. Here a great part of the 
ore taken out yields sixty per cent, of pure metal. 
Cuba has asphalt deposits rivaling those of Trini¬ 
dad, for street paving. Iron ores abound. In 
the neighborhood of Santiago there are moun¬ 
tains of metal, and for a considerable period 
the Juragua and Daiquiri companies (American) 
shipped from 30,000 to 50,000 tons of the ore 
per month to the United States. Oranges of ex¬ 
quisite flavor grow spontaneously in all parts of 
the island, though no attention is paid to their 
culture or exportation. There are cocoanuts, 
six kinds of bananas, and such fruits as guavas, 
zapotes, anonas, guanabanas, and tamarinds. 
There are thirty-two species of the palm tree, 
the woods and the leaves of the majority of 
which could be transformed into a profitable 
article of commerce, but so far only two have 
been utilized, the “yarey” palm, whose leaves 
are used in the United States for the manufac¬ 
ture of hats and baskets, and the “ palma real ” 
(royal palm), from which durable boards are 
made, which last much longer than those of the 
yellow pine and are largely used in the construc¬ 
tion of houses. 

There are seventeen railway companies in 
Cuba, which operate upward of 2,500 miles of 
main line, and there are also private branch 
lines to all the important sugar estates. 

There are 5,065 miles of telegraph line in 
operation, all the property of the government, 
which also owns the telephones, leasing both 
systems to private corporations. Population in 
1910, 2,150,112. 

Czechs ( cheks ), the extreme western branch 
of the great Slavonic family of races. The 
Czechs have their headquarters in Bohemia, 
where they arrived in the Fifth Century. The 
origin of the name is unknown. The total num¬ 
ber of the Czechs is about 6,000,000, nearly all 
of whom live in the Austrian Empire. The 
Czechs proper, in Bohemia, number about 2,- 
700,000. They speak a Slavonic dialect of great 


antiquity and of high scientific cultivation. 
The Czech language is distinguished as highly 
inflectional. Like the Greek, it has a dual num¬ 
ber, and its manifold declensions, tenses, and 
participial formations, with their subtle shapes 
of distinction, give the language a complex 
grammatical structure. The alphabet consists 
of forty-two letters. In musical value the Czech 
comes next to Italian. 

Danube, a celebrated river of Europe, 
originates in two small streams rising in the 
Schwarzwald, or Black Forest, in Baden, and 
uniting at Donaueschen. The direct distance 
from source to mouth of the Danube is about 
1,000 miles, and its total length, including wind¬ 
ings, about 1,800 miles. The Danube is navi¬ 
gable for steamers up the Regensburg (Ratis- 
bon) nearly 1,500 miles from its mouth. 

Dardanelles (the ancient Hellespont), the 
narrow strait between Europe and Asia, con¬ 
necting the Grecian Archipelago with the Sea of 
Marmora. The strait is about forty miles in 
length. Its western entrance is two miles wide, 
but at its narrowest part it is only three-quarters 
of a mile wide; and here stood the castles of 
the Dardanelles ( Dardanus ), from which the 
strait derived its name. 

Date Line, an arbitrary line drawn on a 
map from north to south, on the one side of 
which it is to-day and on the other to-morrow, 
even in places not a mile apart. When ships 
cross this line they drop or repeat a day. The 
international date line describes the following 
course: starting at the North Pole it passes 
through Bering Strait, then slants to the west 
to clear the long horn formed by the Aleutian 
chain of islands and give them the same day as 
the United States, to which they belong. This 
accomplished, it returns to the 180th meridian 
and drops south into the tropics, keeping far to 
the east of the Japanese group and the Philip¬ 
pines till it approaches the latitude of the Fiji 
Islands. As these and some of the neighboring 
groups belong to Great Britain and do business 
chiefly with her Australian colonies, the date 
line here makes a sudden swerve to the east, so 
as not to embarrass the local commerce with a 
change of day. 

Dead Sea, The, a lake of Palestine, about 
twenty miles north of Jerusalem. It is called 
by the Arabs “Bahr Loot,” or “Sea of Lot”; 
is about forty-seven miles long, and from ten to 
twelve broad, with a depth of 220 fathoms, and 
its surface 1,312 feet below the level of the 
Mediterranean. The waters of the Dead Sea 
are intensely salt, of great specific gravity, and 
have no perceptible outlet; in the north it re¬ 
ceives the waters of the Jordan. 

Denmark, a kingdom of Northern Europe, 
is composed of a peninsular portion, and an 
extensive archipelago, lying east of it, with a 
few. scattered islands on its west side. The 
peninsular portion is composed of Jutland, and 
measures, north to south, 185 miles, with a 
breadth varying from forty miles to 108 miles. 
Besides these territories, Denmark possesses the 
Faroe Islands and Iceland, in the North Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean, and Greenland in the Arctic regions, 
also the Danish West Indies. Denmark has no 
large rivers. Intercourse between the various 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


529 


islands and parts of the kingdom separated 
from each other by water is necessarily kept up 
by means of water communication, regular 
ferries being established at numerous points. 
Denmark is well supplied with excellent sea¬ 
ports, the most important being Copenhagen, 
Aalborg, Aarhuus, and Randers. Horses and 
cattle are reared in great numbers, and both 
are excellent. Large flocks of sheep are kept; 
but rather for the flesh than the wool, which is 
coarse and short. Swine are also reared to a 
great extent. Although not particularly fav¬ 
ored by nature, Denmark is yet preeminently 
an agricultural country. The land is greatly 
subdivided, as the law interdicts the union of 
small farms into larger, and encourages the 
division of landed property. The kinds of 
grain most largely cultivated are barley, oats, 
rye, and wheat, the greatest area being occupied 
by oats, the second by barley. The fisheries 
were formerly a more important branch of 
national industry than now. 

Denver, the capital and largest city of 
Colorado, is magnificently situated at an alti¬ 
tude of 5,275 feet, within fifteen miles of the 
base of the Rocky Mountains. It is one of the 
most important railroad centers in the West, 
and lies in the midst of a rich mining district. 
Owing to the remarkable clearness of the atmos¬ 
phere, a stretch of 200 miles of the mountains 
is discernible almost every day of the year. 
The climate is peculiarly mild and well adapted 
to sufferers from pulmonary complaints. Denver 
is the leading industrial city of the western 
mountain region. It possesses a number of 
fine buildings, including the capitol, the United 
States mint and the University of Denver, 
besides the state and the public libraries. Popu¬ 
lation, 213,381. 

Detroit, metropolis of Michigan, is situated 
on the Detroit River, about eighteen miles from 
Lake Erie, and seven miles from Lake St. Clair. 
It has a water front of nine miles, steamship 
communication with the principal ports on the 
Great Lakes, and ferries to Windsor on the 
Canadian side. The river at this point is known 
as the “ Dardanelles of the New World,” leading 
from one great lake to another and affording an 
excellent harbor. Detroit has many magnificent 
public parks, and over $500,000 is expended 
annually for their maintenance. The largest 
and most beautiful is Belle Isle, an island of 
700 acres at the entrance of Lake St. Clair. 
This park is an immense pleasure ground and 
offers all sorts of amusements. No city of its 
size in the country surpasses Detroit in the 
number, beauty, and substantial quality of its 
public and business buildings. Among the most 
noteworthy are the Chamber of Commerce, Ma¬ 
jestic, Union Trust, Hammond, municipal build¬ 
ings, county court-house, city hall, the post- 
office, built at a cost of $2,000,000, Light Guard 
Armory, art museum, Central High School, and 
Masonic Temple. Near the Campus Martius is 
the public library, with 150,000 volumes. In 
front of the city hall stands a magnificent 
soldiers’ and sailors’ monument. Other points 
of interest are Fort Wayne, the Bagley Foun¬ 
tain, Evacuation Day Tablet, the old home of 
General Grant, and relics of Perry’s victory 


on Lake Erie. Detroit is an extensive manu¬ 
facturing and commercial city. Population, 
465,766. 

Dresden, the capital of the kingdom of 
Saxony, is situated in a beautiful valley on 
both sides of the River Elbe. Among the chief 
edifices, besides several of the churches, are the 
museum (joined on to an older range of build¬ 
ings called the Zwinger), a beautiful building 
containing a famous picture gallery and other 
treasures; and the Japanese Palace (Augusteum) 
containing the royal library of from 300,000 to 
400,000 volumes. The city is distinguished for 
its excellent educational, literary, and artistic 
institutions, among which are the Polytechnic 
School, the Conservatory and School of Music, 
the Academy of Fine Arts, etc. The manufac¬ 
tures are important and various in character; 
the china, however, for which the city is famed, 
is made chiefly at Meissen, fourteen miles dis¬ 
tant. The commerce is considerable, and has 
greatly increased since the development of the 
railway system. The chief glory of Dresden is 
the gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the 
world. The pictures number about 25,000, and 
in particular comprise many fine specimens of 
the Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. The 
city suffered severely in the Thirty Years’ War, 
and also in 1813, when it was the headquarters 
of Napoleon’s army. It was occupied by the 
Prussians in 1866, but was evacuated in the 
following spring. Population, 516,996. 

Dublin (Irish, Dubh-linn, “black pool”), 
the capital of Ireland, stands on the River 
Liffey, where it disembogues into Dublin Bay. 
Much of Dublin is built on land reclaimed from 
the sea, a work which still continues; and the 
ground is generally flat, with a very few undu¬ 
lations. The river, running from east to west, 
divides the city into two almost equal portions. 
The aristocratic parts are the southeast and 
northeast, containing many beautiful squares, 
with splendid streets and terraces. The center 
and the northwest quarter are the great em¬ 
poriums of trade and the residence of the middle 
classes. The southwest division, part of which 
is called the “ Liberties,” once the seat of the 
silk trade, is the most filthy and degraded por¬ 
tion of the city. The streets in this quarter 
are narrow, crooked, and irregular, while in the 
fashionable quarter they possess a totally oppo¬ 
site character. The city is surrounded by a 
“Circular Road,” of nearly nine miles in length, 
forming a favorite drive and promenade. Pop¬ 
ulation, 309,272. 

Edinburgh, capital of Scotland, and chief' 
town of Mid-Lothian, occupies a picturesque 
situation on a cluster of eminences at a distance 
of about one and one-half miles from the Firth 
of Forth. Its admirable position has induced 
the comparison with Athens, from wdiich, as 
well as from its literary fame, it takes the title 
“Modern Athens.” The Gaelic name of the 
city is “Dunedin.” A picturesque castle crowns 
the highest point in the city. Holyrood Abbey 
and palace in the low ground east of the city 
have great historic interest. Edinburgh is the 
residence of considerable numbers of the Scot¬ 
tish landed gentry, and its society is regarded 
as unusually polished, from the predominance 



530 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of the professional and literary elements in its 
composition. Its medical practitioners — sur¬ 
geons and physicians — have a high reputation. 
Its university and medical schools, its high 
school, and its various other educational insti¬ 
tutes have a high repute. Population, 350,524. 

Egypt is a country in the northeast of 
Africa, whose territory extends up the valley 
of the Nile as far as the Equator, embracing 
Nubia, Ethiopia, Darfur, etc. Egypt proper 
extends from the mouth of the Nile to the first 
cataract at Assouan, and is usually distinguished 
into Upper, Middle, and Lower Egypt, which 
last comprehends the Delta. The Delta begins 
just below Cairo, about ninety miles from the 
sea, and its greatest breadth is about eighty 
miles. It is this part of the country which is 
chiefly cultivated, its fertility being derived 
from the annual inundations caused by the 
overflow of the Nile. The rest of the country 
is mainly sandy desert, with some remarkable 
oases on the west of the Nile. The climate of 
Egypt is hot and dry, but not unhealthy. The 
date-palm, the acacia, and the sycamore, are 
scattered throughout the country; large plan¬ 
tations of roses are found in the province of 
Feiyoom; and the soil and climate are well 
suited for cotton, sugar, rice, indigo, cucumbers, 
melons, and onions, as well as for maize, wheat, 
and millet. There are no metals in Egypt, but 
salt, nitre, marble, red granite, oriental ala¬ 
baster, and limestone are found. The com¬ 
merce of the country is very considerable, and 
centers chiefly in Alexandria, which suffered 
severely, however, in the war of 1882. The capi¬ 
tal is Cairo, which is the largest city in Africa. 

Eiffel Tower, a structure erected on the 
banks of the Seine in Paris, the loftiest in the 
world, being 984 feet in height, and visible from 
all parts of the city. It consists of three plat¬ 
forms, of which the first is 189 feet above the 
ground, the second is 380 feet and the third, 
906 feet high, far above the Strasburg Cathedral 
spire. It was designed by Gustave Eiffel, 
and erected in 1887-89. There are cafes and 
restaurants on the first landing, and the ascent 
is by powerful elevators. 

England, the most southern and richest 
portion of the island of Great Britain, is bounded 
north by Scotland, east by the North Sea, south 
by the English Channel, and west by the At¬ 
lantic Ocean, the principality of Wales, and 
the Irish Sea. Maximum length, 425 miles; 
breadth, fluctuating between sixty-two and 280 
miles; coast line, about 2,000 miles. Area, 
including Wales, 58,324 square miles. The prin¬ 
cipal islands belonging to it are those of Man, 
Lundy, Scilly, Walney, Sheppey, Wight, Lind- 
isfarne, and the Channel Islands. Chief rivers: 
Severn, Thames, Trent, Mersey, Ouse, Humber, 
Medway, Tyne, Dee, Tees, Wear, Derwent, and 
Eden. Lakes: Derwentwater, Ulleswater, and 
Windermere. Estuaries: those of the Thames, 
Mersey, Humber, Severn, Dee, Southampton 
Water, and the Wash. It has numerous capes 
and headlands. Mountains: The principal 
mountains are those of Cumberland, Westmore¬ 
land, and Yorkshire, with the Cheviots on the 
Scottish border, the Derbyshire “Peak,” and 
the Cotswolds in Gloucestershire. Numerous 


forests are spread over the country. Soil: The 
major part of the land is fertile and highly pro¬ 
ductive, owing to an admirable system of tillage; 
while well-furnished farm houses and comfortable 
cottages everywhere meet the eye, and evince 
that taste for neatness and rural beauty which is 
so characteristic of the nation. The same fea¬ 
tures, too, on a larger and grander scale, are 
found in the country-seats of the nobility and 
squirarchy. The climate is generally moist, but 
mild and healthful. Chief towns: London 
(capital of the British Empire), Liverpool, Man¬ 
chester, Leeds, Birmingham, Hull, Bristol, New- 
castle-on-Tyne, Sheffield, Bath, Oxford, Carlisle, 
etc. 

English Channel, the arm of sea which 
separates England from France, extending, on 
the English side, from Dover to Land’s End; 
and on the French, from Calais to the island of 
Ushant. On the east it communicates with the 
German Ocean by the Strait of Dover, twenty- 
one miles wide; and on the west it opens into the 
Atlantic by an entrance about 100 miles wide. 
At its greatest breadth it is about 150 miles. 

Erie Canal, the largest artificial water¬ 
way in the United States, serving to connect the 
Great Lakes with the sea. It begins at Buffalo 
on Lake Erie, and extends to the Hudson at 
Albany. It is 363 miles long; has in all 
seventy-two locks; a surface width of seventy 
feet, bottom width of fifty-six feet, and depth 
of seven feet. It is carried over several large 
streams on stone aqueducts; was opened in 
1825; and up to 1901 had cost for construction, 
enlargement, and maintenance $52,540,800. In 
November, 1903, the people of New York State 
voted to enlarge the canal so as to accommodate 
one-thousand-ton barges. 

Erie, Lake, one of the great chain of North 
American lakes, between Lakes Huron and On¬ 
tario, about 240 miles long, 58 miles broad at 
its center, from 200 to 210 feet deep at the 
deepest part; area, 9,600 square miles. The 
whole of its south shore is within the territory 
of the United States, and its north within that 
of Canada. It receives the waters of the upper 
lakes by Detroit River at its northwest extrem¬ 
ity, and discharges its waters into Lake Ontario 
by the Niagara River at its northeast end. 
The Welland Canal enables vessels to pass from 
it to Lake Ontario. 

Etna, or /Etna, Mount, the greatest 
volcano in Europe, a mountain in the province 
of Catania, Sicily; height, 10,738 feet. It rises 
immediately from the sea, has a circumference 
of more than 100 miles, and dominates the whole 
northeast of Sicily, having a number of towns 
and villages on its lower slopes. The top is 
covered with perpetual snow; midway down is 
the woody or forest region; at the foot is a 
region of orchards, vineyards, olive groves, etc. 
The eruptions of Etna have been numerous, 
and many of them destructive. That of 1169 
overwhelmed Catania and buried 15,000 persons 
in the ruins. In 1669, the lava spread over the 
country for forty days, and 20,000 persons are 
estimated to have perished. In 1693, there was 
an earthquake during the eruption, when over 
100,000 lives were lost. One eruption was in 
1755, the year of the Lisbon earthquake. Among 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


531 


more recent eruptions are those of 1874, 1879, 
1886, 1892, 1899, 1906-07, 1910, 1911. 

Euphrates, or El Frat, a celebrated 
river of Western Asia, in Asiatic Turkey, having 
a double source in two streams rising in the 
Anti-Taurus Range. Its total length is about 
1,750 miles, and the area of its basin, 260,000 
square miles. It flows mainly in a southeast 
course through the great alluvial plains of 
Babylonia and Chaldea, until it falls into the 
Persian Gulf by several mouths, of which only 
one in Persian territory is navigable. About 
100 miles from its mouth it is joined by the 
Tigris, when the united streams take the name 
of Shatt-el-Arab. It is navigable for about 
1,200 miles, but navigation is somewhat impeded 
by rapids and shallows. 

Faneuil Hall, a public hall in Boston, 
presented to the town by Peter Faneuil, in 1740, 
comprising a market place on the first floor, and 
a town hall and other rooms above. In 1761, 
it was destroyed by fire. In 1763, it was re¬ 
built by the town; and, in 1775, during the 
British occupation of Boston, it was used for a 
theater. During the Revolutionary War this 
building was often used as a meeting place by 
the patriots. 

Florence (Italian, Firenze; ancient, Flor- 
entia Tuscorum), a magnificent city of Italy, 
the capital of the province of Firenze, and for¬ 
merly of Tuscany. It is situated in a beautiful 
valley on the banks of the Arno, 125 miles 
north of Rome. The two parts of the city are 
connected by six bridges, and the whole city 
was formerly surrounded by walls, upwards of 
six miles in extent. In architectural preten¬ 
sions, Florence is one of the finest cities of 
Italy. Its cathedral, which dates from the 
close of the Thirteenth Century, is of great 
extent and magnificence; and it has many 
other churches only less interesting or beautiful. 
For its collections of paintings and sculpture 
Florence is scarcely excelled by any city of 
Europe. It has produced, perhaps, a greater 
number of celebrated men than any other con¬ 
tinental city, including Dante, Petrarch, Boc¬ 
caccio, Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and 
Galileo. The manufactures of Florence are few 
and of small importance. Satins, silks, jewelry, 
and mosaics, are, however, manufactured to 
some extent, and straw-plaiting occupies a con¬ 
siderable number of the lower orders of the 
people. As the capital of the province, Flor¬ 
ence is still a place of some political importance. 
Population, 205,589. 

France is a maritime country in the west 
of Europe, forming one of its most extensive, 
most populous, and most influential states. It 
is bounded north by the North Sea and the 
Strait of Dover; northwest by the English 
Channel; west by the Atlantic, more especially 
that part of it called the Bay of Biscay; south 
by Spain and the Mediterranean Sea; east by 
Italy, Switzerland, and the German Territory 
of Alsace; northeast by German Lorraine, 
Luxemburg, and Belgium. On taking a survey 
of this great country it is impossible not to be 
struck with the advantages it derives from its 
position. It not only forms a continuous and 
compact whole, but, while protected by great 


natural barriers at most parts where it is con¬ 
nected with the continent, a long line of coast 
on the west and northwest gives it immediate 
access to the great ocean thoroughfare, while 
on the south its harbors in the Mediterranean 
secure to it a large share in the traffic of that 
important inland sea. The chief plains are 
those of Burgundy and of the oceanic district, 
embracing the lower basins of the Seine, Loire, 
and Garonne. There are four great mountain- 
chains — the Pyrenees, separating France from 
Spain; the Cevenno-Vosgian Range, formed of 
the Cevennes, running east and west between 
the Rhone and Loire, and the Vosges, running 
north and south between the Moselle and the 
new boundary-line; the Alps, which separate 
the Swiss Territory from the provinces of Savoy 
and Nice; and the Sardo-Corsican Range, which 
belongs, as the name implies, to the islands of 
Sardinia and Corsica. The French portion of 
the Alps now includes several of the highest 
mountains and most elevated passes of the range 
—as Mont Blanc, Mont Iseran, Mont Cenis, and 
the pass of Little St. Bernard, etc. In Corsica, 
the highest peak rises to an elevation of 9,000 feet. 
The grand watershed of France is the Cevenno- 
Vosgian chain, which determines the direction 
of the four great rivers, the Seine, the Loire, the 
Garonne, and the Rhone, the first three of which 
flow northwest into the Bay of Biscay or the 
English Channel, and the fourth into the Gulf 
of Lyons. Franee possesses only one lake of any 
importance, Le Grand-Lieu, a little to the south 
of Nantes, which has an area of about 14,300 
acres; but the country abounds in salt marshes 
or ponds, more especially in the districts of 
Gascony, Roussillon, and Languedoc. France 
is peculiarly rich in mineral springs, of which 
there are said to be nearly 1,000 in use. It 
possesses one of the healthiest climates in Europe, 
although, owing to its great extent of area, very 
considerable diversities of temperature are to 
be met with. Of the vegetable products of 
France, which, from varied climatic and geog¬ 
nostic relations, are necessarily characterized 
by great abundance and diversity, the most 
generally cultivated are the cereals, the vine, 
chestnuts, olives, culinary fruits and vegetables, 
hops, beetroot for the manufacture of sugar, 
tobacco, madder, chicory. The cultivation of 
the mulberry tree derives importance from its 
bearing on the production of silk. The vine has, 
from a very early period, constituted one of the 
principal sources of the agricultural wealth of 
France. The choicest wines are grown in the 
Bordelais, Burgundy, and Champagne, but some 
excellent kinds are produced on the banks of 
the Loire and in some of the southern depart¬ 
ments. The principal forest trees are the chest¬ 
nut and beech on the central mountains, the 
oak and cork trees in the Pyrenees, and the fir 
in the Landes. The destruction of the national 
forests has been enormous within the last two 
centuries. The French government expends 
between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 francs annually 
in aiding by subsidies those engaged in the great 
fisheries. The chief mineral products of France 
are coal and iron, in the excavation of which 
nearly 250,000 men are now employed. France 
presents a great variety of geological formations, 



532 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


but although we meet with an almost complete 
succession of all the stratified and non-stratified 
formations they are distributed with great in¬ 
equality. The best carpets are made in Au- 
busson, Abbeyville, and Amiens. Paris is the 
seat of industry for some of the most costly 
fabrics, as Gobelins, tapestry, shawls of great 
value, watches, clocks, articles of “vertu,” car¬ 
riages, philosophical instruments, etc. Sevres 
stands unrivaled for its china and glass. St. 
Gobain and St. Quirin manufacture looking- 
glasses of the largest size. The great emporiums 
of trade are Paris, Lyons, St. Etienne, Lille, 
Rheims, Nimes, Toulouse, etc.; and the most 
attractive maritime ports are Marseilles, Cette, 
Havre, Bordeaux, etc. 

Ganges, a river of Hindustan, one of the 
greatest rivers of Asia, rising in the Himalaya 
Mountains, in Garhwal State, and formed by 
the junction of two head streams, the Bhagi- 
rathi and the Alaknanda, which unite at Deo- 
prag, ten miles below Srinagar, 1,500 feet above 
sea level. The Ganges is navigable for boats 
of a large size nearly 1,500 miles from its mouth. 
It is an imperative duty of the Hindus to bathe 
in the Ganges, or at least to wash themselves 
with its water, and to distribute alms, on certain 
days. The Hindus believe that whoever dies on 
its banks and drinks of its water before death is 
exempted from the necessity of returning into 
this world. Its water is a considerable article 
of commerce in the remoter parts of India. 

Genoa, a city of Italy, is beautifully situ¬ 
ated on the Gulf of Genoa, which lies to the 
south of Piedmont, and it stands at the foot 
and on the slope of the Ligurian Alps. In the 
old part of the city the streets are narrow and 
steep, but in the newer parts there are several 
spacious promenades; though generally the ir¬ 
regular rising ground on which the city is built 
has prevented any comprehensive plan of im¬ 
provement, and it still retains much of that 
quaintness of architectural character for which 
it has long been celebrated. There are many 
magnificent churches in Genoa, of which the 
principal is the Duomo, or Cathedral, of St. 
Lorenzo. It is one of the chief ports of the 
Mediterranean, and there are local manufac¬ 
tures of cotton, silk, jewelry, etc. Genoa was 
the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, and of 
many other famous men. Population, 234,710. 

German Empire, one of the great powers 
of Europe, consisting of a federation of semi¬ 
independent and other states, which occupy 
the greater portion of North-Central Europe. 
The following table shows the elements of which 
the German Empire as now constituted is made 
up: 


States of the Empire 

Area 
English 
Sq. Mi. 

Population 

(1910) 

Pop. 
per Sq. 
Mile 

Prussia,. 

Bavaria,. 

Wurttemberg, .... 

Baden,. 

Saxony,. 

Mecklenburg-Schw., 

Hesse,. 

Oldenburg,. 

Brunswick. 

134,616 

29,292 

7,534 

5,823 

5,789 

5,068 

2,966 

2,482 

1,418 

40,163,333 

6,876,497 

2,435,611 

2,141,832 

4,802,485 

639,879 

1,282,219 

482,430 

494,387 

224.0 

234.4 

323.2 
367.9 

829.5 

126.2 
439.0 
194.3 

348.6 


States of the Empire 

Area 
English 
Sq. Mi. 

Population 

(1910) 

Pop. 
per Sq. 
Mile 

Saxe-Weimar, .... 

1,397 

417,166 

298.6 

Mecklenburg-Str.,. . . 

1,131 

106,347 

93.8 

Saxe-Meiningen, . . . 

953 

278,792 

291.5 

Anhalt,. 

888 

331,047 

373.9 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,. . 

764 

257,208 

337.0 

Saxe-Altenburg, . . . 

511 

216,313 

423.3 

Lippe,. . . *. 

469 

150,749 

321.4 

Waldeck,. 

433 

61,723 

142.5 

Schwarzburg-Rud., . . 

363 

100,712 

277.5 

Schwarzburg-Sond., . . 

333 

89,984 

270.2 

Reuss Junior Branch, . 

319 

152,765 

478.9 

Schaumburg-Lippe, . . 

131 

46,650 

352.5 

Reuss Elder Branch, . 

122 

72,616 

595.2 

Hamburg,. 

160 

1,015,707 

6,973.1 

Liibeck,. 

115 

116,533 

1,013.3 

Bremen. 

99 

298,736 

3,017.6 

Alsace-Lorraine, . . . 

5,604 

1,871,702 

333.9 

Total. 

208,780 

64,903,423 

310.8 


The small island of Heligoland, now forming 
part of Prussia, was added to the empire in 
1890. 

Among the Germans themselves their country 
is known as “ Deutschland ”; to the French as 
“ Allemagne”; while its Latin denomination 
is “Germania,” whence the English name. 
Germany lies between the Baltic Sea, Denmark, 
and the North Sea on the north, and Switzer¬ 
land and a part of Austria on the south, and be¬ 
tween France, Belgium, and the Netherlands 
on the west, and the rest of Austria and Russia 
on the east. The northern part of Germany 
forms part of the great European plain, and is 
for the most part flat. Its soil is not very fertile, 
and extensive forests alternate with heaths, 
morasses, and small, shallow lakes. Central 
Germany may be described as hilly; its soil is 
fertile, and its scenery is often very picturesque. 
The greater part of Southern Germany is oc¬ 
cupied by the plateau of Bavaria, which rises 
about 1,600 feet above the sea level, and in¬ 
creases in elevation towards the west, where it 
forms the Schwarz Wald, or Black Forest Range. 
Some of the mountain chains of Germany, 
especially the Harz Mountains and the Erzge¬ 
birge, are very rich in minerals. The chief 
rivers are the Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, and 
Upper Danube; others of less note are the Ems, 
Weser, Pregel, and Niemen. The climate of 
Germany is, on the whole, temperate and sa¬ 
lubrious, though the winters are somewhat 
severe, and the Rhine is occasionally frozen 
as far south as Mannheim. Germany is rich 
in mineral products; cobalt, arsenic, sulphur, 
saltpeter, alum, gypsum, bismuth, pumice- 
stone, slate, ocher, emery, vitriol, are among 
the exports. Its vegetable products comprise 
a large portion of the European flora. All the 
ordinary cereals are extensively cultivated in 
the north. Its best wine-producing districts 
are the valleys of the Danube, Rhine, Main, 
Necker, and Moselle, which are also noted for 
the excellence of their fruits and vegetables. 
The principal seaports are Hamburg, Bremen, 
Liibeck, Altona, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven, Stral- 
sund, Stettin, Dantzig, Konigsberg, and Memel. 
Inland, the chief commercial cities are Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, Breslau, Leipzig, Cologne, 
Nuremberg, Elberfeld, Mulhausen, Chemnitz, 
Mainz, and Augsburg. 




































GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 533 


Giant’s Causeway (deriving its name 
from a legend that it was the commencement of 
a road to be constructed by giants across the 
channel to Scotland) is a natural pier or mole 
of columnar basalt, projecting from the north 
coast of Antrim, Ireland, into the North Chan¬ 
nel, seven miles northeast of Portrush. It is 
part of an overlying mass of basalt from 300 to 
500 feet in thickness, which covers almost the 
whole county of Antrim, and the east part of 
Londonderry. 

Gibraltar, a seaport belonging to England, 
and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, 
is situated in the south of Spain at the narrowest 
part of the Straits of Gibraltar, sixty-one miles 
southeast of Cadiz. The number and strength 
of the military works, and the vast galleries 
opened in the calcareous rock, excite admira¬ 
tion. The fortress, though taken by surprise 
by the British, in 1704, is considered impreg¬ 
nable. The sea-passage, extending from Cape 
Spartel, Spain, to Cape Ceuta, Africa, connects 
the Atlantic with the Mediterranean Sea; 
length about thirty-six miles; narrowest width, 
between Europa Point and Ceuta, fifteen miles, 
broadening westward to twenty-four miles. A 
strong current sets in from the Atlantic through 
these straits, and it is supposed that a counter 
current passes underneath. 

Glaciers are masses of consolidated snow, 
which by their own weight move slowly down 
the mountain side. Their pace is seldom more 
than one inch per hour. Along their sides or over 
their surface are scattered accumulations of stone 
and detritus, which are.called moraines. The 
Alpine Glaciers give birth to the five great rivers 
of Central Europe—the Rhine, Rhone, Po, Inn, 
and Adige. Glaciers move like rivers, faster in 
the middle and above than at the sides and along 
the bottom. The torrent of icy water that issues 
from the lower end of them is simply the result of 
melting. The largest glacier in the world is the 
Muir, in Alaska; the largest in Europe is the 
Justeldals Brae, in Norway. 

Glasgow, the industrial metropolis > of 
Scotland, is one of the largest and most im¬ 
portant cities in the United Kingdom. It is 
situated on the Clyde, which affords great 
facilities for steamboat traffic and shipping. 
Glasgow is celebrated as the great Scottish 
emporium of trade and manufactures. The 
annual tonnage of the port is some 5,000,000 
tons. The trade of Glasgow rose about the 
middle of the last century, and consisted chiefly 
of American and West Indian commerce. Since 
then the manufacture of cotton goods has risen 
to a great extent, as also woolens, silks, glass, 
iron, stoneware, and chemicals. Population, 
859,715. 

Grand Canyon, a gorge through which 
the Colorado River flows in Arizona; sixty- 
five miles from Flagstaff. It is one of the natural 
wonders with which that country abounds. 
The canyon is a gorge 217 miles long, or with 
the addition of Marble Canyon, connected with 
it, 286 miles. It is from nine to thirteen miles 
wide and 6,300 feet below the level of the pla¬ 
teau. This depth is maintained for about fifty 
miles and surpasses that of any other canyon 
in the world. 


Grand Central Terminal. The great¬ 
est railway terminal in the world, begun in August , 
1903, was opened in New York city February 
2, 1913, at a cost of approximately $200,000,000. 

The station itself is 680 feet long, 300 feet 
wide, and 115 feet above the street level; below 
the street surface it is 745 feet long, 480 feet 
wide, and 45 feet deep. Seventy acres are 
covered by 32 miles of tracks with a capacity 
of 1,149 cars. Eight hundred trains, carrying 
daily about 75,000 passengers, are automatically 
handled by electrical switches. The electrical 
zone extends 30 miles. Paddington station, 
London, heretofore handling the largest passen¬ 
ger traffic in the world, has less than half the 
capacity. 

In point of construction this enormous gate¬ 
way is an achievement in engineering in many 
respects unparalleled. 

Great Britain, or The British Em¬ 
pire. Britain, or Britannia, was the name 
given by the Romans to modem England and 
Scotland. The name Great Britain was applied 
to England and Scotland after James I. ascended 
the English throne in 1603. These with Ireland, 
the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands, con¬ 
stitute the British Isles, or the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland; with the colonial 
and other foreign possessions they form the 
British Empire. This empire is the greatest the 
world has ever known. It covers an area five 
times the - size of the Persian Empire under 
Darius, and four times that of the Roman 
Empire under Augustus. 

Great Britain proper is bounded, north by 
the Atlantic, east by the North Sea, south by 
the English Channel, and west by the Atlantic, 
the Irish Sea, and St. George’s Channel. The 
most northerly point is Dunnet Head in Caith¬ 
ness; the most southerly Lizard Point in Corn¬ 
wall; the most easterly, Lowestoft Ness in 
Suffolk; and the most westerly, Ardnamurchan 
Point in Argyleshire. Its greatest length is 
about 608 miles, its greatest width—from Land’s 
End to the east coast of Kent—about 320 miles; 
its surface contains 88,094 square miles. As the 
rocks of Great Britain form the typical series 
of the earth’s strata, the geology of that country 
becomes of great importance as a key to the 
universal composition of the crust of the globe. 

The physical features of the country are inti¬ 
mately connected with its geological structure. 
The older Paleozoic rocks produce mountainous 
regions intersected with deep, narrow valleys. 
The newer strata seldom rise to a great height. 
The highlands are rounded undulations of strata, 
except where igneous rocks intrude; the valleys 
are broad and shallow. The climate of Great 
Britain derives its peculiar character from the 
insular situation of the country, taken in connec¬ 
tion with the prevailing direction of the winds. 
It is remarkably mild and equable; the winters 
are considerably warmer and the summers cooler 
than at other places in the same latitude. The 
natural history of Great Britain corresponds 
generally with that of continental Europe. The 
flora of the greater part of the island resembles 
that of Germany. 

The British colonies and foreign possessions 
include: 




534 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


THE BRITISH 

THE UNITED 



Countries 

Character of 
Possession 

Form of 
Government 

Executive 

ENGLAND.. 

WALES. 

SCOTLAND. 

IRELAND... 

ISLANDS. 


Constitute the United) 
Kingdom of Great Britain > 
and Ireland. ) 

Constitutional Mon- / 
archy. f 

The King through the Ministry. 


COLONIES AND 


Countries 


Character of 
Possession 


Form of 
Government 


Executive 


EUROPE — 
Gibraltar, 
Malta, etc. 


ASIA — 

India (including Burmah), 


Ceylon. 

Cyprus. 

Aden and Socotra, . . . . . 
Straits Settlements, . . . . 

Hong Kong. 

Labuan,. 

British North Borneo, . . . 
AFRICA — 

Union of South Africa, . . . 

Rhodesia,. 

Southern Africa. 

Eastern Africa,. 

Western Africa,. 

Zanzibar,. 

Ascension,. 

St. Helena,. 

Mauritius. 

Seychelles,. 

AMERICA — 

Dominion of Canada, . . . 

Ontario,. 

Quebec,. 

New Brunswick,. 

Nova Scotia. 

Manitoba,. 

British Columbia, .... 

Alberta,. 

Saskatchewan,. 

Territories,. 

Prince Edward Island, . . 

Newfoundland,. 

British Guiana,. 

British Honduras. 

Jamaica,. 

Trinidad and Tobago, . . . 

Barbados,. 

Bahamas, . 

Bermuda, . 

Other Islands,. 

AUSTRALASIA — 

Commonwealth of Australia, 

Tasmania,. 

Dominion of New Zealand, . 

Fiji. 

Papua (British New Guinea), 


Colony, 

Colony, 


Vice-Royalty, 


Colony, . . . 
Protectorate, 
Protectorate, 
Colony, . . . 
Colony, . . . 
Colony, . . . 


Dependency, 
Colony, . . . 
Protectorates, 
Protectorates, 
Protectorates, 
Protectorates, 
Naval Station, 
Colony, . . . 
Colony, . . . 
Colony, . . . 


Dependency,, 
Province, . . 
Province, . . 
Province, . . 
Province, . . 
Province, . . 
Province, . . 
Province, . . 
Province, . . 
Territory, . . 
Province, . . 
Colony, . . . 


Colony, 

Colony, 

Colony, 

Colony, 

Colony, 

Colony, 


Dependency,. 
Dependency,. 
Dependency,. 
Colony, . . . 
Colony, . . . 


Representative, 


Governor, 

Governor, 


Governor-General, , 

Governor, . . . . , 
High Commissioner, 
Political Resident, , 

Governor. 

Governor,. 

Governor. 


Commonwealth, . . 
Chartered company, 


Sultanate, 


Representative, 


Governor-General, .... 

Administrator,.. 

Commissioners, ..... 
Governors and commissioner, 

Governors,. 

First Minister,. 

British Admiralty. 

Governor,.. , 

Governor,. 

Administrator,. 


Commonwealth, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Representative, 
Military, . . . 
Representative, 
Responsible, 


Governor-General, . 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Commissioner, . . . 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

Governor,. 


Representative, 

Representative, 

Representative, 


Lieutenant-Governor, 

Governor,. 

Governor. 

Governor,. 

Governor,. 

Governor,. 


Commonwealth, 

Responsible, 

Responsible, 


1 I 


Governor-General, . . . 

Governor,. 

Governor,. 

Governor, . .. 

Administrator,. 


' •• • 





























































































































































GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


535 


EMPIRE 


KINGDOM 


Area in Square Miles 

How Acquired by England 

Date 

Population 

[ 58,324 

Conquest,. 

1282 [ 

36,075,269 

30,405 

Union. 

1603 

4,759,445 

32,360 

Conquest. 

1172 

4,381,951 

302 



148,934 


DEPENDENCIES 


Area in Square Miles 

How Acquired by England 

Date 

Population 

2 

Conquest. 

1704 

23,651 

117 

Treaty cession,. 

1814 

209,974 

1,766,642 

5 Conquest. 

< Transfer from East India Co., . . 

Begun 1757 1 

1858 > 

315,000,000 

25,332 

Treaty cession,. 

1801 

3,578,333 

3,584 

Convention with Turkey, .... 

1878 

237,022 

3,070 

(Aden) Conquest. 

1839 

44,000 

1,616 

Treaty cession,. 

1785-1824 

572,249 

30^ 

Treaty cession. 

1841 

418,357 

30 i 

Treaty cession,. 

1846 

8,411 

31,106 

Cession to Company,. 

1877 

160,000 

473,184 

Cession and conquest,. 

1588, 1814, 1843, 1900 

5,958,499 

439,575 

Cession. 

1888 

1,770,871 

291,829 

Annexation and cession,. 

1868, 1884, 1903 

631,141 

533,301 

Conquest and cession. 

1884, 1893 

7,072,189 

447,279 

Settlement, treaty and cession, . . 

1787, 1872 

18,968,965 

1,020 

Cession,. 

1890 

197,199 

34 

Annexation,. 

1815 

400 

47 

Conquest,. 

1673 

3,477 

850 

Conquest and cession. 

1810, 1814 

374,625 

156 

Cession,. 

1814 

22,620 

3,744,695 

Conquest and settlement. 

1670-1858 

7,081,869 

260,862 

Conquest,. 

1759-1760 

2,519,902 

351,873 

Conquest,. 

1759-1760 

2,000,697 

27,985 

Treaty cession. 

1763 

351,815 

21,428 

Conquest. 

1627 

461,847 

73,732 

Settlement,. 

1813 

454,691 

372,630 

Transfer to Crown,. 

1858 

362,768 

253,540 

Settlement,. 

.... 

372,919 

250,650 

Settlement,. 

.... 

453,508 

2,129,811 

Charter. 

1670 

10,000 

2,184 

Conquest,. 

1745 

93,722 

42,734 

Treaty cession,. 

1713 

217,037 

90,277 

Conquest and cession,. 

1803-1814 

294,000 

8,598 

Conquest,. 

1798 

37,479 

4,200 

Conquest,. 

1655 

835,800 

1,868 



325,000 

166 

Settlement,. 

1605 

194,518 

5,450 

Settlement,. 

1629 

59,713 

19 

Settlement, . .. 

1612 

17,536 

8,742 


.... 

255,000 

2,974,581 

Settlement,. 

.... 

4,374,138 

26,215 

Settlement,. 

1803 

181,106 

104,751 

Purchase,. 

1845 

1,048,347 

7,435 

Cession from the natives, .... 

1874 

128,404 

90,540 

Annexation,. 

1884 

500,000 










































































536 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Greece is a maritime kingdom in the south¬ 
east of Europe. It consists of three portions — 
the mainland, the Archipelago, and the Ionian 
Islands; the mainland being almost separated 
into two parts by the gulfs of Patras and Le- 
panto on the west and the Gulf of iEgina on the 
east, but united by the Isthmus of Corinth. 
The surface of the country is nearly all moun¬ 
tainous, and its shores are bold and rocky. 
Although only about one-half of the country 
is capable of cultivation, the soil of the rest is 
naturally fertile, and vegetation is singularly 
rich and varied, though agriculture is in a back¬ 
ward state. The olive is cultivated every¬ 
where; the currant-grape is found on the west 
coast and in the Ionian Islands; and the mul¬ 
berry, the vine, the orange, the lemon, etc., with 
cotton and tobacco, are also cultivated. Cur¬ 
rants, olive oil, and lead, are the principal ex¬ 
ports, the larger portion of which go to Great 
Britain® In 1881, Greece acquired from Tur¬ 
key a large portion of Albania, so that it now 
has an area of about 25,014 square miles. Its 
total population in 1907 was 2,631,952. 

Gulf Stream, a well-defined current in the 
Atlantic Ocean. It is due to the reflux of the 
equatorial current. The condensation and su¬ 
perheating of the last-named current takes place 
mainly in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of 
Mexico, whence arises the name Gulf Stream. 
Its temperature there is about 50°. It emerges 
as a defined hot current through the Straits of 
Florida, and courses northeast at a little dis¬ 
tance from the coast of the United States, so 
affecting the Bermudas as to make their climate 
semi-tropical. Between these islands and Hali¬ 
fax the stream is about sixty miles broad, 2,000 
feet deep, and moves at the rate of three knots 
an hour. It is of a deep blue color, in marked 
contrast to the dull green of the Arctic reflux. 
The Gulf Stream moves in a northeast direction 
toward Europe. The mild climate of western 
Europe, as compared with the same latitudes 
in the United States, formerly erroneously 
attributed to the Gulf Stream, is now known to 
be due to the warm southeast winds. 

Hague, The (hag). (French La Haye; 
Dutch’s Gravenhage, “the count’s mead.”) The 
capital city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 
province South Holland, ten miles southwest 
of Leyden. It is a finely-built and commo¬ 
dious place, after the characteristic Dutch 
fashion, and contains the royal palace, and 
numerous fine public edifices. It is the seat of 
government and of the Supreme Court of Justice 
of the Netherlands. Iron-founding and copper 
and lead-smelting are among the principal 
industries of the city. It was the birthplace 
of William III. of England, and Charles II. 
embarked from this port prior to the Restora¬ 
tion. Population, 270,109. 

Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, Do¬ 
minion of Canada, and the principal naval 
station of the dominion, is situated on the south¬ 
east coast of the peninsula, on a declivity over¬ 
looking the harbor, which is one of the finest in 
the world. Its pure air and beautiful surround¬ 
ing scenery have brought it into high repute as 
a watering-place. It has also a thriving trade; 
its exports, especially of dried fish, timber, 


cattle, and whale and seal oil are very consid¬ 
erable. The city is the seat of an Anglican 
bishopric and of a Roman Catholic arch¬ 
bishopric. It was founded by Governor Corn¬ 
wallis in 1749. Population, 46,081. 

Hamburg, one of the free cities of Ger¬ 
many, a member of the German Empire, is the 
greatest commercial port on the continent of 
Europe. It is situated about eighty miles from 
the North Sea, on the north branch of the Elbe. 
The town of Altona adjoins it on the west. 
From the Elbe proceed canals which intersect 
the east and lower part of the city in all direc¬ 
tions, and it is also intersected by the Alster, 
which here forms two streams, the Binnenalster 
and Aussenalster. The quays and harbor 
accommodation are very extensive. After the 
destructive fire of 1842 whole streets were 
rebuilt in a magnificent and expensive style. 
Hamburg is of most importance on account 
of its great shipping trade and the business of 
banking, exchange, marine assurance, etc., 
carried on in connection with it. Its manu¬ 
factures, including shipbuilding, tobacco and 
cigar making, iron-founding, brewing, etc., 
though large are less important. The city owes 
its foundation to the Emperor Charlemagne. 
Population, 936,000. 

Havana, or, in English, “The Harbor,” by 
far the most important city in the West Indies, 
is the capital of Cuba, and stands on the west 
side of the entrance to a magnificent harbor 
capable of holding 1,000 vessels. This entrance 
is defended by the Morro and Punta castles. 
The principal buildings, which are built entirely, 
of stone, are the cathedral, the government 
house, the admiralty, general post-office, the 
royal tobacco factory, etc.,-and a university and 
law school. There are also theaters, daily news¬ 
papers, a fine dockyard, a botanic garden, and 
some fine promenades. The principal manu¬ 
facture is cigars, which have a world-wide repu¬ 
tation. The trade is chiefly with Spain, the 
United States, and Great Britain. Population, 
302,526. 

Hell Gate, New York, is a narrow chan¬ 
nel of the East River, about seven miles north- 
northeast of New York City, being the nearest 
passage into the Sound. Its navigation was 
formerly dangerous on account of the eddies 
produced under certain conditions of the tides 
— whence its old Dutch name of Horll-gatt, or 
“whirlpool pass,” whereof the present term is 
a corruption. The rocks facing its entrance 
into the East River were removed by submarine 
blasting in 1876 and 1885. 

Himalayas, The (hi-ma'-ld-yds), or 
Himalaya Mountains. The loftiest system of 
mountains in the world, lying between the 
Indian peninsula and the Thibetan table-land 
in South Central Asia. Its length is estimated 
at 1,900 miles; its mean breadth at 150 miles; 
and its surface covers an area of 160,000 square 
miles, or thereabouts. Its chief summits are 
those of Mount Everest, 29,141 feet (the highest 
point of land known); Godwin-Austen (K 2 ), 
28,278 feet; Kanchanjanga, 28,156; and 
Dhawalaghiri, 26,826 feet. On the southern 
slope, vegetation exists at an altitude of 13,000 
feet above the sea, and the highest human habi- 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


537 


tation is found at 9,000 feet; on the northern, 
vegetation is met with at 17,500 feet; and vil¬ 
lages at 13,000 feet. It is rich in minerals, and 
possesses its own distinctive flora and fauna. 

Hong-Kong, or Hiang Kiang (The 
Fragrant or Flowing Streams), a small island 
off the southeast coast of China, in the province 
of Quang-Tong, now belonging to the British. 
It is situated at the mouth of the estuary 
that leads to Canton, from which it is dis¬ 
tant southeast seventy-five miles. It is about 
ten miles in length and seven and one-half miles 
in breadth. A strip of the mainland was 
recently added. On the north side of the 
island, and situated on a magnificent bay is the 
thriving town of Victoria, where the bulk of the 
population is centered. The town stretches for 
about four miles along the shore and also ascends 
the hillside and the faces of the ravines above. 
It is generally well-built, with wide streets and 
handsome terraces, and there is a massive sea 
wall along the sea front. Hong-Kong is a free 
port, and there are no returns of its total trade, 
the chief articles of which consist of cottons and 
opium as imports, tea and silk as exports. The 
foreign commerce is chiefly carried on with the 
United States, Singapore, Japan, Great Britain, 
Australia, and Germany. Population, 418,357. 

Honolulu, a city and capital of Hawaii, 
on the island of Oahu, on Oahu Bay. It is the 
most important city in the Pacific islands and is 
an important entrepot for vessels, between the 
United States and Asiatic countries. The city 
is situated amid beautiful tropical surroundings 
and has an equable and healthful climate. 
Among the chief points of interest are the palace, 
the government buildings, Roman Catholic 
cathedral, post office, and the Bishop Museum. 
There are numerous churches, public schools, 
public library, theater, daily and weekly news¬ 
papers, telephone and telegraph, banks, electric 
lights and street railways, and many commercial 
establishments. Population, 52,183. 

Hoosac Mountain, a part of the Green 
Mountain range in western Massachusetts, 
through which is pierced the most notable rail¬ 
way tunnel in America. The Hoosac tunnel, 
which has a length of nearly five miles, was 
commenced in 1855, for the line between Boston 
and Albany, was twice abandoned, and was 
finally opened in 1875, having cost the State 
of Massachusetts about $18,000,000. 

Hudson River, or North River. A 
river of New York, which rises in the hills to 
the west of Lake Champlain, and after a south¬ 
erly course of upwards of 300 miles, falls into 
the Atlantic Ocean below the city of New York. 
It is navigable as far as Troy, 166 miles above 
New York, and is connected by canals with 
Lakes Champlain and Erie. 

Hungary, Kingdom of (Magyar, Ors- 
zng; German, Ungarn). A large country of 
Central Europe, formerly having an independent 
autonomy, but now forming the major portion 
of the Austrian Empire. It consists for the most 
part of a large and fertile, and generally well- 
wooded plain, watered by the Danube and its 
numerous affluents. To the north and east 
this plain is bounded by the Carpathian Moun¬ 
tains, while on the west it impinges upon the 


provinces of Moravia, Styria, and Lower Austria. 
To the south, the course of the Danube, and its 
tributary the Save, mark the line of the Turkish 
frontier. It is rich in mines of the precious 
metals, iron, copper, and coal. It, besides, 
has large agricultural wealth, cereals, hemp, 
tobacco, etc. Its wines, especially that of To¬ 
kay, are of excellent quality. The chief manu¬ 
factures are cotton, woolen, coarse linen fabrics, 
glass and earthenware. Chief towns: Buda¬ 
pest (the twin capital), Maria Theresiopel, 
Temesvar, Szegedin, Grosswardein, Debreczin, 
Presburg, Komorn, Gran, and Arad. The 
inhabitants consist of seven distinct races, viz: 
the Magyars (Hungarians proper), Slovaks, 
Croats, Rusniaks, Jews, Germans, and Wallachs. 
The Roman Catholic is the chief form of religion. 

Huron. One of the five great lakes of 
North America, about 800 miles in circuit, 
bounded west and southwest by the State of 
Michigan; on other sides by Upper Canada. 
Its surface is 581 feet above the level of the sea; 
its depth is about 700 feet. Its waters are 
remarkable for their clearness and purity. This 
vast body of water is said to contain 3,000 
islands, one of them, the Great Manitoulin, or 
Sacred Island, running parallel to almost the 
whole of the northern coast, which is one con¬ 
tinuous mass of comparatively barren rocks. 

India, or Hindustan. The greatest of 
the three great peninsulas which constitute the 
south of Asia is bounded on the north by the 
Himalaya Mountains, on the east by Burmah 
and the Bay of Bengal, and on the west by the 
Sulieman and Hala Mountains and the Arabian 
Sea. The surface of the peninsula is highly 
diversified, but consists mainly of three parts 

— namely, first, the table-land of the Deccan, 
in the south, between the Vindhya Hills and 
Cape Comorin, and flanked on either side by the 
Eastern and the Western Ghauts; second, a 
vast lowland plain in the center, embracing the 
entire basin of the Ganges and the lower basins 
of the Indus and the Brahmaputra; third, a 
lofty plateau, in the north, forming the southern 
margin of eastern high Asia, and traversed by 
the Himalaya Mountains, the loftiest mountains 
on the earth’s surface. In the plains of India 
generally the heat is very great, but the ele¬ 
vated regions in the north enjoy a temperate 
climate. The year is divided into three seasons 

— the hot, the rainy, and the temperate. The hot 
season commences in March, the rainy in June, 
and the temperate in October. As almost the 
whole of India lies within the tropics, the vege¬ 
tation, wherever there is a sufficient amount of 
moisture, is abundant and luxuriant. Rice 
and grain are grown in immense quantities; all 
the fruits of the tropics are found in the utmost 
perfection; pepper, spices, and almost every 
kind of garden vegetable, are produced; and the 
forests are of vast extent, producing immense 
quantities of valuable timber. On the other 
hand, there are large and extensive tracts of 
sandy desert, many parts of the surface are 
jungle, and the Himalayas are the abode of snow. 
Many parts of India are still infested with wild 
animals. The principal cities are: Calcutta, 
Bombay, Madras, Lucknow, Rangoon, Benares, 
Delhi, Lahore, and Cawnpore. 



538 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Indian Ocean, one of the five grand 
divisions of the universal ocean, is bounded on 
the south by a line drawn from the Cape of Good 
Hope to the most southern extremity of Tas¬ 
mania or Van Dieman’s Land. Its other limits, 
reckoned from the last-mentioned point, are 
Van Dieman’s Land, Australia, the Indian Archi¬ 
pelago, Farther India, Hindustan, Persia, Arabia, 
and Africa. Gradually narrowing from south to 
north, the Indian Ocean forks at Cape Comorin 
into the Bay of Bengal on the east and the 
Arabian Sea on the west, the latter again 
branching off into two arms, the Persian Gulf 
and the Red Sea, which reach respectively the 
mouth of the Euphrates and the neighborhood 
of the Mediterranean. These details exclude 
the waters of the Indian Archipelago, as belong¬ 
ing rather to the Pacific Ocean. It contains 
thousands of islands or rather tens of thousands. 
Of these, Madagascar is the largest, and, at 
about the same distance from it to the east as 
the continent of Africa is to the west, lie Bourbon 
or Reunion toward the south, and Mauritius 
toward the north. Next in size to Madagascar, 
and, in fact, the only other island of any con¬ 
siderable magnitude, is Ceylon. 

Indianapolis, capital of the State of Indi¬ 
ana, is the geographical center of the State, and 
on the edge of a great natural gas region. The 
most prominent public building is the State 
House, completed in 1887, occupying two 
squares, and costing $2,000,000. The court¬ 
house, erected in 1876 at a cost of $1,200,000, is 
another imposing structure. The principal 
manufactures include steam engines, machinery, 
foundry supplies, and products, steel, glass, 
flour, tin plate, tile, bicycles, chain, paper, and 
pumps. There are eight grain elevators with a 
capacity of 1,000,000 bushels. The stockyard 
interests are important, and the city ranks high 
as a railroad and distributing center. Popula¬ 
tion, 233,650. 

Ireland, a large island to the west of Great 
Britain, and forming with it the United King¬ 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland. It is sepa¬ 
rated from Great Britain by St. George’s Channel, 
the Irish Sea, and the North Channel, the last 
being only about fourteen miles broad at its 
narrowest part, which is between the north coast 
of the county of Antrim, in Ireland, and the 
Mull of Cantire, in Scotland. The extreme 
length of the island, from Fair Head, in Antrim, 
to Mizen Head, in Cork, is about 300 miles; and 
its greatest breadth, from Howth Head, near 
Dublin, to Slyne Head, in Galway, is about 180 
miles. The country is for the most part flat, 
but it has mountains of considerable elevation 
in the north, west, and south. A great portion 
of the central plain is covered with bog-land, 
which occupies no less than two-fifths of the 
whole surface of Ireland; but much of the re¬ 
maining soil is fertile, and the humidity of the 
climate, and the equability of the temperature — 
much greater than those of England — have 
given to the island its verdant appearance, 
which has earned for it the name of the “ Emerald 
Island.” Agriculture is, however, in a back¬ 
ward condition; and, in consequence of the 
absence of coal, there are few manufactures, 
except that of linen, which is carried on chiefly 


in the districts of Belfast, Armagh, and Drog¬ 
heda. 

Italy (Italian, Italia), a kingdom of South¬ 
ern Europe, embracing the entire peninsula, 
boot-like in shape, extending between the Ad¬ 
riatic Sea on the east and the Ligurian and 
Tyrrhenian Seas on the west, together with the 
rich and considerable region which is bounded 
north by Switzerland and the Tyrol, east by 
Carniola and the Austrian Littorale, and west 
by France. Length, northwest to southeast 
(or from Mont Blanc to Cape Portio di Palo, 
Sicily), 780 miles; average width, 100 miles. 
This kingdom has a coast line of about 3,350 
miles, one-third of which is insulated, the prin¬ 
cipal indentations of the sea being the gulfs of 
Venice, Manfredonia, Taranto, Squillace, Poli- 
castro, Gaeta, Spezia, and Genoa; besides 
those of Asmara and Cagliari, in the island of 
Sardinia, and Castellamare in that of Sicily. 
The latter island is divided from the continent 
by the Strait of Messina. Besides the islands 
just named, there are those of the Lipari group, 
Elba, Monte Cristo, Stromboli, Ischia, Capri, 
Giglia, and the cluster upon which stands the 
city of Venice. Throughout its entire length, 
or rather from the Gulf of Genoa to the extrem¬ 
ity of Calabria, Italy is intersected by the chain 
of the Apennines. Its western and northern 
frontiers are guarded by the Alps, ramifications 
of which mountain system extend over a great 
part of Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venetia; 
Sicily is also generally mountainous in regard 
to surface, Mount Etna forming the culminat¬ 
ing point of altitude. The plains of Italy are 
extensive, and proverbial for their fertility and 
productiveness; notably so that of Lombardy, 
which has been termed the “Garden of Italy.” 
The Tuscan Maremma, the Pontine Marshes, 
and a large portion of the Roman Campagna, 
are also level tracts, highly prolific and generally 
well cultivated. The principal rivers are the 
Po, with its numerous feeders; the Adige, Brenta, 
Piave, Tiber, Arno, Tagliamento, and Volturno; 
the lakes comprise those of Como, Maggiore, 
Garda, Bolseno, and Bracciano; salt lagoons, 
too, fringe the coasts of Venetia and Tuscany. 
A great part of the lower peninsula is almost 
exclusively of volcanic formation, Mount Ve¬ 
suvius, for example, manifesting periodical 
instances of subterranean activity. Iron is 
largely found in Elba, borax in Tuscany, and 
fine varieties of marble, with salt, nitre, alum, 
alabaster, gypsum, etc., in other parts. Mineral 
and thermal springs are almost innumerable. 
In point of climate, Italy may be said to possess 
four distinct zones — ranging from the almost 
arctic cold of her mountain belts to an almost 
tropical degree of heat in the southern lowlands 
and valleys. On the whole, it is a healthful 
country. The staple products of the soil are: 
wines, fruits, olive oil, silk, and cotton, which, 
with fish, marble, sulphur, and various manu¬ 
factures, constitute the bulk of its exports 
abroad. The principal articles fabricated in 
the industrial centers are textile fabrics, lace, 
straw hats, leather goods, glass, pottery, per¬ 
fumes, chemicals, and paper. The chief cities 
are Naples, Rome, Milan, Genoa, Turin, Flor¬ 
ence, Palermo, etc. 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


539 


Japan, an ancient empire of Eastern 
Asia, to the northeast of China, consists 
of four principal islands, and of a large number 
of smaller ones. Niphon, or Nipon (the country 
of the rising sun), is the name given by the 
Japanese to the whole empire; the four prin¬ 
cipal islands are Hondo, or Honshiu, Kiushiu, 
Shikoku, and Yezo. The largest island, Niphon, 
or Hondo, is upward of 700 miles long northeast 
and southwest, breadth varying from fifty to 
100 miles. The coasts of the larger islands are 
extremely irregular, being deeply indented with 
gulfs, bays, and inlets, which form magnificent 
harbors. The surface also is generally uneven, 
and in many instances rises into mountains of 
great elevation. Volcanic vents are numerous, 
and earthquakes, often causing great devasta¬ 
tion, are of frequent occurrence; it is calcu¬ 
lated that every seven years a Japanese city is 
destroyed by their agency. In Yezo some 
dreadful eruptions have occurred. The metallic 
wealth of the empire is known to be very great, 
comprising gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and 
iron. The island of Sado is particularly rich 
in gold. Both the tin and copper of Japan are 
considered to be of very superior quality. Coal 
is found in various parts, and the output is 
rapidly increasing. Petroleum is becoming a 
product of some consequence. Sulphurabounds; 
thermal and mineral springs are of frequent 
occurrence; ambergris is met with on some 
of the shores. Streams are numerous in Japan, 
but have very short courses and are for the 
most part rather torrents than rivers. The 
climate of Japan, though extremely varied — 
being intensely cold in the north, and about as 
warm as the south of France in the south — is 
on the whole much milder than its latitude 
would indicate, owing chiefly to the influence 
of the surrounding ocean. Vegetation of the 
Japanese Islands is exceedingly varied, the prod¬ 
ucts of the tropics being intermingled with 
those of the temperate and frigid zones. The 
palm, banana, bamboo, bignonia, and myrtle 
flourish in the south, while in the north, more 
especially in the island of Yezo, oaks and pines 
abound. Sweet oranges, pomegranates, pears, 
apricots, peaches, and over 500 of the principal 
ornamental and useful plants are of foreign 
origin, having probably been introduced from 
Corea and China. The camphor and varnish 
trees are indigenous. The kadsi, or paper tree, 
a species of mulberry, grows naturally in the 
fields, and furnishes textile fibers from which 
paper is produced; paper is also made from 
various other plants. The chrysanthemum is a 
common and favorite plant and has become an 
emblem of Japan. The flora as a whole re¬ 
sembles that of a great part of North America. 
The soil of Japan is naturally indifferent; but 
the patient industry of the agriculturists favored 
by the genial climate has covered with vegeta¬ 
tion every spot capable of bearing anything. 
In the south the sugar cane is cultivated 
with success; rice yields two harvests and con¬ 
stitutes the chief article of food. Wheat and 
barley, maize and millet are grown to an im¬ 
portant extent, and buckwheat, potatoes, melons, 
pumpkins, and cucumbers in great abundance. 
Ginger, pepper, cotton, hemp, and tobacco are 


cultivated in considerable quantities. There 
are extensive plantations of the tea plant, yield¬ 
ing, however, a produce inferior to that of China. 
Silk is also a Japanese product. The principal 
cities are Tokio, Osaka, Kioto, Yokohama, 
Nagoya, Kobe, and Nagasaki. 

Jerusalem (Greek, Hierousalem), a fa¬ 
mous city of Western Asia, and anciently the 
capital of Judea, even as it was later of Christen¬ 
dom. It is situated in the modern district of 
El Kuds, Syria, thirty-seven miles east of the 
Mediterranean, twenty-four west of the River 
Jordan, and 126 southeast of Damascus, and 
stands at an elevation of some 2,500 feet above 
sea level. Its most imposing modern structures 
are the mosque of the Sultan Omar, occupying 
the site of the Holy Temple of the Jews, and 
the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, containing 
the tombs of Godfrey of Bouillon, and of Bald¬ 
win, King of Jerusalem. Generally speaking, 
the aspect of the modern city is mean, poor, 
and dirty, and merits little notice. 


Lakes, Largest in the World 


Name of Lake 

Area in 
Sq. Miles 

Elevation 
in Feet 

Depth 
in Feet 

Aral Sea, .... 

. 26,000 

48 


Caspian Sea, . . 

. 170,000 

—97 

3,000 

Dead Sea, . . . 

320 

—1,312 

700 

Great Salt. Lake, 

2,600 

4,200 

60 

Lake Baikal, . . 

. 12,500 

1,600 

4,500 

Lake Chapala, 

1,300 

7,000 

Lake Erie, . . . 

9,600 

573 

' 210 

Lake Huron, . . 

. 22,322 

581 

700 

Lake Ladoga, . . 

7,000 

55 

730 

Lake Michigan, . 

. 22,450 

581 

870 

Lake Nicaragua, 

3,650 

130 

240 

Lake Ontario, 

7,250 

247 

738 

Lake Superior, . 

. 31,500 

602 

1,008 

Lake Titicaca, 

4,000 

12,874 

700 

Lake Victoria, 

. 40,000 

3,775 

240 


Latitude. The latitude of a place on the 
surface of the earth is its distance north or south 
from the equator, and is equal to the angle 
which a plumb line at that place makes with the 
plane of the earth’s equator, or to the angle 
which the horizon plane of the place makes with 
the earth’s axis. Hence it may be measured by 
measuring the altitude of the pole of the heavens 
above the horizon, or by measuring the distance 
on the meridian of the equator from the zenith. 
The latitude of a heavenly body is its distance 
from the ecliptic, and is measured by the arc of 
a great circle perpendicular to the latter, inter¬ 
cepted between the ecliptic and the body. 

Liberty Enlightening the World. 
This colossal statue, on Liberty Island, New 
York harbor, was presented by the French 
nation to the people of the United States in 
commemoration of the centennial of their na¬ 
tional independence. It was designed by and 
constructed under the supervision of the artist, 
Bartholdi; the height of the statue proper from 
base to top of torch, is 151 feet. The height 
of the pedestal is ninety-five feet, and the total 
height of the whole work above the waters of 
the bay is 305 feet, eleven inches, the tallest 
statue in the world. The pedestal was built by 
popular subscription throughout the United 
States, but the statue was the free gift of the 
French people. In June, 1885, the colossal 
figure, taken apart and securely packed in boxes, 
arrived at New York on the transport Isere, and 
was accorded a fitting public reception. The 






540 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


work of placing the figure on its base was com¬ 
pleted in 1886, and on October 28th the statue 
was unveiled, amid imposing ceremonies, by 
President Cleveland in the presence of the artist 
Bartholdi and other guests. The statue weighs 
450,000 pounds, or 225 tons. The bronze alone 
weighs 200,000 pounds. Forty persons can 
stand comfortably in the head, and the torch 
will hold twelve people. The number of steps 
in the statue, from the pedestal to the head, 
is 154, and the ladder leading up through the 
extended right arm to the torch has fifty-four 
rounds. 

Lisbon (Portuguese, Lisboa), the capital of 
Portugal, in the province of Estramadura, on 
the right bank of the Tagus, about ten miles 
from the mouth of that river. It stretches 
for about five miles along the river side, and is 
built on several hills rising to a considerable 
elevation. The new royal palace, which was 
completed in 1864, is a magnificent edifice. 
Opposite the city the river is about six miles 
wide, and its harbor, or roadstead, is one of the 
finest in the world. Lisbon owes its beauty as 
a modern city to the great earthquake of No¬ 
vember 1, 1755, when it is said that 50,000 lives 
were lost, and when a great part of the old city 
was destroyed. Since then, the whole of the 
modern city, or new town, has grown up. It 
is the seat of the Patriarch, who is the head of 
the Roman Catholic Church in Portugal; and 
it has many museums, libraries, and other edu¬ 
cational institutions. The export trade of Lis¬ 
bon consists chiefly of wine, oil, fruits, and salt; 
and it has numerous and important manufac¬ 
tures. Population, 356,009. 

Liverpool is an important fortified sea¬ 
port, borough, and commercial emporium of 
England, on the estuary of the Mersey. This 
city is the chief port of the trade between the 
United States and England, and possesses 
shipping interests on a gigantic scale. The fa¬ 
mous docks here, nine miles in length, and un¬ 
surpassed with regard to massiveness of con¬ 
struction and extent of accommodation, were 
constructed at a cost of $65,000,000. Popula¬ 
tion, 730,143. 

London, on the Thames, fifty miles from 
the sea, the capital of the British Empire, is the 
most populous and wealthiest city in the world. 
The city of London proper occupies one square 
mile in the center, is wholly a commercial port, 
and is governed by an annually elected mayor 
and aldermen; is the seat of a bishopric, with 
St. Paul's for cathedral. The city of Westmin¬ 
ster is also a bishopric under a high steward and 
high bailiff, chosen by the dean and chapter. 
These two cities, with twenty-six boroughs 
under local officers, constitute the metropolis, 
and since 1888 the county of the city of London, 
and send fifty-nine members to parliament. 
Streets in the older parts are narrow, but newer 
districts are well built; the level ground and 
density of building detracts from the effect of 
innumerable magnificent edifices. Bucking¬ 
ham, Kensington, and St. James's are royal 
residences; the houses of parliament are the 
biggest Gothic building in the world; St. Paul's, 
built by Sir Christopher Wren, contains the re¬ 
mains of Nelson and Wellington, Reynolds, 


Turner, and Wren himself. Westminster, con¬ 
secrated 1269, is the burial place of England's 
reatest poets and statesmen, and of many 
ings; the royal courts of justice in the Strand 
were opened in 1882. There are many edu¬ 
cational institutions, medical hospitals, and 
charitable institutions of all kinds. London is 
the center of the English literary and artistic 
world, and of scientific interest and research; 
here are the largest publishing houses, the chief 
libraries and art galleries, and museums; the 
British Museum and library, the national gal¬ 
leries, etc., and magnificent botanical and zoo¬ 
logical gardens. London is also a grand em¬ 
porium of commerce, and the banking center 
of the world. It has nine principal docks; its 
shipping trade is unrivaled, 55,000 vessels enter 
and clear annually; it pays more than half the 
custom duties of the kingdom, and handles more 
than a quarter of the total exports; its ware¬ 
house trade is second only to that of Manchester; 
it manufactures almost everything, chiefly 
watches, jewelry, leather goods, cycles, pianos, 
and glass. The control of traffic, the lighting, 
and water-supply of so large a city are yearly 
causing more serious problems. Pop., 7,251,358. 

Longitude is the angle at the pole between 
two great circles drawn on the earth's surface, 
passing through the poles, and touching re¬ 
spectively the place whose longitude is in ques¬ 
tion and the place selected as the origin of 
longitudes. Accordingly, the difference in longi¬ 
tude of two places is equivalent to the differ¬ 
ence of the arc of the equator intercepted be¬ 
tween their meridians. As nature has not, 
as in the case of latitude, supplied us with a 
fixed meridian, each nation has chosen its 
own prime meridian. Thus, in the United 
States, Great Britain and her colonies, Ger¬ 
many, Holland and other states, longitude 
is reckoned from the meridian passing through 
Greenwich. France uses the meridian passing 
through Paris. Longitude, is reckoned east 
and west from 0° to 180°, though astronomers 
reckon west from 0° to 360°, never using east 
longitude. Longitude is employed to reckon 
time, a difference of fifteen degrees representing 
one hour. By ascertaining the difference in 
hours between local and meridian time and 
multiplying by fifteen, longitude is readily 
found. 

Los Angeles, on Los Angeles River, 480 
miles southeast of San Francisco, is the com¬ 
mercial center of Southern California. Its 
seaport on the Pacific is San Pedro, at the 
mouth of the river. It is the center of a region 
rich in gold, silver, and lead mines, and petro¬ 
leum wells, and yielding the principal grains, 
wines, and citrus and deciduous fruits. Los 
Angeles is a beautiful residence city, the seat 
of the University of Southern California. Its 
fine climate has attracted many people of 
wealth and culture to its environs, and has 
stimulated its marvelous growth as well. Until 
1847 it alternated with Monterey as the capital 
of the Mexican province of California. Popu¬ 
lation, 319,198. 

Lyons, third city of France in population, 
is situated chiefly on the peninsula between 
the Rivers Rhone and Saone, 245 miles south- 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


541 


east of Paris. It is the great warehouse of the 
south of France and of Switzerland; principal 
manufacture, silk stuffs, giving employment 
directly or indirectly to 200,000 hands. The 
cathedral and Church of St. Nizier, the Hotel 
de Ville (town hall), the finest edifice of the kind 
in the country, the hospital, the public library, 
and the Palais des Beaux Arts, are the most 
notable among numerous institutions. There 
are also a university academy, an imperial vet¬ 
erinary school — the first founded in the coun¬ 
try, and still the best — schools for agriculture, 
medicine, etc. The two rivers are crossed by 
nineteen bridges; twelve over the Saone, and 
seven over the Rhone. The quays, twenty- 
eight in number, are said to be the most remark¬ 
able in Europe. There are several large and 
important suburbs; several fine squares, of 
which the Place Bellecour is one of the largest 
in Europe. Population, 472,114. 

Madrid, the capital of Spain and of the 
province of Madrid, a part of New Castile, situ¬ 
ated near the heart of the country, on the left 
bank of the Manzanares, a sub-affluent of the 
Tagus, and on a hilly, sandy plateau, 2,200 feet 
above the sea. One of the handsomest of Eu¬ 
ropean cities, it has a very modern aspect, and is 
partly surrounded by a brick wall twenty feet 
high, and pierced by sixteen gates, the most 
notable being the Puerta de Alcala, a triumphal 
arch seventy-two feet high at the foot of the 
Calle de Alcala, a magnificent street that 
traverses the city from northeast to southwest. 
The city is girt with fine promenades and 
stately suburban villas embowered in beautiful 
gardens. 

The great building in Madrid is the Real 
Palacio, on the west side, between the city and 
the river. It is a square, 470 feet on each side, 
and 100 feet high, built (1737-1750) of granite 
and white marble, inclosing a court 240 feet 
square, and containing a library of 100,000 
volumes, an armory of 2,533 specimens, and a 
numismatic collection of 150,000 pieces. Ma¬ 
drid has also about sixty churches, forty-four 
monasteries, used since 1836 for secular pur¬ 
poses, twenty-four nunneries, twenty-four hos¬ 
pitals (one with 1,526 beds), fourteen barracks, 
100 elementaiy schools, several colleges or higher 
schools, a university, a medical school, a con¬ 
servatory of music, eight theaters, four public 
libraries, eight museums, a botanical garden, an 
observatory, an academy modeled on that of 
Paris, etc. The royal museum in the Prado 
contains a gallery of 1,833 pictures, one of the 
richest collections in the world. 

The industries of Madrid are slight. The 
commerce, however, is important, as Madrid is 
the entrepot for all the interior provinces. Pop¬ 
ulation, 539,835. 

Maggiore (Lake) (: mad-jo'ra ), or Locarna, 
a considerable expanse of water in Northern Italy, 
lying partly within the latter, and partly in¬ 
cluded in the Swiss canton of Ticino. Length, 
thirty-nine miles, breadth from one-half mile 
to five and one-half miles; 636 feet above sea- 
level, with a maximum depth of 1,221 feet. 
It receives the rivers Tresa and Ticino, and its 
surface is dotted with several islands, chief 
among them being the Borromean group — one 


of which, “Isola Bella,” is renowned for its ex¬ 
quisite beauty of location and surroundings. 

Malays, a people inhabiting the Malay 
Peninsula and the Eastern or Malay Archipelago, 
or collectively Malaysia. They are of Mongolian 
affinity. This enterprising race has made its 
way widely over the Pacific islands, reaching as 
far south as Madagascar, where they exist as the 
dominant Hova element of the population. 
This widespread dominion is due to their bold, 
enterprising, and roving disposition, their place 
of residence on the peninsula and the larger is¬ 
lands being the coast region, whence they have 
driven the natives into the interior and where 
they long pursued a piratical career, darting 
from hidden streams in their well-manned proas 
on any vessel that approached too near the coast, 
or more boldly lying in wait in fleets in the open 
sea, for any expected rich prize. Physically con¬ 
sidered, the Malays are of low stature. In vari¬ 
ous respects they bear a close resemblance to 
the Mongolians of Eastern Asia, but differ from 
them radically in language. Of late years the 
lessons taught them by European naval vessels 
have forced the Malays to desist from piracy. 
Intellectually they seem at a low level, and have 
never developed a native literature, such civiliza¬ 
tion as they possess being due to Arab and Hindu 
influence. 

Mammoth Cave, a cavern near Green 
River, Edmonson County, Kentucky, about 
85 miles south-southwest of Louisville. The 
cave is about 10 miles long, but it requires up¬ 
ward of 150 miles of traveling to explore its 
multitudinous avenues, chambers, grottoes, 
rivers, and cataracts. The main cave is 4 miles 
long, from 40 to 300 feet wide, and rises in 
height to 125 feet. The most interesting fea¬ 
tures of the cave are: The Chief City or Temple, 
covering an area of about four acres and having 
a dome of solid rock 120 feet high; the Star 
Chamber, about 500 feet long by 70 feet wide, 
with a ceiling 70 feet high, consisting of black 
gypsum dotted with many white points, which, 
when the chamber is lighted, have all the ap¬ 
pearance of stars; Silliman’s avenue, 1^ miles 
long, 20 to 200 feet wide, and 20 to 40 feet high; 
Cleveland’s Cabinet, an arch 50 feet wide, 10 feet 
high and 2 miles long, covered with a variety 
of formations; the Maelstrom Abyss and Bot¬ 
tomless Pit, each of which is 20 feet wide and 
about 175 feet deep; and the river Styx, 450 
feet long, and crossed by a natural bridge about 
30 feet high. The cave contains various kinds 
of animals, and there are also found lizards, 
crickets, frogs, bats, and different sorts of fish. 
The latter include the famous eyeless fish, which 
are white in color. The atmosphere is pure 
and healthful and there is a temperature through¬ 
out the year of from 52° to 59°. 

Manchester, a city in Lancashire, Eng¬ 
land, on the Irwell, an affluent of the Mersey, 
thirty-one miles east of Liverpool. It is the 
center of the cotton trade of Great Britain, and 
one of the principal manufacturing cities in the 
world. The manufacture of silk goods, which 
was introduced in 1816, has generally flourished 
since 1826, producing every description of fabrics 
from the rich brocade to the flimsy Persian. In 
some cotton factories the process of spinning 



542 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


only is carried on; in many of them upward of 
600 power looms are in action, each producing 
from fifteen to twenty pieces of fabric, of twenty- 
four yards each per week. There are over 60,000 
persons employed in the cotton mills, besides 
7,000 skilled mechanics engaged in the produc¬ 
tion of steam engines, looms, and other machin¬ 
ery. The climate of Manchester is very healthy, 
despite the disadvantage of the prevalence of 
smoke arising from the number of factories, etc. 
Population, 631,185. 

Manchuria (Chinese, Shing-king), a Chi¬ 
nese territory occupying the northeast corner 
of China; it is divided into three provinces, 
Shing-king, Feng-Tien, or Liao-tung in the 
south (of which Mukden is the capital), Kirin 
in the center (with a capital of the same name), 
and Hei-Lung-Kiang in the north (with capital 
Tsitsihar); total area, 362,310 square miles; 
population is estimated at 15,000,000. The 
country is mountainous, but on the whole fertile. 
The climate is good; though the winters are 
severe, they are healthy and bracing. The 
vast forests of the north are rich in useful timber 
of all kinds. The administration is military, 
the governors of the two northern provinces be¬ 
ing subordinate to the governor of Mukden. 
The Manchus are a hardy race, and their country 
has long been the great recruiting ground for 
the Chinese army; but of late years vast num¬ 
bers of Chinese proper have flocked into it, so 
that now they by far outnumber the native race. 
In the Seventeenth Century the Manchus invaded 
China and placed their leader’s son on the throne. 
From that time until 1912 the Manchu Dynasty 
continued to reign in China. The Manchu 
language has become the court and official lan- 
guage. 

For a considerable time prior to 1891, when the 
first sod was turned for the construction of the 
great Siberian railroad, the Russian Government 
was anxious to secure control of this territory. 
On November 9, 1901, the Russian minister of 
finance, in announcing the completion of this 
railroad from Transbaikal territory to Vladi¬ 
vostok and Port Arthur, used the phrase “ Our 
enterprise in Manchuria is practically, though 
not entirely, concluded.” A number of times it 
was declared that the Chinese Government, under 
pressure from Li Hung Chang, had signed a 
secret treaty with Russia for the cession of this 
territory. In 1900, while the allied army was 
hastening to the relief of the legations in Peking 
a Russian military force occupied the right bank 
of the Amur River, and declared it to be Rus¬ 
sian territory, and a provisional Russian ad¬ 
ministration was established. Official declara¬ 
tions were sent out from Petersburg to the effect 
that the current rumors of an incorporation 
of Manchuria with the Russian Empire were 
groundless. 

In October, 1903, Russia having failed to 
evacuate Manchuria on the 8th of that month, 
as promised, Japan made military and naval 
preparations of a warlike character, while Russia 
also strengthened her forces in the distant 
Orient, which eventuated in the Russo-Japanese 
War. While, by the treaty of Portsmouth, 
Manchuria was restored to China, it is still a 
bone of contention between Russia and Japan. 


Manila, or Manilla, a seaport of the island 
of Luzon, capital of the Philippines, situated 
near the mouth of the River Passig, at the head 
of a bay of same name. It possesses an excel¬ 
lent harbor, and carries on a large and important 
commerce with Europe, the United States, and 
China. The climate is healthful on the whole, 
but the place is subject to earthquakes, the last 
of which, in 1863, was the cause of serious loss 
of life. In Manila Bay, on May 1, 1898, Ad¬ 
miral Dewey with six warships, destroyed Spain’s 
Asiatic Squadron, thirteen vessels, under Ad¬ 
miral Montejo. Population in 1907, 223,542. 

Marseilles ( mar-salz ), French Marseille 
{mar-say'-e), a city, principal commercial seaport 
of France, on the Mediterranean, and capital 
of the department of Bouchesdu-Rhone. It lies 
in the form of an amphitheater round a natural 
harbor of moderate size, now known as the Old 
Harbor. Though a handsome city as a whole, 
Marseilles is not rich in public edifices. The 
harbor is strongly defended by various works. 
What is called the New Harbor consists of 
a series of extensive docks along the shore to the 
west, with a protecting breakwater in front. 

In recent times Marseilles has made great 
progress in its extent, street improvements, 
population, and commerce, largely owing to 
the conquest of Algeria, and the opening of the 
Suez Canal. Marseilles was founded by a colony 
of Greeks from Asia Minor, about 600 years be¬ 
fore Christ, the original name being Massalia. 
It attained great prosperity as a Greek colonial 
center, and the Greek language is said to have 
been spoken there till several centuries after 
Christ. It was taken by Caesar in 49 B. C. On 
the decline of the Roman Empire it became a 
prey to the Goths, Burgundians, and Franks. 
In 735 it fell into the hands of the Saracens, and 
in the Tenth Century it came under the domin¬ 
ion of the counts of Provence, and for some 
centuries after followed the fortunes of that 
house. Population, 525,250. 

Matterhorn, a peak of the Alps, between 
the Swiss canton of Valais and Piedmont, rising 
to the altitude of 14,780 feet. The actual peak 
was first scaled by Lord Francis Douglas, the 
Rev. C. Hudson, Hadow, and Whymper, with 
three guides, July 14, 1865, when the three first- 
named and one of the guides fell over a precipice 
and were killed. 

Mecca, a city of Arabia, about sixty miles 
from the Red Sea, the chief town of the Hedjaz, 
and celebrated as the birthplace of Mohammed. 
It is the sacred city of the Mohammedans, and, 
in itself uninteresting, is important on account 
of the pilgrimages which are made annually to 
the Great Mosque, in which is contained the 
Kaaba. From 100,000 to 150,000 persons are 
said to take part in these pilgrimages annually. 
The city, like the whole province of the Hedjaz, 
now belongs to Turkey. Population, about 
50,000. 

Medina, a city of Arabia, about 230 miles 
north of Mecca. It is the second capital of the 
Hedjaz, and is celebrated as the seat of Moham¬ 
med’s empire, as the place to which he fled from 
Mecca, and likewise as his burial place. To the 
Mohammedans Medina is only less sacred than 
Mecca, but it is now chiefly important as one 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


543 


of the stations on the pilgrim route to Mecca. 
The city, like the whole province of the Hedjaz, 
belongs to Turkey. Stationary population, about 
40,000. 

Mediterranean Sea, The ( med-e-ter - 
ra'ne-an ), a great inland sea, separating the con¬ 
tinent of Europe from that of Africa and part 
of Western Asia; connecting by the Strait of 
Gibraltar, at its western extremity, with the 
Atlantic Ocean, and on the northeast with the 
Sea of Marmora by the channel of the Darda¬ 
nelles, and thence by the Bosphorus with the 
Euxine. Extreme length, 2,300 miles; maxi¬ 
mum breadth, 1,200 miles. Estimated area, 
690,000 square miles. Various portions of its 
surface take other names, as the “Ligurian,” 
“Tyrrhenian,” “Ionian,” “iEgean,” and “Adri¬ 
atic” seas. Its coastline, too, embraces the 
extensive gulfs of Taranto, Patras, iEgina, 
Salonika, Smyrna, Adalia, Iskanderoon, Gaeta, 
Genoa, Lyon, Cabes, and Sidra. It receives 
the waters of the Nile, Ebro, Rhone, Po, and 
many others; contains the considerable is¬ 
lands of Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, the Balearic 
group, Malta, Candia, Cyprus, and the clusters 
of the Greek Archipelago; and possesses a tem- 
erature averaging from 72° to 76°, or |° Fahr. 
igher than that of the Atlantic Ocean. It has 
a tide rising from five to seven feet, and a con¬ 
stant upper current sets in from the Atlantic, 
through the Strait of Gibraltar. Its depth varies 
according to situation; and it is at times subject 
to destructive winds, such as the “sirocco” and 
the “white squall.” The surrounding territories 
are the richest in the world, and the greatest 
movements in civilization and art have taken 
place around it in Africa, Phoenicia, Carthage, 
Greece, and Rome. 

Melbourne, the largest city of Australia; 
capital of Victoria; is situated on the Yarra 
Yarra River, a stream of no great size, Melbourne 
proper being several miles from its mouth, while 
suburban extensions reach the shores of Port 
Phillip Bay, into which the river flows. The 
shipping trade is large, both in exports and im- 

E orts, the chief of the former being wool, of the 
itter manufactured goods. Most imports are 
subject to a heavy duty. 

By its railway system the city is connected 
with some of the principal towns of the Austra¬ 
lian continent. The first settlements on the site 
of Melbourne were made in 1835, and a year or 
two after it received its present name, being so 
called after Lord Melbourne, who was then 
British prime minister. It was incorporated 
in 1842. In 1851 it became the capital of Victoria 
(then established as a separate colony), and 
received an immense impetus from the discov¬ 
ery of gold fields. A centennial exhibition was 
held in 1888 in celebration of the founding (in 
1788) of the Australian colonies. The first Par¬ 
liament of the Commonwealth of Australia was 
opened in the Exhibition Building on May 9, 
1901, by the Prince of Wales. Population, 
538,000. 

Melrose, a village of Scotland, county of 
Roxburgh; on the Tweed, thirty-one miles 
southeast of Edinburgh. It is celebrated for 

P ossessing the finest monastic ruin in Scotland, 
lelrose Abbey, originally founded by David I., 


in 1136, was destroyed by Edward II., of Eng¬ 
land, in 1322. In 1336 it was rebuilt by Robert 
Bruce, and completed in the reign of James IV., 
about 1488-1513. It was again destroyed by 
the English in 1545. It was of Gothic style, and 
the ruins still attest its grandeur and magnifi¬ 
cence. 

Mexico (Spanish, Mejico; Mexican, Ana- 
huac), an extensive republic and quondam em¬ 
pire of North America, bounded north by the 
United States, east by the Gulf of Mexico and 
Caribbean Sea, southeast by Central America, 
and south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Its 
extreme length, northwest to southeast, may 
be taken at 2,000 miles; and its maximum 
breadth at about 800 miles. Its chief centers 
of trade and population are Mexico, the capital; 
Vera Cruz, Tampico, La Puebla, Jalapa, Mata- 
moras, Acapulco, San Bias, Mazatlan, Durango, 
and Chihuahua, of which Vera Cruz and Tam¬ 
pico are considerable seaports. Mexico is one 
of the richest and most varied zones in the 
world, and consists of three grand natural divi¬ 
sions, viz: the tierras calientes, or “hot regions,” 
along its coasts; the tierras templadas, or “tem¬ 
perate tracts,” occupying what is called the 
“table-lancf of Anahuac,” and the tierras frias, 
or “cold climes,” found high up among the 
Cordilleras and the Sierra Madre, two mountain 
systems that intersect the republic in almost 
parallel lines. Connected with, or outlying 
from, these chains, are some of the loftiest vol¬ 
canic peaks on the North American continent, 
the highest of which is Popocatepetl. The 
frontier line separating Mexico from Texas is 
the great Rio Grande del Norte, besides which 
river there are the Bravo del Norte, Colorado, 
Grande de Santiago, and Conchas -— all streams 
of magnitude. The chief lakes are those of 
Chapala, Mexico, and Parras. The soil of Mex¬ 
ico is among the richest in the world, producing 
the finest of tropical fruits and flowers, valu¬ 
able timber and dyewoods, cereals, and impor¬ 
tant medicinal drugs and spices. The products 
of the Mexican mines include silver — long the 
great staple of export, the annual average pro¬ 
duce being valued at $15,000,000 — iron, copper, 
lead, tin, quicksilver, alum, and precious stones. 
The foreign commerce of the country is carried 
on chiefly with the United States, England, 
and France. 

Michigan, Lake, the second largest of 
the Great Lakes of North America. It is 
wholly within the United States, having the 
State of Michigan on the east and northwest, 
Wisconsin and Illinois on the west, and Indiana 
on the south. On the northeast it communi¬ 
cates with Lake Huron by the narrow Strait of 
Mackinaw. It is 350 miles long, and about 
seventy-five miles broad; area, estimated at 
22,450 square miles. The lake is 581 feet above 
sea level; the greatest ascertained depth is about 
1,000 feet. 

Milan, a city of Italy, in the province of 
Milan, which is a part of the old province of 
Lombardy. It is situated on a plain, between 
the rivers Ticino and Adda, and is the largest 
city of Italy after Naples. Under the name 
of Mediolanum it was an important town of 
the Romans, and, from the time of Diocletian 




544 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


till its capture by Attila, it was the usual resi¬ 
dence of the emperors of the West. The 
modern city is about eight miles in circum¬ 
ference, and is encompassed on three sides by 
walls and low ramparts. It has a cathedral, 
the “Duomo,” which dates from the Fourteenth 
Century, and which is the finest Gothic edifice 
in Italy, being constructed entirely of white 
marble. In the Duomo , in 1805, Napoleon I. 
was crowned King of Italy. The city possesses 
many other splendid buildings, and numerous 
educational and other institutions. It is the 
center of the silk trade of Lombardy, and is the 
largest book-mart in Italy. In 1872 an Arts Ex¬ 
position was held in the city, in 1881, a National 
Exposition, and in 1907, an International Ex¬ 
position of Industrial Arts. Population, 541,- 
981. 

Minneapolis, a city of the United States, 
county seat of Hennepin County, Minnesota, 
on both sides of the Mississippi, at the Falls of 
St. Anthony, and now contiguous to St. Paul. 
It is regularly laid out with avenues eighty feet 
wide, running east and west, having double 
rows of trees on each side. The public build¬ 
ings include the court house, the University of 
Minnesota (chartered in 1851), the Augsburg 
Theological Seminary, Lutheran (opened in 
1869); a handsome Free Public Library, the 
building alone costing $350,000, and containing 
50,000 volumes. There are numerous fine 
schools, churches, colleges, banks, theaters, and 
parks. The principal industries are the manu¬ 
facture of flour, lumber, engines, boilers, agri¬ 
cultural implements, carriages, wagons, bicycles, 
machinery, foundries, and pork-packing. It 
leads all other centers in the manufacture of 
flour. It is also an important lumber and wheat 
mart. The city possesses a territory of about 
sixty square miles, and is built on a fine espla¬ 
nade that commands a very fine view of 
the justly-celebrated Falls of Minnehaha, and 
several fine lakes. It is a great railroad cen¬ 
ter, being on the Burlington route; Chicago 
& Northwestern; Chicago Great Western; 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul; Chicago, 
St. Paul, Minnesota & Omaha; Great North¬ 
ern; Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie; 
the North Pacific; St. Paul & Duluth; and 
Wisconsin Central R. R’s. The city and 
county building stands a monument of the 
enterprise of the city; it is a most beautiful 
structure and was built at a cost of $4,000,000. 
The Masonic Temple and other buildings add to 
the architectural beauties. There are six daily 
journals, and a large number of weekly, monthly, 
and other periodicals. Population, 301,408. 

Mirage, a phenomenon extremely common 
in certain localities, and as simple in its origin 
as astonishing in its effects. Under it are classed 
the appearance of distant objects as double, or 
as if suspended in the air, erect or inverted, etc. 
One cause of mirage is a diminution of the density 
of the air near the surface of the earth, produced 
by the transmission of heat from the earth, or 
in some other way; the denser stratum being 
thus placed above, instead of, as is usually the 
case, below the rarer. Now, rays of light from a 
distant object, situated in the denser medium 
(i. e., a little above the earth’s level), coming in 


a direction nearly parallel to the earth’s surface, 
meet the rarer medium at a very obtuse angle, 
and instead of passing into it, are reflected back 
to the dense medium; the common surface of 
the two media acting as a mirror. Suppose, then 
a spectator to be situated on an eminence, and 
looking at an object situated like himself in the 
denser stratum of air, he will see the object by 
means of directly transmitted rays; but besides 
this, rays from the object will be reflected from 
the upper surface of the rarer stratum of air be¬ 
neath to his eye. The image produced by the 
reflected rays will appear inverted, and below 
the real object, just as an image reflected in 
water appears when observed from a distance. 
If the object is a cloud or portion of sky, it will 
appear by the reflected rays as lying on the sur¬ 
face of the earth, and bearing a strong resem¬ 
blance to a sheet of water; also, as the reflecting 
surface is irregular, and constantly varies its 
position, owing to the constant communication 
of heat to the upper stratum, the reflected image 
will be constantly varying, and will present the 
appearance of a water surface ruffled by the 
wind. This form of mirage, which even experi¬ 
enced travelers have found to be completely 
deceptive, is of common occurrence in the arid 
deserts of Lower Egypt, Persia, Tartary, etc. 
In particular states of the atmosphere, reflection 
of a portion only of the rays takes place at the 
surface of the dense medium, and thus double 
images are formed, one by reflection, and the 
other by refraction — the first inverted, and the 
second erect. 

Miseno, a promontory of the province of 
Naples, nine miles southwest of the city of 
Naples. On the outskirts of the promontory are 
the extensive ruins of the ancient city of Mise- 
num, including a vast church and theater. 
Miseno is much visited on account of its won¬ 
derful grotto Draconara, and a curious subter¬ 
ranean building or labyrinth, called the Hundred 
Chambers, supposed to have been anciently 
employed as dungeons. 

Mississippi, a river rising in northern 
Minnesota in Lakes Elk and Itasca, and flowing 
southward through a drainage area of about 
two-fifths of the United States to the Gulf of 
Mexico. The main stem is about 2,500 miles 
long, and is overtopped by its chief tributary, 
the Missouri. The total length from the 
sources of the latter to the Gulf is about 4,250 
miles, making the longest river in the world. 
The Mississippi proper is navigable to the Falls 
of St. Anthony at Minneapolis, 2,161 miles 
from its mouth. The other chief tributaries 
are the Arkansas, the Red, and the Ohio rivers. 
The southern half of the river flows through a 
broad, flat region, lower at times than the 
river level, and the surrounding country has 
been protected against floods by levees, sup¬ 
plementing the natural embankments. The 
river reaches the Gulf through several openings, 
forming an immense delta, 12,000 square miles. 
Annually the river carries 145 cubic miles of 
sediment to the Gulf, the deposit being esti¬ 
mated at 400,000,000 tons. 

Missouri, a river of the United States; 
formed in the Rocky Mountains, in Montana, 
winds circuitously along the base of the moun- 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


545 


tains, then east till it reaches the west boundary 
of North Dakota and receives the Yellowstone. 
Here it begins to flow southeast through North 
and South Dakota, then forms the east bound¬ 
ary of Nebraska, separates for a short distance 
Kansas from Missouri, then strikes east across 
the latter State, and joins the Mississippi after 
a course of 2,908 miles. It is navigable 2,500 
miles from the Mississippi, giving a water-route 
for commerce into the remote Northwestern 
States. 

Mitylene (the ancient Lesbos), an island in 
the Grecian Archipelago, one of the largest of 
the Sporades, about ten miles from the Asiatic 
coast. Its chief town, Mitylene, or Castro, is 
situated on the east side of the island. Lesbos 
was important in the early history of Greece as 
the native region of the iEolian school of lyric 
poetry. Both Alcaeus and Sappho were natives 
of the island. It attained great importance 
likewise, as a naval power, and planted colonies 
in Mysia and Thrace. The island is mountain¬ 
ous and is covered with pine forests. Its area is 
about 600 square miles, and its population is 
about 125,000. 

Monaco, a small principality in the south 
of France, within the department of Alpes Mari- 
times. The capital, Monaco, is situated on 
a lofty promontory on the shore of the Mediter¬ 
ranean, about nine miles northeast of Nice, and 
about one mile from Monte Carlo. It has a 
fine climate, being sheltered toward the north 
by the lofty range of the Alps; and its soil is 
singularly fertile, producing oranges, lemons, 
and other fruits in abundance. It is notorious, 
however, for its great gaming establishments of 
Monte Carlo, from which the prince derives nearly 
the whole of his revenue. Monaco was held by 
the Genoese family of the Grimaldi from about the 
close of the Tenth to the close of the Eighteenth 
Century. In 1848, the communes of Roccabruna 
and Mentone, which up to that time had belonged 
to the principality, were annexed to Sardinia, 
and in 1861 they were ceded to France, the prince 
receiving for his remaining interest in them the 
sum of four million francs. The area of the still 
existing principality is about eight square miles, 
and its population is 15,180. 

Mongols ( [mdng'gulz ). A division of the 

human race, ranking second in the classification 
of Blumenbach, and, viewed collectively, the one 
reat nomadic people of the earth. They include 
esides the Mongols Proper, the Tartars, Chi¬ 
nese and Indo-Chinese, the Burmese, Siamese, 
Japanese, Esquimaux, Samoyedes, Finns, Lapps, 
Turks, and Magyars. The physical character¬ 
istics of the true Mongol is thus depicted by Dr. 
Latham: “The face of the Mongolian is broad 
and flat. This is because the cheek-bones stand 
out laterally, and the nasal bones are depressed. 
The cheek-bones, we say, stand out laterally, 
since they are not merely projecting, for this 
they might be without giving much breadth 
to the face, inasmuch as they might stand 
forward. * * * The distance between 

the eyes is great, the eyes themselves being 
oblique, and their carunculse concealed. The 
eyebrows form a low and imperfect arch, 
black and scanty. The iris is dark, the cornea 
yellow. The complexion is tawny, the stature 


low. The ears are large, standing out from 
the head; the lips thick and fleshy rather 
than thin; the teeth somewhat oblique in 
their insertion, the forehead low and flat, and 
the hair lank and thin.” Under the various des¬ 
ignations of Scythians, Huns, Tartars, Turks, 
the Mongols during centuries were the terror of 
Eastern Europe, and under Genghis Khan and 
Tamerlane carried their victorious arms over 
China, Persia, Siberia, and India. The Mongo¬ 
lian family is estimated to number 825,000,000, 
or about one-half of the human race. 

Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in the 
Alps, generally spoken of as the highest mountain 
in Europe, though Elburz, in the mountains of 
the Caucasus, is 3,000 feet higher. It is situated 
in the French department of Haute Savoie, on 
the Italian border, and about thirty-eight miles 
south of the Lake of Geneva. It has an ele¬ 
vation above the sea of 15,781 feet. The mount¬ 
ain is generally ascended from the village of 
Chamouni. The summit was first reached by 
Balmat, a guide, in 1786; the next year by 
him and Saussure. 

Monte Carlo, in the principality of Mon¬ 
aco, is beautifully situated on sheltered bay 
and enjoys a delightful climate; while the sur¬ 
rounding scenery is full of charm and variety. 
The Casino is on a promontory on the east side 
of the town; besides a fully-supplied reading 
room, there is an elaborately decorated salle de 
fetes and widely known salles de jeu (gaming 
rooms). High-class music twice daily. There 
is a splendid view from the terrace behind the 
casino. The salles de jeu are open from 11.30 
A. M. until 11.30 P. M., tickets gratis obtained 
in the vestibule; inhabitants of principality are 
not admitted. Trente-et-quarante and roulette 
are the games played, at the former the minimum 
stake is twenty francs, the maximum 12,000 
francs; at roulette the minimum is five francs, 
the maximum 6,000 francs. The gardens of 
the casino are famous for their beauty. 

Adjoining the casino terrace is the tir aux 
pigeons, attended by the most expert trap shots 
from all parts; the grand prix, competed for in 
January, is 20,000 francs. 

Montenegro, an independent principality 
in Europe, in the northwest of Turkey, bounded 
by Herzegovina, Albania, the Adriatic, and Dal¬ 
matia. Area, about 3,630 square miles. The 
surface is everywhere mountainous, being cov¬ 
ered by an extension of the Dinaric Alps, 
rising to the height of 8,850 feet. There are, 
however, a few beautiful and verdant plains 
and valleys, in which the soil is tolerably 
fertile. The principal river is the Moratcha. 
About half of the Lake of Scutari, besides 
several smaller lakes, lies within the Mon¬ 
tenegrin boundary. The climate is healthy. 
Forests of beech, pine, chestnuts, and other valu¬ 
able timber cover many of the mountain sides. 
Fruit-trees of all kinds abound, especially in the 
sheltered valleys, where even almonds, vines, 
and pomegranates ripen. Agriculture is in a 
very rude and inefficient state, though every 
cultivable piece of land is planted with In¬ 
dian corn, potatoes, tobacco, rye, wheat, cab¬ 
bages, or some other useful plant. Sheep, 
cattle, and goats are reared in great num- 



546 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


bers. Manufactures, with the exception of a 
coarse woolen stuff, are unknown. The chief 
occupations of the Montenegrins are agriculture 
and fishing, trade being altogether left to for¬ 
eigners. The exports are sheep and cattle, 
mutton-hams, sumach, honey, hides, cheese, 
butter, and other agricultural produce. The 
chief towns (in reality little more than vil¬ 
lages) are Cettinje (4,500 inhabitants), the 
capital; Podgoritza (10,000 inhabitants); Nik- 
sich; and the seaports Dulcigno and Antivari. 
The Montenegrins are pure Serbs and speak a 
Serbian dialect. They are generally of tall stat¬ 
ure and well proportioned. The men go at all 
times fully armed, whatever be the occupation 
in which they are engaged, and all be¬ 
tween 18 and 62 years of age (from 30,000 to 
50,000) are liable to military service. In 
religion they are of the Greek Church. Edu¬ 
cation, once neglected, is now free and com¬ 
pulsory. Montenegro is nominally a constitu¬ 
tional monarchy, with a state council of eight 
members, but the prince is practically absolute. 
The annual revenue is somewhat less than 
|1,000,000. The population is about 250,000. 

Montreal *( mdnt-re-dl '), the metropolitan 
city of Canada; on an island of the same name, 
in the province of Quebec, at the head of ocean 
navigation on the St. Lawrence River. The 
city, which is one of the most attractive in 
Canada, contains many handsome public build¬ 
ings, and is divided into distinctly marked 
English and French quarters. The chief public 
buildings are the court-house, the barracks, 
Bonsecours Market, custom-house, city hall, etc.; 
and the principal churches are St. Peter's Cathe¬ 
dral, constructed on the model of St. Peter's at 
Rome, the church of Notre Dame (large enough 
to accommodate 10,000 persons), St. Patrick's, 
Christ Church Cathedral, St. Andrew's, St. 
Paul's, etc. M’Gill University, Presbyterian 
College, Wesleyan Theological College, Congre¬ 
gational College, Anglican Diocesan College, 
Bishop's College and University, the Montreal 
School of Medicine and Surgery, are the leading 
Protestant educational institutions; those of the 
Roman Catholics comprise Laval University, 
St. Mary's College, Montreal College, Hochelaga 
Convent, etc. There are several libraries besides 
those of the above institutions, a natural history 
society with museum, an art association, musi¬ 
cal societies, etc. The exports are chiefly the 
products of the country, such as grain, flour, 
cheese, lumber, etc., and there is a large trade in 
furs. The principal imports are cottons, 
woolens, silks, iron, hardware, tea, and sugar. 
Among the industrial establishments of Mon¬ 
treal are iron foundries, distilleries, breweries, 
sugar refineries, soap and candle works; and 
there are manufactures of cotton, silk, boots 
and shoes, paper, carpets, tobacco, hardware, 
edge tools, floor-cloth, carriages, etc. The Grand 
Trunk Railway, which connects the railways of 
Canada with those of the United States, crosses 
the St. Lawrence at Montreal by the stupendous 
(tubular) Victoria Bridge, 9,437 feet in length, 
constructed in 1854-59. 

Montreal was founded by Maisonneuve, May 
18, 1642, during the French regime in Canada. 
On September 8, 1760, Montreal capitulated to 


General Amherst and the surrender of the city 
completed the conquest of New France by the 
English. In 1775, Montreal was captured by the 
Americans, who sent expeditions under Mont¬ 
gomery and Arnold to capture Quebec and Mont¬ 
real; and General Carleton in command of the 
British forces at Montreal had to retreat to Que¬ 
bec, where the Americans were ultimately de¬ 
feated. In 1775, the American General Wooster 
made his headquarters in the Chateau de Ramer- 
gay, which still stands opposite the city hall, and 
which was the official residence of the British 
governors after the conquest. In this same 
chateau, the Commissioners of Congress, Ben¬ 
jamin Franklin, Samuel Chase, and Charles 
Carroll, in 1776, met and held council under 
General Benedict Arnold. In 1776 the Ameri¬ 
can forces retreated. Montreal obtained its 
first city charter in 1833, the first mayor being 
Jacques Viger. The recent history of the city 
has been an almost unbroken record of com¬ 
mercial and industrial progress. Great impetus 
was given to its growth by the opening of the 
Canadian Pacific Railway, the first train on 
which left Montreal for Vancouver on June 28, 
1886. Population in 1911, 466,197. 

Morocco, a French protectorate at the 
extreme northwestern angle of the continent of 
Africa, has about one-fifth its coast line on the 
Mediterranean and the remainder on the Atlan¬ 
tic. Its eastern boundary is Algeria, and to the 
south lie the Spanish colony of Rio de Oro and 
the Sahara. Along the northern coast rises a 
low mountain chain forming the maritime dis¬ 
trict of Er-Rif, which has the climate usual to 
the Mediterranean basin. The High Atlas 
mountains in two or more parallel chains inter¬ 
sect the country, running northeast and south¬ 
west. Their snow-clad peaks, rising in places to 
a height of 11,000 to 14,000 feet, interpose their 
eastern slopes against the scorching winds of the 
Sahara and upon the west receive the moist 
breezes of the Atlantic. Hence, the region of 
valleys and plains east of the Atlas is tropical 
in climate and the rivers run dry in their lower 
courses, whereas the rolling tract of plateaus, 
plains, and valleys in the angle between Er-Rif, 
the Atlas and the Atlantic is well-watered, fer¬ 
tile, and of temperate and salubrious climate. 
The country is populated by several distinct 
tribes, Berbers, Tuaregs, Shellah Berbers, Beduin 
and Mued Arabs, besides negroes, Jews, and a 
small number of Europeans. These racial ele¬ 
ments tend to antagonize rather than to amalga¬ 
mate with one another, and this fact, coupled 
with the extreme taxation and other evils of the 
absolute despotism that has hitherto prevailed, 
has prevented a national development. Large 
tracts are admirably suited to the production of 
crops, yet agriculture is most backward. The 
people are chiefly pastoralists, their wealth being 
almost wholly in their flocks and herds. Morocco 
has long been coveted as a rich prize by the 
nations of continental Europe and their conflict¬ 
ing claims have more than once threatened an 
international crisis. In 1912 France was suc¬ 
cessful in negotiating treaties with Germany, 
Morocco and Spain, respectively, whereby her 
suzerainty is acknowledged and the way is opened 
for rapid internal development of the country. 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


547 


With the exception of France, the only European 
nation which at present holds any territory in 
Morocco is Spain, which controls a large extent 
of territory on the Mediterranean and a small 
extent of territory near the port of Ifni. 

Much of the interior of Morocco is unknown 
to Europeans. The hostility of the interior tribes 
has prevented any organized industries; but 
rich mineral deposits of copper, iron, lead, anti¬ 
mony, sulphur, silver, gold, and petroleum are 
said to exist in various parts of the country. 
Fez, the capital, has a population of 140,000. 
Tangier, with a population of about 35,000, is a 
recognized health resort. Morocco City is the 
southern capital. 

Moscow ( mos'ko) [Russian, Moskwa], the 
second capital of the Russian Empire. It is 
the chief town of the government of the same 
name, and is situated in a highly-cultivated dis¬ 
trict on the Moskwa River, 400 miles southeast 
of St. Petersburg, with which it is in direct com¬ 
munication by rail. The quarter known as the 
Kreml or Kremlin, on a height about 100 feet 
above the river, forms the center of the town, 
and contains the principal buildings. It is in¬ 
closed by a high stone wall, and contains the 
old palace of the czars and several other palaces; 
the Cathedral of the Assumption, founded in 
1326, rebuilt in 1472; the Church of the Annun¬ 
ciation, in which the emperors are recrowned; 
the Cathedral of St. Michael; the Palace of 
Arms, an immense building occupied by the 
senate, the treasury and the arsenal; and the 
Tower of Ivan Veliki (209 feet), surmounted by 
a gilded dome, and having at its foot the great 
Czar Kolokol, or king of bells, sixty feet round 
the rim, nineteen feet high, and weighing up¬ 
ward of 200 tons, the largest in the world. Out¬ 
side the Kreml the chief building is the Cathedral 
of St. Vassili, with no less than twenty gilded 
and painted domes and towers, all of different 
shapes and sizes. Among the principal educa¬ 
tional establishments is the Imperial University, 
founded in 1755 by the Empress Catherine. It 
has a rich museum and a library of 200,000 vol¬ 
umes, and is the most important of the Russian 
universities. Moscow is the first manufacturing 
city in the empire, and of late years its indus¬ 
trial and commercial activity has greatly in¬ 
creased. The principal manufactures are textile 
fabrics, chiefly woolen, cotton, and silk, besides 
hats, hardware, leather, chemical products, beer, 
and spirits. From its central position, Moscow 
is the great entrepot for the internal commerce 
of the empire. The foundation of the city dates 
from 1147. It became the capital of Muscovy, 
and afterwards of the whole Russian Empire; 
but was deprived of this honor in 1712, when 
St. Petersburg received it. The principal 
event in the history of Moscow is the burning 
of it in 1812 for the purpose of dislodging the 
French from their winter quarters. Population, 
1,481,200. 

Mountains, Greatest in the World 


Name Location Height (feet) 

Aconcagua.Chile,. 23,083 

Ben-Nevis,.Scotland,. 4,406 

Blackburn,.Alaska.16,140 

Blanc, Mt.,.France.15,781 


Name Location Height (feet) 

Brown, Mt.,.Canada,. 9,055 

Cenis, Mt.,.France,.11,755 

Chinati Peak.Texas, . 7,730 

Clingman Dome, ., . . Tennessee.6,619 

Condor,.Argentina,.21,128 

Crillon, ....... Alaska.15,900 

Dapsang,.Tibet,. 28,278 

Dhawalaghiri, .... Asia,. 26,826 

Dickerman,.Washington,.15,766 

Douglass, Mt., .. . . . Montana.11,300 

Everest, Mt., .... India,.29,141 

Fisherman.California,.14,448 

Fremont’s Peak, . . . Wyoming,.13,790 

Gilbert Peak, .... Utah,.13,687 

Godwin-Austen (K 2 ), . India,. 28,278 

Harney Peak, .... South Dakota, .... 7,216 

Hermon, Mt.Palestine. 9,166 

Hogback, Mt., . . . . Nebraska,. 5,084 

Hooker, Mt., .... Canada,.15,700 

Hyndman Peak, . . . Idaho, .12,078 

Itacolumi,.Brazil, . 5,740 

Itambe,.Brazil, . 4,300 

Kanchanjanga.India,.28,156 

Katahdin,.Maine. 5,200 

Korintje,.Sumatra.12,480 

Kosciusko, Mt.Australia,. 7,336 

Lebanon, Mt., . . . . Syria,.11,000 

Logan, Mt., ..... Canada,.19,500 

Long’s Peak,.Colorado,.14,271 

McKinley,.Alaska. 20,464 

Mansfield, Mt., .... Vermont,. 4,364 

Marcy, Mt.,.New York,. 5,344 

Massive, .Colorado,.14,424 

Matterhorn,.Switzerland,.14,780 

Mercedario,.Argentina.22,312 

Mercedario, ..... Mexico.22,397 

Miltsin, Mt.,.Morocco, .11,400 

Mitchell, Mt..North Carolina, .... 6,711 

Monte Rosa,.Italy,.15,217 

Olympus,.Greece,. 6,600 

Olympus,.Turkey. 9,745 

Parnassus, .Greece, . .. 8,070 

Perdu, Mont, .... France,.11,300 

Peaks of Otter, . . . Virginia,. 4,250 

Pike’s Peak,.Colorado,.14,108 

Redslate Peak, . . . California,.13,400 

Roa, Mt.,.Hawaii.17,500 

Rogers, Mt.,.(Grayson Co.) Virginia,. 5,719 

Roraima,.Venezuela,. 8,740 

Santa Clara Mountain,. New Mexico,.11,507 

Santa Fe Baldy Peak, . New Mexico,.12,661 

Simplon,.Alps, Switzerland,. . . 11,541 

Sinai, Mt., .Turkey,. 8,593 

Sitting Bull Mountain, Georgia,. 5,046 

Snehaetten,.Norway,. 7,566 

Snowdon,.Wales,. 3,571 

Sorata,.Bolivia,.21,490 

Spruce Mountain, . . (Pendleton Co.) W. Va., 4,860 

St. Bernard,.Switzerland,. 8,110 

St. Gothard.Switzerland,.10,500 

Truchas Peak, .... New Mexico,.13,275 

Vancouver,.Alaska,.15,666 

Washaku Needle, . . . Arizona,.12,000 

Washington, Mt., . . . New Hampshire, . . . 6,293 

Wheeler Peak, .... Nevada,.13,058 

Whitney,.California,.14,502 

Ymesfield, .Norway,. 8,543 


Mount McKinley, a mountain of the 
McKinley Range, in Alaska. It is situated about 
125 miles north of Cook Inlet, and stands close 
to the intersection of the 63rd parallel of 
north latitude with the 151st meridian of west 
longitude. Recent measurements made by the 
United States Geological Survey show this to 
be the tallest peak in the United States, 
overtopping Mount St. Elias and Mount Logan 
by about 1,000 feet, its height being 20,464 feet. 
The great height of Mount McKinley has been 
known to the Indians and the scattering whites 
of that region, for many years, as its towering 
summit is plainly visible on clear days for a 
distance of 125 miles or more. 

Munich ( mu'-nik ), the capital city of Ba¬ 
varia, on an extensive plateau, about 1,700 feet 
above sea level, chiefly on the left bank of the 
















































































































548 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Isar. The old town has a quaint and irregular 
character, but the new town, which has sprung 
up chiefly to the north and west, has a regular 
and imposing appearance, and altogether Mu¬ 
nich is one of the finest towns in Germany. The 
royal palace forms a very extensive series of 
buildings chiefly in the Italian style, and con¬ 
tains many magnificent apartments and rich 
artistic and other treasures. The royal library 
has upward of 1,000,000 volumes and 30,000 
manuscripts, being thus one of the largest in 
Europe. The university had in 1902, 200 pro¬ 
fessors and teachers, and 4,766 students in 
theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and phi¬ 
losophy, together with a library of over 500,000 
volumes. The industries are numerous; brew¬ 
ing ranks first, about 76,000,000 gallons (half of 
which are exported) being produced annually. 
Among others may be mentioned painted glass 
and other artistic productions, mathematical, 
optical, and surgical instruments, gold and 
silver lace, jewelry, glass, carriages, bells, musi¬ 
cal instruments, etc. Munich is the seat of the 
high courts of legislature and of law, and of all 
the more important offices of the state. It was 
founded by Henry the Lion, about 1142, was 
taken by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, by the 
French under Moreau in 1800, and by Napoleon 
in 1805. Population, 595,053. 

Naples (Italian, Napoli), a magnificent city 
of Southern Italy, capital of a province of same 
name, and of the former kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies, on the north side of the far-famed Bay 
of Naples, near the base of Mount Vesuvius, 
118 miles southeast of Rome. Built in the 
form of an amphitheater, Naples, as viewed 
from the sea, presents a panorama of almost 
unrivaled beauty. Architecturally speaking, its 
public edifices are more remarkable for their 
size than for their elegance of design. It has 
some manufactures and a large commerce. 
This city, the supposed Parthenope of the an¬ 
cients, has, at various times, been devastated 
by the effects of war, earthquakes, and the 
volcanic eruptions of its neighbor, Vesuvius. 
The environs of Naples — Capri, Pompeii, etc. 
— are renowned for their picturesqueness and 
archaeological interest. Population, 563,540. 

Netherlands, The, or Holland (Dutch 
Nederland, or Koninkrijk der Nederlanden), is 
a kingdom of Europe on the North Sea, north 
of Belgium and west of part of Northern Ger¬ 
many. In addition to its European territories, 
Holland possesses extensive colonies and de¬ 
pendencies in the Asiatic archipelago and Amer¬ 
ica; including Java, Sumatra, a great part of 
Borneo, Celebes, part of New Guinea, Surinam 
or Dutch Guiana, the West Indian islands of 
Curacao, Saba, St. Eustatius, etc. Some por¬ 
tions of the Netherlands proper are sixteen to 
twenty feet below the surface of the sea, and 
nearly all parts too low for natural drainage. 
The coast line is very irregular, being marked 
by the great inlet of the Zuider Zee, as well as 
by various others, and fringed by numerous 
islands. In great part the coast is so low that 
were it not for massive sea-dykes, large areas 
would be inundated and lost to the inhabitants. 
In the interior also dykes are a common feature, 
being built to protect portions of land from the 


lakes or rivers, or to enable swampy pieces of 
land to be reclaimed by draining, the water 
being commonly pumped up by windmills. 
These inclosed lands are called “polders/' and 
by the formation of the polders the available 
area of the country is being constantly increased, 
lakes and marshes being converted into fertile 
fields, and considerable areas being even rescued 
from the sea. One of these reclamations was 
the Lake of Haarlem, the drainage of which, 
yielding more than 40,000 acres of good land 
now inhabited by about 12,000 persons, begun 
in 1839, was finished in 1852. Almost the only 
heights are the sand hills, about 100 to 180 feet 
high, along the coast, and a similar chain of 
low hills, southeast of the Zuider Zee. In the 
same line with the sand hills, extending past 
the mouth of the Zuider Zee, runs a chain of 
islands, namely, Texel, Vlieland, Terschelling, 
Ameland, etc., which seem to indicate the origi¬ 
nal line of the coast before the ocean broke in on 
the low lands. The coast of Friesland, opposite 
these islands, depends for its security altogether 
on artificial embankments. The highest eleva¬ 
tion, 656 feet, is in the extreme southeast. The 
general aspect of the country is flat, tame, and 
uninteresting, and about a fifth of the whole 
surface consists of marsh, sand, heath, or other 
unproductive land. Wheat, of excellent qual¬ 
ity, is grown only in favored portions of the 
south provinces. Rye, oats, and buckwheat, 
with horse-beans, beet, madder, and chicory, 
are more common crops; and tobacco is culti¬ 
vated in the provinces of Gelderland, South 
Holland, and Utrecht; flax in North Brabant, 
South and North Holland, Friesland, and Zee- 
land; and hemp, sugar-beet, oilseeds, and hops 
in various parts of the kingdom Culinary 
vegetables are cultivated on a large scale, not 
merely for the sake of supplying the internal 
demand, but also for the exportation of the 
seeds, which form an important article of Dutch 
commerce. But it is in stock (cattle, horses, 
sheep, swine, goats), and dairy products in par¬ 
ticular, that the rural industry of the Nether¬ 
lands shows its strength. The commerce of the 
country was, at one time, the most important 
in the world, and is even yet of great importance 
and activity. The foreign trade centers chiefly 
in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. The industrial 
occupations are varied. Shipbuilding and sub¬ 
sidiary trades are among the chief. Of textile 
manufactures, that of linen is the most impor¬ 
tant; but silks and velvets, as well as woolens 
and cottons, are produced in considerable quan¬ 
tity. Pigments, brandy, gin, paper, glass, 
earthernware, etc., are among the more im¬ 
portant products. Large numbers of the sea¬ 
board population are employed in the deep-sea 
fisheries. 

New Orleans, the largest city in Louisiana 
and in the southern part of the United States, 
is located on both sides of the Mississippi River, 
107 miles from its mouth. Built originally 
in the bend on the left side of the river, it was 
called the “Crescent City," but it has grown 
so rapidly as to lose its former shape. It is 
protected by great levees from the overflow 
of the river. It is divided into the American 
and the French quarters; in the latter the 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 549 


French language, manners, and customs still 
rule. Here dwell the old Creole families. The 
annual Mardi-Gras festival is as unique as it 
is magnificent. New Orleans is the seat of the 
United States mint and of Tulane University. 
Population, 339,075. 

New York City, the commercial metrop¬ 
olis of the New World, occupies the whole of 
the island of Manhattan lying between Hudson 
and East rivers, in the southeast comer of the 
State of New York, and large contiguous areas, 
the total area being 327 square miles. The 
Greater City comprises the boroughs of Man¬ 
hattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Rich¬ 
mond. Manhattan, or the city proper, is eight¬ 
een miles from the Atlantic, with which it is 
connected by New York Bay. The harbor of 
New York, forming the inner portion of its bay, 
is one of the safest and finest commercial natural 
basins known, is strongly fortified, and has 
lighthouses at its respective entrances. Man¬ 
hattan Island is separated from the mainland 
of the State by the Harlem River and Spuyten 
Duyvel Creek. Built on a long, narrow, and 
gently undulating spit of land, New York, 
viewed from seaward, presents to the eye of the 
spectator a most striking and picturesque sky 
line. . The city, as seen internally, is char¬ 
acterized by all those salient features of space, 
development, and architectural attraction, which 
unite in giving it metropolitan rank. Broadway, 
its chief artery, extends the whole length of 
Manhattan, or more than 13 miles, and is one of 
the finest thoroughfares in the world. The shop¬ 
ping, hotel, and theater district from Madison 
Square for a distance of 35 blocks along Broad¬ 
way to Columbus Circle has received international 
celebrity as the “Great White Way.” The 
principal civic and social centers from the Battery 
northward are City Hall Square, containing the 
old city hall, and flanked by the new municipal 
building, and the World and other newspaper 
buildings in Park Row; Union Square; Madison 
Square, where stand the celebrated Flatiron build¬ 
ing, Madison SquareGarden,and the Metropolitan 
Tower; Bryant Square near which are grouped 
the new public library, the new Grand Central 
station, and many notable hotels and theaters, 
and the section from Columbus Circle to the 
Plaza at the entrance to Central Park. This 
great park, the principal of the nineteen public 
squares and grounds of New York City, is a 
magnificently and picturesquely laid out area of 
843 acres. It contains the Metropolitan Museum 
of Art and is rich in notable statuary. Facing 
Central Park from the east is “Millionaires' 
Row,” and in this immediate vicinity are the 
splendid mansions of many of the oldest and 
best known families in America. As a manu¬ 
facturing place, New York carries on various and 
important industries, embracing the chief articles 
of fabrication and use required by civilized life. 
Commercially, its trade is surpassed only by that 
of London and Liverpool; it constitutes the main 
American emporium and is the entrepot of a 
vast and yearly increasing export and import 
traffic. New York, too, besides being the finan¬ 
cial focus of the Union, is the port at which the 
bulk of immigrants into the United States 
arrive. It has progressed in size, wealth, and 


population until it has become the second city 
in the world. Population, according to 1910 
census, 4,766,883. 

Niagara Falls. The Niagara River, 
which flows from Lake Erie north into Lake 
Ontario, is about thirty-six miles in length; 
its descent from the level of one lake to that 
of the other is about 334 feet. At the foot of 
Grand Island, which reaches within one and 
one-half miles of the falls, the river is contracted 
to a width of two and one-half miles, and grows 
narrower as it proceeds. By this, and by the 
descent in the channel, which is about sixty 
feet in the mile, are produced the swift currents 
known as the rapids, in which the river, not¬ 
withstanding its great depth, is perpetually 
white with foam. At the falls, which are twen¬ 
ty-two miles from Lake Erie, the river is divided 
by an island called Goat Island; but the largest 
portion of the water is sent down by the Cana¬ 
dian side. On this side is the grander cataract, 
which has been named the Horseshoe Fall, and 
which is about 600 yards in width and 154 feet 
high. The water rushes over with such force 
that it is thrown about fifty feet from the foot 
of the cliff. The separation caused by Goat 
Island leaves a large wall of rock between the 
Canadian and American falls, the latter being 
again divided by an islet at a short distance 
from Goat Island. This fall is from eight to 
ten feet higher than the Horseshoe, but only 
about 220 yards wide. The river is crossed by 
a suspension bridge, and by a ferry about 200 
or 300 yards below the falls, where it is 1,200 
yards wide. A stratum of rock runs across the 
direct course of the river, three or four miles 
below, which, after forming a vast circular 
basin, with an almost impassable whirlpool, is 
forced away at right angles to its old channel. 
The total energy of the falls is calculated at 
16,000,000 horsepower, and the work of utiliz¬ 
ing this power is the beginning of the most 
stupendous engineering feat ever undertaken. 
On April 15, 1895, the first large dynamo was 
run at full speed, 250 revolutions per minute, 
and proved quite satisfactory. On July 1st, 
the first electric power transmitted for commer¬ 
cial purposes, 4,000 horsepower, was sent to 
an aluminum factory a mile distant. Various 
other developments were afterward reported 
in rapid succession. On January 17, 1896, 
the Niagara Falls Power Company accepted a 
grant for the transmission of electric power for 
lighting and power purposes to Buffalo. Elec¬ 
tric power is now carried by great trans¬ 
mission lines to various cities of New York 
and Canada for the operation of interurban 
and street railways, factories, street lighting, 
etc. 

Nile (Latin, Nilus), a large and celebrated 
river of Africa, formed by the confluence of 
two branches, the Bahr-el-Azrek, or “Blue 
River” (often called the “Blue Nile”), and the 
Bahr-el-Abiad, or “White River” (“White 
Nile ”). The first-mentioned arm rises in Abys¬ 
sinia, and taking a northerly course through 
the Lake of Dembea, joins the Bahr-el-Abiad 
at Khartoum, after being in some places 
broken by cataracts. The real sources of the 
Nile were, until recently, supposed to lie in 



550 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Lakes Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, dis¬ 
covered by the English explorers Grant and Speke. 
After the union of the two branches at Khar¬ 
toum, the Nile forms one grand main river, 
taking a generally winding course north, as far 
as Edab, in Dongola, where it forms what is 
called the Great Bend. Thence flowing through 
a country rich in architectural trophies of the 
past, and rendered highly fertile by its annual 
inundations, the Nile empties into the Mediter¬ 
ranean by a delta of seven mouths, of which 
that of Rosetta, the principal one, has a width 
of 1,800 feet, with a depth of five feet in the 
dry season. Total length, 3,500 miles from 
Victoria Nyanza. 

Norway is a kingdom of Europe, occupy¬ 
ing the western portion of the Scandinavian 
peninsula. The coast line is extensive, of bold 
outline, and deeply indented by fiords and 
fringed with almost innumerable islands, chief 
among which are the Loffoden group. The 
surface of the country is rugged and somewhat 
bleak, comprising a succession of mountains and 
valleys. The Kjolen, or Great Scandinavian 
chain, running south from Finland for several 
hundred miles, forms an Alpine barrier between 
this country and Sweden; in the province of 
Trondhjem it lapses into the Dovrefjeld, which, 
with its spurs, extends nearly as far south 
as the Naze. Highest points, Snehaetten and 
Skagtols-tind, each about 8,000 feet. Chief 
rivers, the Glommen and Tana; lakes, those 
of Mjosen, Foemund, and Sperdillen. A large 
extent of the mountain districts produces only 
lichens, mosses, and hardy berry-yielding 
plants; the Scotch fir, spruce and birch cover 
extensive tracts, and constitute nearly a moiety 
of the country. The hardier fruits flourish well. 
Agriculture, though pursued with some vigor 
of late years, is still unable to furnish sufficient 
roduce for home consumption. Flax and 
emp are raised in some parts; in others, 
barley and oats. Next, or about equal, in im- 
ortance to the timber trade are the cod and 
erring fisheries, which employ a very large 
part of the population during the entire year. 
In Finmark, the fisheries and reindeer form 
the only wealth and source of subsistence of the 
population. The mineral products are similar, 
but less considerable than those of Sweden. 
Shipbuilding is largely carried on, and the chief 
exports include timber, fish, fish oil, minerals, 
furs, feathers, and ice. Chief cities and towns 
are Christiania, Bergen, and Trondhjem. 

Nyassa, a lake in the heart of Africa, which 
Dr. Livingstone discovered in 1859, by ascend¬ 
ing the River Shire. The lake is 340 miles long, 
about twenty-six miles wide, and is 1,300 feet 
above sea level. It is in many places over 100 
fathoms in depth. The scenery of Nyassa is 
described as grand in the extreme, though much 
of the land surrounding it is low and marshy. 

Oakland, the county seat of Alameda 
county, California, is situated directly across 
the bay from San Francisco, with which it is 
connected by ferries. It has large industrial 
and manufacturing interests, a splendid harbor, 
and is the western terminus of the Southern 
Pacific, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, and 
the Western Pacific railroads. It is a beautiful 


residential city. Berkeley, a city immediately- 
adjoining, is the seat of the University of Cali¬ 
fornia. Population, 150,174. 

Obelisk, a column of a rectangular form, 
diminishing towards the top, generally terminat¬ 
ing in a low pyramid. The proportion of the 
thickness to the height is nearly the same in all 
obelisks, that is, between one-ninth and one- 
tenth ; and the thickness at the top is never less 
than half, nor greater than three-fourths of the 
thickness at the bottom. Egypt abounded with 
obelisks, which were always of a single block of 
hard stone; and many have been removed thence 
to Rome and other places. They seem to have 
been erected to record the honors or triumphs 
of the monarchs. The two largest obelisks were 
erected by Sesostris in Heliopolis; the height of 
these was 180 feet. They were removed to Rome 
by Augustus. A fine obelisk from Luxor was 
erected in Paris in 1833, and the two known as 
Cleopatra’s Needles are now in London and New 
York, ornaments of public places. The obelisks 
which were common to Rome, Florence, etc., 
had all been removed from Egypt during its 
domination by the Roman emperors. 

Oberammergau, a village in Upper 
Bavaria, celebrated because in 1633, in gratitude 
for the cessation of a plague, the inhabitants 
took a vow pledging the performance, every 
ten years, of the passion-play of Christ’s cruci¬ 
fixion and ascension. The performance takes 
place every Sunday during the summer, on a 
large wooden stage open to the sky, and it usually 
lasts eight hours. Primarily regarded by these 
Bavarian villagers as a religious exercise, it has 
become in their performances a mystery play of 
impressive beauty. Latterly, however, it has 
taken the character of a European amusement 
and a source of profit. 

Ohio, a river in the United States of America, 
formed by the confluence of the Allegheny from 
the north and the Monongahela from the south 
at Pittsburg in Pennsylvania, where it is a navi¬ 
gable stream 600 yards broad. It flows west- 
southwest, separating the States of Virginia and 
Kentucky on the south from Ohio, Indiana, and 
Illinois on the north, and enters the Mississippi 
at Cairo. Its length from Pittsburg to its junc¬ 
tion with the Mississippi is 975 miles; area of 
basin, 214,000 square miles. The width of the 
river varies from 400 to 1,400 yards; average 
width, about 800 yards, at its mouth 900 
yards. Its principal affluents are the Miami, 
Kentucky, Wabash, Green, Cumberland, and 
Tennessee. 

Ontario, Lake, the most easterly of the 
great lakes of North America, lying along the 
northeast side of the State of New York, and 
forming part of the boundary between the 
United States and Canada; greatest length, 
190 miles; greatest breadth, about fifty-five 
miles; area, 7,250 square miles. It receives the 
waters of Lake Erie by the Niagara, and dis¬ 
charges its waters by the St. Lawrence into the 
Atlantic, 1,000 miles distant. The Hudson, and 
the Oswego and Erie Canals, form a connection 
through the United States, between it and the 
Atlantic. It is navigable throughout its whole 
extent and at all seasons. The most important 
places on its shores are Toronto, Hamilton, 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


551 


Kingston, and Coburg in Canada, and Oswego 
in the United States. 

Oporto, the second city of the kingdom 
of Portugal, in the province of Minho, about 
two miles from the mouth of the Douro. The 
city is picturesquely situated on a declivity 
above the river, and has several well-built sub¬ 
urbs, with one of which, Villanova de Gaya, on 
the opposite bank of the river, it is connected 
by an elegant wire suspension bridge, about 750 
feet in length. It is the seat of a bishopric, and 
has a cathedral. The city has some manufac¬ 
tures of hats, silks, linen, and pottery; but it 
chiefly depends on its trade in wine, of which 
large quantities are annually exported, chiefly 
by British merchants. Oporto is the ancient 
Portus calensis. Population, 180,215. 

Orinoco, one of the great rivers of South 
America, has its origin on the slopes of the Sierra 
Parima, in the extreme southeast of Venezuela; 
its exact sources were only discovered in 1886, 
by Chaffanjon. It flows at first west by north, 
a mountain stream. A little below Esmeralda 
it divides and sends off to the south an arm, 
the Cassiquiare, which, after a course of 180 
miles, enters the Rio Negro, a tributary of the 
Amazon. The other branch on reaching San 
Fernando, is met by the strong current of the 
Guaviare; the united stream then turns due 
north, and, after passing over the magnificent 
cataracts of Maypures and Atures, and picking 
up the Meta on the left, meets the Apure, which 
likewise strikes it from the left. Below the con¬ 
fluence with the Apure, the Orinoco turns east 
and traverses the llanos of Venezuela, its waters, 
with an average breadth of four miles, being 
augmented from the right by the Caura and the 
Caroni. About 120 miles from the Atlantic, 
into which it rolls its milk-white flood, its delta 
(8,500 square miles) begins. Of the numerous 
mouths which reach the ocean over 165 miles 
of coast line only seven are navigable. 

Orleans ( or-la-on '), English ( or'le-anz ), a 
city of France, the capital of the department 
of Loiret, about seventy-six miles southwest of 
Paris. It is situated on the right bank of the 
Loire, and on the edge of the Forest of Orleans, 
which is 146 square miles in extent. The city is 
well and regularly built, and has a large trade, 
and several manufactures. Its cathedral, which 
dates only from the Seventeenth Century, is one 
of the finest Gothic edifices in France. The 
city was besieged by the English in 1428, and was 
saved by the heroism of Joan of Arc, w T hose house 
is still preserved, and of whom the city contains 
three, statues. It gives its name to the Royal 
House of Orleans, of which the Bourbons consti¬ 
tute the principal branch. Population, 70,104. 

Osaka or Ozaka, an important city of 
Central Japan, at the head of the gulf of the 
same name, and at the mouth of the Yodo River, 
which issues from Lake Biwa. The city covers 
an area of about eight square miles, and is inter¬ 
sected with canals. Its fine castle, the stones of 
whose walls are of astonishing size, was con¬ 
structed in 1583, and the palace, built afterward 
in its precincts and destroyed in 1868, was per¬ 
haps the most magnificent structure in Japan. 
Population, 995,945. 

Ottawa, a city in the province of Ontario, 


capital of the Dominion of Canada, on the right 
bank of the Ottawa, about ninety miles above 
its confluence with St. Lawrence, 100 miles west 
of Montreal, and on the Canadian Pacific Rail¬ 
way. The city, divided into the Upper and 
Lower town by the Rideau Canal, has wide 
streets crossing at right angles, and some of the 
finest buildings in the Dominion. The chief are 
the government buildings, constructed of light- 
colored sandstone, in the Italian-Gothic style. 
They stand on elevated ground, commanding a 
fine view, and form three sides of a quadrangle, 
the south front being formed by the houses of 
parliament building, which is 500 feet long, and 
containing the halls for the meetings of the Do¬ 
minion Senate and House of Commons. There 
is a library forming a detached circular building, 
with a dome ninety feet high. The buildings 
cover about four acres, and are said to have cost 
$4,000,000. The educational institutions in¬ 
clude a Roman Catholic College, the Canadian 
Institute, the Mechanics' Institute, and Athenae¬ 
um, etc. Ottawa has important and increasing 
manufactures, and is the great center of the 
lumber trade. It is connected with Hull, on the 
Quebec side of the Ottawa, by a suspension 
bridge. Ottawa was founded in 1827 by Colonel 
By, and until 1854 was known as Bytown. On 
April 26, 1900, it, with Hull, suffered severely 
from fire. Population, 86,340. 

Ottawa, a river in the Dominion of Canada, 
forming for a considerable part of its length the 
boundary between the provinces of Quebec and 
Ontario. It rises in the high land which sepa¬ 
rates the basin of Hudson's Bay from that of the 
St. Lawrence, and after a course of some 750 
miles discharges into the St. Lawrence by two 
mouths forming the island of Montreal. Six 
miles above the city of Ottawa, rapids begin 
which terminate in the Chaudiere Falls, where 
the river, here 200 feet wide, takes a leap of 
forty feet. Its banks, mostly elevated, offer 
magnificent scenery. Immense quantities of 
valuable timber, floated down the Ottawa from 
the wooded regions of the interior to Ottawa 
city, are manufactured into lumber. 

Oxford, a city and county borough in 
England; capital of Oxfordshire, and seat of 
one of the most celebrated universities in the 
world; about fifty miles west-northwest of Lon¬ 
don, on a gentle acclivity between the Cherwell 
and the Thames, here called the Isis. Of the 
university buildings, the most remarkable are 
Christ's Church, the largest and grandest of all 
the colleges, with a fine quadrangle and other 
buildings, a noble avenue of trees (the Broad 
Walk), the cathedral serving as its chapel; Mag¬ 
dalen College, considered to be the most beauti¬ 
ful and complete of all; Balliol College, with a 
modern front (1867-1869), and a modern Gothic 
chapel; Brasenose College; and New College 
(more than 500 years old), largely consisting of 
the original buildings, and especially noted for 
its gardens and cloisters; besides the Sheldonian 
Theater, a public hall of the university; the 
new examination schools, new museum, Bodleian 
Library, Radcliffe Library, and other buildings 
belonging to the university. Oxford depends 
mostly on the university, and on its. attractions 
as a place of residence. Population, 49,413. 



552 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Pacific Ocean, the largest of the five 
great oceans, lying between America on the east, 
and Asia, Malaysia, and Australasia on the west. 
The name “Pacific,” given to it by Magellan, 
the first European navigator who traversed its 
wide expanse, is doubtless very appropriate to 
certain portions of this ocean; but, as a whole, 
its special claims to the epithet are, at the least, 
doubtful, though the name has by long usage 
become too well established to be easily sup¬ 
planted by any other. The greatest length of 
the Pacific Ocean, from the Arctic (at Bering 
Strait) to the Antarctic Circles is 9,200 miles, 
and its greatest width, about 10,300 miles; 
while its area may be roughly estimated at about 
two-fifths of the whole surface of the earth. Its 
surface is studded with numerous islands, either 
scattered or in groups. The deepest sounding 
yet found in the Pacific Ocean is 31,614 feet, 
or about six miles — more than equal to the 
height of the highest mountain on the globe. 
The coasts of the Pacific Ocean present a general 
resemblance to those of the Atlantic, and the 
similarity in the outline of the western coasts of 
each is even striking, especially north of the 
equator. The shore on the American side is 
bold and rocky, while that of Asia varies much 
in character. Though the Pacific Ocean is by 
far the largest of the five great oceans, the pro¬ 
portion of land drained into it is comparatively 
insignificant. Its basin includes only the narrow 
strip of the American continent to the west of 
the Andes and Rocky Mountains; Melanesia, 
which contains few rivers, and none of them of 
large size; the Indo-Chinese states, China 
proper, with the eastern part of Mongolia, and 
Manchuria in the Asiatic continent. 

The currents of the Pacific Ocean are less 
marked in character than those of the Atlantic. 
In the northern trade wind belt a great equa¬ 
torial current sweeps westward until at the 
western side it is largely deflected northward 
to the belt of westerly winds, where it flows 
north-eastward as the Kuro Shiwo, or Japan 
Current, toward North America. A part of it 
subsequently turns southward along the Ameri¬ 
can coast until it joins the equatorial current 
again; thus the surface drift of the Northern 
Pacific Ocean constitutes a great eddy revolving 
slowly in the N. E. S. W. direction. In the 
Southern Pacific a similiar surface drift in the 
opposite direction, namely, N. W. S. E., is main¬ 
tained, though not as well defined, because of 
the absence of the circumscribing continents. 
The existence of this ocean first became 
known to Europeans through Columbus, who 
had received accounts of it from some of the 
natives of America, though it was first seen 
by Balboa, September 29, 1513, and first trav¬ 
ersed _ by Magellan seven years afterward. 
Captain Cook deserves the first place among 
the investigators of the Pacific Ocean. 

Palestine, a country of Southwestern 
Asia, forming the southern portion of Syria, in 
which most of the events recorded in Scripture 
took place. It stretches from Mount Hermon 
to the Desert of Arabia, and is bounded by the 
Mediterranean on the west, and by the Syrian 
Desert on the east. The deep valley of the Jor¬ 
dan divides the country from north to south, 


the surface on either side rising into elevated 
plains with alternate hills and valleys. The 
climate is mild and warm, though in the hilly 
districts the winters are often severe, and snow 
sometimes falls. The soil may, with care, be 
rendered exceedingly productive, but agriculture 
is in a backward condition. In the time of the 
Romans it was divided into four tetrarchies or 
presidencies, viz., Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and 
Peraea. The first three were included in what 
was considered Palestine proper; the last em¬ 
braced the territory beyond the Jordan. There 
was also a fifth division, Idumaea, part of which 
lay, however, out of the borders of Palestine. 
In the Seventh Century this country fell into the 
power of the Mohammedans, and afterwards of 
the Turks, which led to the wars called the Cru¬ 
sades. In 1099 the city of Jerusalem was taken, 
and was, under Godfrey de Bouillon, made the 
capital of a Latin kingdom, which lasted for 
above eighty years. In 1187 the country was 
reconquered by Saladin, and in 1291 the Cru¬ 
saders were finally expelled. From this time it 
continued subject to the sovereigns of Egypt, 
until the conquest of both Syria and Egypt by 
Selim I., in 1517, when they were brought under 
the Turkish sway. The country is now a portion 
of the Turkish Empire. It is divided into va¬ 
rious pashalics, the greater part being compre¬ 
hended within the pashalic of Damascus. Of 
late years the country has been carefully sur¬ 
veyed, many hitherto doubtful sites have been 
settled, several geographical problems have 
been solved, and much light has been thrown 
upon the history of the country, especially 
as it is contained in the Bible records. The 
area of the country is about 9,000 square 
miles; its population is about 650,000, and 
comprises Syrians, Turks, Arabs, and about 
78,000 Jews, nearly all of whom are found in 
the sacred cities of Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias, 
Safed, and in the vicinity of Jaffa. 

Panama, City of. The capital and chief 
port of both the republic and province of the 
same name, founded by Avila in 1519, is notable 
as the oldest European settlement upon the 
mainland of America. It is built upon a coral 
peninsula which juts out at the head of the bay 
of Panama. The population in 1910 was 
estimated at 35,500, about half being of foreign 
birth or parentage. 

Soap and chocolate are manufactured but the 
inhabitants have always derived their support 
chiefly from the interoceanic transport trade. 
After the 17th and 18th centuries, this declined. 
It was partly revived by the second great dis¬ 
covery of gold in the new world, in California, 
1848. This led to the construction of the 
Panama railway, a single track line 47H miles 
long from Colon to Panama. The adoption 
of the same route for the interoceanic canal 
has greatly enhanced the city’s commercial 
importance. Balboa (formerly La Boca), three 
miles west by railway on the Canal Zone, is 
the actual seaport of the canal. The future 
prosperity of Panama will depend upon the tariff 
policy and other regulations adopted for that 
port by the United States. There is no land¬ 
locked harbor, but the roadstead is closed by a 
group of islands to the south and, though shallow, 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


553 


affords safe and commodious anchorage. The 
city’s imports are about double its exports. 
The latter are chiefly gold, rubber, hides, mother- 
of-pearl, coffee and cocobolo wood. Steamship 
lines ply to San Francisco, Yokohama, and 
various other Pacific ports. Over one million 
tons of merchandise are annually received from 
more than one thousand ships to be transported 
across the isthmus. 

Panama, Isthmus of. A thin strip of 
land between Central and South America which 
separates the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by an 
average span of but 70 miles. By its low moun¬ 
tain passes it admits of easy portage from sea to 
sea. The two oceans approach within 31 miles 
between the bays of San Bias and Panama. 
Just here occurs the famous Culebra pass, only 
287 feet above sea level, the lowest point but 
one on the great continental divide of the 
western hemisphere. This strategic spot, as 
the natural highway from Europe and the 
eastern shores of the two Americas to the west 
coast of the new world and to the orient, has 
become world famous as the site of the Panama 
railway and transisthmian canal. 

Panama, Republic of. This Central- 
American republic occupies the entire isthmus 
from ocean to ocean between Colombia and Costa 
Rica. It thus has great commercial and military 
importance. Its greatest dimensions are length 
480, width 110 miles. Its area is 32,380 square 
miles. Its population is about 419,029, chiefly of 
mixed Indian, negro and Spanish descent. Panama 
was part of Colombia when that republic re¬ 
volted from Spain in 1819, and has been subject 
in the main to the political vicissitudes of that 
state, but, being a geographically distant and 
distinct territory, has thrice seceded. It finally 
achieved independence in 1903 through the 
intervention of the United States. 

The climate is tropically warm and damp. 
The land is well suited to agriculture, the soil 
fertile and the drainage excellent; but less than 
one-third is under cultivation and that very 
imperfectly developed. About one-half the 
cultivated area is devoted to the banana, the 
great staple crop. There is much good grazing 
land, but, like agriculture, stock-raising is back¬ 
ward. Recently some blooded stock has been 
imported for breeding and some hides are 
exported. The interior is heavily wooded with 
dense tropical forests and jungles. India rubber 
and valuable hard-wood trees abound. Cereals, 
coffee, indigo, tropical nuts and spices, cacao, 
tobacco (which is a government monopoly) and 
such medicinal plants as sarsaparilla, copaiba 
and ipecacuanha either grow wild or thrive under 
cultivation. 

The extent of the mineral resources'is unknown. 
Gold is being successfully mined; copper is also 
found; valuable deposits of coal are known to 
exist; salt is mined, being a government monopoly; 
iron ore is abundant. Pearl oysters are found 
on the Pacific coast. Many mineral springs 
occur near extinct volcanoes. The trade is 
chiefly with the United States, and to a much 
less extent with Great Britain and Germany. 
The exports to the United States for the fiscal 
year ending June 30, 1912, were $4,425,044, 


chiefly from bananas. Other exports were hides, 
rubber, cocoanuts, limes, native curios and 
quaqua bark. The imports from the United 
States were $23,547,869. 

Transit is chiefly by river to the coast and 
thence by sea. There are no railroads, except 
the single track transisthmian line 473^ miles 
in length from Colon to Panama, nor any wagon 
roads except in and about the principal towns. 
The crude trails of the interior are almost wholly 
unfit for travel. The latest maps mark most of 
the interior ‘‘unexplored.” 

Panama Canal. A treaty between the 
United States and Panama was signed Nov. 18, 
1903, providing for the construction and main¬ 
tenance of an interoceanic canal. Under this 
treaty the United States guarantees the inde¬ 
pendence of the republic of Panama. Panama 
grants to the United States in perpetuity the 
use, occupation, and control of a zone, called 
the Canal Zone, five miles wide on each side 
of the canal route, and within this zone the 
exclusive control for police, judicial, and sanitary 
purposes. The cities of Panama and Colon 
are not within the grant, but the United States 
has complete jurisdiction in both the cities 
and in their harbors in all that relates to sanita¬ 
tion and quarantine. For these concessions the 
United States paid Panama $10,000,000 on the 
ratification of the treaty, 1904, and will pay 
$250,000 annually beginning nine years after 
exchange of ratifications. 

Work was begun in June, 1904, under a civil 
commission with J. F. Wallace as chief engineer. 
The commission was reorganized in April, 1905, 
and in June Wallace was succeeded by John 
F. Stevens who resigned in 1907. Col.* G. W. 
Goethals became engineer in chief in 1907, and 
it is to him that the success of the canal project 
is largely due, not alone from an engineering 
point of view, but because of his skill in dealing 
with an army of 40,000 workmen speaking 
forty-five languages. 

The canal from deep water in the Atlantic 
to deep water in the Pacific is about fifty miles 
in length, and connects the cities of Colon and 
Panama. It has six locks, three at Gatun on the 
Atlantic side and three on the Pacific side— 
one at Pedro Miguel and two at Miraflores. 
The 31 }/2 miles of canal between Gatun and 
Pedro Miguel are from 82 to 87 feet above sea 
level. This is known as summit level. 

At Gatun a dam 7,200 feet long confines the 
waters of Gatun lake and forms a reservoir for 
receiving the floods of the Chagres and other 
rivers and supplies water for lockage. The dam 
is 2,000 feet wide at its base, 100 feet wide at 
the top and rises 115 feet above the sea level. 
Between Gatun and the Caribbean a space 1,000 
feet in width forms a waiting basin for ships. 
After passing Gatun the channel for 16 miles 
is about 1,000 feet wide, narrows to 300 feet 
through Culebra cut, a distance of 9 miles, and 
widens again to 500 feet, maintaining this width 
until it reaches the ocean. The cutting at 
Culebra has been the most difficult part of the 
excavation owing to the earth slides with which 
the engineers had to contend. A smaller dam 
at Pedro Miguel contains a lock which lowers 




554 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


the ships to the surface of Lake Miraflores. 
One and a half miles farther on the canal descends 
55 feet to the level of the Atlantic by means of a 
double lock. 

The official date of the opening of the canal is 
January 1, 1915. It is expected, however, that 
the first ship will pass through before the end 
of 1913, although earth slides may cause delay. 
The formal opening will be celebrated by the 
Panama-Pacific International exposition to be 
held at San Francisco in 1915. 

The canal will shorten the sea journey between 
New York and the west coast of the United 
States by over 8,000 miles; it will shorten the 
voyage from New York to Valparaiso by 4,000 
miles. The Spanish-American war showed the 
need of this cut and stirred the Americans to 
open a gateway between the two seas. 

While the possibilities and advantages of the 
Panama canal are yet to be demonstrated, and 
the yield from such an enormous investment 
remains to be seen, it is probable that its con¬ 
struction, which will cost the United States 
approximately $400,000,000, is the greatest 
engineering feat in the history of humanity. 

Pantheon, The (pan'-the-ori ), Rome, mid¬ 
way between the Corso and Piazza Navona. 
The Pantheon was erected by Agrippa, son-in- 
law of Augustus, B. C. 27. There has been much 
discussion as to the original purpose of the build¬ 
ing, but the name Pantheon was in use as early 
as A. D. 59. In 399 it was closed as a temple 
by decree of Honorius, and in 608 it was conse¬ 
crated as a Christian Church, to which latter 
fact its preservation is doubtless due. The 
Pantheon is the only building of ancient Rome 
not now in ruins; excavations and removals 
are in progress to ascertain, if possible, its con¬ 
nection with the other ancient structures. 

Papal States, the name given to that 
portion of Central Italy of which the pope was 
sovereign by virtue of his position. The ter¬ 
ritory extended irregularly from the Adriatic 
to the Mediterranean, and latterly comprised 
an area of 15,289 square miles, with 3,126,000 
inhabitants. Rome was the capital. The 
foundation of the Papal States was laid in 754. 
Benevento was added in 1053. In 1102 Matilda 
of Tuscany left Parma, Modena, and Tuscany 
to the pope. In 1201 the Papal States were 
formally constituted an independent monarchy. 
Subsequently various territories were added to 
or subtracted from the pope’s possessions, which 
were incorporated with France by Napoleon in 
1809, but restored to the pope in 1814. A revo¬ 
lution broke out in Rome in 1848, and the pope 
fled to Gaeta, but he was reinstated by French 
troops, and Rome was garrisoned by French 
soldiers until 1870. In the meantime one state 
after another threw off its allegiance to the pope 
and joined the kingdom of Italy. When the 
French left Rome in August, 1870, King Victor 
Emmanuel took possession of the city, declared 
it the capital of Italy, and thus abolished the 
temporal power of the pope. 

Paris, the capital of France and of the de¬ 
partment of the Seine. The city lies in the Seine 
valley, surrounded by heights, those on the 
north being Charonne La Villette, the Buttes- 


Chaumont, and Montmartre, those on the south, 
St. Genevieve, Montrouge, and the Butte-aux- 
Cailles. Through the valleys between these 
heights the river runs from east to west, inclos¬ 
ing two islands, upon which part of the city is 
built. It is navigable by small steamers. The 
quays or embankments, which extend along the 
Seine on both sides, being built of solid masonry, 
protect the city from inundation, and form ex¬ 
cellent promenades. The river, which within 
the city is fully 530 feet in width, is crossed by 
numerous bridges, the more important being 
Pont Neuf, Pont des Arts, Pont du Carrousel, 
Pont Royal, Pont de l’Alma, etc. The city is 
surrounded by a line of fortifications, which 
measures twenty-two miles; outside of this is 
the enceinte, while beyond that again are the 
detached forts. These now form two main lines 
of defense. The inner line consists of sixteen 
forts, the outer line of eighteen forts, besides 
redoubts. In the older parts of the city the 
streets are narrow and irregular, but in the 
newer districts the avenues are straight, wide, 
and well-paved. What are known as “ the boule¬ 
vards” include the interior, exterior, and mili¬ 
tary. That which is specifically called “The 
Boulevard” extends, in an irregular arc on the 
north side of the Seine, from the Place de la 
Bastille in the east to the Place de la Madeleine 
in the west. It includes the Boulevards du 
Temple, St. Martin, St. Denis, des Italiens, 
Capuchins, Madeleine, etc., and its length of 
nearly three miles forms the most stirring part 
of the city. Here may be noted also the mag¬ 
nificent triumphal arches of Porte St. Denis and 
Porte St. Martin, the former of which is seventy- 
two feet in height. On the south side of the 
Seine the boulevards are neither so numerous 
nor so extensive. Among the many public 
squares or places is the Place de la Concorde, 
one of the largest and most elegant squares in 
Europe, surrounded by fine buildings, and 
adorned by an Egyptian obelisk, fountains, and 
statues. But the most extensive parks are out¬ 
side the city. Of these the Bois de Boulogne, 
on the west, covers an area of 2,150 acres, gives 
an extensive view toward St. Cloud and Mount 
Valerien, comprises the race courses of Long- 
champs and Auteuil, and in it are situated lakes, 
an aquarium, conservatories, etc. The Bois de 
Vincennes, on the east, even larger, is similarly 
adorned with artificial lakes and streams, and 
its high plateau offers a fine view over the sur¬ 
rounding country. Of the churches of Paris the 
most celebrated is the Cathedral of Notre Dame, 
situated on one of the islands of the Seine, called 
the lie de la Cite. It is a vast cruciform struc¬ 
ture, with a lofty west front, flanked by two 
square towers, the walls sustained by many fly¬ 
ing buttresses, and the east end octagonal. The 
whole length of the church is 426 feet, its breadth 
164 feet. The foundation of Notre Dame be¬ 
longs to the Sixth Century; the present edifice 
dates from 1163, but was restored in 1845. 
The interior decorations are all modern. Saint 
Chapelle is said to be the finest Gothic master¬ 
piece extant. The Pantheon, originally meant 
for a church, is the burial-place of the great men 
of the country, where lie the remains of Voltaire, 
Rousseau, and Carnot. Notable among the pub- 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


555 


lie buildings of Paris are its palaces: The 

Louvre, a great series of buildings within which 
are two large courts, is now devoted to a museum 
which comprises splendid collections of sculpture, 
paintings, engravings, bronzes, pottery, Egyp¬ 
tian and Assyrian antiquities, etc.; the palace 
of the Tuileries, the Palais du Luxembourg, the 
Palais Royal, the Palais de 1’Ely see, and many 
others. A notable and unique structure is the 
Eiffel Tower, built in connection with the Paris 
Exhibition of 1900, and which is to have a 

f jermanent existence. It is a structure of iron 
attice-work, 984 feet high, and having three 
stages or platforms. It is as yet the highest 
building in the world. The University Schools 
in the Quartier Latin attract the youth of all 
France; the chief are the Schools of Medicine 
and Law, the Scotch College, the College of 
France, and the Sorbonne, the seat of the faculties 
of letters, science, and Protestant theology. 

The first appearance of Paris in history is on 
the occasion of Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, when 
the small tribe of the Parish were found inhabit¬ 
ing the banks of the Seine, and occupying the 
island now called lie de la Cite. It was a fortified 
town in 360 A. D., when the soldiers of Julian 
here summoned him to fill the imperial throne. 
In the beginning of the Fifth Century it suffered 
much from the northern hordes, and ultimately 
fell into the hands of the Franks, headed by 
Clovis, who made it his capital in 508. In 987 a 
new dynasty was established in the. person of 
Hugh Capet, from whose reign downward Paris 
has continued to be the residence of the kings of 
France. In 1437 and 1438, under Charles VII., 
Paris was ravaged by pestilence and famine. 
Under Louis XI. a course of prosperity again 
commenced. In the reign of Louis XIV. the 
Paris walls were levelled to the ground after 
having stood for about 300 years, and what are 
now the principal boulevards were formed on 
their site (1670). Only the Bastille was left (till 
1789), and in place of the four principal gates of 
the old walls, four triumphal arches were erected, 
two of which, the Porte St. Denis and Porte St. 
Martin, still stand. Many of the finest edifices 
of Paris were destroyed during the Revolution, 
but the work of embellishment was resumed by 
the Directory, and continued by all subsequent 
governments. The reign of Napoleon III. is 
specially noteworthy in this respect; during it 
Paris was opened up by spacious streets and 
beautified to an extent surpassing all that had 
hitherto been effected by any of his predecessors. 
The most recent events in the history of Paris 
are the siege of the city by the Germans in the 
war of 1870-1871, and the subsequent siege car¬ 
ried on by the French national government in 
order to wrest the city from the hands of the 
Commune. Paris has been the scene of inter¬ 
national exhibitions in the years 1855, 1867, 
1878, 1889, and 1900. Population, 2,888,110. 

Parthenon, a celebrated temple of 
Athena (Minerva) at Athens, erected under 
the superintendence of Phidias, during the ad¬ 
ministration of Pericles, about 440 B. C. The 
Parthenon was 227 feet long by 101 feet broad, 
and sixty-five feet high; and it was built entirely 
of Pentelic marble, in the purest style of Doric 
architecture. In 1687, during a siege of Athens 


by the Venetians, a bomb exploded in the very 
center of the building, and threw down much 
of both the side walls. The ruins are still, how¬ 
ever, in sufficient preservation to give a good 
idea of the ancient structure. A large number 
of fragments of the Parthenon were taken to 
England by Lord Elgin in 1812, and are pre¬ 
served in the British Museum. A model of the 
Parthenon, still unfinished, stands on the Calton 
Hill, in the city of Edinburgh. It was founded 
in 1822 as a national monument, intended to 
commemorate the Scotchmen who had fallen 
in the wars consequent on the French Revolu¬ 
tion; but after £13,000 had been expended, 
the design was not prosecuted further. 

Patagonia, the name applied to that ex¬ 
treme portion of South America which is bounded 
east by the Atlantic, west by the Pacific, south 
by the Strait of Magellan, and north by the Rio 
Negro. Since 1881 this large territory has been, 
by treaty, divided between Chile and the Argen¬ 
tine Republic, so that the portion west of the 
Andes (63,000 square miles) belongs now to the 
former, and the portion east of the Andes (360,- 
000) belongs to the latter. The Strait of Ma¬ 
gellan form a southern boundary of 360 miles, 
and separate the mainland from the numerous 
islands of Tierra del Fuego. Here the Chilean 
Government has established the settlement of 
Punta Arenas, with stations along the coast. 
Patagonia, east of the Andes, consists mainly of 
vast undulating plains, frequently covered with 
shingle and broken up by ridges of volcanic rock. 
The vegetation is scanty, except in the region 
adjoining the Andes, and in many places there 
are shallow salt lakes and lagoons. The chief 
rivers are the Rio Negro, the Chupat, the Rio 
Desire, and the Rio Chico, all of which have their 
sources in the Andes, and run east. There are 
few, if any, good seaports. The Patagonians 
are a tall, muscular race, averaging fully six feet 
in height, with black hair, thick lips, and skin of 
a dark brown color. They are a nomad race, 
divided into numerous tribes, whose chief occu¬ 
pation is in hunting and cattle breeding. This 
native population is rapidly disappearing. Col¬ 
onization is encouraged by the Argentine Gov¬ 
ernment, and there are many tracts suitable for 
European settlement. The country was first 
discovered by Magellan in 1520. 

Peking’, or Pekin, is the capital of 
China, Province of Chihli, or Pechili, in a 
vast sandy plain, between the Pei-ho and 
its important affluent, the Hoang-ho, 562 miles 
northwest of Nankin, and 100 miles west-north¬ 
west of the Gulf of Pechili, in the Yellow Sea. 
It consists of two contiguous cities, each sepa¬ 
rately surrounded by walls, and together entered 
by sixteen gates. The entire circumference is 
twenty-five miles. The northern city, which is 
nearly a perfect square, consists of three enclo¬ 
sures. The outer one is used by Chinese traders. 
The second enclosure contains the residences of 
the dignitaries of the republic and foreign lega¬ 
tions, the national literary institutions, the 
temples of Ancestors and Peace, and is inhabited 
mostly by the Manchus. The inner enclosure, 
or “forbidden city,” surrounded by walls of 
yellow tiles, two miles in circumference, hence 
called the “Yellow Wall,” contains the palaces 



556 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of the emperor and empress. The southern 
city, called the Wai-ching, or “outer city/’ is 
also square, and occupied by the Chinese, and is 
both the seat of business and the residence of 
most of the population. The wall is thirty feet 
high, twenty-five feet thick at the base, and 
twelve feet at the top. That of the imperial 
city is forty feet high. The principal streets 
are very wide and regular, running between op¬ 
posite gates. The houses are generally one story 
high, and built of brick. Of the ornamental 
buildings, the most conspicuous are those com¬ 
monly called triumphal arches. They consist 
of a large central gateway, with small ones on 
each side, all covered with narrow roofs, and, 
like the houses, are splendidly gilded, varnished, 
and painted. Peking is indebted for its impor¬ 
tance to its being the residence of the emperor 
and the seat of government. The country round 
the city being sandy and poor, a large portion 
of its supplies are brought from a distance — 
artly from sea by the Pei-ho, but principally 
y the Grand Canal and the Eu-ho, which con¬ 
nect it with Nankin, and most of the eastern 
provinces. The early history of Peking is in¬ 
volved in obscurity. Kublai Khan rebuilt it, 
and made it his capital in 1260. The Mongol 
dynasty, founded by Kublai Khan, continued 
to occupy this city till it was expelled from 
China, in 1367. In 1421, the third emperor of 
the Chinese dynasty of Ming transferred his resi¬ 
dence thither from Nankin, since which time it 
has been the capital of China. During the 
“Boxer” uprising of 1900 the various foreigners 
in Peking were besieged in the English legation. 
For weeks they were given up as lost, but they 
managed to hold out till the arrival of the for¬ 
eign troops. Population (about), 700,000. 

Pelee, Mont, an active volcano situated 
in the northwestern part of the island of Mar¬ 
tinique in the West Indies. Previous to the 
terrible eruption of 1902, the elevation of the 
mountain was about 4,300 feet. The only 
eruptions of Mont Pelee previously recorded 
are those of 1762 and 1851. Prior to the erup¬ 
tion of 1902, a small lake occupied the flattened 
summit of the volcano, and was surrounded 
by beautiful and rank vegetation. The crater 
opened on April 25th, and for the several days 
ensuing the volcano gave warning of the im¬ 
pending outbreak. On May 8th the volcano 
threw up a tremendous column of explosive 
and exploded superheated steam, ashes, and 
glowing blocks, fully 1,500 feet in diameter, 
the initial velocity of which was computed 
at 100 miles an hour. The city of St. Pierre 
and its thirty thousand people were wiped out 
instantly. Only two inhabitants of the city 
proper seem to have survived. The most 
remarkable feature was the great mass of rock, 
300 feet wide, a veritable obelisk, pushed up¬ 
ward 800 feet from the new crater. This has 
since been greatly reduced by disruption. 
Another eruption on August 30, 1902, destroyed 
about 2,500 people. The great eruption was 
extraordinary in its wide disturbance of the 
magnetic field, which was transmitted to the 
antipodal region of the earth in two minutes' 
time. The noise was heard at a distance of 
eight hundred and fifty miles. 


Peloponnesus, the ancient name of the 
peninsula which forms the southern part of 
Greece, now called the “Morea.” It is said to 
have derived its name from Pelops, a son of 
Tantalus, King of Phrygia, and grandson of 
Zeus (Jupiter), who was celebrated in Greek 
fable, and by whom the country was said to 
have been settled about 1280 B. C. The “Pelo¬ 
ponnesian War,” between the Athenians and the 
people of the Peloponnesus (431-404 B. C.) is 
the most famous of the wars of Greece. The 
area of the peninsula is 8,263 square miles, and 
its population about 1,500,000, divided among 
the five provinces, or nomarchies, of Argolis 
and Corinth, Achaia and Elis, Arcadia, Mes- 
senia, and Laconia. 

Persia (native name Iran), the most exten¬ 
sive, opulent, and powerful kingdom of Western 
Asia, is bounded north by the Caspian Sea, 
Asiatic Russia and Turkestan, east by Afghan¬ 
istan and Beloochistan, south by the Persian 
Gulf and west by the Turkish territories. 
Length from north to south, about 700 miles; 
breadth, 900 miles. The surface of Persia is for 
the greater part a vast plateau, broken in upon 
in the north by the Elburz Mountains, and in the 
west and south by various isolated ranges. In 
the more east and northeast parts are found the 
Great Salt Desert, and that of Luth. Persia is 
drained by the Aras, Kerkhas, etc., but has 
scarcely a river that can be termed navigable, 
though some of them extend several hundred 
miles in length, and possess great volumes of 
water. Some of its immense valleys abound 
with vegetable productions; among them are 
wheat of the very best quality, barley, and other 
cereals, cotton, sugar, rice, and tobacco. The 
vine flourishes in many of the provinces, and the 
wines of Shiraz are celebrated. The mulberry 
tree is largely cultivated, silk being one of the 
most important staples of the country. The 
chief manufacture is that of silk stuffs, of the 
richest kinds, textile goods, arms, carpets, shawls 
etc. Persian commerce is very extensive, and 
chiefly carried on with Russia via the Caspian 
Sea, and with British India by way of the Per¬ 
sian Gulf. 

Philadelphia is coextensive with Phila¬ 
delphia County, Pa., and is situated on the 
Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, eighty-five miles 
southwest of New York. It is the largest city 
of Pennsylvania and the third largest in the 
Unitea States. The city is built chiefly on a 
low peninsula between the two rivers. There 
is a water frontage on the Delaware River of 
over sixteen miles, of which more than five miles 
have docks. The harbor has been greatly im¬ 
proved by the removal of the islands in the mid¬ 
dle of the river, and in front of the wharves 
there is an average depth of fifty feet. Among 
the attractions of the city is Fairmount Park, 
one of the largest public parks in the world, 
extending more than seven miles on both banks 
of the Schuylkill River, and more than six miles 
on both banks of Wissahickon Creek, giving it 
an area of over 3,000 acres. In 1876, the Cen¬ 
tennial Exposition was held here. Memorial 
Hall, erected at a cost of $1,500,000, which was 
used for the art gallery of the Exposition, now 
contains a permanent industrial and art collec- 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


557 


tion. Here also is the Horticultural Building 
filled with tropical and other plants and sur¬ 
rounded by thirty-five acres of ground devoted 
to horticulture. In the heart of the city, at 
Market and Broad streets, stands the City Hall, 
on a piece of ground which was formerly Penn 
Square. This great structure, usually called 
the Public Building, is said to be the largest 
building in the United States. It is built of 
white marble and granite. The central tower 
rises to a height of 547 feet, eleven and three 
quarters inches, and is surmounted by a colossal 
statue of William Penn, thirty-seven feet high. 
The total cost of the building was over $20,000,- 
000. In addition to these, its chief public build¬ 
ings comprise Girard College, United States Mint, 
customhouse, exchange, chamber of commerce, 
post-office, etc. The State house contains the 
so-called Independence Hall, a chamber in 
which sat the Congress which issued the Ameri¬ 
can Declaration of Independence in 1776. The 
Academy of Music, union league clubhouse, 
newspaper buildings and Masonic Temple, are 
imposing structures. In manufactures, Phila¬ 
delphia ranks third in the United States. The 
chief products are locomotives, sugar, molasses, 
men’s clothing, foundry and machine shop prod¬ 
ucts, carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit goods, 
woolen and cotton goods, malt liquors, morocco, 
chemicals, packed meat, refined petroleum, silk, 
and silk goods. The great Cramp shipbuilding 
yards are on the Delaware, just west of the heart 
of the city. The institutions for higher educa¬ 
tion include the William Penn Charter School, 
founded in 1689; the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, several well-known medical colleges, and 
many others. Population, 1,549,008. 

Philippine Islands lie north of Borneo 
and Celebes. They are 3,141 in number, 
with an area of about 127,800 square miles. 
Luzon, which is the largest, in the north, has 
an area of 51,300 square miles, and Mindanao, 
or Magindanao, in the south, fully 25,000. To 
the southwest of the Bissayas lies the long, 
narrow island of Paragoa, or Palawan, formed 
of a mountain-chain with low coast lines, cut 
with numerous streams, and exceedingly fertile. 
The forests abound in ebony, logwood, gum- 
trees, and bamboos. To the north of Luzon 
lie the Batanen, Bashee, and Babuyan Islands, 
the first two groups having about 8,000 inhabi¬ 
tants, the last unpeopled. The Sulu Islands 
form a long chain from Mindanao to Borneo, 
having the same mountainous and volcanic 
structure as the Philippine Islands, and all 
are probably fragments of a submerged con¬ 
tinent. Immense forests spread over the Phi¬ 
lippine Islands, clothing the mountains to 
their summits; ebony, iron wood, cedar, sapan- 
wood, gum trees, etc., being laced together and 
garlanded by the bush-rope or palasan, which 
attains a length of several hundred feet. The 
variety of fruit trees is great, including the 
orange, citron, breadfruit, mango, cocoanut, 
guava, tamarind, rose apple, etc.; other im¬ 
portant products, of the vegetable kingdom are 
the banana, plantain, pineapple, sugar cane, 
cotton, tobacco, indigo, coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, 
vanilla, cassia, the areca nut, ginger, pepper, 
etc., with rice, wheat, maize, and various other 


cereals. Gold is found in riverbeds and detrital 
deposits, being used, in form of dust, as the 
medium of exchange in Mindanao. Iron is 
plentiful, and fine coal beds, from one to four 
feet thick, have been found. Copper has long 
been worked in Luzon. There are also limestone, 
a fine variegated marble, sulphur in unlimited 
quantity, quicksilver, vermilion, and saltpeter 
— the sulphur being found both native and in 
combination with copper, arsenic, and iron. 
The Tagals and Bisayers are the most numerous 
native races. They dwell in the cities and cul¬ 
tivated lowlands, 2,500,000 being converts to 
Roman Catholicism, and a considerable number, 
especially of the Bisayers, Mohammedan. The 
mountain districts are inhabited by a negro race, 
who, in features, stature, and savage mode of 
living, closely resemble the Alfoors of the inte¬ 
rior of Papua, and are probably the aborigines 
driven before the inroads of the Malays. A few 
of the negroes are Christians, but they are 
chiefly idolaters, or without any manifest form 
of religion, and roaming about in families with¬ 
out fixed dwelling. The Mestizos form an influ¬ 
ential part of the population, by their activity 
engrossing the greatest share of the trade. These 
are mostly of Chinese fathers and native mothers. 
Few Spaniards reside in the Philippine Islands. 
The Sulu Islands have a population of 150,000, 
and are governed by a sultan, whose capital is 
Sung. 

Phoenicia ( fe-nish'ya ), the name given by 
the Greeks and Romans to a fertile province of 
Syria, on the western declivity of Lebanon, and 
bordering upon the Mediterranean. Its limits 
varied at different times; generally it was in¬ 
cluded within two degrees of latitude, and was 
of narrow breadth. Its inhabitants were enter¬ 
prising navigators, and the country has been 
called “the birthplace of commerce.” Phoeni¬ 
cian pilots and sailors navigated the vessels of 
Solomon; and, before other ships had ventured 
to lose sight of their own shores, colonies of this 
people were established in some of the most dis¬ 
tant parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They 
were also distinguished for their knowledge of 
the arts and sciences. Phoenician workmen were 
employed at the building of the Temple of Solo¬ 
mon, and by Phoenicians the knowledge and use 
of letters were introduced into Greece. The 
climate of the country is mild; the land is abun¬ 
dantly watered; and it yields large crops of fruit, 
corn, cotton, and sugar. But its once populous 
and opulent cities are reduced, under the rule 
of a despotic government, to impoverished vil¬ 
lages or masses of ruins. Under the Romans, 
Phoenicia formed a part of the Province of Syria. 
Since the beginning of the Sixteenth Century, it 
has formed a part of the Turkish Empire. 

Pike’s Peak, a famous peak of the Rocky 
Mountains, is in El Paso county, Colorado, near 
Colorado Springs. It is named after General 
Zebulon M. Pike, United States Army, by whom 
it was discovered in 1806. It rises 14,108 feet 
above sea level, and commands a magnificent 
view of the great plains and of a rugged, moun¬ 
tainous country with many lakes and rivers. 
Pine forests cover the slopes to a height of 
11,700 feet, above which is bare granite rock. 
A meteorological station was maintained here 




558 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


for years, and was reoccupied by the weather 
bureau in 1892. A railroad reaches to the 
summit. 

Pisa ( pe'za ), a city of Italy, the capital of a 
province of the same name, which was formerly 
a part of Tuscany. The city, which is situated 
on the banks of the Arno, about eight miles 
from the mouth of that river, is surrounded by 
old walls and moats, within which are numerous 
gardens and cultivated fields, studded with the 
ruins of convents. Among its old buildings the 
most noteworthy is its cathedral, in the Tuscan 
style of the Eleventh Century; to the east of 
which is the famous Campanile, or leaning Tower 
of Pisa, a round, marble belfry, 179 feet in 
height, erected in the latter part of the Twelfth 
Century. Pisa is the seat of a university, which 
was founded in 1338. At the Council of Pisa, 
in 1409, the rival popes, Benedict XIII. and 
Gregory XII., were deposed, and Alexander V. 
elected in their room. Pisa is said to have been 
founded six centuries before Christ. It was a 
flourishing city in the time of the Romans. At 
the time of the Crusades its population was not 
less than 150,000, and at one time it disputed 
the dominion of the sea with Genoa. Popula¬ 
tion, 61,321. 

Pittsburg (according to its city charter, 
Pittsburgh), a city, port of entry, and county- 
seat of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania; at the 
confluence of the Monongahela and Allegheny 
rivers, at the head of the Ohio River, 353 miles 
west of Philadelphia. The city owns a water¬ 
works system, costing over $7,000,000. The 
reservoirs have a storage capacity of 68,000,000 
gallons, and the water is distributed through 
300 miles of mains. There are in all 230 miles- 
of streets, of which 200 miles are paved. The 
sewer system covers 220 miles. The city is 
lighted by electricity. The annual death rate 
averages nineteen per 1,000. The principal pub¬ 
lic buildings are the Allegheny court-house, the 
Carnegie Library and Institute, with museum, 
music hall, and art gallery, and having an en¬ 
dowment of $2,000,000; the United States Gov¬ 
ernment building, the West Pennsylvania Ex¬ 
position Society’s buildings; Municipal Hall; 
United States Arsenal, and the Western State 
Penitentiary. The two chief industries are the 
production of iron and steel; but there are 
many other flourishing manufactures. The city 
is well known as the Iron City, for there is noth¬ 
ing in the iron industry which is not here manu¬ 
factured. The capacity of the iron mills is over 
800,000 tons annually, and that of the Bessemer 
steel mills upward of 400,000 tons. There are, 
besides blast furnaces and iron and steel works, 
over 1,500 manufacturing establishments em¬ 
ploying more than 60,000 persons. The schools 
are flourishing and their accommodations keep 
pace with increasing population. There are, 
over 200 churches in Pittsburg. In 1754, at 
the suggestion of George Washington, the 
English began to erect a block-house on the 
present site of the city. They were driven 
away by the French, who built a fort at the 
junction of the two rivers and named it Du 
Quesne. In 1758, after two unsuccessful at¬ 
tempts to retake the place, the English, under 
General Forbes, made a third attempt, and the 


French burned and evacuated the fort. In the 
following year another fort was erected here, 
named in honor of William Pitt. The British 
withdrew from the post in 1772, and it was held 
by Virginia in 1775—1779. The place was in¬ 
corporated as a city Mgrch 18, 1816. In 1877 
a railroad strike and riot occurred in which 
much damage was done to railroad property 
and for which Allegheny County had to settle at 
a cost of $4,000,000. In 1907, after a long 
discussion, the city absorbed Allegheny and 
other surrounding boroughs, which are now 
under the municipal government. Popula¬ 
tion, 533,905. 

Plymouth, the largest town in Devon¬ 
shire, stands on the north shore of Plymouth 
Sound, 227 miles west of London by rail; ad¬ 
jacent to it are the towns of Saltash and Devon- 
port. Among the chief buildings are a Gothic 
town-hall, a Fifteenth-Century church, and 
a Roman Catholic cathedral. The chief indus¬ 
try is chemical manufactures. There is a large 
coasting trade, and important fisheries. Many 
sea-going steamship companies make it a place 
of call. The Sound is an important naval 
station, and historically famous as the sailing 
port of the fleet that vanquished the Armada, 
and of the Pilgrims. Population, 107,109. 

Po, the largest river of Italy, rises on Monte 
Viso, one of the Cottian Alps, at an altitude of 
6,405 feet, close to the French frontier. It has 
an entire length of 390 miles, and drains an area 
of nearly 28,900 square miles. Below Piacenza 
its stream has from ante-Roman days been arti¬ 
ficially embanked along great stretches with 
double lines of embankments on each side. 

Pompeii, a seaport at the mouth of the 
Sarnus, on the Neapolitan Riviera, founded 
about 600 B. C. by the Osc#ns, and after them 
occupied by the Tyrrheno-Pelasgians, and by 
the Samnites, till these, about 80 B. C., were 
dispossessed by the Romans. From that time 
down to its destruction, A. D. 79, it became a 
sort of Rome-super-Mare, frequented by the 
aristocracy. On February 5, A. D. 63, by an 
earthquake in the vicinity, these buildings were 
all but leveled with the ground, and some years 
elapsed ere the fugitive citizens recovered con¬ 
fidence enough to reoccupy and rebuild what 
was once Pompeii. Revolutionized as it was 
for the worse, the city, however, retained much 
of Greek character and coloring, and had re¬ 
lapsed into more than its former gaiety and 
licentiousness, when, on August 23 (or, more 
probably, on November 23), 79, with a return 
of the shocks of earthquake, Vesuvius was seen 
to throw up a column of black smoke expanding 
like some umbrella pine of the neighborhood, 
till it assumed the proportions of a great swarthy 
cloud, dense with ashes, pumice, and red-hot 
stones, settling down with a force increased by 
the rain-torrents that intermittently fell. For 
three days the flight of the inhabitants contin¬ 
ued till Pompeii was abandoned by all who 
could effect their escape. By the fourth day 
the sun had partially reappeared, and the more 
courageous of the citizens began to return for 
such of their property as they could disinter. 
The reigning emperor, Titus, organized relief on 
an imperial scale, and even undertook the clear- 




559 


GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


ing and rebuilding of the city. This attempt 
was soon abandoned, and Pompeii remained a 
heap of hardened mud and ashes, gradually 
overgrown with grass — the wall of the great 
theater and the outline of the amphitheater 
alone marking its site—till 1592, when the 
architect Fontana, in cutting an aqueduct, came 
on some ancient buildings. Unsystematic, un¬ 
scientific excavations proceeded fitfully till 1860, 
when the Italian kingdom took in hand the un¬ 
earthing of the city. This was carried out with 
admirable ingenuity, care, and success, and it 
now attracts the pilgrim from every clime for 
the object lessons it is unique in affording as to 
the public and private life of antiquity. House 
construction consists mainly of concrete or 
brick, and sometimes of stone blocks, especially 
at the corners. Two-storied, sometimes three¬ 
storied, houses are numerous, though the upper 
floors, built of wood, have been consumed by 
the eruption. Stores usually occupied the 
ground floors of dwelling houses, on their street 
aspect, let out to merchants or dealers as at the 
present day, but not connected with the back 
part of the house. They could be separated 
from the street by large wooden dbors, while 
inside they had tables covered with marble, in 
which earthern vessels for wine or oil were in¬ 
serted. The storekeeper had sometimes a sec¬ 
ond room at the back, when he did not live on 
an upper floor or in another part of the town. 
Retail traffic must have been considerable at 
Pompeii, to judge from the number of those 
stores along the streets. Only a personal visit 
can convey an idea of the indoor life of the Pom¬ 
peiians, with whom the absence of glass, the 
fewness of the openings in the street aspect of 
the house wall, and the protection of these with 
iron gratings are among the points noted by the 
most casual visitor. As rebuilt after 63, Pom¬ 
peii shows little marble, the columns being of 
tufa or brick cemented by mortar. A coating 
of stucco w'as laid over wall or column and pre¬ 
sented an ample field for ornamental painting. 
This must have given to Pompeii its bright, gay 
coloring, which, with its reds, blues, and yellows, 
on column and capital, on wall and partition, 
harmonize so well with the glowing sunlight of 
the south. 

Port Arthur, a strongly-fortified port com¬ 
manding the northern promontory enclosing the 
Gulf of Pechili, in China. It was taken by storm 
by the Japanese in the war of 1894, but Japan 
was compelled to restore it, in return for an 
increased indemnity, by Russia, Germany, and 
France. China, however, gained nothing by in¬ 
voking this European intervention, Port Arthur 
being occupied by Russia in December, 1897, 
immediately after the seizure of Kiao-Chau by 
Germany. In the spring following, Russia se¬ 
cured by “ lease” both Port Arthur and Talien- 
wan, with other advantages, which gave her the 
command of Manchuria and a sort of tacit ac¬ 
knowledgment that this portion of China be¬ 
longed to her exclusive sphere of influence. The 
Russians, under Gen. Stossel, were successfully- 
besieged here by the Japanese under Gen. Nogi, 
July, 1904, to January 1, 1905. At the close of 
the war, the lease was transferred to Japan by 
the treaty of Portsmouth, in 1905. As the ter¬ 


minus of a branch of the Siberian Railway, Port 
Arthur is an important strategic point. 

Portland, the county seat of Multnomah 
County, is the largest city and the commercial 
center of Oregon. It is situated on both sides 
of the Willamette River, twelve miles above 
its confluence with the Columbia, and about 
120 miles from the Pacific. The law and medi¬ 
cal departments of the state university are 
here. A large Pacific commerce, about $15,000,- 
000 annually, is carried on, chiefly with Great 
Britain and its possessions, and the city is an 
important distributing and industrial center. 
A large government dry dock was built here 
in 1903, and the city possesses a splendid har¬ 
bor open to the largest ships. Portland is pic¬ 
turesquely situated with the Cascade mountains 
in the background, and is noted as a beautiful 
residence city. The Lewis and Clark Exposition 
was held here in 1905. Population, 207,214. 

Porto Rico, a West Indian island; sev¬ 
enty miles east of Haiti; till 1898 a colony of 
Spain; area, 3,600 square miles; population, 
1,118,012; capital, San Juan, metropolis, Ponce. 
Under the provisions of the Spanish-American 
peace protocol the American flag was officially 
raised and the island formally transferred to the 
United States on October 18, 1898. The Span¬ 
ish form of the name of the island is Puerto 
Rico; but an act of the United States Congress, 
approved April 12, 1900, established the official 
form as Porto Rico. The people are most loyal 
in their devotion to their new country and are 
solicitous to be regarded as a part of the United 
States. While there is a great amount of wealth 
in the island, and in many places evidences of 
great prosperity, rich plantations, and promise 
of a great future for Porto Rico, throughout the 
interior of the island the people are poor and 
their homes are of the poorest character, con¬ 
sisting almost altogether of “shacks” con¬ 
structed of the palm and covered with a straw 
thatch or palm leaves. Into the cities and these 
homes is crowded a large population that is 
typically Spanish-American in character. They 
are generally a peaceful and law-abiding people, 
and while there is unquestionably some lawless¬ 
ness, and some small offences are being com¬ 
mitted, they do not exceed, if they equal, the 
number being committed in the States of a like 
population. It has been estimated that from 10 
to 20 per cent, only of the people can read and 
write. The people are anxious to have their 
children educated, and are exceedingly solicitous 
for the establishment of public schools. There 
is no starvation upon the island, and while there 
is great poverty in many places, there cannot 
be any real starvation in Porto Rico, for the 
reason that the people live frugally and are con¬ 
tent with little, while the soil and the climate 
are so productive of many of the simple neces¬ 
saries of life that it would be almost impossible 
to starve a people who live upon tropical fruits 
and tropical vegetable productions. Vegetables 
of all kinds known to our climate grow in abun¬ 
dance. Irish potatoes are not a success. There 
are no plums, cherries, or grapes. It would 
seem that there would be no difficulty in grow¬ 
ing grapes, but so far they have not been tried. 
Indian corn is raised with some success, and 



560 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


while the ears are small, that is made up by the 
fact that two and even three crops can be grown 
yearly on the same ground. Coffee and sugar 
are the chief products and exports. No wheat 
is grown on the island. At present all flour 
is imported. The native grasses grow lux¬ 
uriantly wherever an opportunity offers, from 
the lowest valley to the highest mountain top, 
and afford excellent pasture for stock every¬ 
where all the months of the year. They make 
no hay, but cut it with sickles or the machete 
and tie it in small bundles, pack it on ponies to 
the cities, and sell it while it is still green. The 
cattle grazing in large numbers on the pastures 
are found all over the island, and are mostly in 
very good condition, making excellent beef. 
Hogs are raised to a limited extent, but are of 
poor breeds, being of the old “razor-back” vari¬ 
ety. They are fed mainly from the nuts grown 
on the royal palm trees. Horses are plentiful. 
They are small, and used only to ride and as 
pack ponies and in carriages. The hard work 
of hauling loads and plowing the land is done 
with oxen, yoked in the Spanish fashion by ty¬ 
ing the yoke to the horns, and they are guided 
with a whip or “gad.” The wagons are mostly 
two-wheeled carts with large wooden axles. 
There seems to be a considerable deposit of iron 
and copper on the island. In some places these 
are being developed with good prospects of prov¬ 
ing paying investments. Traces of gold and sil¬ 
ver are also found in the mountains, but up to 
date prospecting has not developed any con¬ 
siderable quantities of these more precious met¬ 
als. Soon after the surrender of Santiago de 
Cuba to the American forces under General 
Shatter, July 17, 1898, an army numbering 
16,973 men was sent from Guantanamo to Porto 
Rico to take possession of that island. They 
landed July 25th at Quanica, fifteen miles west 
of Ponce. Lieutenant Haines, commanding the 
marines, went ashore and raised the American 
flag over the custom-house, amid the cheers of 
the people. General Wilson, was the first army 
officer to land, and was welcomed with cheers 
and a serenade. A portion of the army marched 
toward the capital, San Juan, but were stopped 
when about half way by the suspension of hos¬ 
tilities between the belligerent powers. On Oc¬ 
tober 18th the island was formally surrendered to 
the United States in the city of San Juan. Im¬ 
mediately the United States authorities began 
the work of sanitary and educational improve¬ 
ment. Public works were instituted, schools 
established, and industries fostered. The Porto 
Ricans responded eagerly and have given their 
best efforts to assisting the government. They 
have exhibited excellent capacity for citizenship. 
The island has prospered greatly under Ameri¬ 
can rule, and is fast becoming Americanized. 

Portugal. The most western kingdom of 
Europe, occupying the greater portion of western 
seaboard of the Iberian peninsula. North and 
east it is bounded by Spain, and on all other 
sides by the Atlantic Ocean. Length, from north 
to south, about 350 miles; mean breadth, about 
100 miles. The surface of the country is gen¬ 
erally of a hilly character, receiving the terminal 
continuation of several Spanish mountain 
chains — one of which, under the name of 


Serra da Estrella, pierces the center in a south¬ 
westerly direction, and rises in its highest part 
to an altitude of 7,524 feet above the sea. 
Further south is the Serra de Monchique, ter¬ 
minating at the Atlantic in the headland of Cape 
St. Vincent. The chief rivers are the Tagus, 
Douro, Minho, Guadiana, and Mondego. The 
soil is, generally speaking, quite rich, but agri¬ 
culture is much neglected. Wine is the chief 
industrial product of the country, the best 
growths of which, known as port, are shipped to 
England, the United States, and other countries. 
The exports consist almost entirely of wine, 
fruits, oil, cork, and salt. Portuguese manu¬ 
facturing interests include those of the fabrica¬ 
tion of textile goods, gloves, metallic, and cera¬ 
mic wares, tobacco, cigars, etc. The chief cities 
and towns are Lisbon, the capital; Oporto, 
Braga, Coimbra, Setubal, Evora; in Madeira 
Funchal; in the Azores, Ponta Delgada. 

Potomac, a river of the United States, 
formed by two branches which rise in the Alle¬ 
gheny Mountains in West Virginia, and unite 
fifteen miles southeast of Cumberland, Md., from 
which point the river flows in a generally south¬ 
east course 400 miles, and falls into Chesapeake 
Bay, after forming an estuary nearly 100 miles 
long, and from two and one-half to seven miles 
wide. The largest ships can ascend to Washing¬ 
ton. The Potomac forms the greater part of 
the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. 

Potsdam, eighteen miles southwest of 
Berlin, stands on an island at the confluence of 
the Nuthe and Havel, and is the capital of the 
Prussian Province of Brandenburg; a handsome 
town, with broad streets, many parks and 
squares, numberless statues and fine public 
buildings; it is a favorite residence of Prussian 
royalty, and has several royal palaces; was the 
birthplace of Alexander von Humboldt; has 
sugar and chemical works, and a large violet¬ 
growing industry. Population, 61,414. 

Prague ( prag ), a city of the Austro-Hun¬ 
garian Empire, the capital of the province (for¬ 
merly the kingdom) of Bohemia. It is situated 
on the Moldau, about 160 miles northwest of 
Vienna; and is, with the exception of Vienna 
and Buda-Pest, the largest city in the empire. 
Both the old and the new town stand on the 
right bank of the river; on the left bank are 
the quarters known respectively as the Kleinsite 
and the Hradshin, the scene of the famous 
“defenestration” of 1618, when the throwing 
of two imperial officers out of a window began 
the Thirty Years’ War. In it dwell the nobility 
and the higher officers of state. This portion of 
the city is surrounded by a wall. In the im¬ 
mediate neighborhood is the White Mountain, 
1,300 feet high, where the Protestants of Bo¬ 
hemia suffered a decisive defeat early in the 
same war (November 8, 1620). The Cathedral 
belongs to the Fourteenth Century, as does 
also the university, founded in 1348 by the 
Emperor Charles IV. A large trade is carried 
on in the city, and several large fairs are held 
in it annually. It has, however, suffered 
greatly from war, and so recently as 1848 was 
bombarded by the Austrians for two days, 
in consequence of an insurrectionary move¬ 
ment on the part of the inhabitants. The “ Bat- 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


561 


tie of Prague,” so celebrated in history, in which 
the Austrians were defeated by Prince Henry of 
Prussia, and their whole camp taken, was fought 
May 6, 1747. Population, 245,750. 

Providence, a city, capital of the State of 
Rhode Island, and county-seat of Providence 
County; on the Providence River, an arm of 
Narrangansett Bay, and forty-four miles south¬ 
west of Boston. It is the second city of New 
England in population and wealth, and is built 
on a rolling plateau. Providence has upward 
of 2,000 manufacturing establishments, with a 
combined capital of about $90,000,000, and em¬ 
ploying about 40,000 persons. It is noted for 
its manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, 
jewelry, and stoves, and is the largest seat of 
fine jewelry manufacture in the United States. 
The other industries include silverware, tools, 
engines, locomotives, boilers, sewing machines, 
screws, files, general hardware, yarn, calico, 
laces, braids, worsteds, broadcloth, chemicals, 
etc. There is an extensive coastwise commerce 
and shipping industry, especially in the coal, 
cotton, and wool trade. There is also an impor¬ 
tant shell-fish industry. In 1636, Roger Williams, 
a Baptist clergyman, was exiled from Massa¬ 
chusetts because he opposed its theocratic laws. 
He first settled at What Cheer Rock, on the See- 
konk River, and later at the head of the Provi¬ 
dence River, where the Indian Chief, Canonicus, 
granted him a piece of land. In 1643-1644 local 
government was formed under a royal charter. 
Providence received its city charter in 1832, 
and has been enlarged by annexation of territory 
from adjoining towns. Population, 224,326. 

Prussia (prush'ah). A kingdom of Europe, 
and the principal state of the German Empire, 
bounded on the north by the Baltic Sea and 
Denmark, east by Russia and Poland, south 
by the Austrian dominions and the states of 
Southern Germany, southwest by France and 
west by Belgium and Holland. The geograph¬ 
ical form of this kingdom is very irregular. 
Prussia has an extensive seaboard extending 
along the Baltic from Russia on the east to Den¬ 
mark on the west. It has, besides, a tract of 
coast line washed by the North Sea, formed by 
the Schleswig-Holstein and Hanoverian prov¬ 
inces. The length of the kingdom, taken from 
east-northeast to west-southwest, is about 775 
miles; maximum breadth, 404 miles. The sur¬ 
face is for the most part flat. The principal 
mountains are those of the Hartz, Brocken, and 
Riesengebirge. The Baltic seaboard is low and 
sandy, and forms a number of bays and inlets 
such as the Gulf of Dantzig, the bays of Swine- 
munde, Lubeck, and Kiel, the Frisches Haff and 
the Curisches Haff. Prussia possesses a large 
number of navigable rivers in close proximity 
with each other, viz: the Niemen, Pregel, Vis¬ 
tula, Oder, Elbe, Weser, and the Rhine with its 
numerous tributaries, such as the Moselle, Lahn, 
etc. The forests are extensive, occupying an area 
of nearly 10,000 square miles, chiefly consisting 
of fir. Its minerals consist of iron, copper, lead, 
alum, nitre, zinc, cobalt, sulphur, nickel, arsenic, 
baryta, amber, several varieties of precious 
stones, and, to a small extent, silver. Salt from 
the brine springs of Prussian Saxony is plentiful, 
as is also coal. All metals, salt, amber, and 


precious stones are crown property. Agricul¬ 
ture and cattle-rearing constitute the chief 
sources of employment and wealth of the rural 
population. The western division of Prussia is 
noted for its excellent fruits and vegetables, and 
the Rhenish provinces stand preeminent for 
their wines. In the kingdom there are upwards 
of 100 mineral springs, as those of Wiesbaden, 
Ems, Spa, Pyrmont, etc. The chief cities and 
towns are Berlin (the capital), Breslau, Cologne, 
Konigsberg, Dantzig, Strasburg, Frankfort-on- 
the-Main, Magdeburg, Hanover, Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Mulhausen, Mainz, Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The 
seaports (besides Dantzig and Konigsberg) 
include Memel, Swinemunde, Stettin, Lubeck, 
Altona, and Cuxhaven. That of Kiel is the 
principal naval station and arsenal of the Ger¬ 
man Empire. Prussian manufactures consist 
mainly of silk, woolen, cotton, and linen fabrics; 
arms, shawls, carpets, leather, pottery,. glass, 
tobacco, and metallic wares. The brewing of 
beer is a business carried on extensively. The 
leading exports comprise linens, woolens, hard¬ 
ware, grain, raw wool, timber, pitch, linseed, 
tobacco, mineral waters; to these may be added 
horses, horned cattle, salted and dried meats, etc., 
and from the Rhenish provinces, wine. Edu¬ 
cation is compulsory, and its higher branches are 
provided for at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, 
Breslau, Konigsberg, Halle, and Greifswalde. 

Pyramids, The, a name given in pre¬ 
eminence to three rock-built tombs (said by 
recent authorities to have been used also for 
astronomical observations and for religious pur¬ 
poses) found in the neighborhood of Ghizeh, 
near Cairo, on the left bank of the Nile. They 
are all solid masses of stone or brick, with 
sepulchral chambers in the center or near the 
base; and these chambers are reached by a 
gallery, or passage, which opens from the out¬ 
side. The first of the Pyramids is said to have 
been erected by Cheops, an Egyptian King, who 
lived about 3,000 B. C. It was intended by 
him, and was used, as his tomb. According to 
Herodotus, one hundred thousand men were 
employed for twenty years in building this 
Pyramid; and ten years were occupied in con¬ 
structing a causeway by which to convey the 
stones to the place, and in conveying them 
there. This Pyramid, called “the Great Pyra¬ 
mid,” was originally 480 feet in height, with a 
base of 764 feet square. At present, it is ex¬ 
ternally a huge mass, rudely built of rough lime¬ 
stone blocks in steps, and with a platform of 
considerable area at the top; but it is believed 
to have been originally covered with a solid 
marble casing, the stones of which began to be 
removed about A. D. 1000 for the building or 
the adornment of Cairo. The second Pyramid 
is said to have been built by Chephron, the 
brother and successor of Cheops. Although 
slightly inferior to the first Pyramid in size, 
and probably far inferior in quality of masonry, 
it is still a structure of enormous dimensions, 
which must have required many years of labor 
from tens of thousands of workmen. After 
Chephron, Mycerinus, son of Cheops, ascended 
the throne. He, too, left a Pyramid, but much 
inferior in size to his father’s, the height of this 
third Pyramid being only 218 feet, with a base 




562 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


about 354 feet square. Besides these three 
principal Pyramids, there are nearly forty others 
included under the general designation of the 
Pyramids of Ghizeh, or Jeezeh. There are others 
in other parts of Egypt and in Nubia; and 
similar structures are to be found in Mexico, 
and in other parts of the world. 

Pyrenees ( pir'e-nez ), a broad chain of lofty 
mountains running from the Bay of Biscay, 276 
miles eastward, to the Mediterranean, form the 
boundary between France and Spain. They are 
highest in the center, Mount Maladetta reaching 
11,168 feet. The snowline is about 8,000 or 
9,000 feet, and there are glaciers on the French 
side. Valleys run up either side, ending in pre¬ 
cipitous “pot-holes,” with great regularity. The 
passes are very dangerous from wind and snow 
storms. The streams to the north feed the 
Adour and Garonne; those to the south, the 
Ebro and Douro. Vegetation in the west is 
European, in the east sub-tropical. Minerals 
are few, though both iron and coal are worked. 
The basis of the system is granite with limestone 
strata superimposed. 

Quebec, the oldest city in Canada and the 
capital of the province of Quebec, is situated 
on Cape Diamond, on the left bank of the St. 
Lawrence, at the confluence of the St. Charles. 
The cape is a promontory rising to a height 
of 330 feet, and the city lies on and below the 
rocky bluff, its impregnable position giving 
it the name, “Gibraltar of America.” The 
upper town contains the principal residences, 
buildings, parks and shops. The lower town 
is the commercial section. The picturesque 
position of the city and the fact that its his¬ 
toric sites are unaltered give it a peculiar ro¬ 
mantic interest. Nearby are the plains of 
Abraham, the scene of Wolfe’s victory in 1759. 
The upper town lies about the citadel, which 
covers forty acres and is garrisoned by Canadian 
militia. Outside the walls which enclose the 
upper town are the houses of Parliament. 
Laval University, chartered by Queen Victoria 
and Pope Pius IX, is the largest and most 
influential Catholic institution of higher educa¬ 
tion in Canada. Quebec was founded in 1608 
by Champlain, who established a small trading 
post here. It remained in the hands of the 
French, until captured in 1629, and held by 
the English for three years, when it was restored 
to France. England failed several times to 
take it until 1759, since when it has been in 
English possession. Population in 1911, 78,067. 

Rain is the return to the earth, in con¬ 
densed drops, of the aqueous vapors which are 
continually rising into the atmosphere by 
evaporation, the condensation being occasioned 
by a change in the general temperature, by a 
collision produced by contrary currents, or by a 
cloud passing into a cold stratum of air. The 
power of the air to hold water in solution in¬ 
creases in a much higher ratio than the tem¬ 
perature. Hence, when two masses of air, satu¬ 
rated with moisture and of different tempera¬ 
tures, are mixed, the resulting compound is not 
capable of holding the whole water in solution, 
and a part is, in consequence, precipitated as 
rain. As the whole atmosphere, when satu¬ 
rated, is calculated not to hold in solution more 


water than would form a sheet five inches in 
depth, while the mean annual deposit of rain 
and dew is probably from thirty-five to forty 
inches, it is obvious that the supply of atmos¬ 
pheric moisture must be renewed many times 
in the course of a year. The quantity of rain 
precipitated from the atmosphere depends upon 
a variety of circumstances — on the previous 
hygrometric state of the unmixed portions of 
air, their difference of heat, the elevation of their 
mean temperature, and the extent of the com¬ 
bination which takes place. When the deposi¬ 
tion is slow, and the electricity set free by change 
of state is not suddenly removed, the very minute 
aqueous globules remain suspended and form 
clouds; but if the deposition be rapid and copi¬ 
ous, and the electricity is more or less suddenly 
carried off, those particles conglomerate, and 
produce, according to the temperature of the 
medium through which they descend, rain, mist, 
snow, or hail. 

Rainbow, the well-known colored arch so 
frequently seen when the sun is shining during 
a shower of rain. Sometimes only one bow is 
seen, sometimes there are two, the second being 
broader and fainter, and situated above or out¬ 
side the first. In both bows alike the colors are 
the same as those in the spectrum, and they are 
arranged in the same order. In the lower or 
primary bow the red is uppermost; in the sec¬ 
ondary bow their relative positions are reversed, 
the violet being uppermost and the red lowest. 
The formation of the rainbow is due to the re¬ 
fraction and reflection of the sun’s light by the 
rain drops. The rays which make the primary 
bow have undergone two refractions and one 
reflection, whilst those that make up the second¬ 
ary bow have undergone two refractions and 
two reflections. Rainbows are seen only when 
the observer has his back to the sun, and looks 
in the direction in which the rain is falling. 

Rangoon, the capital of Lower Burmah, 
and the chief seaport of Burmah, is situated on 
the Rangoon River, the eastern branch of the 
Irawadi, about twenty-one miles from the 
sea. Since its occupancy by the British, in 
1852, Rangoon has undergone such changes 
that it is practically a new town, and its popu¬ 
lation has increased fivefold. The principal 
streets are broad, and contain many large and 
not a few handsome buildings. There are the 
law-courts, post-offices, Bank of Bengal, custom¬ 
house, Anglican and Roman Catholic churches, 
St. John’s College, the Shwe Dagon pagoda, etc. 
A large and increasing commerce is carried on 
with British, Indian, and Chinese ports; and an 
extensive trade is conducted with inland towns 
as far as Mandalay. The chief exports are rice, 
timber, cotton, hides, gums, and resins, mineral 
oil, ivory, precious stones, the imports being 
mainly manufactured goods. A number of rice- 
mills have been erected; there is a government 
dockyard, and steam tramcars have been intro¬ 
duced. Population, 234,881. 

Rastatt, a fortified town in the grand 
duchy of Baden, about fifteen miles to the south¬ 
west of Carlsruhe. It is chiefly celebrated for 
two congresses, the one in 1714, which put an 
end to the War of the Spanish Succession, and 
the other in 1797-99, to negotiate a peace be- 





GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


563 


tween France and the German Empire. After 
the close of the latter, the French plenipotentia¬ 
ries were treacherously murdered at a short dis¬ 
tance from the town. A monument marks the 
spot where they fell. Population, 16,822. 

Ratisbon (German, Regensburg ), a city of 
Bavaria, on the south bank of the Danube, about 
sixty-five miles northeast of Munich. It was 
formerly a place of great importance, having 
been, in the Thirteenth Century, the most popu¬ 
lous and flourishing city of Southern Germany. 
It was the seat of the Germanic Diet from 1663 
to 1806. Its most remarkable building is its 
cathedral, which dates from the Thirteenth Cen¬ 
tury, and which was restored in 1830-38. The 
city has some manufactures, and ship-building 
is carried on. The astronomer Kepler, to whom 
a monument is erected in the city, died at Ratis¬ 
bon, and is buried there. Population, 48,801. 

Ravenna, a city of Italy, and the capital 
of a province of the same name, situated near 
the mouth of the river Montone, about six 
miles from the Adriatic Sea. It has a cathedral 
w’hich dates from the Fourth Century, but which 
was rebuilt early in the Eighteenth Century; it 
also contains many interesting remains of an¬ 
tiquity, the city having been, in the time of the 
Romans, one of the most important places in 
Northern Italy, and at that time a seaport. 
After the downfall of the Western Empire, 
Ravenna became the capital of the kingdom of 
Theodoric, whose mausoleum is still in existence, 
about a mile outside the city. It also contains 
the grave of the poet Dante, who died at Ra¬ 
venna in 1321. The place is now of little im¬ 
portance, except for its antiquities. It has some 
manufactures in silk, and is connected with the 
Adriatic by a canal. Population, 64,031. 

Red Sea, an extensive inland sea, which 
lies between Arabia, on the east, and Egypt, 
Nubia, and Abyssinia, on the west; and which 
communicates with the Arabian Sea by the 
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Gulf of Aden, 
and with the Mediterranean at Port Said by the 
Suez Canal. The Red Sea (also called the Arabi¬ 
an Gulf), is about 1,400 miles long, and 230 miles 
broad at its broadest part. Towards its north¬ 
ern extremity it is divided into two gulfs, the 
Gulf of Suez (about 180 miles long), and the 
Gulf of Akabah, or the Elanitic Gulf (about 100 
miles long), between which is the Peninsula of 
Sinai. The sea is remarkable for its coral reefs, 
which extend generally in long strips parallel 
with the shore. It- is also remarkable for its 
numerous islands, which cause the navigation 
to be difficult, and occasionally dangerous, but 
there are good harbors on either side. Originally 
the sea was called the Sea of Edom, which the 
Romans translated into “Mare Rubrum,” or 
Red Sea. The name “Edom” signifies “red,” 
and this is doubtless the origin of the name; but 
the waters are said to be in some parts tinged 
with red, which is due to the presence of certain 
marine plants. The average depth of the sea is 
about 100 fathoms; its greatest depth (between 
Jeddah, in Arabia, and the opposite coast) is 
over 1,000 fathoms. 

Rheims, or Reims (Rems), a city in the 
French department of Marne; on the.Vesle, 
100 miles east-northeast of Paris. It is well 


built, and from the prevalence of the older style 
of domestic architecture, has a picturesque ap¬ 
pearance. Under the Frank rule it was a place 
of much importance, and it acquired a deeply 
religious interest from its having been the scene 
in 496 of the baptism of Clovis and his chief 
officers by the bishop, St. Remy (438-533). In 
the Eighth Century it became an archbishopric, 
and from 1179, when Philip Augustus was 
solemnly crowned here, it became the place for 
the coronation of the kings of France. Joan of 
Arc brought the dauphin hither, and the only 
sovereigns in the long series, down to 1825, not 
crowned at Rheims were Henry IV., Napoleon 
I., and Louis XVIII. In 1830 the ceremony of 
coronation at Rheims was abolished. The 
cathedral, though the towers of the original de¬ 
sign are still unfinished, is one of the finest ex¬ 
tant specimens of Gothic architecture. It was 
built between 1212 and 1430. The Roman¬ 
esque Church of St. Remy (mainly 1160-1180), 
with the saint’s shrine, is nearly of equal size, but 
of less architectural pretension. Rheims is one 
of the principal entrepots for the wines of Cham¬ 
pagne, and the hills which surround the town are 
planted with vineyards. Population, 109,859. 

Rhine (German, Rhein), the finest river of 
Germany, and one of the most important rivers 
of Europe, its direct course being 460 miles, 
and its indirect course 800 miles (about 250 miles 
of its course being in Switzerland, 450 in Ger¬ 
many, and 100 in Holland); while the area of 
its basin is 75,000 square miles. It is formed in 
the Swiss canton Grisons by two main streams 
called the Vorder and Hinter Rhein. The 
Vorder Rhein rises in the Lake of Toma, on the 
southeast slope of the St. Gothard, at a height 
of 7,690 feet above the sea, near the source of the 
Rhone, and at Reichenau unites with the Hinter 
Rhein, which issues from the Rheinwald Glacier, 
7,270 feet above sea-level. Beyond Reichenau 
the united streams take the common name of 
Rhine. Generally speaking, it pursues a north¬ 
ern course till it enters Holland, below Emmer¬ 
ich, when it divides into a number of separate 
branches, forming a great delta, and falling into 
the sea by many mouths. That which retains 
the name of Rhine, a small stream, passes Ley¬ 
den and enters the North Sea. In the German 
part of its course the chief tributaries are the Ill, 
Nahe, Moselle, Ahr, and Erft, Neckar, Main, 
Lahn, Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe. In Switzerland 
its tributaries are short and unimportant, and 
this part of its course is marked by the Falls of 
the Rhine at Schaffhausen, where the river is 
precipitated in three leaps over a ledge of rocks 
forty-eight to sixty feet in height, and by the 
cataracts of Lauterberg and the rapids of Rhein- 
felden. It is navigable without interruption 
from Basel to its mouth, a distance of 550 miles. 
Large sums are spent every year in keeping the 
channel in order, and in the erection or repair 
of river harbors, both in Germany and Holland. 
The Rhine is distinguished by the beauty of its 
scenery, which attracts many tourists. 

Rhodesia, the name given to that part of 
South Africa which was ceded in 1888 by the 
King of Matabele to the great imperialist, Cecil 
John Rhodes. Area, 439,575 square miles; 
population, about 2,000,000. The territory 



564 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


is administered by the British South African 
Company, which was given a royal charter in 
October, 1889. The River Zambesi flows 
through it, cutting the region into two portions 
— Southern and Northern Rhodesia. 

Southern Rhodesia consists of the two prov¬ 
inces of Matabeleland and Mashonaland. The 
capital and the seat of government is Salisbury, 
which has a population of about 3,500. The 
other principal townships are New Umtali, Mel- 
setter, and Enkeldoorn. A railway has been 
built, running inland from Beira, placing Salis¬ 
bury in direct communication with the sea over 
a line 382 miles in length. Matabeleland lies 
between the Limpopo and middle Zambesi 
rivers. The principal town, and the chief 
commercial center in Rhodesia,, is Bulawayo, 
with a population of over 5,000. The exten¬ 
sion of the Cape government west railway sys¬ 
tem through Kimberley and Vryburg to Bula¬ 
wayo was completed in October, 1897. The 
distance from Cape Town to Bulawayo is 1,360 
miles. Northern Rhodesia consists of the whole 
of the British sphere north of the Zambesi, lying 
between Portuguese East Africa, German East 
Africa,' the Congo Free State, and Angola, with 
the exception of the strip of territory forming 
the British Central Africa Protectorate, which is 
under direct imperial administration. North of 
the Zambesi the country has as yet been little 
prospected. Coal has been found on the shore 
of Lake Nyassa. There are 5,250 square miles 
of gold fields in Rhodesia. 

Richmond, a city of the United States, 
capital of Virginia, is finely situated on the 
north side of James River, at the head of tide¬ 
water, 100 miles southwest of Washington. The 
streets are generally wide and well-built, and 
mostly intersect each other at right angles. 
There are many fine buildings, including the 
capitol, governor’s house, city hall, federal build¬ 
ings, buildings of Richmond College, churches, 
schools, asylums, etc. The State House or cap¬ 
itol contains Houdon’s celebrated marble statue 
of Washington, and in the capitol grounds are 
Foley’s bronze statue of General T. J. (“ Stone¬ 
wall”) Jackson and Crawford’s bronze statue of 
Washington, twenty-five feet high, on a pedestal 
forty-two feet high, surrounded by other bronze 
statues. Water-power is almost unlimited, and 
the various mills and factories give employment 
to numerous workmen. The trade staples are 
tobacco, iron, grain, and flour. The first occu¬ 
pation of any part of its site was by English 
settlers in 1609; the city was formally founded 
in 1742, and became the seat of government in 
1779. During the Civil War it was the seat of 
the Confederate Government. It was invested 
by the federal armies, and surrendered on April 
3, 1865. Population, 127,628. 

Riga, a city and capital of Livonia, and 
after St. Petersburg and Odessa, the third sea¬ 
port of Russia, on the Dwina River, seven miles 
from the mouth of the river, and 350 miles south¬ 
west of St. Petersburg, via Pskoff. The old 
town has narrow streets and mediaeval houses 
and stores; but the suburbs are laid out in 
broad streets with handsome buildings. The 
chief edifices are the cathedral built in 1204, 
burned down in 1547, but rebuilt; St. Peter’s 


Church (1406), with a steeple 440 feet high; 
the castle of the old Knights of the Sword, 
built 1494-1515, the former residence of the 
grandmaster of the order; and several old 
guild houses and Hanseatic halls. Riga was 
founded in 1201 by Albert, Bishop of Livonia, 
and soon became a first-rate commercial town, 
and member of the Hanseatic League. In 1710 
was annexed to Russia. Population, 282,230. 

Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, a city 
and seaport, capital of Brazil and of the prov¬ 
ince of the same name, the largest and most 
important city of South America; on the west 
side of one of the finest bays in the world, 
eighty miles west of Cape Frio. The city stands 
on a tongue of land close to the shore, on the 
west side of the bay, at the foot of several high 
mountains which rise behind it. The houses are 
generally built of stone or brick. The streets 
are straight, well paved, and have excellent 
footpaths. The convents and churches are nu¬ 
merous, but none of them can be called fine 
buildings. Parallel with the beach runs the main 
street, called Rua de Direita, from which the 
minor streets branch off at right angles and are 
intersected by others at regular distances. The 
imperial palace skirts the beach, and is seen to 
great advantage from the landing place, which 
is within sixty yards of its entrance. The other 
public buildings are the naval and military ar¬ 
senal, a public hospital, a national library con¬ 
taining about 286,000 volumes. The entrance 
into it from the sea does not exceed a mile from 
point to point; it afterward widens to about 
three or four miles. This city is the chief mart 
of Brazil. Population, 858,000. 

Rio de la Plata, a river, or rather an 
estuary, on the South American coast, between 
the Argentine Republic and Uruguay. The es¬ 
tuary itself is about 185 miles long, and 130 
miles broad, at its entrance. It is formed by 
the confluence of the Paraguay, the Pilcomayo, 
the Parana, the Uruguay, and several other 
rivers; the total length of the stream, measured 
from the source of the Parana, being esti¬ 
mated at upwards of 2,950 miles. The estuary 
of the La Plata is not deep; and it has a number 
of submarine banks all around its coasts, which, 
along with its strong irregular currents, render 
navigation difficult. The waters of the estuary 
are so turbid that they tinge the sea visibly for 
a distance of 200 miles from its mouth. About 
150 miles from the mouth of the estuary, on its 
southern side, is the city of Buenos Ayres; on 
the opposite side of the estuary, but nearer the 
Atlantic, is the city of Monte Video. The area 
of the basin of the La Plata, from its source to 
its mouth, is estimated at 1,250,000 square 
miles. 

Rivers, Longest of the World 


Name of River Length 

Amazon,. 3,300 

Amur,. 2,700 

Arkansas,. 2,000 

Brahmaputra,. 1,800 

Camboia. 2,600 

Colorado,. 2,000 

Columbia,. 1,400 

Congo. 2,500 

Danube,. 1,800 

Dnieper. 1,400 

Don. 1,104 

Dwina,. 700 
















GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


565 


Name op River 

Elbe,. 

Euphrates. 

Ganges,. 

Hoang-Ho,. 

Hudson. 

Indus,. 

Irawadi, . 

Lena,. 

Loire,. 

Mackenzie,. 

Martaban,. 

Missouri and Mississippi, 

Murray,. 

Nelson,. 

Niger, . 

Nile. 

Obi,. 

Ohio and Allegheny, . . 

Orange,. 

Orinoco,. 

Parana,. 

Potomac,. 

Red River. 

Rhine,. 

Rhone,. 

Rio de la Plata, . . . . 

Rio Grande,. 

Rio Madeira,. 

Rio Negro,. 

S3o Francisco,. 

Saskatchewan,. 

Seine,. 

St. Lawrence,. 

Thames,. 

Tiber,. 

Ural,.. 

Vistula. 

Volga,. 

Yang-tse. 

Yenesei, . 

Yukon,. 

Zambezi,. 


Length 

700 

1.750 
1,500 
2,600 

300 

2,000 

1,500 

2.750 
620 

2.400 

2.152 

4.200 

1.500 
400 

2,600 

3,700 

2.500 
1,265 

1.152 

1.500 
2,750 

400 

1.200 
800 
550 

2,950 

1.800 

2,300 

1.400 
1,800 
1,200 

497 

700 

250 

260 

1,400 

598 

2,300 

3,000 

3,322 

2,000 

1,800 


Riviera ( re-ve-a'ra ), an Italian term for 
coast-land flanked by mountains, especially ap¬ 
plied to the strip of land lying around the Gulf 
of Genoa from Nice to Leghorn, which is divided 
by Genoa into the Western and Eastern Riviera, 
the former the more popular as a health resort; 
but the whole coast enjoys an exceptionally mild 
climate, and is replete with beautiful scenery. 

Rochester, a city and county-seat of Mon¬ 
roe County, N. Y.; on the Genesee River, 229 
miles west of Albany. In the center of the city 
are the Upper Falls of the Genesee, a perpen¬ 
dicular cataract of ninety-six feet. Rochester 
is built on a plateau on both sides of the river, 
263 feet above Lake Ontario. The city is the 
trade center of a large and rich agricultural 
region. In the Genesee River there are three 
falls, ninety-six, twenty-six, and eighty-three 
feet respectively, giving abundant water-power 
for manufacturing. There are over 1,900 in¬ 
dustrial establishments, employing upward of 
40,000 persons, with a combined capital of about 
$70,000,000, and an output of about $80,000,- 
000. The most important of these are flour 
mills, india-rubber goods, photographic materi¬ 
als, cigarettes, shoes, etc. In the suburbs is an 
extensive nursery, including two great plants for 
the packing and shipment of garden and farm 
seeds. Rochester is the seat of the University 
of Rochester, and the Rochester Theological 
Seminary. The most remarkable structure in 
the city and county is the aqueduct which car¬ 
ries the Erie Canal across the Genesee River. 
It is of cut stone, 848 feet long, with a channel 
forty-five feet wide, and is supported by nine 
arches. Population, 218,149. 

Rocky Mountains, a name indefinitely 


given to the whole of the extensive system of 
mountains which covers a great portion of the 
western half of North America, but more proper¬ 
ly applied to the eastern border of this mountain 
region, commencing in New Mexico in about 
32° 30' north latitude, and extending throughout 
the continent to the Polar Sea; terminating 
west of the Mackenzie River, in latitude 69° 
north, longitude 135° west. The Rocky Moun¬ 
tains in the United States are divided into two 
parts in Southern Wyoming by a tract of elevat¬ 
ed plateaus. The chief group of the southern 
half are the Front or Colorado Range, which in 
Wyoming has a mean elevation of 9,000 feet 
(at Evan's Pass, where it is crossed by the Union 
Pacific Railway, 8,269 feet). In Colorado it 
increases to a mean height of 13,000 feet, its 
highest points being Gray's Peak (14,341 feet), 
Long’s Peak (14,271 feet), and Pike's Peak 
(14,108 feet). The Sawatch Range, south of the 
Arkansas River, has its highest peak in Mount 
Harvard (14,375 feet), with passes at an eleva¬ 
tion of from 12,000 to 13,000 feet. “Parks” of 
Colorado are high mountain valleys, known as 
North, Middle, South, and San Luis parks, with 
an elevation of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet, sur¬ 
rounded by ranges 3,000 to 4,000 feet higher. 
The west border of the San Luis Park is formed 
by the San Juan Range with at least a dozen 
peaks over 14,000 feet, and between one and 
two hundred above 13,000 feet. On the north¬ 
eastern side this park is bounded by the Sangre 
de Cristo Range, in which is Blanca Peak (14,390 
feet). The Uintah Range, directly west of 
North Park, has several points above 13,000 
feet; and the Wahsatch Range, which forms the 
western limit of the southern division of the 
Rocky Mountains, rises to a height of 12,000 feet 
just east of Salt Lake City. The northern 
division of the Rocky Mountains, with the ex¬ 
ception of the Wind River Range and the Yellow¬ 
stone region, is lower and has less impressive 
scenery than the southern. In Idaho and Mon¬ 
tana the groups are more irregular in outline 
than in the south, and the division into ranges 
more uncertain. Of these the Bitter Root Moun¬ 
tains in part of their course form the divide 
between the Missouri and the Columbia. There 
two ranges reach altitudes of upwards of 9,000 
feet, and are crossed by a number of passes at 
elevations of from 5,500 to 6,500 feet. The 
Northern Pacific Railway crosses at Mullan's 
Pass (5,548 feet) through a tunnel 3,850 feet 
long. The Crazy Mountains, north of the Yellow¬ 
stone, reach a height of 11,000 feet; other groups 
are the Big Horn Mountains and the Black Hills, 
whose highest point is Mount Harvey (9,700 
feet). In Canada the highest known peaks are 
Mount Logan (19,500 feet), and Mount Hooker 
(15,700 feet), lying about 53° north latitude; 
the general altitude of this part of the range 
varying from 10,000 to 14,000 feet. The pass 
leading between Mount Brown and Mount 
Hooker, called the Athabasca Portage, has a 
height of 7,300 feet. The Rocky Mountains con¬ 
tain some of the finest scenery in the world, and 
are specially rich in deposits of gold, silver, iron, 
copper, etc., which are worked extensively. 

Rome, the capital of Italy, as formerly of 
the Roman Empire, republic, and kingdom, and 














































566 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


long the religious center of Western Christendom, 
is one of the most ancient and interesting cities 
of the world. It stands on both sides of the 
Tiber, about fifteen miles from the sea. The 
city is tolerably healthy during most of the year, 
but in late summer and early autumn malaria 
prevails to some extent. It has been greatly 
improved in cleanliness and healthfulness since 
it became the capital of modern Italy. 

The streets of ancient Rome were crooked 
and narrow, till after the fire that took place in 
Nero’s reign, when the new streets were made 
both wide and straight. In the reign of Augus¬ 
tus the population is believed to have amounted 
to about 1,300,000 and in that of Trajan was 
not far short of 2,000,000. 

Ancient Rome was adorned with a vast num¬ 
ber of splendid buildings, including temples, 
palaces, public halls, theaters, amphitheaters, 
baths, porticoes, monuments, etc., of many of 
which we can now form only a very imperfect 
idea. The oldest and most sacred temple 
was that of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capi- 
toline Hill. The Pantheon, a temple of various 
gods (now Church of S. Maria Rotonda), is 
still in excellent preservation. It is a great 
circular building with a dome roof of stone 140 
feet wide and 140 feet high, a marvel of construc¬ 
tion, being two feet wider than the great dome 
of St. Peter’s. The interior is lighted by a single 
aperture in the center of the dome. Other tem- 
les were the Temple of Apollo, which Augustus 
uilt of white marble, on the Palatine, containing 
a splendid library, which served as a place of 
resort to the poets; the Temple of Minerva, 
which Pompey built in the Campus Martius, and 
which Augustus covered with bronze; the Tem¬ 
ple of peace, once the richest and most beautiful 
temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in the Via 
Sacra, which contained the treasures of the 
temple of Jerusalem, a splendid library, and other 
curiosities, but was burned during the reign of 
Commodus; the temple of the Sun, which Au- 
relian erected to the east of the Quirinal; and the 
magnificent temple of Venus, which Csesar caused 
to be built to her as the origin of his family. The 
principal palace of ancient Rome was the Pala- 
tium or imperial palace, on the Palatine Hill, a 
private dwelling house enlarged and adopted as 
the imperial residence by Augustus. Succeeding 
emperors extended and beautified it. Among 
the theaters, those of Pompey, Cornelius Balbus, 
and Marcellus were the most celebrated. That 
of Pompey, in the Campus Martius, was capable 
of containing 40,000 persons. The most magnifi¬ 
cent of the amphitheaters was that of Titus, 
completed A. D. 80, now known as the Coliseum 
or Colosseum. Though only one-third of the 
gigantic structure remains, the ruins are still 
stupendous. The principal of the circuses was 
the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and 
Aventine, which was capable of containing 
260,000 spectators. With slight exception its 
walls have entirely disappeared, but its form is 
still distinctly traceable. The public baths or 
thermae in Rome were also very numerous. The 
largest were the Thermae of Titus, part of the 
substructure of which may still be seen on the 
Esquiline Hill; the Thermae of Caracalla, even 
larger, extensive remains of which still exist in 


the southeast of the city; and the Thermae of 
Diocletian, the largest and most magnificent of 
all, part of which is converted into a church. Of 
the triumphal arches the most celebrated are 
those of Titus (A. D. 81), Severus (A. D. 203), 
and that of Constantine (A. D. 311), all in or near 
the Forum and all well preserved structures. It 
was not till the Seventeenth Century that the 
modern city was extended to its present limits 
on the right bank, by a wall built under the 
pontificates of Urban VIII. (1623—1644) and 
Innocent X. (1644-1655), and inclosing both the 
Janiculum and the Vatican hills. The boundary 
wall on the left or east bank of the river follows 
the same line as that traced by Aurelian in the 
Third Century, and must in many parts be iden¬ 
tical with the original structure. The walls on 
both banks are built of brick, with occasional 
portions of stone work, and on the outside are 
about fifty-five feet high. The greater part 
dates from A. D. 271 to 276. The city is entered 
by twelve gates (several of those of earlier date 
being now walled up) and several railway acces¬ 
ses. Since Rome became the capital of United 
Italy great changes have taken place in the 
appearance of the city, many miles of new streets 
being built, and much done in the way of paving, 
drainage, and other improvements. It has thus 
lost much of its ancient picturesque appearance, 
and is rapidly acquiring the look of a great mod¬ 
ern city with wide straight streets of uniform¬ 
looking tenements having little distinctive char¬ 
acter. The three finest streets, the Corso and 
the strade del Babbuino and di Ripetta, diverge 
from the piazza del Popolo near the north gate. 
The city is divided into 14 rioni or quarters, 
twelve of which are on the left bank and two 
on the right bank of the river. The latter two 
are the rione Trastevere, the ancient Janiculum, 
and the rione di Borgo, containing the castle of 
Sant’ Angelo, the citadel, now chiefly used as a 
state prison, and the Vatican. Besides the 
great collection of the Vatican, there are ten or 
eleven public libraries. There are in the city 
about 360 churches. Preeminent among the 
Christian temples of the world is St. Peter’s 
church. The chief church in point of antiquity 
and ecclesiastical dignity is the church of St. 
John Lateran. Among the principal palaces are 
the palazzi Doria, Ruspoli, Corsini, Orsini, Gius- 
tiniani, Altieri, Cicciaporci, Farnese, Barberini, 
and Colonna. The Quirinal, formerly the pope’s 
ordinary residence, is now the royal palace, the 
pope residing in the Vatican. On the Capitoline 
hill are three palaces appropriated for the as¬ 
semblies of the magistrates, the observatory, 
and the fine art collections. There are several 
palaces which, from being surrounded by ex¬ 
tensive gardens, are called villas. Of these the 
principal is the villa Borghese, the gardens of 
which form the most fashionable promenade in 
Rome. There are many squares and fountains 
in the city. Among the most curious remains 
of ancient Rome are the catacombs. The 
Ghetto, the quarter in which the Jewish inhabit¬ 
ants were formerly confined, is a relic of the 
Middle Ages. 

Till the establishment of the Italian kingdom, 
Rome was the capital of the states of the Church; 
and it was, at a much earlier period, the capital 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


567 


of the Roman Empire. It was founded by- 
Romulus about 753 B. C. At first only a small 
castle on the summit of Mount Palatinus, it 
had grown by the time of Servius Tullius, the 
sixth of its kings, who died 534 B. C., large 
enough to occupy the “seven hills of Rome” 
(“Palatinus,” “ Capitolinus,” “Quirinalis,” “Cae- 
lius,” “Aventinus,” “ Viminalis,” “Esquilinus”), 
and was hence called “the city of the seven 
hills.” In the time of the Emperor Augustus, 
the first of the emperors, who died A. D. 14, 
the population of the city is estimated to have 
been at least 1,300,000; and in the time of the 
Emperors Vespasian and Trajan (A. D. 70-117), 
it is believed to have contained nearly 2,000,000. 
About 728 the city of Rome became independ¬ 
ent under the popes, and it remained (with the 
exception of vicissitudes) the seat of the Papal 
Court till the abolition of the temporal power of 
the popes in 1870. Since then, Rome has been 
the capital of the kingdom of Italy, only the 
Vatican being under the sovereignty of the pope. 
The city is the seat of a university, founded in 
1244. Population, 462,783. 

Rotterdam, the chief port and second city 
of Holland, situated at the junction of the Rotte 
with the Maas, nineteen miles from the North 
Sea and forty-five miles southwest of Amster¬ 
dam; the town is cut in many parts by hand¬ 
some canals, which communicate with the river 
and serve to facilitate the enormous foreign 
commerce; the quaint old houses, the stately 
public buildings, broad tree-lined streets, canals 
alive with fleets of trim barges, combine to give 
the town a picturesque and animated appear¬ 
ance. Boymans’ Museum has a fine collection 
of Dutch and modern paintings, and the Groote 
Kerk is a Gothic church of imposing appearance ; 
there is also a large zoological garden; ship¬ 
building, distilling, sugar-refining, machine and 
tobacco factories are the chief industries. Pop¬ 
ulation, 403,356. 

Rumania, a European kingdom, bounded 
by Austria-Hungary, Servia, Bulgaria, the 
Black Sea, and Russia; area, 50,700 square 
miles. It includes the former Danubian prin¬ 
cipalities of Wallachia and Moldavia and the 
province of the Dobrudja on the Black Sea. 
Population, 5,956,690. The capital is Bucharest ; 
other chief towns are Jassy, Galatz, Bra'ila, and 
Giurgevo. The surface is mainly occupied by 
undulating and well-watered plains of great fer¬ 
tility, gradually sloping upwards to the Car¬ 
pathians on the north and west borders, where 
the summits range from 2,650 to 8,800 feet 
above sea level. The entire kingdom is in the 
basin of the Danube, which has a course of 595 
miles in Rumania, forming the boundary with 
Bulgaria nearly the whole way. Its chief 
Rumanian tributaries are the Oita or Aluta, 
Ardjis, Jalomitza, Sereth, and Pruth (on northwest 
border). The Danube forms a number of marshy 
lakes as it approaches the alluvial region of the 
Dobrudja, through which it discharges itself 
into the Black Sea by the St. George, Sulina, 
and Kilia Channels. The climate is much more 
extreme than at the same latitude in other 
parts of Europe; the summer is hot and rain¬ 
less, the winter sudden and very intense; there 
is almost no spring, but the autumn is long and 


pleasant. Rumania is an essentially agricul¬ 
tural and pastoral state, fully 70 per cent, of 
the inhabitants being directly engaged in hus- . 
bandry. The chief cereal crops are maize, 
wheat, barley, rye, and oats; tobacco, hemp, 
and flax are also grown; and wine is produced 
on the hills at the foot of the Carpathians. 
Cattle, sheep, and horses are reared in large 
numbers. The country is rich in minerals of 
nearly every description, but salt, petroleum, 
and lignite are the only minerals worked. 
Manufactures are still in a rudimentary state. 
Trade is fairly active, but almost entirely in 
the hands of foreigners; the internal trade is 
chiefly carried on by Jews. The chief exports are 
grain (especially maize), cattle, timber, and fruit; 
the chief imports, manufactured goods, coal, etc. 
Germany, Great Britain, and Austria-Hungary 
appropriate by far the greatest share of the 
foreign trade, the bulk of which passes through 
the Black Sea ports. The Rumanians, who call 
themselves Romani, claim to be descendants of 
Roman colonists introduced by Trajan; but the 
traces of Latin descent are in great part due to 
a later immigration, about the Twelfth Century, 
from the Alpine districts. Their language and 
history both indicate that they are a mixed 
race with many constituents. Their language, 
however, must be classed as one of the Romance 
tongues, though it contains a large admixture of 
foreign elements. In Rumania there are about 
5,400,000 Rumanians, 200,000 Jews, 200,000 
gypsies, 50,000 Bulgars, 1,500 Magyars, 20,000 
Germans, 20,000 Greeks, and 15,000 Armenians. 
Three-fourths of the population are peasants, 
who, till 1864, were kept in virtual serfdom by 
the boiars or nobles. In that year upward of 
400,000 peasant families were made proprietors 
of small holdings averaging ten acres, at a price 
to be paid back to the state in fifteen years. 
About 4,500,000 of the people belong to the' 
Greek Church. Energetic efforts are being made 
to raise education from its present low level. 
Rumania has two universities (at Bucharest and 
Jassy), several gymnasia, and a system of free 
primary schools. 

Russia, one of the most powerful empires 
of the world, second only in extent to the Brit¬ 
ish Empire, and third as regards population, 
the British Empire ranking first, the Chinese 
republic second. It comprehends most of East¬ 
ern Europe and all Northern Asia, and is bounded 
north by the Arctic Ocean; west by Norway, 
Sweden, the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic, 
Prussia, Austria, and Rumania; south by the 
Black Sea, Turkey in Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, 
the Chinese republic; east by the Pacific and 
Bering Strait. The total area has been officially 
estimated at 8,647,657 square miles, while the 
population is as follows: 


Russia in Europe,. 116,505,500 

Poland, ... 11,671,800 

Caucasus,. 11,392,400 

Siberia,. 7,878,500 

Central Asian Provinces, .... 9,631,300 

Finland,. 3,015,700 


160,095,200 

The largest towns are St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
Warsaw, Odessa, Lodz, Kiev, Riga, Kharkoff, 









568 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and Tiflis. St. Petersburg and Moscow are the 
capitals of the empire. European Russia con¬ 
sists almost wholly of immense plains, the Val¬ 
dai Hills, between St. Petersburg and Moscow, 
averaging 500 feet and never exceeding 1,200 
feet above sea-level, forming the only elevated 
region of the interior and an important water¬ 
shed. The mountains include: the Caucasus, 
running from the Black Sea to the Caspian, 
reach to the height of 18,500 feet; the Urals, 
stretching from the Caspian to the Arctic Ocean 
and separating European from Asiatic Russia, 
have their greatest height below 7,000 feet. 
Beyond the Urals are the vast Siberian plains. 
The whole of the vast empire is watered by 
numerous rivers, some running a course of thou¬ 
sands of miles. Altogether Russia and Poland 
have 49,000 miles of navigable rivers. Asiatic 
Russia has also a number of very large rivers, 
as the Obi, Yenisei, and Lena in Siberia, and 
the Amur toward the Chinese frontier. This 
complete river system is of incalculable value 
to Russia, as by its means internal communica¬ 
tion is carried on. Canals connect the navi¬ 
gable rivers, so as to form continuous water¬ 
ways; there being 500 miles of canals and 717 
of canalized rivers. As may be expected from 
its vastness, this empire offers soils and climates 
of almost every variety. Extreme cold in win¬ 
ter and extreme heat in summer, are, however, 
a general characteristic of Russian climates. As 
regards soil, large sections of Russia are sandy, 
barren wastes and vast morasses. The most 
productive portion is that between the Bal 
and the Gulf of Finland, and the Volga, on the 
north and east; Prussia, Austria, etc., on the 
west; and the Black Sea on the south. It has, 
generally speaking, a soft, black mold of great 
depth, mostly on a sandy bottom, easily wrought, 
and very fertile. The more southern portion of 
Siberia, as far east as the river Lena, has, for 
the most part, a fertile soil, and produces, not¬ 
withstanding the severity of the climate, nearly 
all kinds of grain. Boundless forests exist, the 
area of the forest land in Europe being 42 per 
cent, of the total area. The fir, larch, alder, 
and birch predominate. Most of the forest land 
is now under government control, and waste is 
prevented. Agriculture remains the chief pur¬ 
suit of the bulk of the population. For some 
years it has, however, remained stationary, 
while manufacturing industries are steadily go¬ 
ing ahead. The chief crops are rye, wheat, bar¬ 
ley, oats, hemp, flax, and tobacco. Vine and 
beet culture are rapidly increasing, and the breed¬ 
ing of horses and cattle is also extensively 
carried on. Russia is rich in minerals. The 
precious metals are chiefly obtained in the Ural 
and Altai regions. The output for 1905 was, 
gold, 1,078,375ounces; platinum,204,988ounces; 
silver, 165,831 ounces. In the Ural, iron beds 
are also rich and numerous, exceeding all others 
in productiveness. Copper is most abundant in 
the government of Perm; lead in the Ural and 
some parts of Poland; saltpeter in Astrakhan. 
Of the coal mines those of the Don basin are 
the principal at present, those of Kielce ranking 
second: the mines around Moscow come next. 
About 60,000 tons of manganese ore are annu¬ 
ally extracted in the Ural and the Caucasus. 


The petroleum wells of Baku on the Caspian 
now send their products all over Europe. Prior 
to the accession of Peter the Great, Russia had 
no manufactures; he started them, and under 
the more or less fostering care of his successors 
and Russia’s protective policy they have stead¬ 
ily grown. The latest statistics give a total of 
about 1,400,000 persons as being employed in 
the various manufacturing industries. Two- 
fifths of the entire production comes from the 
two capitals, St. Petersburg and Moscow. The 
various manufactures rank approximately as 
follows: spirits, sugar, cottons, yarns, flour, 
tobacco, foundry products, flax, linen, leather, 
woolen cloth, iron, machinery, beer, soap, 
timber, paper, oil, glass, chemicals, and agri¬ 
cultural implements. The bulk of Russia’s ex¬ 
ternal trade is carried on through the European 
frontier and the Baltic and Black Sea ports. 
The chief exports are: grain (about one-half of 
entire exports), flax, linseed, and other oleagi¬ 
nous seeds, timber, hemp, wool, butter and eggs, 
spirits, bristles, and furs, in the order indicated. 
The chief imports are cotton, wool, tea, machin¬ 
ery, coal and coke, cotton yarn, metal goods, 
wine, olive oil, raw silk, herrings, textile goods, 
fruit, coffee, tobacco. The import trade is 
heaviest with Germany, Great Britain, France, 
Austria-Hungary, and Belgium, in the order 
named. In the export trade Great Britain takes 
the lead, Holland, France, and Germany following. 

San Francisco, the most important city 
of California, and the principal emporium of the 
Pacific Coast of America, is situated on San Fran- 
eisco Bay. The bay, which is fifty miles long 
by five miles wide, makes one of the grandest 
harbors in the world, and the principal one on the 
Pacific coast. The mean altitude is 130 feet 
above the sea. The city is served by an exten¬ 
sive waterworks system. The reservoirs have 
a storage capacity of 100,000,000 gallons, and 
the consumption averages 30,000,000 gallons per 
day. There are in all 750 miles of streets, of 
which 192 miles are paved. The sewer system 
covers 308 miles, and the annual cost of main¬ 
taining the city government exceeds $7,000,000. 
The Golden Gate Park, named after the popular 
name of the entrance to San Francisco Bay, is 
the most important park in the city, comprising 
1,043 acres. It extends from the city to the 
ocean. About half of it is beautifully laid out 
in promenades, drives, lawns, etc. It was here 
that the Midwinter Exposition was held in 1894. 
The park contains a magnificent conservatory, 
and monuments of Francis Scott Key, author of 
“The Star-Spangled Banner,” President Gar¬ 
field, General Halleck, and Thomas Starr King. 
Hill Park, lying a half mile east of Golden Gate 
Park, affords a fine view from its highest point, 
which is 570 feet above the sea. The Presidio, or 
Government Military Reservation, extends along 
the Golden Gate for about four miles, and has an 
area of 1,500 acres. The city proper was almost 
totally destroyed by earthquake and fire, April 
18, 1906, and following. The loss amounted to 
nearly $250,000,000; but with marvelous 
energy the city was rapidly rebuilt, on a mag¬ 
nificent scale. Population, 416,912. 

Scotland, the northern division of the 
island of Great Britain. The greatest length, 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


569 


from north-northeast to south-southwest, be¬ 
tween Dunnet Head and the Mull of Galloway, 
is 287 miles. The breadth varies from 140 miles 
to less than thirty, the latter in the north, be¬ 
tween Dornoch Firth and Loch Broom. Few 
points in the mainland are more than forty 
miles from the sea, the country being so much 
penetrated by inlets. The chief cities are: 
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee, and Aberdeen. 

The islands of Scotland number altogether 
nearly 800. On the east coast they are few 
and small; but on the northeast coast are the 
two large groups of the Orkneys and Shet- 
lands; while on the west coast the islands 
are large and numerous. The west coast of the 
mainland is generally a wild, deeply indented 
mountain wall, presenting a series of inlets or 
sea lochs, while toward the middle the coast is 
cleft by two great inlets opening to the south¬ 
west, the Firth of Lorn and its continuation 
Loch Linnhe, and the Firth of Clyde. The east 
coast is sometimes low and sandy, but is often 
formed of steep, rocky cliffs of considerable ele¬ 
vation, the chief inlets being the Firth of Forth 
and Tay, Moray Firth and Cromarty Firth. 

Both from the configuration of the surface 
and the geological structure, the country na¬ 
turally divides into the Highlands in the north, 
Central Lowlands, and Southern Uplands. The 
Highland division is remarkable for its moun¬ 
tain-masses, many of the summits being over 
4,000 feet high. The best known are the 
Grampians, which form a system covering a 
large area, and culminating on the west coast 
in Ben Nevis, 4,406 feet high; while fifty-five 
miles to the northeast rises a remarkable cluster 
of summits reaching in Ben Macdhui the height 
of 4,296 feet. The Grampians and their con¬ 
nections are separated from the mountains far¬ 
ther to the north by Glenmore or the Great Glen 
of Scotland, a remarkable depression stretching 
from sea to sea, and forming, by the series of 
lakes occupying it and the Caledonian Canal 
connecting them, a waterway from the west 
coast to the east. The Southern Uplands are 
also essentially a mountainous region, sum¬ 
mits of over 2,000 feet being frequent, though 
none exceed 3,000 feet above the sea. The 
Central region, though much less elevated 
than the other two divisions, has none of the 
monotony usual in flat countries. Though 
only a sixth of the whole area, the fertility of 
the soil and its mineral treasures make this 
part by far the wealthiest and most populous. 

The chief rivers flow (roughly speaking) to 
the east, and enter the German Ocean, the largest 
being the Tweed, Forth, Tay, South Esk, North 
Esk, Dee, Don, Deveron, Spey, Findhorn, etc.; 
those entering the sea on the west are the Clyde, 
Ayr, Doon, Dee, Nith, Annan, and Esk. The 
Tay carries to the sea a larger quantity of water 
than any river in Britain, but neither it nor 
most of the others, except when they form estu¬ 
aries, are of much use for navigation. The 
Clyde, however, in its lower course carries a vast 
traffic, this being rendered possible chiefly by 
dredging. Many of the rivers are valuable from 
the number of salmon they produce. A strik¬ 
ing feature of the country is the great multitude 
of lakes, varying in size from Loch Lomond 


(twenty-eight square miles) to the pool-like 
mountain tarns. In the Northern Highlands al¬ 
most every glen has its lake and every mountain 
hollow is filled by a stream or spring. Among 
the more noted are Lochs Lomond, Katrine, Tay, 
Earn, Rannoch Awe, Shiel, Laggan, Lochy, 
Ness, Maree, Shin, in the Western and Northern 
Highlands; Loch Leven, in the Central High¬ 
lands; and St. Mary’s Loch, Lochs Ken, Dee, 
and Doon in the Southern Uplands. 

Seasons, the four divisions or portions of 
the year: namely, spring, when the sun enters 
Aries; summer, when he enters Cancer; au¬ 
tumn, when he enters Libra; and winter, when 
he enters Capricorn. Hence spring is supposed 
to commence about the 21st of March; sum¬ 
mer, about the 22d of June; autumn, about 
the 22d of September; and winter, about the 
21st of December. The diversity of the season j 
depends upon the oblique position of the sun’s 
path through the heavens, in consequence of 
which this luminary rises to different heights 
above the horizon, making the day sometimes 
longer, and sometimes shorter, than the night. 
When the sun rises highest at noon, its rays 
fall most nearly in the direction of a perpen¬ 
dicular, and consequently a greater number is 
received upon a given spot; their action also, 
at the same time, continues the longest. These 
circumstances make the difference between 
summer and winter. 

Seattle, the largest city of Washington, 
is magnificently situated in King County, on 
Puget Sound, midway between the Coast and 
Cascade ranges. The city has a splendid har¬ 
bor, and is the terminus of several transcon¬ 
tinental railroads. Commercially and indus¬ 
trially Seattle is one of the foremost cities of 
the Pacific coast. The opening of the Alaskan 
territory and the increased trade with the 
Orient have contributed to the growth of the 
city in recent years. Manufacturing interests 
are large, electric power being derived from 
Snoqualmie Falls, 19 miles distant and 270 
feet high. It is the seat of the University of 
Washington, a state institution. The Alaska- 
Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held here in 
1909. Population, 237,194. 

Shanghai, a city and seaport of China, in 
the province of Kiangsu; near the junction of 
the Hwang-pu and the Wu-sung rivers. The 
Chinese city proper is inclosed within walls 
twenty-four feet high, the streets being narrow 
and dirty, and the buildings low, crowded, and 
for the most part unimportant. In 1843 
Shanghai was opened as one of the five treaty 
ports, and an important foreign settlement is 
now established (with a separate government) 
outside the city walls. Shanghai has water com¬ 
munication with about a third of China, and its 
trade since the opening of the port has become 
very extensive. The chief imports are cottons, 
yarns, woolens, and opium; and the exports, 
silk, tea, rice, and raw cotton. The largest part 
of the foreign trade is in the hands of British and 
American merchants. Population, about 651,000. 

Sophia, Church of St., in Constanti¬ 
nople, the most celebrated ecclesiastical edifice 
of the Greek Church, now used as a mosque; 
was built by the Emperor Justinian, and 



570 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


dedicated in 558. It is in the Byzantine style of 
architecture, has a fine dome rising to the height 
of 180 feet, and is richly decorated in the in¬ 
terior. The mass of the edifice is of brick, but 
is overlaid with marble; the floor is of mosaic 
work, composed of porphyry and verd antique. 
The great piers which support the domo consist 
of square blocks of stone bound with hoops of 
iron. The numerous pillars supporting the in¬ 
ternal galleries, etc., are of white and colored 
marbles, porphyry, granite, etc., and have cap¬ 
itals of various peculiar forms. The interior of 
the church is 243 feet by 269 feet in dimensions. 

South Africa,Union of, a British domin¬ 
ion occupying the southern extremity of the conti¬ 
nent of Africa, and embracing the four provinces 
of Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, 
and the Orange Free State, which were the 
scene of the South African war. The Union 
was constituted in 1909 by act of the British 
Parliament. United South Africa extends across 
the continent along the southern boundaries of 
German Southwest Africa, Bechuanaland, Rho¬ 
desia, and Portuguese East Africa, has an area 
of 473,184 square miles and a population esti¬ 
mated at 5,958,499, of whom about one-fifth are 
of European (white) extraction, and the remain¬ 
der natives or other (colored) races. This 
region is chiefly table-land of a temperate and 
salubrious climate, and is admirably adapted to 
European settlement. It is principally a pas¬ 
toral country, but large districts are well suited 
to agriculture. Its mineral resources are enor¬ 
mous and its future is likely to be very great. 

Spain, a kingdom in the southwest of Eu¬ 
rope, forming with Portugal the great southwest 
peninsula of Europe. It is separated from 
France on the northeast by the chain of the 
Pyrenees, and is otherwise bounded by Portugal 
and the Atlantic and Mediterranean. In great¬ 
est breadth north and south it measures 540 
miles; greatest length east and west, 620 miles. 
Spain retains practically none of her once mag¬ 
nificent colonies. The war with the United 
States deprived her of Cuba, Porto Rico, the 
Philippine and Sulu Islands, and Guam; and 
a treaty with Germany, February 8, 1899, of 
the Marianne (or Ladrone), Caroline, and Pelew 
Islands. On November 8, 1900, Spain sold the 
islands of Cagayan and Sibutu to the United 
States for $100,000. Her last remaining colo¬ 
nies are in Africa. The coast line is not much 
broken, but sweeps round in gentle curves. 
The interior is considerably diversified, but 
its characteristic feature is its central table¬ 
land, which has an elevation of from 2,200 to 
2,800 feet, and a superficial extent of not less 
than 90,000 square miles. It descends grad¬ 
ually on the west toward Portugal; on the east 
are the provinces of Catalonia and Valencia; on 
the north are the Asturian and Cantabrian 
Mountains, reaching an elevation of about 8,500 
feet, and on the south is the Sierra Morena. 
Besides these ranges, there is the chain of the 
Pyrenees, which, though partly belonging to 
France, presents its boldest front to Spain and 
has its loftiest summits within it. The whole 
country teems with mineral wealth, including 
gold, silver, quicksilver, lead, copper, iron, zinc, 
calamine, antimony, tin, coal, etc. The ex¬ 


ploitation of the minerals has, however, in recent 
times been mostly accomplished by foreign 
capital, while most of the ore is exported to 
foreign countries in its raw state. About one- 
sixth of the acreage is under wood; the more 
remarkable trees being the Spanish chestnut 
and several varieties of oak, and in particular 
the cork oak. Fruits are extremely abundant, 
and include, in addition to apples, pears, cherries, 
plums, peaches, and apricots, the almond, date, 
fig, orange, citron, olive, and pomegranate; 
and in the lower districts, the pineapple and 
banana. The culture of the vine is general, and 
great quantities of wine are made, both for 
home consumption and exportation. The more 
important farm crops are wheat, rice, maize, 
barley, and legumes. In the south, cotton and 
sugar cane are grown. Hemp, flax, esparto, 
the mulberry for rearing silk worms, saffron, 
licorice, are also to be mentioned. 

St. Lawrence, one of the largest rivers 
in the world, which rises under the name of the 
St. Louis, and drains the great chain of North 
American lakes. In different parts of its course 
it is known by different names. From the sea 
to Lake Ontario it is called St. Lawrence; be¬ 
tween Lakes Ontario and Erie it is called 
Niagara River; between Lakes Erie and St. 
Clair, Detroit River; between Lakes St. Clair 
and Huron, St. Clair River; between Lakes 
Huron and Superior, St. Mary’s River or the 
Narrows, forming thus an uninterrupted water¬ 
way of upwards of 1,030 miles. It receives the 
Ottawa, its principal auxiliary, at Montreal, as 
also the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, and numer¬ 
ous other large rivers from the north. The 
river is navigable for Atlantic steamers to the 
city of Montreal, 600 miles up, and from Mon¬ 
treal upwards by river and lake steamers. The 
rapids between Montreal and Lake Ontario are 
assed by means of canals, and Niagara Falls 
y the Welland Canal. The river’s breadth 
between Montreal and Quebec is from one-half 
mile to four miles; the average breadth, about 
two miles. Below Quebec it gradually widens 
till it enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence. From 
the beginning of December to the middle of 
April the navigation is totally suspended by ice. 
In part of its course it forms the boundary be¬ 
tween the United States and Canada. 

St. Louis, chief city of Missouri, on the 
west bank of the Mississippi River, twenty miles 
south of the mouth of the Missouri, is the fourth 
city in the United States in population, and the 
commercial metropolis of the Mississippi Valley. 
The city is built on rising ground, comprising 
three terraces, the highest of which is 200 feet 
above the level of the river. The city owns an 
extensive water-works system, costing $20,000,- 
000. St. Louis has a park system which con¬ 
stitutes one of its most attractive features. 
The total area is 2,268 acres. Forest Park, 
which comprises 1,370 acres, is the largest, and 
probably the most beautiful of the parks. Tower 
Grove Park, covering 276 acres was the donation 
of Henry Shaw, who also gave the city the 
Missouri Botanical Garden. The fair grounds, 
with 137 acres, contain a one-mile race track, 
an amphitheater seating 40,000 people, many 
halls, etc. Carondelet and Lafayette Parks 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 571 


are small but fine specimens of landscape gar¬ 
dening. The principal public buildings are 
the massive post-office and custom-house, 
costing more than $6,500,000; the city hall, 
built at a cost of $2,000,000; the court-house; 
the union railroad station with a train house 
covering thirty tracks, and used by twenty- 
one railroad companies, erected at a cost of 
$6,500,000; and the Chamber of Commerce 
building, costing $2,000,000. The St. Louis 
bridge, a massive structure, was completed in 
1874 at a cost of over $10,000,000. It consists 
of three spans, the center one being 520 feot 
long, and the other two 500 feet each. The 
piers upon which these spans rest are built of 
limestone carried down to bed rock. The main 
passage for pedestrians is fifty-four feet wide, 
and below this are two lines of rails. The mer¬ 
chant’s bridge, three miles north, was completed 
in 1890 at a cost of $3,000,000. It is used ex¬ 
clusively for railroad traffic. The favorable 
location of St. Louis in the heart of the vast and 
fertile Mississippi Valley makes it one. of the 
greatest commercial cities ir. the United States. 
There is an immense trade in breadstuffs, grain, 
provisions, lumber, hides, fur, agricultural prod¬ 
ucts, manufactured articles, etc. There are 
about 7,000 manufacturing establishments, with 
a combined capital of about $150,000,000, and 
employing upward of 100,000 persons. It is one 
of the largest tobacco manufacturing cities in 
the world. The city has direct communication 
with more than 6,000 miles of rivers. A con¬ 
siderable amount of its foreign trade is entered and 
cleared at New Orleans. St. Louis is the seat of 
Washington University. Population, 687,029. 

Stockholm, the capital of Sweden; on 
several islands and the adjacent mainland, 
between a bay of the Baltic and Lake Malar; 
in a situation that is accounted one of the most 
picturesque in Europe. The nucleus of Stock¬ 
holm is an island in mid-channel called “The 
Town”; on it stand the imposing royal pal¬ 
ace (1697-1754); the principal church (St. 
Nicholas), in which the kings are crowned; the 
House of the Nobles (1648-1670), in which that 
class hold their periodical meetings; the town 
house; the ministries of the kingdom; and the 
principal wharf, a magnificent granite quay, 
fronting east. Immediately west of the central 
island lies the Knights’ Island; it is almost en¬ 
tirely occupied with public buildings, as the 
houses of parliament; the old Franciscan 
Church, in which all the later sovereigns of 
Sweden have been buried; the royal archives; 
and the chief law courts of the kingdom. There 
is considerable industry in the making of sugar, 
tobacco, silks and ribbons, candles, linen, cotton, 
and leather, and there are large iron foundries 
and machine shops. The water approaches to 
the city are in general rendered inaccessible by 
ice during three or four months every winter; 
but to remedy this defect it is proposed to build 
a new harbor at Nynas on the Baltic shore, 
thirty miles to the south. Stockholm is the 
seat of a large trade every year, principally 
grain (wheat and rye), rice, flour, herrings, oils 
and oilcake, cork, groceries, metals, and wine 
and spirits (imports). Exports consist chiefly 
of iron and steel, oats and tar. Though Stock¬ 


holm was founded by Birger Jarl in 1255, it was 
not made the capital of Sweden till compara¬ 
tively modern times. Since then, however, 
it has grown rapidly. Population, about 337,460. 

St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, is situ¬ 
ated on Ludgate Hill, an elevation on the north 
bank of the Thames. The site of the present 
building was originally occupied by a church 
erected by Ethelbert, King of Kent, in 610. 
This was destroyed by fire in 1087, and another 
edifice, Old St. Paul’s, was shortly afterwards 
commenced. The structure was in the Gothic 
style, in the form of a Latin cross, 690 feet long, 
130 feet broad, with a lead-covered wooden spire 
rising to the height of 520 feet. The middle aisle 
was termed Paul’s Walk, from its being frequent¬ 
ed by idlers, as well as money-lenders and gen¬ 
eral dealers. Old St. Paul’s was much dam¬ 
aged by a fire in 1137, by lightning in 1444, again 
by fire in 1561, and was utterly destroyed by 
the great fire in 1666. The ruins remained for 
about eight years, when the rebuilding was taken 
in hand by the government of Charles II. (1675- 
1710). The whole building was completed at 
a total cost of $7,500,000, under one architect 
(Sir Christopher Wren), one master-mason 
(Thomas Strong), and one Bishop of London 
(Dr. Henry Compton). The building is of Port¬ 
land stone, in the form of a cross. Its length is 
500 feet; the width from north to south portico 
282 feet; the general height is 100 feet. The 
whole is surmounted by a great dome raised on 
eight arches. Above the dome is a lantern or 
gallery terminated above by a ball and gilded 
cross, 404 feet from the pavement beneath. The 
elevated portico, forming the grand entrance, 
consists of twelve Corinthian columns, with an 
upper series of eight pillars of the composite 
order, supporting a pediment; the front being 
flanked by two bell-towers, 120 feet in height. 
The entablature represents in relief the conver¬ 
sion of St. Paul, a work of Francis Bird. Upon 
the south front, which corresponds with the 
north, is a phoenix rising from the flames, with 
the motto, “Resurgam” (I shall rise again). 
The pavement of the interior is composed of slabs 
of black and white marble. The crypt under 
the nave contains the burying-places of many 
illustrious personages, and some interesting relics 
of old St. Paul’s. Among the numerous monu¬ 
ments and statues to the illustrious dead may be 
noted those of John Howard and Dr. Johnson, 
by Bacon; statues of Nelson, Earl Howe, and 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, by Flaxman; Bishop 
Heber, by Chan trey; and monuments to Lord 
Rodney, Lord Heathfield, Admiral Collingwood, 
General Abercrombie, etc., by Rossi, Westma- 
cott, and others. . The monument to the Duke 
of Wellington, by Alfred Stevens, is accounted 
the finest work of its kind in England. It con¬ 
sists of a rich marble sarcophagus and canopy, 
elaborately ornamented with bronze sculptures. 
It is thirty feet in height and cost upwards of 
$150,000. Various decorative, structural, and 
other improvements have recently been made 
on the interior of the cathedral. 

St. Peter’s, the Cathedral of Rome, the 
largest and one of the most magnificent churches 
in Christendom. It is a cruciform building in 
the Italian style, surmounted by a lofty dome, 





572 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


built on the legendary site of St. Peter’s martyr¬ 
dom; the foundation stone was laid on the 18th 
of April, 1506. Michael Angelo was appointed 
architect in 1546. He nearly completed the 
dome and a large portion of the building before 
his decease (1564). The nave was finished in 
1612, the facade and portico in 1614, and the 
church was dedicated by Urban VIII., November 
18, 1626. The interior diameter of the dome is 
139 feet, the exterior diameter 195^ feet; its 
height from the pavement to the base of the 
lantern, 405 feet; to the top of the cross out¬ 
side, 448 feet. The length of the cathedral 
within the walls is 613^ feet; the height of the 
nave near the door, 152^ feet; the width, 87 
feet. The width of the side aisles is 33f feet; 
the entire width of the nave and side aisles, in¬ 
cluding the piers that separate them, 197f feet. 
The circumference of the piers which support 
the dome is 253 feet. The floor of the cathedral 
covers nearly five acres. Its cost is estimated 
to have exceeded $50,000,000. 

St. Petersburg, the capital of the Russian 
Empire, at the head of the Gulf of Finland and 
the mouth of the Neva. When a strong wind is 
blowing from the sea its level rises by several 
feet, and the poorer parts of St. Petersburg are 
inundated every year; but when the overflow 
exceeds ten feet nearly the whole of the city is 
inundated. Peter I. laid the foundations of his 
capital in 1702 on one of the islands of the delta, 
and dreamed to make of it a new Amsterdam. 
The actual connection between Russia and its 
capital was established through the Neva, which 
since it was connected by canals with the upper 
Volga, became the real mouth of the immense 
basin of the chief river of Russia and its num¬ 
berless tributaries. Foreign trade and the cen¬ 
tralization of all administration in the residence 
of the emperor have made of St. Petersburg a 
populous city covering forty-two square miles. 
The Great Neva, the chief branch of the river, 
which has within the city itself a width of from 
400 to 700 yards, is so deep that large ships can 
lie alongside its granite embankments. Cron- 
stadt, built on an island sixteen miles to the 
west of St. Petersburg, is both the fortress and 
the port of the capital. Two-thirds of the for¬ 
eign vessels unload within the city itself. The 
main body of the city, containing more than 
one-half of its inhabitants as well as all the chief 
streets, stands on the mainland, on the left bank 
of the Neva; and a beautiful granite quay, with 
a long series of palaces and mansions, stretches 
for two and one-half miles. Only two perma¬ 
nent bridges cross the Neva; the other two, 
built on boats, are removed in autumn and 
spring. The island Vasilievsky, between the 
Great and Little Nevas, has at its head the 
Stock Exchange, surrounded by spacious store¬ 
houses, and a row of scientific institutions, all 
facing the Neva. On the Peterburgsky Island, 
between the Little Neva and the Great Neva, 
stands the old fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul, 
facing the Winter Palace, and containing the 
mint and the cathedral. It has behind it the 
arsenal, and a series of wide streets bordered by 
small, mostly wooden houses, chiefly occupied 
by the poorer civil service functionaries. Farther 
up the mainland on the right bank of the Neva 


is covered by the poorer parts of the city, but 
contains some public buildings and a great num¬ 
ber of factories. Numerous islands, separated 
from each other by small branches into which 
both Nevas subdivide, and connected together 
by a great number of wooden bridges, are cov¬ 
ered with beautiful parks and summer houses, 
to which most of the wealthier and middle-class 
population repair in the summer. The main 
part of St. Petersburg has for its center the Old 
Admiralty. Near the Admiralty are the chief 
public buildings of the city. The principal 
churches (which are generally distinguished by 
prominent cupolas) are St. Isaac’s Cathedral, 
the most costly of all, and one of the largest 
churches of Europe, modeled on St. Peter’s, 
Rome, built of granite and Finland marble, and 
with a profusely decorated interior; the cathe¬ 
dral of St. Peter and St. Paul, the resting-place 
of the emperors, with a conspicuous pyramidal 
spire (302 feet); the cathedral of Our Lady of 
Kazan, with an image of the Virgin enriched 
with precious stones and pearls; the Smolni 
Cathedral, a white marble edifice; and the 
Memorial Church, built on the spot where the 
Czar, Alexander II., was assassinated, one of the 
most splendid of the many sacred edifices in the 
city. Among the many palaces are the Winter 
Palace, now used only for ceremonial purposes, 
one of the largest and most luxurious in Europe; 
the Marble Palace, so-called; the Michael Pal¬ 
ace, now used as the School of Military Engi¬ 
neers; and the Hermitage Palace, containing a 
fine library and one of the richest collections of 
French, Flemish, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, Rus¬ 
sian, and other paintings, the private property 
of the czars, besides engravings, coins, gems, 
antiquities, etc. The cottage in which Peter the 
Great lived while superintending the construc¬ 
tion of St. Petersburg is still preserved. Other 
buildings of importance are: the Admiralty, a 
vast parallelogram of brick, with a naval and 
natural history museum and library; the arse¬ 
nal, containing a'museum of artillery; the pal¬ 
aces of the general staff and of the senate; the 
custom-house, the exchange, and imperial bank; 
the fortress of Petropavlovsk (the Russian bas- 
tile); the Academy of Sciences, with extensive 
museum and library; and the imperial library, 
with over a million volumes and large collections 
of manuscripts and engravings. There are nu¬ 
merous hospitals and charitable institutions, a 
university, founded in 1819, many special acad¬ 
emies, and four theaters maintained by the 
state. Of the monuments, the colossal eques¬ 
trian statue of Peter the Great, erected by 
Catherine II. (1782), and the monolithic Doric 
column of granite, one hundred and fifty-five 
feet high, erected by Nicholas to the memory 
of Alexander I., take first rank. 

St. Petersburg was founded by Peter the 
Great in 1703, when he had just wrested its 
site from the Swedes. The forced construction 
of a city in a site apparently forbidden by nature, 
cost the lives, according to various accounts, of 
from 100,000 to 200,000 peasants, collected from 
all parts of the Russian Empire. It was at first 
built entirely of wood, and without a proper 
street system, but the extensive fires of 1736 
and 1737 facilitated the reconstruction on an 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 573 


improved plan. The Empress Elizabeth did 
much to improve the city; it is, however, chiefly 
indebted to Catherine II. for its regularity and 
architectural splendor; and the improvements 
under Nicholas and Alexander II. have made it 
one of the finest of European capitals. Popula¬ 
tion, 1,907,708. 

Suez Canal, a great artificial channel cut¬ 
ting the isthmus of Suez, and thus forming a 
waterway between the Mediterranean and the 
Red Sea; was planned and undertaken by the 
French engineer Lesseps, through whose untir¬ 
ing efforts a company was formed and the neces¬ 
sary capital raised; occupied ten years in the 
construction (1859-69), and cost some twenty 
million pounds; from Port Said on the Medi¬ 
terranean to Suez at the head of the Red Sea 
the length is about 100 miles, a portion of which 
lies through Lakes Menzaleh, Ballah, Timsah, 
and the Bitter Lakes; as widened and deepened 
in 1886 it has a minimum depth of twenty-eight 
feet, and varies from 150 to 300 feet in width; 
traffic is facilitated by electric light during the 
night, and the passage occupies little more than 
twenty-four hours; has been neutralized and 
exempted from blockade, vessels of all nations 
in peace or war being free to pass through; 
now the highway to India and the East, shorten¬ 
ing the voyage to India by 7,600 miles; three- 
fourths of the ships passing through are Eng¬ 
lish; an annual toll is drawn of over four 
million pounds, the net profit of which falls to 
be divided amongst the shareholders, of whom, 
since 1875, the British Government has been one 
of the largest. 

Superior, Lake, the extreme west and 
most extensive of the Great Lakes of North 
America, being the largest body of fresh water 
in the entire world. Its length, east to west, 
is about 400 miles, with a mean breadth of about 
eighty miles, so that its area may be taken 
at about 31,500 square miles. The maximum 
depth thus far reached is 1,008 feet and the 
height of its surface is about 602 feet above 
the Atlantic. It receives upward of fifty rivers, 
but none is of much importance except the St. 
Louis which enters at its southwest extremity, 
and the Riviere au Grand Portage. During the 
melting of the snow, these and the other rivers 
sweep into the lake vast quantities of sand, 
boulder stones, and drift timber. It discharges 
itself at its eastern extremity into Lakes Huron 
and Michigan, by the river and falls of St. Mary. 
This lake embosoms many large and well-wooded 
islands, the chief of which is Isle Royal. Toward 
each extremity the lake contracts in width, and 
at the lower end terminates in a bay which falls 
into the outlet, the St. Mary’s River, at the two 
opposite headlands of Gros Cape on the north 
and Point Iroquois on the south. Thence to 
the mouth of the St. Mary’s at Lake Huron is 
about sixty miles. The navigation of this river 
is interrupted twenty miles below its source at 
the Falls of St. Mary, or, as the place is com¬ 
monly called, Sault Ste. Marie. Here the river 
descends in a succession of rapids extending 
three-fourths of a mile, from eighteen to twenty- 
one feet, the fall varying with the stage of the 
water in Lake Superior. 

A ship canal has been constructed past the 


falls by the L T nited States Government, so that 
now the lake is accessible to vessels from the 
Atlantic Ocean. The water of Lake Superior, 
remarkable for its coldness, purity, and trans¬ 
parency, is inhabited by many kinds of fish, 
among which are the delicious white fish and 
the gray trout. 

Sweden (Swedish, Sverige), a kingdom of 
Northern Europe, comprising, with Norway and 
Lapland, the whole of the Scandinavian Penin¬ 
sula, of which it forms the east, south, and most 
important portion; having northeast, Russian 
Finland; east and south, the Gulf of Bothnia 
and the Baltic; southwest, the Sound, Catte- 
gat, and Skagerrack; and west and north, Nor¬ 
way, from which it is, for the most part, divided 
by the great mountain chain of Scandinavia. 
Length, north to south, 950 miles; average 
breadth about 190 miles; area, 172,876 square 
miles; population, estimated at 5,199,000. 
Capital, Stockholm. 

Sweden is divided into three principal regions: 
Gcethland (Gothia) in the south; Sweden proper, 
occupying the center; and Norland (by far the 
largest part), comprising the remainder. These 
three regions are again subdivided into twenty- 
four Ians, or districts. Sweden is mountainous 
in the west, but, in general, flat; and it is re¬ 
markable that along the whole road, from Got- 
tenburg in the west to Stockholm in the east, 
there is not a single acclivity of consequence till 
within a few miles of the latter. 

The climate is less severe than might be ex¬ 
pected in so high a latitude. The summers are 
hot, and spring is almost unknown. In the 
north snow covers the ground for five or six 
months in the year; and the west coasts are 
milder and more humid than the east. 

The domestic animals are the same as those 
of North America. The others are hares and 
foxes, beavers, wolves, and, in the cold prov¬ 
inces of the north, bears, the leming, and the 
reindeer. Water fowl are abundant and the 
mosquitoes are as troublesome as they are in 
tropical countries. 

Only about a fiftieth part of the country is 
cultivated. Agriculture is in a very backward 
state, but has been recently much improved. 
Apple, pear, and cherry trees grow but lan¬ 
guidly, while berries of many different kinds 
are produced spontaneously and spread lux¬ 
uriantly. Wheat succeeds only in the southern 
provinces; barley is raised more generally, 
and in larger quantities; but rye and oats are the 
kinds of grain most frequently met with. The 
manufacturing industries include those connected 
with iron, steel, wooden goods, woolens, cottons, 
silks, refined sugar, leather, paper, spirits, etc. 
The greater part of the trade is with Great 
Britain and Germany. 

Switzerland, a west-central republic of 
Europe, bounded on the north by Baden, Wvirt- 
temberg, and Bavaria, east by the Tyrol, south 
by Italy, and west and northwest by France. 
Maximum length from east to west, 210 miles; 
breadth, 140 miles. This, the most mountain¬ 
ous country in Europe, has the Alps forming 
the whole of its southern and eastern frontiers, 
besides extending its ramified chains over the 
greater part of its interior. The most level 




574 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


tracts of surface are found in the northwestern 
cantons of Berne, Basle, and Zurich, where they 
form a series of mountain-locked vales, backed 
by the Jura Range on the French border. The 
chief valley is that of the Rhone in the south 
embracing the canton of Valais, with rich 
tillable tracts and fertile pastures extending on 
either hand towards the bases of the Bernese 
and Pennine Alps. The principal rivers, all 
rapid and unnavigable, are the Rhone, Rhine, 
Ticino, Reuss, Aar, etc., with their affluents. 
The Swiss lakes, notably numerous and pic¬ 
turesquely located, as well as of great depth, 
comprise those of Geneva, Constance, Lucerne, 
Neufchatel, Zurich, Thun, Bienne, Wallen- 
stadt, and Brienz. Forests cover about one- 
sixth of the entire surface of Switzerland. Agri¬ 
culture is carried on chiefly in the valleys, where 
the cereals, along with flax, hemp, and tobacco, 
are raised. The mountain slopes, occupying 
fully two-fifths of the territorial area, afford 
excellent pasturage, and furnish dairy produce, 
tallow, hides, etc., in quantities enough for 
exportation. Fruits of the hardier varieties 
grow well and profitably. In the western can¬ 
tons, the vine flourishes; .while the orchards of 
the Thurgau and other northern districts supply 
ample material for the manufacture of cider, 
and of Kirschenwasser and other liquors. The 
national industry (other than rural) is largely 
developed in important manufactures, of which 
those of textile fabrics, leather goods, pottery, 
sugar, watches, jewelry, etc., constitute the 
staple items. The chief cities and towns are: 
Geneva, Zurich, Berne, the capital, Basle, 
Lausanne, La Chaux de Fonds, St. Gall, Lucerne, 
Neufchatel, and Freiburg. 

Taj Mahal, or Mehal (“Gem of Build¬ 
ings ”), a famous mausoleum, erected at Agra, 
India, by Shah Jehan for his favorite wife. It 
is 186 feet square with the corners cut off, the 
whole surmounted by a dome fifty-eight feet in 
diameter and about 210 feet in height, flanked 
by four octagonal kiosks. The interior is di¬ 
vided into four domed chambers in the corners, 
and a large central arcaded octagon, all con¬ 
nected by corridors. The central octagon con¬ 
tains two cenotaphs surrounded by a very 
noticeable openwork marble rail. The only 
light admitted enters through the delicately 
pierced marble screens of the windows. The 
decoration is especially noticeable for the stone 
mosaics of flower themes and arabesques, much 
of them in agate, jasper, and bloodstone. The 
entire structure stands on a white marble plat¬ 
form eighteen feet high and 313 feet square, 
with tapering cylindrical minarets 133 feet high 
at the corners. The whole Koran is said to be 
written in mosaics of precious stones on the 
interior walls. In the construction of this 
magnificent building, which, as Bayard Taylor 
says alone repays a visit to India, 20,000 men 
were employed twenty years. Although the 
labor cost nothing, over $20,000,000 were ex¬ 
pended in its construction. The doors are of 
solid silver, and an enormous diamond was 
placed upon the tomb itself. 

Thames, the most important river of Great 
Britain; usually said to rise about three miles 
southwest of Cirencester in Gloucestershire, 


near a bridge over the Thames and Severn Canal, 
called Thameshead Bridge, but is more properly 
formed by the Isis, Churn, Colne, and Leach, 
which have their sources on the east side of the 
Cotswold Hills, and unite near Lechlade. Its 
total course is estimated at 250 miles. Its tribu¬ 
taries include the Windrush, Cherwell, Thame, 
Colne, Brent, Lea, and Roding, on the left; 
the Kennet, Loddon, Wey, and Mole, on the 
right. Thameshead Bridge is 376 feet above 
sea level; the junction of the Colne above 
Lechlade is 243 feet. At London Bridge the 
width of the river is 266 yards, at Woolwich, 
490 yards, at Gravesend, 800 yards, and three 
miles below, 1,290 yards. The depth of the 
river in the fair way above Greenwich to Lon¬ 
don Bridge is twelve to thirteen feet, while its 
tides have a mean range of seventeen feet and 
an extreme rise of twenty-two feet. By means 
of numerous canals immediate access is given 
from its basin to those of all the great rivers of 
England. 

Thunder. The dazzling light emitted by 
the electric spark when it shoots from clouds 
charged with electricity is called lightning. In 
the lower regions of the atmosphere the light 
is white, but in the higher regions, where the 
air is more rarefied, it takes a violet tint; as 
does the spark of the electrical machine in a 
rarefied medium. The flashes of lightning are 
sometimes several leagues in length; they 
generally pass through the atmosphere in a zig¬ 
zag direction — a phenomenon ascribed to the 
resistance offered by the air condensed by the 
passage of a strong discharge. The spark then 
diverges from a right line, and takes the direc¬ 
tion of least resistance. In vacuo electricity 
passes in a straight line. The sound which 
accompanies lightning is called thunder. It is 
due to the sudden disturbance of the air in the 
vicinity of the line in which the spark passes. 
It is generally a long rolling sound rising and 
falling in intensity. The duration of the thunder 
peal is generally attributed to the re-echoing of 
the sound produced at various places. 

Tiber, a river of Italy celebrated in ancient 
Roman history, rises in the Apennines, in the 
province of Arezzo, Tuscany; rapid and turbid 
in its upper course, but navigable 100 miles up¬ 
wards from its mouth; flows generally in a 
southern direction, and after a course of about 
260 miles enters the Mediterranean about fifteen 
miles below Rome. 

Tides, the rising and falling of the water 
of the sea, which occurs periodically, as ob¬ 
served at places on the coasts. The tide ap¬ 
pears as a general wave of w'ater, which grad¬ 
ually elevates itself to a certain height, then as 
gradually sinks till its surface is about as much 
below the medium level as it was before above 
it. From that time the wave again begins to 
rise; and this reciprocating motion of the waters 
continues constantly, with certain variations 
in the height and in the times of attaining the 
greatest degree of height and of depression. 
The alternate rising and falling of the tide- 
wave are observed to take place generally twice 
in the course of a lunar day, or of twenty-four 
hours, forty-nine minutes of mean solar time, 
on most of the shores of the ocean, and in the 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


575 


greater part of the bays, firths, and rivers which 
communicate freely with it. The tides form 
what are called a flood and an ebb, a high and 
low water. The whole interval between high 
and low water is often called a tide; the water 
is said to flow and to ebb; and the rising is called 
the flood tide and the falling the ebb tide. The 
rise or fall of the waters, in regard to elevation 
or depression, is exceedingly different at differ¬ 
ent places, and is also variable everywhere. 
The interval between two succeeding high- 
waters is also variable. It is shortest about 
new and full moon, being then about twelve 
hours, nineteen minutes; and about the time 
of the moon’s quadratures it is twelve hours, 
thirty minutes. But these intervals are some¬ 
what different at different places. Tides are 
caused by the attraction which the sun and 
moon exert over the water of the earth. The 
moon is the nearest of the heavenly bodies to 
the earth, and the mobile nature of water leads 
it to yield readily to the attractive influence. 
Those parts of the waters directly under the 
moon’s vertical path in the heavens are drawn 
out towards the moon. At the same time the 
moon attracts the bulk of the earth, and, as it 
were, pulls the earth away from the water on 
the surface farthest from it, so that here also 
the water is raised, although, not quite so much 
as on the nearer side. The waters being thus 
heaped up at the same time on these two op- 
osite parts of the earth, and the waters situated 
alf-way between them being thus necessarily 
depressed, two high and two low tides occur in 
the period of a little more than one revolution 
of the earth on its axis. The sun’s influence 
upon the tides is evidenced in its either increas¬ 
ing or diminishing the lunar tide, according as 
the sun’s place in the heavens coincides with 
the line of the moon’s attraction, or the reverse. 
It is this difference which produces what are 
known as spring tides and neap tides. Spring 
tides occur at new and full moon, and are the 
result of the gravitating influence of both sun 
and moon; neap tides occur when the moon is 
in her quarters, and are not so high as the 
spring tides, the lunar influence being lessened 
by the sun’s force acting in a direction at right 
anglqs to it. The interference of coasts and 
irregularities in the ocean beds cause the great 
variations as to time and range in the actual 
tides observed at different places. In some 
places, as in the German Ocean at a point north 
of the Strait of Dover, a high tide meets low 
water, and thus maintains perpetual mean tide. 
In the case cited, high water transmitted through 
the Strait of Dover encounters low water trans¬ 
mitted round the north of Scotland, and vice 
versa. The interval of time at any place be¬ 
tween noon and the time of high water on the 
day of full or new moon is called the establish¬ 
ment of the port. 

Tokyo, formerly called Yeddo, the capital 
of Japan, and chief residence of the Emperor; 
on a bay of the same name; on the southeast 
coast of Hondo, the largest of the Japanese 
Islands, and connected by rail with Yokohama 
and Kanagawa. The bulk of the houses are of 
wood, but there are many new buildings of brick 
and stone, and an imperial palace has been 


erected near the center, as also public offices, 
etc. The greater part of the town is flat, and 
intersected by numerous canals crossed by 
bridges. The streets are generally narrow and 
irregular. Gas and electricity have been intro¬ 
duced, and the sanitary arrangements have 
been improved. Education is well organized, 
and there are nearly 700 private and elementary 
schools. Tokyo contains the imperial univer¬ 
sity, and it may be considered the center of the 
political, commercial, and literary activity of 
Japan. Population, 2,186,079. 

Toronto, capital of the province of Ontario, 
Canada; on Lake Ontario. Its site is low, but 
rises gently from the water’s edge to a height 
of about 100 feet. The Bay of Toronto, an arm 
of Lake Ontario, on the south of the city, affords 
a commodious and excellent harbor, capable 
of receiving the largest lake vessels. Toronto 
has various manufacturing interests, including 
several engineering plants and iron foundries, 
soap works, an immense distillery, a number 
of breweries, rolling mills, car shops, tanneries, 
carriage factories, machine shops, cabinet fac¬ 
tories, spice mills, car wheel works, pork packing 
plants, boot and shoe establishments, sash and 
door, and sewing machine factories, etc. The 
city has large facilities for an extensive lake 
traffic. There is regular steamboat connection 
with all lake ports as well as with those on the St. 
Lawrence River, making the city one of great 
commercial importance. Toronto was founded 
in 1794 by Governor Simcoe. The town was 
captured in 1813 by the Americans under Gen¬ 
eral Pike who was killed during the attack. 
Since that period it has made steady progress as a 
commercial, educational, and residential center. 
Population, 376,240. 

Turkey, or the Ottoman empire, a 
country primarily Asiatic, of which, however, 
the capital, Constantinople, together with a 
considerable tract of adjacent territory, is in 
Europe. The limits of European Turkey were 
greatly curtailed in 1878 by the treaty of Berlin, 
and again in 1908 by the proclamation of the 
independence of Bulgaria, including Eastern 
Rumelia, and by the annexation by Austria- 
Hungary of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As con¬ 
stituted early in 1913, Turkey in Europe extends 
across the Balkan peninsula from the Black to the 
Adriatic and Ionian seas, and from the southern 
boundaries of Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia and 
Bulgaria southward to Greece and the iEgean. 
This region embraces an area of 65,350 square 
miles. The population is over 6,000,000, of whom 
about 70% are Turks, Greeks and Albanians in 
nearly equal numbers, and the remainder a 
mixture of various racial elements, Serbs, Bul¬ 
garians, Rumanians,-Armenians, Magyars, Gyp¬ 
sies, Jews, and Circassians. The chief tovms are 
Adrianople, Salonika, Monastir, Scutari, and 
Janina. The surface of Turkey in Europe is 
mountainous, the main ranges being nearly par¬ 
allel and extending northwest and southeast. 
Among the highest peaks are Shar-Dagh, 10,000 
feet, and Mount Athos, 6,000 feet. The highest 
mountain ranges divide the country into three 
natural divisions: Albania, Macedonia, and 
Thrace. The most important river basin is that 
which drains into the Archipelago or iEgean sea 



576 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and receives the Vardar, the Struma, the Mesta 
and the Maritza. There are several plains 
remarkable for their fertility and beauty. The 
climate is not so mild as its latitude might seem 
to indicate, the winter being severe; but the 
summer heat is excessive. For the production 
of the ordinary cereals no part of the world is 
more admirably adapted. The principal grains 
are maize, wheat, and barley, while rice, millet, 
and buckwheat are produced, as also flax, hemp, 
sesame, and madder. The cultivation of to¬ 
bacco and cotton is very general. Among fruits 
the figs are highly esteemed; the cultivation of 
the olive is carried on along the coasts of the 
Archipelago and the Adriatic; wine is an impor¬ 
tant product in many districts; and much atten¬ 
tion is paid in some parts to the growing of roses. 
There are few manufactures except in Constan¬ 
tinople, Adrianople, and Salonika, and these are 
of little importance. 

Turkey in Asia includes Anatolia, otherwise 
known as Asia Minor, the country intersected by 
the Euphrates and the Tigris, the mountainous 
region of Armenia north from those rivers towards 
the Black Sea, the ancient lands of Syria 
and Palestine, and the coast strips of Arabia 
along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Omitting 
Arabia, the country consists mainly of: (1) a 
high plateau traversed by the mountains of 
Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and stretching from 
the Archipelago to the borders of Persia. (2) 
A plateau of less elevation and extent (Syria 
and Palestine) traversed by the double range of 
Lebanon. (3) The extensive plain of Mesopo¬ 
tamia on the lower Tigris and Euphrates. The 
islands Chios, Lesbos, Rhodes, etc., belong to 
Turkey in Asia, while the island of Samos is a 
tributary principality, and Cyprus is held by 
Great Britain. The chief towns in Asiatic 
Turkey are Smyrna, Damascus, Bagdad, Aleppo, 
and Beyrout. The chief exports are cocoons and 
raw silk, mohair, figs, ‘coffee, barley, opium, 
acorns (valonia), ores, carpets, cotton, eggs, and 
olive oil. The chief imports are food stuffs, 
textiles, iron and leather goods, petroleum, timber 
and drugs. The area of Asiatic Turkey is 697,781 
square miles. The population, which totals about 
20,000,000 is of very diverse nationality. The 
Osmanli Turks, who as the dominant race are 
diffused over the country, form a large and 
important element. There are some four million 
Arabs, besides Greeks, Syrians, Circassians, 
Armenians, Jews, and many other races. These 
figures do not include the greater islands of Crete, 
Cyprus and Samos, ^ nor Egypt, which though 
nominally Turkish, is practically a British pro¬ 
tectorate. Tripoli, formerly a Turkish province, 
was acquired by Italy in 1912 as a result of the 
Turco-Italian war. 

Ural Mountains. Form part of the 
boundary between Europe and Asia, and sepa¬ 
rate European Russia on the west from Siberia 
on the east. The chain extends south from the 
Kara Sea, an arm of the Arctic Ocean, to the 
middle course of the Ural River, and is 1,333 
miles long, with a width varying from sixteen 
to. sixty-six miles. Although the Ural Moun¬ 
tains form really a single uninterrupted chain, 
geographers have agreed to consider them as 
divided into three sections — the North, Middle, 


and South Ural. The Middle Ural, commonly 
called Roudnoi (metalliferous), the principal 
seat of the mineral riches of the whole chain, 
comprises the highest peaks, as the Kanjakovski 
Kamen, rising to 5,000 feet. The chain is com¬ 
posed chiefly of crystalline and metamorphic 
rocks, granite, gneiss, porphyry, chloritic and 
micaceous schists. The Ural Mountains, espe¬ 
cially the middle and the north part of the 
South Ural (the governments of Perm and 
Orenburg), abound in mines of gold, platinum, 
copper, and iron. Among the precious stones 
the most notable are the emerald, amethyst, and 
diamond. 

Vatican, The, the palace of the pope in 
Rome and one of the largest in the world; con¬ 
tains a valuable collection of works of art, and 
is one of the chief attractions in the city; it is 
as well a storehouse of literary treasures and 
documents of interest bearing on the history 
of the Middle Ages. 

Venice (Italian, Venezia), a city of Italy, the 
capital of a province of the same name, on the 
Gulf of Venice, about 155 miles east of Milan. 
The city is built on a number of low islands, 
chiefly upon the island of Rialto, and is inter¬ 
sected by numerous canals. Many of the pal¬ 
aces and other public buildings of the city are 
very fine, especially the Cathedral of St. Mark, 
dating from the Eleventh Century, which is 
remarkable for its five cupolas, its five hundred 
marble columns, and its rich mosaics; and the 
alace of the Doges, built in the Fourteenth 
entury, and now used for ceremonies of state. 
From the palace of the Doges to the prisons on 
the opposite side of the canal called the Rio 
Palazzo stretches the famous Bridge of Sighs; 
and at some distance in front of the cathedral 
stands the also famous campanile, or bell tower, 
of St. Mark, which was first completed in the 
Sixteenth Century, and again rebuilt in 1904-09, 
after its collapse in 1902, due to the giving 
way of the artificial foundation. Population, 
151,840. 

Vesuvius, Mount ( ve-su'-vi-Us ). A fa¬ 
mous volcano of South Italy, six miles east of 
Naples. Its base commands a circuit of thirty 
miles; its height is 4,260 feet above sea level; 
and its crater, 350 feet in depth, has a circum¬ 
ference of two miles at its outer place, with a 
level plain at the bottom a half mile in diameter. 
It towers above a smiling pastoral country, 
dotted with towns and vineyards, which has 
time after time been the scene of its devas¬ 
tating eruptions. The earliest known of the latter 
occurred in 79 A. D., when the cities of Pompeii, 
Herculaneum, and Stabise were overwhelmed 
beneath the mass of mud and ashes it disgorged. 
The most remarkable of later eruptions have 
been those of 1036, 1779, 1822, 1839,1855,1872, 
and 1906. The last-named eruption consider¬ 
ably altered the shape of the cone, lowering it in 
height, and created widespread devastation. 

Victoria Nyanza, a lake in East Central 
Africa, on the equator, almost equally divided 
between British East Africa and German East 
Africa, at an elevation of 3,775 feet above the 
sea level; discovered by Captain Speke in 1858, 
and circumnavigated by Stanley in 1875; is re¬ 
garded as the head-source of the Nile, the waters 




GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


577 


of it flowing through Albert Nyanza eighty miles 
to the north, between which two lakes lies the 
territory of Uganda. 

Vienna (German, Wien), the capital of the 
Austrian Empire, on the right bank of the 
Danube, at the foot of the Wiener Wald. It 
is divided into an old and a new town, the 
former being still, notwithstanding that its 
streets are narrow and often crooked, the seat 
of the court and the center of fashionable life. 
Round this portion of the city (which contains, 
besides the Imperial palace, the magnificent 
Gothic cathedral of St. Stephen, and the uni¬ 
versity, founded in 1635) is a zone 1,300 feet in 
breadth, known as the Ring. This space was 
formerly occupied by fortifications, but it is 
now laid out in boulevards, with palaces and 
other noble buildings. It is separated from the 
old town by the Ringstrasse, wdiich is more than 
two miles long, nearly two hundred feet wide, 
and bordered on both sides by trees. The 
new part of the city contains many handsome 
edifices. Altogether, the city has a circum¬ 
ference of sixteen miles. It has large manu¬ 
factures of silk-stuffs, meerschaum pipes, and 
fancy articles, and a considerable trade in grain. 
In fact, Vienna is the great emporium of the 
western province of Austria. It is an ancient 
town, and was a place of importance even in 
Roman times, when it bore the name of Vindo- 
bona. In modern history it is celebrated as 
the scene of numerous congresses, notably of 
that generally known as the Congress of Vienna 
(1814-15), for the rearrangement of the affairs of 
Europe after the abdication of the Emperor 
Napoleon. During the revolution of 1848 the 
city was held for a short time by the insurgents, 
and was bombarded. Population, 2,031,498. 

Volcanoes, Greatest of the World 


Name of Volcano Location Height (feet) 

Aconcagua,.Chile,. 23,083 

Altar,.Ecuador,. 17,710 

Antisana.Ecuador,. 19,335 

Ararat,.Turkey. 16,950 

Arequipa,.Peru,. 20,320 

Cayambi,.Ecuador,. 19,255 

Chimborazo,.Ecuador,. 20,498 

Cotopaxi,.Ecuador,. 19,613 

Demavend.Persia. 18,500 

Elbruz,.Caucasus,. 18,470 

Etna, ..Sicily,. 10,738 

Fujiyama,.Japan, . 12,390 

Hecla,.Iceland,. 5,110 

Hood,.Oregon. 11,225 

Huascaran,.Peru,. 22,812 

Ixtaccihuati,.Mexico,. 16,960 

Jorullo,.Mexico,. 4,265 

Kenia,.Africa,. 19,000 

Kilauea,.Hawaii,. 4,400 

Kilima-Njaro,.Africa. 19,700 

Llullaillac,.Chile,. 21,000 

Mauna Kea,.Hawaii,. 13,953 

Mauna Loa,.Hawaii. 13,600 

Misti,.Peru,. 20,015 

Orizaba,.Mexico,. 18,250 

Pelee,.Martinique, W. I.,. . 4,300 

Pico, Peak of,.Azores,. 7,500 

Popocatepetl,.Mexico. 17,520 

Rainier,.Washington, .... 14,526 

Sahama,.Bolivia,. 21,000 

San Francisco, .... Arizona. 12,794 

Sangai, .Ecuador,.* 17,400 

San Jos£,.Chile,. 20,020 

Shasta,.California,. 14,380 

St. Elias, Mt.,.Alaska. 18,024 

St. Helen’s, Mt., .... Washington, .... 10,000 

Stromboli,.Lipari Islands, . . . 3,090 

Tahiti, Peak of, ... . Friendly Islands, . . 7,400 


Name of Volcano Location Height (feet) 

Teneriffe,.Canary Islands, . . 12,190 

Tolima,.Colombia,. 18,400 

Toluca.Mexico,. 14,950 

Vesuvius,.Italy. 4,260 

Wrangell,.Alaska. 17,500 

Volga, the most important river of Russia, 

and the longest in Europe, has its origin in a 
marshy plain among the Valdai Hills, in the 
government of Tver. Its source is 550 feet 
above ordinary sea level and 646 above the 
Caspian; its length, 2,300 miles. 

Wales, a principality in the southwest of 
the island of Great Britain, which, since Edward 
I., gives the title of Prince of Wales to the heir- 
apparent of the British Crown; area, 7,470 
square miles; population included in that of 
England. It is very mountainous, particularly 
in the north, where Snowdon, the culminating 
point of South Britain, rises 3,571 feet; and it 
is intersected by beautiful valleys, traversed by 
numerous streams, including, among others, 
the large River Severn. It is rich in minerals, 
particularly coal, iron, copper, and even gold, 
and to these Wales owes its chief wealth. The 
coal trade is most extensive, and Cardiff is the 
largest coal port in the world. In 1898 about 
24,000,000 tons of coal were produced in Wales. 
Iron, steel, and copper works are also on a large 
scale. Besides the mineral industries, there 
are considerable woolen manufactures, especially 
of flannel, coarse cloth, and hosiery. The 
Welsh have many strange customs and peculiar 
superstitions. They are remarkably fond of 
poetry and music, and their language is said 
to be peculiarly adapted to poetical effusions. 
Their ancient language is, however, falling fast 
into disuse throughout the principality, more 
especially the southern part. Family dis¬ 
tinction is held in great estimation. The ab¬ 
original Celtic race still inhabits some parts 
of the country. Llewellyn ap Gryffydd was 
the last prince who exerted himself for the 
independence of Wales. In 1282 he was sub¬ 
dued by Edward I. From that time Wales 
has been annexed to the English Crown; but 
the union was not complete till Henry VIII., 
when the government and laws were assimilated 
with those of England. 

Warsaw, the chief city of Russian Poland, 
and the capital of Poland from the close of the 
Sixteenth Century to the final partition in 1795. 
It is situated on the left bank of the Vistula, 
about 320 miles east of Berlin. It possesses a 
cathedral which dates from the Thirteenth 
Century, and a large number of palaces and 
other imposing buildings, situated in broad 
and handsome squares; but the chief modern 
buildings are in the suburbs, with one of which, 
Praga, on the opposite side of the Vistula, the 
city is connected by a bridge of boats. The 
whole city is overawed by a vast citadel, erected 
by the Russians, under the Emperor Nicholas. 
Warsaw is the residence of an archbishop, who 
is primate of Poland. Its university, founded 
in 1816, was suppressed after the insurrection 
of 1830, but was reopened in 1869. The city is 
the principal seat of both the manufactures and 
the trade of Poland. Its annual fairs are much 
frequented, and it carries on a large commercial 
intercourse, not only with Cracow and Dantzic 




















































578 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


by the Vistula, but with St. Petersburg and 
Vienna by rail. Population, 756,426. 

Washington, capital of the United 
States; population, 331,069; co-extensive with 
the District of Columbia; at the confluence of 
the Potomac and the Anacostia, or East Branch, 
rivers, and on the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore 
& Ohio, the Southern, the Chesapeake & Ohio, 
and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac 
railroads; 136 miles southwest of Philadelphia; 
226 miles southwest of New York; forty miles 
southwest of Baltimore, and 185 miles west of the 
Atlantic Ocean. The site of the city is an ad¬ 
mirable one, surrounded by a circle of hills and 
comprising a rolling plain, with here and there 
irregular eminences which provide beautiful and 
advantageous positions for the various public 
buildings. The city was laid out expressly for 
the National Capital and on a scale indicating 
that it was expected to grow into avast metropo¬ 
lis. The United States and the District of Co¬ 
lumbia own an extensive waterworks system, 
costing $10,000,000. The reservoirs have a 
storage capacity of 76,000,000 gallons, and the 
water is distributed through 381 miles of mains. 
The consumption averages 55,000,000 gallons a 
day. There are in all 320 miles of streets, of 
which 266 miles are paved. The streets of Wash¬ 
ington are irregularly laid out, being from seventy 
to 160 feet wide. Pennsylvania Avenue is the 
principal street of the city, having on or near it 
many of the leading hotels, theaters, stores, etc. 
F street is the next business street in importance. 
The sewer system covers 418 miles. The streets 
are lighted by gas and electricity at an annual 
cost of about $250,000. The average cost of the 
police department exceeds $743,500 per annum, 
and that of the fire department $185,000. The 
annual cost for the maintenance of the city gov¬ 
ernment is over $9,052,000. The annual death 
rate averages 21.82 per 1,000. 

The city contains many magnificent structures. 
The Capitol, crowning Capitol Hill, is one of the 
most beautiful public edifices in the world. It 
is built in pure classic style, with two immense 
wings of white marble,- extending from a central 
structure constructed of light yellow freestone, 
ainted white. The main front facing east is 
eautified with three splendid porticoes adorned 
by Corinthian pillars. The central portico con¬ 
tains noted groups of statuary, and on the espla¬ 
nade immediately in front stands Greenough’s 
famous colossal statue of Washington. The 
entrance to the rotunda is by the celebrated 
bronze door, designed by Randolph Rogers and 
made by Von Muller in Munich. It is seventeen 
feet high by nine feet wide, and cost $28,000. 
The relief work on the door commemorates the 
discovery of America by Columbus. The walls 
of the interior of the rotunda, which is 180 feet 
high and ninety-six feet in diameter, are orna¬ 
mented with eight panels containing paintings 
of scenes in American history. America is de¬ 
picted with Indian and eagle, standing with 
History, who records on her tablet the progress 
of events. The canopy overhanging the eye of 
the dome, at a height of 180 feet above the ro¬ 
tunda floor, is 65 feet in diameter, and gives a 
field of 4,640 square feet for Brumidi’s allegori¬ 
cal fresco. The lofty central dome of iron is 


surmounted by a statue of liberty, giving a total 
height to the capitol of 307£ feet. The structure 
covers three and one-half acres, and cost over 
$13,000,000. It accommodates the two Houses 
of Congress, United States Supreme Court, and 
until recently also held the Library of Congress. 

The new Congressional Library is built just 
east of the capitol, in a square comprising about 
ten acres. It is three stories high, 470 feet long 
by 340 wide, is constructed of white New Hamp¬ 
shire granite in the Italian Renaissance style, 
and cost $6,347,000. The building, contains an 
octagonal reading room, 100 feet in diameter. 
There are many magnificently carved marble 
arches. The library is constructed around four 
spacious inner courts and in all has over 2,000 
windows, which make it the best-lighted build¬ 
ing of its kind in the world. Besides the reading 
room, there are a lecture hall, copyright record 
rooms, a large art gallery, a map room, etc. 
The whole library could be made to accommo¬ 
date 6,000,000 volumes. It is now the third 
library in point of size in the world, and, in the 
beginning of 1908, contained 1,434,000 books 
and pamphlets, and some 900,000 other articles. 

The United States Treasury building is one 
and one-fourth miles west of the capitol. It is 
constructed of granite in the Ionic style, and 
cost $6,000,000. It is three stories high and 468 
feet long by 264 wide. An Ionic colonnade, 
modeled after the Temple of Minerva in Athens, 
is built on the east front. On the west front is 
a magnificent central entrance with eight colossal 
monolithic columns. There are in all about 200 
rooms, including the eash room, which is finished 
with rich marble and occupies two stories; the 
gold room, containing millions of dollars in gold 
coin; the Redemption Division; counterfeit 
room, etc. All of the United States notes, bonds, 
etc., are made here. 

The building of the State, War, and Navy 
Departments is one of the largest public edifices 
in Washington. It is built of granite in the 
Roman Doric style, is four stories high, 567 feet 
long by 342 feet wide, covers four and one-half 
acres, and cost $11,000,000. In the north and 
east wings are the War and Navy Departments; 
in the south portion is the State Department. 
The building contains in all 566 rooms, including 
the Hall of the Secretary of State, the Ambassa¬ 
dor’s Room, and the library with 60,000 volumes. 
In the latter apartment the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence is preserved. 

The building of the Patent Office, also known 
as the Department of the Interior, is located in 
the central part of the city. It is 453 feet long 
by 351 feet wide, and is constructed of granite, 
marble, and freestone, in the Doric style. The 
main entrance faces F Street, and is reached by 
a broad stairway of granite steps. The portico 
has sixteen enormous Doric columns supporting a 
classic pediment. The building contains besides 
offices and other rooms, the model room, in 
which there are great numbers of models, repre¬ 
senting every department of mechanical art. 
The length of the floor in the latter room is 1,350 
feet, or over one-fourth of a mile. The offices 
of the Secretary of the Interior, of the Commis¬ 
sioner of Patents, and of the Indian Bureau are 
on the second floor. 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


579 


The building of the Land Office, formerly 
occupied by the Post-office Department, and 
costing $1,700,000, is of white marble, in the 
Italian or modified Corinthian style, and is 300 
feet long by 204 feet wide. It is three stories 
high, and on the Eighth Street side has sculp¬ 
tures illustrating the telegraph and railroad. 

The Pension building is constructed in the 
Renaissance style. It borders on Judiciary 
Square, covers 80,000 square feet, is seventy-five 
feet high, and 400 feet long by 200 feet wide. 
On the exterior and on a level with the second 
floor is a notable band of sculpture in terra¬ 
cotta, three feet in height, and 1,200 feet in 
length. It represents an army in campaign, 
supported by sailors and boats of the navy. 

The Smithsonian Institution is a magnificent 
structure, erected of red sandstone in the Ro¬ 
manesque style. It is 477 feet long by 150 feet 
wide, and has nine towers from seventy-five to 
150 feet in height. It was established by James 
Smithson. The remaining noteworthy build¬ 
ings include the Bureau of Education, Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture, Army Medical Museum 
and Library, building of the Commission of Fish 
and Fisheries, the United States Naval Observa¬ 
tory, Executive Mansion or “White House,” 
a National Soldiers’ Home, etc. The buildings 
of note not belonging to the government include 
the Corcoran Gallery of Art, the Masonic Tem¬ 
ple, Odd Fellows’ Hall, “Evening Star” build¬ 
ing, the “Baltimore Sun” building, Washing¬ 
ton Market, the court-house, New Willard, 
Raleigh, Shoreham, Arlington, and Gordon ho¬ 
tels, and the Cosmos, Army and Navy, Wash¬ 
ington, and Metropolitan clubs. 

Monuments .— These include the Washington 
Monument, the Naval Monument, in honor of 
the officers,,sailors and marines who were killed 
in the Civil War, the Lafayette Monument, with 
statues of Lafayette, Rochambeau, D’Estaing, De 
Grasse, and Duportail, statues of Washington, 
Franklin, Webster, two of Lincoln, General 
Rawlins, Admiral Farragut, Martin Luther, 
Admiral Dupont, President Garfield, and Chief- 
Justice Marshal, and equestrian statues of Gen¬ 
eral Winfield Scott, Nathanael Greene, George 
H. Thomas, W. S. Hancock, John B. McPherson, 
and Andrew Jackson, 

Education .— The city has 125 buildings used 
for school purposes. The white and negro pupils 
are provided with separate schools. The insti¬ 
tutions for higher education are the George Wash¬ 
ington University, Howard University, Gal- 
laudet College, Georgetown University, the Cath¬ 
olic University of America, Gonzaga College, 
American University, National University Law 
and Medical Schools. The centennial of Wash¬ 
ington was fitly celebrated December 12, 1900. 

Washington Monument, a magnifi¬ 
cent monument erected by the American people, 
in honor of George Washington. It stands in 
the Mall, a public park on the banks of the Poto¬ 
mac and Tiber Creek, Washington, D. C. The 
corner stone was laid by President Polk, July 4, 
1848, and December 6, 1884, the cap stone was 
set in position. The foundations are 126^ feet 
square and 36 feet 8 inches deep. The base of 
the monument is 55 feet i\ inches square, and 
the walls 15 feet i inch thick. At 505 feet 


5| inches, where the pyramidal top begins, the 
shaft is 34 feet 5^ inches square and the walls 
are 18 inches thick. The monument is made 
of blocks of marble two feet thick, and it is said 
there are over 18,000 of them. The height 
above the ground is 555 feet 5% inches. The 
pyramidal top terminates in an aluminum tip, 
which is 9 inches high and weighs 100 ounces. 
The mean pressure of the monument is five tons 
per square foot, and the total weight, foundation 
and all, is nearly 81,000 tons. The door at the 
base, facing the capitol, is 8 feet wide and 16 
feet high, and enters a room 25 feet square. 
An immense iron framework supports the 
machinery of the elevator, which is hoisted 
with steel wire.ropes 2 inches thick. At one 
side begins the stairs, of which there are 50 
flights, containing 18 steps each. Five hun¬ 
dred and twenty feet from the base there are 
8 windows, 18 x 24 inches, two on each face. 
The area at the base of the pyramidal top is 

I, 187^ feet, space enough for a six-room house, 
each room to be 12 x 16 feet. The Washington 
Monument is the highest monument in the 
world; total cost, $1,500,000. 

Wellington, a city and capital of New 
Zealand; on Port Nicholson, an islet of Cook’s 
Strait; on the southwest extremity of the 
provincial district of Wellington, North Island. 
Its harbor is six miles long and five wide. The 
provincial district of Wellington has an area of 

II, 003 square miles. It has an equable and 
healthy climate, but is subject to earthquake 
shocks. It is intersected by several mountain 
ranges, but there are many fine agricultural and 
pastoral districts. Gold was found in 1881. 
Population, 63,807. 

Westminster Abbey, the coronation 
church of the sovereigns of England, and one of 
the chief ornaments of London. It is a magnifi¬ 
cent Gothic pile, situated near the Thames, and 
adjoining the Houses of Parliament. In 1065 
a church was built here in the Norman style by 
Edward the Confessor. Part of this structure 
still remains in the pyx house and the south 
side of the cloisters; but the main building, as 
it now stands, was begun in 1220 by Henry III., 
and was practically completed by Edward I. 
Various additions, however, were made, down 
to the time of Henry VII., who built the chapel 
which bears his name. 

The extreme length of the church, including 
Henry VII.’s chapel, is 531 feet; breadth of 
transepts, 203 feet; height of roof, 102 feet; 
height of tower, 225 feet. The coronation cere¬ 
mony takes place in the choir, where the coro¬ 
nation stone brought by Edward I. from Scot¬ 
land is situated beside the coronation chairs of 
the English sovereigns. Westminster Abbey 
is distinguished as the burial place of a large 
number of English kings from Edward the 
Confessor to George II.; the north transept is 
occupied chiefly by monuments to warriors and 
statesmen, while in the south transept is situ¬ 
ated the “Poets’ Corner,” the burial and memo¬ 
rial place of most of England’s great writers 
from Chaucer to John Ruskin. 

Westminster Hall, the hall of the old 
palace of Westminster, was erected by Richard 
II. (1397-99) on the foundations of a structure 



580 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


built by William Rufus. It has a fine porch, 
and its hammer-beam roof of carved timber is 
considered the most notable of its kind; length 
of the building, 290 feet, breadth 68 feet, and 
height 110 feet. This building is closely asso¬ 
ciated with many stirring events in English 
history; but it is chiefly remarkable as the 
place where were held such great state trials as 
those of the Chancellor More, Lady Jane Grey, 
the Earl of Strafford, King Charles I., and War¬ 
ren Hastings, and as the center of the highest 
English courts of law till these were removed to 
the new buildings recently erected for their 
accommodation. The hall now serves as a fine 
vestibule to the Houses of Parliament. 

Westphalia, the name given at different 
periods to (1) one of the circles of the old German 
Empire, (2) one of Napoleon’s kingdoms (1807- 
13), conferred upon his brother Jerome; and 
(3) now to a province of Prussia. The latter is 
bounded by Rhenish Prussia, Holland, Hanover, 
Brunswick, Hesse, and Nassau. Its area is 7771 
square miles. The surface in the south and 
northeast is generally mountainous; the north¬ 
west spreads out into extensive and often marshy 
plains, and belongs to the basin of the Ems; 
the northeast and a small part of the east to the 
basin of the Weser; the remainder, constituting 
the far larger portion of the whole, belongs to 
the basin of the Rhine, whose chief tributaries 
are the Ruhr and Lippe. Besides iron and coal 
in abundance the minerals include copper, lead, 
zinc, and salt; and the manufactures are varied 
and important. The province is divided into 
the three governments of Munster, Minden, and 
Arnsberg. Munster is the capital. 

Wind. The movement of the air in cur¬ 
rents from one place to another. Speaking gen¬ 
erally, all winds are caused by the variations 
taking place continually in the condition of the 
air as respects heat and moisture, and, therefore, 
as respects rarity. When the air over a given 
place becomes rarefied, that is, when the atmos¬ 
pheric pressure there becomes relatively small, 
that region at once becomes a center towards 
which inflowing air-currents direct themselves. 
According to the nature, extent, and continu¬ 
ance of this diminution of pressure, the nature 
of the resulting air-currents varies within very 
wide limits. The causes which produce storms, 
tempests, hurricanes, etc., are very obscure. It 
is difficult to arrive at general laws regarding 
them, since it is not easy to obtain an exact 
knowledge of the various circumstances which 
accompany them. Storms are violent and de¬ 
structive in the torrid zone; they are compara¬ 
tively insignificant in temperate, and are scarcely 
known in polar regions. It was formerly sup¬ 
posed that a storm was merely a wind blowing 
in a certain direction at the rate of 100 or 120 
miles an hour; but it has been recently found to 
be far more complicated in its nature. There is 
reason to believe that, in the northern hemis- 
here, the great body of the storm whirls in an 
orizontal circuit round a vertical or somewhat 
inclined axis of rotation which is carried forward 
with it, and that to a spectator placed in the 
center the rotation is always from right to left. 
Storms travel in a direction differing from the 
actual movement of the wind at the time. When 


the storm progresses westward the wind, at the 
commencement, is from a northern quarter, and 
towards the end from a southern. When the 
progressive motion is eastward, the phenomena 
are reversed; southern storms are subject to the 
same modification as northern, but in a reversed 
order. In all latitudes, the barometer sinks 
during the first half of the storm in every part 
of its track, and rises during the second. 

Yang-tse-kiang ( yang'-tse-ke-ang'), one 
of the two great rivers of China, is formed by two 
streams rising in Eastern Tibet, and after flowing 
east and then south enters the Chinese province 
of Yunnan. Pursuing a very tortuous course, 
much of it through most fertile and densely-pop¬ 
ulated regions, it reaches the great city of Nan¬ 
king, 200 miles from the sea, where it widens 
gradually into the vast estuary which connects 
it with the Yellow Sea. Its whole course, under 
various names, is 3,000 miles, and the area of its 
basin is computed to be 680,000 square miles. 
It is connected by the Grand Canal with the 
Hoang-ho or Yellow River, and is navigable for 
vessels of considerable draught for 1,200 miles 
from its mouth. By the treaty of Tientsin the 
Lower Yang-tse was opened to European trade; 
and 700 miles from its mouth is the treaty-port 
of Hankow, the great commercial port of Mid- 
China. The highest port on the river at present 
open to foreign trade is Ichang, 1,000 miles from 
its mouth. 

Yarmouth, or, as it is more strictly called, 
Great Yarmouth, an English seaport, important 
fishing station, watering place, and municipal and 
parliamentary borough, in the county of Nor¬ 
folk, twenty miles east of Norwich. It is situated 
on a large and narrow tongue of land running 
from north to southward between the German 
Ocean and the estuary of the Yare. The town 
is connected by a bridge with Little Yarmouth, 
or South Town, in Suffolk. Along the sea front¬ 
age stretches a promenade and carriage drive 
for three miles, with two piers. Parallel with 
the north and south quays, extending for nearly 
a mile and a quarter, are the principal streets, 
crossed by numerous narrow lanes called “rows.” 
The parish church of St. Nicholas, founded in 
1101, and of late years completely restored, is one 
of the largest in the kingdom. Yarmouth has a 
naval lunatic asylum, the only one in the kingdom. 
It is the great seat of the English herring and 
mackerel fishery, and also furnishes large quan¬ 
tities of white-fish. The curing of herring as 
“Yarmouth bloaters” is an important industry. 
The coast is dangerous, but Yarmouth Roads, 
between the shore and a range of sandbanks, 
offers a safe anchorage. Population, 51,316. 

Yellow Sea (Chinese, Whang-hai), an arm 
of the Pacific Ocean, on the northeast coast of 
China; length, about 620 miles; greatest breadth, 
about 400 miles. It is very shallow, and obtains 
its name from the lemon yellow color of its 
water near the land, caused by mud suspended 
in the water from the inflow of the Rivers Hoang- 
ho and Yang-tse-kiang. 

Yellowstone National Park, a region 
mainly in Wyoming, United States, which in 
1872 was withdrawn from settlement by the 
United States Government to become a park or 
tract for the recreation of the people. Its area, 



GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE 


581 


as fixed by Act of Congress in 1892, is about 5,000 
square miles. It is readily accessible by a branch 
of the Northern Pacific Railway. Its surface 
is mainly an undulating plain, diversified, how¬ 
ever, by great mountain ranges, one of which, 
the Absaraka, a range separating the waters 
of the Yellowstone River from those of the 
Big Horn, contains some of the grandest scen¬ 
ery in the United States. The whole region 
exhibits an endless variety of wild volcanic, 
scenery — hot springs, mud volcanoes, geysers, 
canons, waterfalls, etc. The geysers are more 
remarkable than those of Iceland, and the 
Grand Geyser in Firehole Basin is the most 
magnificent natural fountain in the world. The 
Yellowstone Lake, one of many, is a magnificent 
sheet of water, with an area of 150 square miles. 
A large part of the park is covered with forest. 
Stringent legislation protects the game, with the 
result that elk, deer, antelope, bear, and bison 
have taken refuge in it. 

Yokohama, the chief port of entry in 
Japan, and the headquarters of foreign shipping 
companies, banks, consulates, and commerce 
generally. Yokohama is a poorly-laid-out town 
with narrow, winding streets. The Bluff, how¬ 
ever, conceded for residence in 1867, is a beauti¬ 
ful spot, commanding fine views of Fuji-san and 
of Yokohama Bay. The bay is beautiful. Work 
on a large harbor was carried out in 1889-1896; 
it is enclosed by two breakwaters one and one- 
fourth miles long, and an iron pier, 1,900 feet 
long. The foreign community here is the largest 
in the country. Silk represents three-fifths of 
the exports, the rest being other tissues, tea, rice, 
copper, curios, etc.; the imports are cottons 
and woolens, raw sugar, oils, metals, chemicals, 
arms, and ammunition, watches, etc. The an¬ 
nual exports from Yokohama are valued at 
$73,000,000, the imports at $94,000,000. Popu¬ 
lation, 326,000. 

York (British, Caer Effroc, or Ebroc ; Latin, 
Eboracum), a cathedral city and archbishop’s 
see, a municipal and parliamentary borough, 
and capital of Yorkshire, 188 miles north of 
London by rail, is situated at the confluence of 
the Foss and the Ouse. The city proper, em¬ 
bracing a circuit of nearly three miles, was 
inclosed by walls, restored by Edward I., the 
portions of which still remaining have been con¬ 
verted into promenades, commanding a pros¬ 
pect of the surrounding country. There are 
many quaint, old-fashioned houses in the narrow 
streets of its older portion. The great object 
of attraction, however, is the minster or cathe¬ 
dral, the finest in England. York was the 
capital of Roman Britain. It was made an 
archiepiscopal see by Edwin of Northumbria in 
624. It still ranks second among English cities, 
its archbishop having the title of Primate of 
England, and its chief magistrate takes the title 
of Lord-mayor. It was incorporated by Henry 
I., and the city boundaries were extended in 
1884. The trade is local, and the industries 
unimportant. Population, 85,861. 

York Minster, one of the chief English 
cathedrals, was erected at different periods, and 
on the site of former buildings. The first Chris¬ 
tian church erected here, which appears to have 
been preceded by a Roman temple, was built 


by Edwin, King of Northumbria, of wood, in 
625, and of stone about 635. It was damaged 
by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by Archbishop 
Albert about 780. It was again destroyed by 
fire in the year 1069, and rebuilt by Archbishop 
Thomas. It was once more burnt down in 
1137, with St. Mary’s Abbey, and thirty-nine 
parish churches in York. Archbishop Roger be¬ 
gan to build the choir in 1171; Walter Gray 
added the south transept in 1227; John de 
Romayne, the treasurer of the cathedral, built 
the north transept in 1260. His son, the arch¬ 
bishop, laid the foundation of the nave in 1291. 
In 1330, William de Melton built the two west¬ 
ern towers, which were finished by John de 
Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop Thoresby, in 
1361, began to rebuild the choir, in accordance 
with the magnificence of the nave, and he also 
rebuilt the lantern tower. Thus, by many 
hands, and many contributions of multitudes 
on the promise of indulgences, this magnificent 
fabric was completed. It was first set on fire 
by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of 
the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, 
February 2, 1829; the damage, estimated at 
$300,000, was repaired in 1832. An accidental 
fire broke out, which in one hour reduced the 
belfry to a shell, destroyed the roof of the nave, 
and much damaged the edifice, May 20, 1840. 

Yosemite ( yd-sem'-i-te ) Valley, one of the 
greatest natural wonders of North America, is 
in Mariposa County, California, about 140 miles 
southeast of San Francisco and midway be¬ 
tween the eastern and western bases of the 
Sierra Nevada. It is a narrow valley at an ele¬ 
vation of 4,000 feet above the sea, and is itself 
nearly level, about six miles in length, and vary¬ 
ing in width from one-half mile to a mile. On 
each side rise enormous domes and almost verti¬ 
cal cliffs of granite, one of them called the Half 
Dome, being 4,737 feet higher than the River 
Merced at its base, while the more important 
waterfalls are the Yosemite and the Bridal Veil. 
This valley has been added by Congress to the 
State of California, on condition that it shall be 
kept as a public park or free domain “ inalien¬ 
able for all time.” 

Yukon, a great river of Alaska, rises in 
British territory, and, after a course of 2,000 
miles, falls, by a number of mouths forming a 
delta, into the Bering Sea; it is navigable 
nearly throughout, and its waters swarm with 
salmon three months in the year, some of them 
from eighty to 120 pounds in weight, and from 
five to six feet long. 

Zambezi, one of the four great African 
rivers, and the fourth largest as regards both 
the volume of its waters and the area it drains, 
the other three being the Nile, the Congo, and the 
Niger. It waters a rich pastoral region, and 
it falls into the Indian Ocean after a course 
of nearly 1,800 miles, in which it drains 600,000 
square miles of territory, or an area three times 
larger than that of France. Owing to cata¬ 
racts and rapids it is only navigable in different 
stretches. At 900 miles from its mouth it 
plunges in a cataract known as the Victoria 
Falls, 1,860 yards across and having a height 
of 400 feet, which rivals in grandeur those even 
of Niagara. 



582 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


CITIES IN TH E UNITED STATES OVE RJ2 5,OOQ^PO PULATION 


City 

Pop. 

1910 

% of Inc. 

1900-10 

City 

Pop. 

1910 

% of Inc 

1900-10 

City 

Pop. 

1910 

V 

c O 

f 

j: 

Akron, Ohio,. 

69,067 

61.6 

Hazleton, Pa.,. 

25,452 

78.9 

Philadelphia, Pa., . . . 

1,549,008 

19.7 

Albany, N. Y. 

100,253 

6.5 

Hoboken, N. J., . . . . 

70,324 

18.5; 

Pittsburg, Pa. 

533,905 

18.2 

Allentown, Pa., .... 

51,913 

46.ff 

Holyoke, Mass. 

57,730 

26.31 

Pittsfield, Mass., . . . 

32,121 

47.6 

Altoona, Pa.,. 

52,127 

33.8 

Houston, Tex. 

78,800 

76.6 

Portland, Me. 

58,571 

16.8 

Amsterdam, N. Y., . . 

31,267 

49.4 

Huntington, W. Va., . . 

31,161 

161.4 

Portland, Ore., .... 

207,214 

129.2 

Atlanta, Ga. 

154,839 

72.3 

Indianapolis, Ind., . . . 

233,650 

38.1 

Portsmouth, Va., . . . 

33,190 

90.5 

Atlantic City, N J., . . 

46,150 

65.8 

Jackson, Mich., .... 

31,433 

24.8 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 

27,936 

16.3 

Auburn, N. Y. 

34,668 

14.2 

Jacksonville, Fla. 

57,699 

103.0; 

Providence, R. I., . . . 

224,326 

27.8 

Augusta, Ga.,. 

41,040 

4.1 

Jamestown, N. Y., . . 

31,297 

36.7! 

Pueblo, Colo. 

44,395 

57.7 

Aurora, Ill., . . . 

29,807 

23.4 

Jersey City, N. J., . . . 

267,779 

29.7 

Quincy, Ill.,. 

36,587 

0.9 

Austin, Tex.,. 

29,860 

34.2 

Johnstown, Pa., .... 

55,482 

54.4 

Quincy, Mass., .... 

32,642 

36.6 

Baltimore, Md., .... 

558,485 

9.7 

Joliet, Ill.,. 

34,670 

18.1 

Racine, Wis.,. 

38,002 

30.6 

Battle Creek, Mich., . . 

25,267 

36.1 

Joplin, Mo.,. 

32,073 

23.2 

Reading, Pa. 

96,071 

21.7 

Bay City, Mich. 

45,166 

63.5 

Kalamazoo, Mich., . . 

39,437 

61.6 

Richmond, Va., .... 

127,628 

50.1 

Bayonne, N. J., . . . . 

55,545 

69.7 

Kansas City, Ivans., . . 

82,331 

60.1 

Roanoke, Va., .... 

34,874 

62.2 

Berkeley, Cal., .... 

40,434 

206.0 

Kansas City, Mo. 

248,381 

51.7 

Rochester, N. Y., . . . 

218,149 

34.2 

Binghamton, N. Y., . . 

48,443 

22.2 

Kingston, N. Y., . . . 

25,908 

5.6; 

Rockford, Ill., .... 

45,401 

46.2 

Birmingham, Ala. 

132,685 

245.4 

Knoxville, Tenn., . . . 

36,346 

11.4 

Sacramento, Cal., . . . 

44,696 

52.6 

Bloomington, Ill., . . . 

25,768 

10.7 

La Crosse, Wis. 

30,417 

5.3i 

Saginaw, Mich., .... 

50,510 

19.3 

Boston, Mass. 

670,585 

19.6 

Lancaster, Pa., .... 

47,227 

13.9; 

St. Joseph, Mo. 

77,403 

-24.8 

Bridgeport, Conn., . . . 

102,054 

43.7 

Lansing, Mich. 

31,229 

89.4! 

St. Louis, Mo., .... 

687,029 

19.4 

Brockton, Mass., . . . 

56,878 

42.0 

Lawrence, Mass., . . . 

85,892 

37.3; 

St. Paul, Minn. 

214,744 

31.7 

Brookline, Mass., . . . 

27,792 

39.4 

Lewiston, Me., .... 

26,247 

10.5| 

Salem, Mass.,. 

43,697 

21.5 

Buffalo, N. Y.. 

423,715 

20.2 

Lexington, Ky., .... 

35,099 

33.1| 

Salt Lake City, Utah, 

92,777 

73.3 

Butte, Mont.,. 

39,165 

28.5 

Lima, Ohio,. 

30,508 

40.4: 

San Antonio, Tex. 

96,614 

81.2 

Cambridge, Mass., . . . 

104,839 

14.1 

Lincoln, Neb.,. 

43,973 

9 . 5 ; 

San Diego, Cal., .... 

39,578 

123.6 

Camden, N. J. 

94,538 

24.5 

Little Rock, Ark. 

45,941 

19.9 

San Francisco, Cal., . . 

416,912 

21.6 

Canton, Ohio,. 

50,217 

63.7 

Lorain, Ohio,. 

28,883 

80.2 

San Jose, Cal. 

28,946 

34.6 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa, . . 

32.811 

27.9 

Los Angeles, Cal. 

319,198 

211.5 

Savannah, Ga., . ... 

65,064 

19.9 

Charleston, S. C., . . . 

58,833 

5.4 

Louisville, Ivy., .... 

223,928 

9.4l 

Schenectady, N. Y., . . 

72,826 

129.9 

Charlotte, N. C., . . . 

34,014 

88.0 

Lowell, Mass., .... 

106,294 

11.9 

Scranton, Pa., .... 

129,867 

27.3 

Chattanooga, Tenn., . . 

44,604 

47.9 

Lynchburg, Va., . . . 

29,494 

56.1 

Seattle, Wash., .... 

237,194 

194.0 

Chelsea, Mass., .... 

32,452 

-4.8 

Lynn, Mass.,. 

89,336 

30.4 

Sheboygan, Wis., . . . 

26,398 

15.0 

Chester, Pa.,. 

38,537 

13.4 

Macon, Ga.,. 

40,665 

74.7 

Shenandoah, Pa., . . . 

25,774 

26.8 

Chicago, Ill.,. 

2,185,283 

28.7 

McKeesport, Pa., . . . 

42,694 

24.7 

Shreveport, La., .... 

28,015 

75.0 

Chicopee, Mass.,. . . . 

25,401 

32.5 

Madison, Wis., .... 

25,531 

33.2 

Sioux City, Iowa, . . . 

47,828 

44.4 

Cincinnati, Ohio, . . . 

364,463 

11.8 

Malden, Mass. 

44,404 

31.9 

Somerville, Mass. 

77,236 

25.3 

Cleveland, Ohio, . . . 

560,663 

46.9 

Manchester, N. H., . . 

70,063 

22.9' 

South Bend, Ind., . . . 

53,684 

49.1 

Clinton, Iowa, .... 

25,577 

12.7 

Memphis, Tenn.,.... 

131,105 

28.1] 

South Omaha, Neb., . . 

26,259 

1.0 

Colorado Springs, Colo., 

29,078 

37.9 

Meriden, Conn., .... 

27,265 

12.2 

Spokane, Wash. 

104,402 

183.3 

Columbia, S. C.,.... 

26,319 

24.7 

Milwaukee, Wis., . . . 

373,857 

31.0 

Springfield, Ill. 

51,678 

51.3 

Columbus, Ohio, . . . 

181,548 

44.6 

Minneapolis, Minn., . . 

301,408 

48.7; 

Springfield, Mass., . . . 

88,926 

43.3 

Council Bluffs, Iowa, 

29,292 

13.5 

Mobile, Ala.,. 

51,521 

33.9! 

Springfield, Mo. 

35,201 

51.3 

Covington, Ky., .... 

53,270 

24.1 

Montgomery, Ala., . . 

38,136 

25.7 

Springfield, Ohio, . . . 

46,921 

22.7 

Dallas, Tex.,. 

92,104 

116.0 

Mount Vernon, N. Y., . 

30,919 

45.7 

Stamford, Conn., . . . 

25,138- 

57.1 

Danville, Ill.,. 

27,871 

70.4 

Muskogee, Okla., . . . 

25,278 

494.2 

Superior, Wis. 

40,384 

29.9 

Davenport, Iowa, . . . 

43,028 

22.1 

Nashua, N. H., .... 

26,005 

8.8! 

Syracuse, N. Y., ... 

137,249 

26.6 

Davton, Ohio, .... 

116,577 

36.6 

Nashville, Tenn., . . . 

110,364 

36.5; 

Tacoma, Wash., .... 

83,743 

122.0 

Decatur, Ill.,. 

31,140 

50.0 

Newark, N. J., .... 

347,469 

41.2 

Tampa, Fla. 

37,782 

138.5 

Denver, Colo., .... 

213,381 

59.4 

Newark, Ohio. 

25,404 

39.9; 

Taunton, Mass., .... 

34,259 

10.4 

Des Moines, Iowa, . . . 

86,368 

39.0 

New Bedford, Mass., . . 

96,652 

54.8 

Terre Haute, Ind., . . . 

58,157 

52.6 

Detroit, Mich., .... 

465,766 

63.0 

New Britain, Conn., . . 

43,916 

68.9! 

Toledo, Ohio,. 

168,497 

27.8 

Dubuque, Iowa, .... 

38,494 

6.1 

Newburg, N. Y. 

27,805 

11.5! 

Topeka, Kans., .... 

43,684 

30.0 

Duluth, Minn., .... 

78,466 

48.1 

Newcastle, Pa., .... 

36,280 

28.0: 

Trenton, N. J., .... 

96,815 

32.1 

Easton, Pa.,. 

28,523 

13.0 

New Haven, Conn., . . 

133,605 

23.7j 

Troy, N. Y. 

76,813 

26.6 

East Orange, N. J., . . 

34,371 

59.8 

New Orleans, La., . 

339,075 

18.1 

Utica, N. Y.,. 

74,419 

32.0 

East St. Louis, Ill., . . 

58,547 

97.4 

Newport, Ky., .... 

30,309 

7.1 

Waco, Tex.. 

26,425 

27.7, 

El Paso, Tex., .... 

39,279 

146.9 

Newport, R. I. 

27,149 

21.0 

Waltham, Mass., . . . 

27,834 

18.5 

Elgin, Ill. 

25,976 

15.8 

New Rochelle, N. Y., 

28,867 

96.1 

Warwick, R. I., . . . . 

26,629 

24.9 

Elizabeth, N. J., ... 

73,409 

40.8 

Newton, Mass., .... 

39,806 

18.5 

Washington, D. C., . . 

331,069 

18.8 

Elmira, N. Y., .... 

37,176 

4.2 

New York, N. Y., . . . 

4,766,883 

38.7 

Waterbury, Conn., . . 

73,141 

59.5 

Erie, Pa., . 

66,525 

26.2 

Niagara Falls, N. Y., 

30,445 

56.5 

Waterloo, Iowa, .... 

26,693 

112.2 

Evansville, Ind. 

69,647 

18.0 

Norfolk, Va. 

67.452 

44.7 

Watertown, N. Y-,. . . 

26,730 

23.2 

Everett, Mass., .... 

33,484 

37.6 

Norristown, Pa., 

27,875 

25.2 

West Hoboken, N. J. 

35,403 

53.3 

Fall River, Mass., . . . 

119,295 

13.8 

Oakland, Cal., .... 

150,174 

124.3 

Wheeling, W. Va. 

41,641 

7.1 

Fitchburg, Mass., . . . 

37,826 

20.0 

Ogden, Utah,. 

• 25,580 

56.8 

Wichita, Ivans., .... 

52,450 

112.6 

Flint, Mich. 

38,550 

194.2 

Oklahoma City, Okla., . 

64,205 

539.7 

Wilkes-Barre, Pa., . . . 

67,105 

29.7 

Fort Wayne, Ind., . . . 

63,933 

41.7 

Omaha, Neb., . . . 

124,096 

21.0 

Williamsport, Pa., . . . 

31,860 

10.8 

Fort Worth, Tex., . . . 

73,312 

174.7 

Orange, N. J. 

29,630 

22.7 

Wilmington, Del., . . . 

87,411 

14.3 

Galveston, Tex., . . . 

36,981 

-2.1 

Oshkosh, Wis. 

33,062 

16.9 

Wilmington, N. C., . . 

25,748 

22.7 

Grand Rapids, Mich., 

112,571 

28.6 

Pasadena, Cal., . . 

30.291 

232.2 

Woonsocket, R. I.,. . . 

38,125 

38.7 

Green Bay, Wis., . . . 

25,236 

35.1 

Passaic, N. J., .... 

54,773 

97.2 

Worcester, Mass., . . . 

145,986 

23.3 

Hamilton, Ohio, .... 

35,279 

47.5 

Paterson, N. J., . . . . 

125,600 

19.4 

Yonkers, N. Y., .... 

79,803 

66.5 

Harrisburg, Pa., .... 

64,186 

27.9 

Pawtucket, R. I., . . . 

51,622 

31.5 

York, Pa.,. 

44J50 

32.8 

Hartford, Conn.,.... 

98,915 

23.9 

Peoria, Ill.,.. 

66,950 

19.3 

Youngstown, Ohio, . . 

79,066 

76.2 

Haverhill, Mass. 

44,115 

18.7 

Perth Amboy, N. J., . . 

32,121 

81.5 

Zanesville, Ohio,.... 

28,026 

19.1 


TEN LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD 


City 

Census 

Pop. 

City 

Census 

Pop. 

1. London,. 

2. New York,. 

8 . Paris. 

4. Tokyo,. 

5. Chicago,. 

1911 

1910 

1911 
1908 
1910 

7,251,358 

4,766,883 

2,888,110 

2,186,079 

2,185,283 

6 . Berlin, . 

7. Vienna. 

8. St.. Petersburg,. 

9. Philadelphia. 

10. Moscow,.. 

1910 

1910 

1910 

1910 

1909 

2,071,257 

2,031,498 

1,907,708 

1,549,008 

1,481,200 













































































































































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GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


Abyssinia. The system of government 
is monarchical, and each large province is under 
a Ras or feudal chief, the more important of 
whom form a Council of State, while under them 
are the governors of districts and the chiefs of 
villages. In October, 1907, a decree was issued 
announcing the formation of a cabinet on Euro¬ 
pean lines, and ministers of justice, finance, com¬ 
merce, war, and foreign affairs were appointed. 
Each Ras has a standing force as garrison and at 
call in case of war, and a considerable number of 
retainers not embodied. The regular forces 
united are estimated at 150,000 men. 

Afghanistan. The government of Af¬ 
ghanistan is monarchical under one hereditary 
rince, called the Ameer, whose power varies with 
is own character and fortune. The dominions 
are politically divided into the four provinces of 
Kabul, Turkistan, Herat, and Kandahar, Badakh- 
shan being now under Turkistan. Each province 
is under a hakim or governor (called Ndib ), under 
whom nobles dispense justice after a feudal fash¬ 
ion. Spoliation, exaction, and embezzlement are 
almost universal. The Ameer has a subsidy of 
eighteen lakhs (£120,000) per annum from the 
Indian Government. By the treaty of 1893, con¬ 
firmed in 1905, the Ameer accepts the advice of 
the British Government in regard to his relations 
with foreign powers, and is guaranteed against 
unprovoked aggression on his dominions. A 
standing army is maintained, and service is obli¬ 
gatory, but rests lightly upon the population, 
about one man in eight being called upon to 
serve. The army comprises about 27,000 infan¬ 
try, 7,000 cavalry, and a strong force of artil¬ 
lery, apart from the irregulars, who number 
some 25,000 mounted men and a smaller force 
of infantry, capable of being increased on a war 
footing to 80,000 horse and 60,000 foot. 

Alabama was organized as a Territory in 
1817, and admitted into the Union as a State in 
1819. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 
thirty-five members and a House of Repre¬ 
sentatives of seventy members; Senators are 
elected for four years; Representatives for two. 
The chief executive officer of the State is the gov¬ 
ernor, elected for four years. He is commander- 
in-chief of the militia, has a limited veto in legis¬ 
lation, and exercises the powers usually entrusted 
to State governors. Other elective officers are 
the lieutenant-governor, auditor, attorney-gen¬ 
eral, treasurer, and superintendent of education. 

Argentine Republic. By the provisions 
of the Constitution of 1853, as variously amended, 
the executive power is left to a president, elected 
for six years by representatives of the fourteen 
provinces, equal to double the number of 
senators and deputies combined; while the 
legislative authority is vested in a national 
congress, consisting of a senate and a house of 
deputies, the former numbering thirty, two 
from the capital and from each province, elected 
by a special body of electors in the capital, and 
by the legislatures in the provinces; and the 


latter, 120 members elected by the people. By 
the constitution there should be one deputy for 
every 33,000 inhabitants. A deputy must be 
25 years of age, and have been a citizen for four 
years. The deputies are elected for four years, 
but one-half of the house must retire every two 
years. Senators must be 30 years of age, have 
been citizens for six years. One-third of the 
senate is renewed every three years. The two 
chambers meet annually from May 1st to Sep¬ 
tember 30th. The members of both the senate 
and the house of deputies are paid for their 
services, each receiving 12,000 pesos per annum 
(about 1,060 lire). A vice-president, elected in 
the same manner and at the same time as the 
president, fills the office of chairman of the 
senate, but has otherwise no political power. 
The president is commander-in-chief of the 
troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and 
judicial offices, and has the right of presentation 
to bishoprics; with the ministry, he is responsi¬ 
ble for all executive acts. Neither the president 
nor the vice-president can be reelected. 

Arizona was organized as a Territory in 
1863, and became a State in 1912. It has a 
Federal representation of two senators and one 
congressman at large. Under the constitution, 
the legislative authority is vested in a Senate 
comprising nineteen members, and a House of 
Representatives of thirty-five members. Any 
measure permissible under the constitution, or 
an amendment to the constitution, may be made 
either by initiative or by referendum. Legisla¬ 
tors must be citizens of the United States at 
least twenty-five years of age, and residents of 
Arizona at least one year preceding the election. 
A majority of all members elected to each house 
is necessary to pass any bill. The executive de¬ 
partment consists of the governor, secretary of 
state, state auditor, state treasurer, attorney- 
general, and superintendent of public instruction, 
who are elected for two years. The governor is 
commander-in-chief of military forces, may grant 
pardons, and has the ordinary limited veto power, 
except he cannot veto a bill passed by the legis¬ 
lature and referred to the people for vote thereon. 
The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 
superior courts, justices of the peace, and other 
inferior courts provided by law. The Constitu¬ 
tion was amended in 1912 to give women the 
right to vote and to extend the recall to all state 
officers, including judges. 

Arkansas. The Constitution of 1836 was 
followed by those of 1864, 1868, and 1874: the 
last is still in force. In 1910 the initiative and 
referendum were adopted. Amendments proposed 
in either house of the Legislature, approved by a 
majority of the members of each house and by 
a “majority voting at the said election” in the 
prescribed manner, became part of the Constitu¬ 
tion. Legislative power is vested in the General 
Assembly, consisting of a Senate of thirty-five 
members, elected for four years, partially re¬ 
newed every two years, and a House of Repre- 




586 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


sentatives of 100 members elected for two years. 
Any bill may originate in either house. The 
House of Representatives has the right to 
impeach; the Senate tries cases of impeach¬ 
ment. Senators and Representatives must be 
citizens, the former 25 years of age and the 
latter 21, and both must have resided in the 
State two years, and in the county or district 
one year next before election. The chief execu¬ 
tive officer of the State is the governor, elected 
for two years. He is commander-in-chief of the 
militia; he can appoint to executive offices 
which have become vacant, has unlimited par¬ 
doning power (but not in cases of impeachment), 
and may call special sessions of the Legislature. 
He has a veto which may be overridden by a 
two-thirds majority of the members of each 
house. Other officials elected for two years are 
the treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, super¬ 
intendent of public instruction, and commis¬ 
sioner of mines, manufactures and agriculture. 

Articles of Confederation. While 
the Declaration of Independence was under 
consideration in the Continental Congress, and 
before it was finally agreed upon, measures 
were taken for the establishment of a consti¬ 
tutional form of government; and on the 11th 
of June, 1776, it was “Resolved, That a com¬ 
mittee be appointed to prepare and digest the 
form of a confederation to be entered into be¬ 
tween these Colonies”; which committee was 
appointed the next day, June 12, and con¬ 
sisted of a member from each Colony, namely: 
Mr. Bartlett, Mr. S. Adams, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. 
Sherman, Mr. R. R. Livingston, Mr. Dickinson, 
Mr. McKean, Mr. Stone, Mr. Nelson, Mr. Hewes, 
Mr. E. Rutledge, and Mr. Gwinnett. On the 
12th of July, 1776, the committee reported a 
draught of the Articles of Confederation, which 
was printed for the use of the members under 
the strictest injunctions of secrecy. 

This report underwent a thorough discussion 
in Congress, from time to time, until the 15th 
of November, 1777; on which day, “ Articles 
of Confederation and Perpetual Union” were 
finally agreed to in form, and they were directed 
to be proposed to the legislatures of all the 
United States, and if approved by them, they 
were advised to authorize their delegates to 
ratify the same in the Congress of the United 
States; and in that event they were to become 
conclusive. On the 17th of November, 1777, 
the Congress agreed upon the form of a circular 
letter to accompany the Articles of Confedera¬ 
tion, which concluded with a recommendation 
to each of the several legislatures “to invest its 
delegates with competent powers, ultimately, 
and in the name and behalf of the State, to sub¬ 
scribe articles of confederation and perpetual 
union of the United States, and to attend Con¬ 
gress for that purpose on or before the 10th day 
of March next.” This letter was signed by the 
President of Congress and sent, with a copy of 
the articles, to each State legislature. 

On the 26th of June, 1778, Congress agreed 
upon the form of a ratification of the Articles 
of Confederation, and directed a copy of the 
articles and the ratification to be engrossed on 
archment; which, on the 9th of July, 1778, 
aving been examined and the blanks filled, 


was signed by the delegates of New Hampshire, 
Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Prov¬ 
idence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, 
Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina. 
Congress then directed that a circular letter be 
addressed to the States whose delegates were 
not present, or being present, conceived they 
were not authorized to sign the ratification, 
informing them how many and what States had 
ratified the Articles of Confederation, and de¬ 
siring them, with all convenient dispatch, to 
authorize their delegates to ratify the same. 
Of these States, North Carolina ratified on the 
21st and Georgia on the 24th of July, 1778; 
New Jersey on the 26th of November following; 
Delaware on the 5th of May, 1779; Maryland 
on the 1st of March, 1781; and on the 2d of 
March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new 
form of government. 

ACT OF CONFEDERATION OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA 

TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, WE THE 
UNDERSIGNED DELEGATES OF THE STATES AFFIXED TO 
OUR NAMES, SEND GREETING. 

Whereas the Delegates of the United States of Amer¬ 
ica in Congress assembled did on the 15th day of No¬ 
vember in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven 
Hundred and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year 
of the Independence of America agree to certain articles 
of Confederation and perpetual Union between the states 
of Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and 
Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia in the 
Words following, viz. 

“.ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION 
BETWEEN THE STATES OF NEWHAMPSHIRE, MASSACHU¬ 
SETTS-BAY, RHODEISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTA¬ 
TIONS, CONNECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENN¬ 
SYLVANIA, DELAWARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH 
CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA AND GEORGIA. 

Article i. The Stile of this confederacy shall be 
“.The United States of America.” 

Article ii. Each State retains its Sovereignty, free¬ 
dom and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction 
and right, which is not by this confederation expressly 
delegated to the United States in Congress assembled. 

Article iii. The said states hereby severally enter 
into a firm league of friendship with each other, for 
their common defence, the security of their Liberties, 
and their mutual and general welfare, binding them¬ 
selves to assist each other, against all force offered to, 
or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account 
of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence 
whatever. 

Article iv. The better to secure and perpetuate 
mutual friendship and intercourse among the people 
of the different states in this union, the free inhabitants 
of each of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugi¬ 
tives from Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several 
states; and the people of each state shall have free in¬ 
gress and regress to and from any other state, and shall 
enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, 
subject to the same duties, impositions and restrictions 
as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that 
such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent 
the removal of property imported into any state, to 
any other state of which the Owner is an inhabitant; 
provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction 
shall be laid by any state, on the property of the united 
states, or either of them. 

If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, 
felony, or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall 
flee from Justice, and be found in any of the united 
states, he shall upon demand of the Governor or execu¬ 
tive power, of the state from which he fled, be delivered 
up and removed to the state having jurisdiction of his 
offence. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these 
states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of 
the courts and magistrates of every other state. 

Article v. For the more convenient management 
of the general interest of the united states, delegates 
shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legis- 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


587 


lature of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on 
the first Monday in November, in every year, with a 
power reserved to each state, to recal its delegates, or 
any of them, at any time within the year, and to send 
others in their stead, for the remainder of the Year. 

No state shall be represented in Congress by less than 
two. nor by more than seven Members; and no person 
shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three 
years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, be¬ 
ing a delegate, be capable of holding any office under 
the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit 
receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. 

. Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meet¬ 
ing of the states, and while they act as members of the 
committee of the states. 

In determining questions in the united states, in Con¬ 
gress assembled, each state shall have one vote. 

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not 
be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out 
of Congress, and the members of congress shall he pro¬ 
tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments, 
during the time of their going to and from, and attend¬ 
ance on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach 
of the peace. 

Article vt. No state without the Consent of the 
united states in congress assembled, shall send any em¬ 
bassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into 
any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any 
King prince or state; nor shall any person holding any 
office of profit or trust under the united states, or any 
of them, accept of any present, emolument, office or 
title of any kind whatever from any king, prince or 
foreign state; nor shall the united states in congress 
assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. 

No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, 
confederation or alliance whatever between them, with¬ 
out the consent of the united states in congress assem¬ 
bled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the 
same is to be entered into, and how long it shall 
continue. 

No state shall lay any imposts or duties, which may 
interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into 
by the united states in congress assembled with any 
king, prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties al¬ 
ready proposed by congress to the courts of France and 
Spain. 

No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by 
any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed 
necessary by the united states in congress assembled, 
for the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any 
body of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, 
except such number only, as in the judgment of the 
united states, in congress assembled, shall be deemed 
requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defence 
of such state; but every state shall always keep up a 
well regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed 
and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly have 
ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field- 
pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammu¬ 
nition and camp equipage. 

No state shall engage in any war without the consent 
of the united states in congress assembled, unless such 
state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have 
received certain advice of a resolution being formed by 
some nation of Indians to invade such state, and the 
danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till 
the united states in congress assembled can be consulted: 
nor shall any state grant commissions to any ships or 
vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except 
it be after a declaration of war by the united states in 
congress assembled, and then only against the kingdom 
or state and the subjects thereof, against which war 
has been so declared, and under such regulations as 
shall be established by the united states in congress 
assembled, unless such state be infested by pirates, in 
which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that 
occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, 
or until the united states in congress assembled shall 
determine otherwise. 

Article vii. When land-forces are raised by any 
state for the common defence, all officers of or under the 
rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of 
each state respectively by whom such forces shall be 
raised, or in such manner as such state shall direct, 
and all vacancies shall be filled up by the state which 
first made the appointment. 

Article viii. All charges of war, and all other ex- 
pences that shall be incurred for the common defence pr 
general welfare, and allowed by the united states in 
congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common 
treasury, which shall be supplied by the several states, 
in proportion to the value of all land within each state, 
granted to or surveyed for any Person, as such land 


and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be 
estimated according to such mode as the united states 
in congress assembled, shall from time to time direct 
and appoint. 

The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid 
and levied by the authority and direction of the legis¬ 
latures of the several states within the time agreed 
upon by the united states in congress assembled. 

Article ix. The united states in congress assem¬ 
bled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power 
of determining on peace and war, except in the cases 
mentioned in the sixth article — of sending and receiv¬ 
ing embassadors — entering into treaties and alliances, 
provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made 
whereby the legislative power of the respective states 
shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and 
duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected 
to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importa¬ 
tion of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever 
— of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what 
captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what 
manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the serv¬ 
ice of the united states shall be divided or appropriated 
—• of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times 
of peace — appointing courts for the trial of piracies 
and felonies committed on the high seas and establish¬ 
ing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals 
in all cases of captures, provided that no member of 
congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said 
courts. 

The united states in congress assembled shall also be 
the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences 
now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two 
or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any 
other cause whatever; which authority shall always be 
exercised in the manner following: Whenever the legis¬ 
lative or executive authority or lawful agent of any 
state in controversy with another shall present a peti¬ 
tion to congress stating the matter in question and 
praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by 
order of congress to the legislative or executive author¬ 
ity of the other state in controversy, and a day assigned 
for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, 
who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, 
commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing 
and determining the matter in question: but if they 
cannot agree, congress shall name three persons out of 
each of the united states, and from the list of such per¬ 
sons each party shall alternately strike out one, the 
petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced 
to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, 
nor more than nine names as congress shall direct, 
shall in the presence of congress be drawn out by lot, 
and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any 
five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear 
and finally determine the controversy, so always as a 
major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall 
agree in the determination: and if either party shall 
neglect to attend at the day appointed, without show¬ 
ing reasons, which congress shall judge sufficient, or 
being present shall refuse to strike, the congress shall 
proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, 
and the secretary of congress shall strike in behalf of 
such party absent or refusing; and the judgment and 
sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner 
before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if 
any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority 
of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or 
cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce 
sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner be 
final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other 
proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress, 
and lodged among the acts of congress for the security 
of the parties concerned: provided that every commis¬ 
sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath to 
be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or 
superior court of the. state, where the cause shall be 
tried, “well and truly to hear and determine the matter 
in question, according to the best of his judgment, with¬ 
out favour, affection or hope of reward: ” provided also 
that no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit 
of the united states. 

All controversies concerning the private right of soil 
claimed under different grants of two or more states, 
whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and 
the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the 
said grants or either of them being at the same time 
claimed to have originated antecedent to such settle¬ 
ment of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either 
party to the congress of the united states, be finally 
determined as near as may be in the same manner as is 
before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting terri¬ 
torial jurisdiction between different states. 




588 


th£ standard dictionary of facts 


The united states in congress assembled shall also 
have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulat¬ 
ing the alloy and value of coin struck by their own 
authority, or by that of the respective states — fixing 
the standard of weights and measures throughout the 
united states — regulating the trade and managing all 
affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the 
states, provided that the legislative right of any state 
within its own limits be not infringed or violated — 
establishing and regulating post-offices from one state 
to another, throughout all the united states, and exact¬ 
ing such postage on the papers passing thro’ the same 
as may be requisite to defray the expences of the said 
office — appointing all officers of the land forces, in the 
service of the united states, excepting regimental offi¬ 
cers — appointing all the officers of the naval forces, 
and commissioning all officers whatever in the service 
of the united states — making rules for the government 
and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and 
directing their operations. 

The united states in congress assembled shall have 
authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of 
congress, to be denominated “A Committee of the 
States,” and to consist of one delegate from each state; 
and to appoint such other committees and civil officers 
as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of 
the united states under their direction — to appoint one 
of their number to preside, provided that no person be 
allowed to serve in the office of president more than 
one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the 
necessary sums of Money to be raised for the service of 
the united states, and to appropriate and apply the 
same for defraying the public expences — to borrow 
money, or emit bills on the credit of the united states, 
transmitting every half year to the respective states an 
account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted, 
— to build and equip a navy — to agree upon the num¬ 
ber of land forces, and to make requisitions from each 
state for its quota, in proportion to the number of 
white inhabitants in such state; which requisitions 
shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each 
state shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the 
men and cloath, arm and equip them in a soldier like 
manner, at the expence of the united states; and the 
officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall 
march to the place appointed, and within the time 
agreed on by the united states in congress assembled: 
But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on 
consideration of circumstances judge proper that any 
state should not raise men, or should raise a smaller 
number than its quota, and that any other state should 
raise a greater number of men than the quota thereof, 
such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, 
armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota 
of such state, unless the legislature of such state shall 
judge that such extra number cannot be safely spared 
out of the same, in which case they shall raise officer, 
cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number 
as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers 
and men so cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march 
to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on 
by the united states in congress assembled. 

The united states in congress assembled shall never 
engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal 
in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, 
nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor 
ascertain the sums and expences necessary for the de¬ 
fence and welfare of the united states, or any of them, 
nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the 
united states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon 
the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, 
or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor 
appoint a commander-in-chief of the army or navy, 
unless nine states assent to the same: nor shall a ques¬ 
tion on any other point, except for adjourning from 
day to day be determined, unless by the votes of a 
majority of the united states in congress assembled. 

The Congress of the united states shall have power to 
adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place 
within the united states, so that no period of adjourn¬ 
ment be for a longer duration than the space of six 
Months, and shall publish the Journal of their proceed¬ 
ings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to 
treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their 
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of 
the delegates of each state on any question shall be 
entered on the Journal, when it is desired by any dele¬ 
gate; and the delegates of a state, or any of them, at 
his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript 
of the said Journal, except such parts as are above 
excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several 
states. 

Article x. The committee of the states, or any 


nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the 
recess of congress, such of the powers of congress as the 
united states in congress assembled, by the consent of 
nine states, shall from time to time think expedient to 
vest them with; provided that no power be delegated 
to the said committee, for the exercise of which, by the 
articles of confederation, the voice of nine states in the 
congress of the united states assembled is requisite. 

Article xi. Canada acceding to this confederation, 
and joining in the measures of the united states, shall 
be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of 
this union: but no other colony shall be admitted into 
the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine 
states. 

Article xii. All bills of credit emitted, monies bor¬ 
rowed and debts contracted by, or under the authority 
of congress, before the assembling of the united states, 
in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be 
deemed and considered as a charge against the united 
states, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said 
united states, and the public faith are hereby solemnly 
pledged. 

Article xiii. Every state shall abide by the deter¬ 
minations of the united states in congress assembled, 
on all questions which by this confederation are sub¬ 
mitted to them. And the Articles of this confederation 
shall be inviolably observed by every state, and the 
union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at 
any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless 
such alteration be agreed to in a congress of the united 
states, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures 
of every state. 

AND WHEREAS it hath pleased the Great Governor 
of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we 
respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and 
to authorize us to ratify the said articles of confedera¬ 
tion and perpetual union. KNOW YE that we the 
undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and 
authority to us given for that purpose, do by these 
presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective 
constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each 
and every of the said articles of confederation and per¬ 
petual union, and all and singular the matters and 
things therein contained: And we do further solemnly 
plight and engage the faith of our respective constitu¬ 
ents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the 
united states in congress assembled, on all questions, 
which by the said confederation are submitted to them. 
And that the articles thereof shall be inviolably observed 
by the states we respectively represent, and that the 
union shall be perpetual. 

IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto set our 
hands in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia in the state 
of Pennsylvania the ninth Day of July in the Year of 
our Lord one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy- 
eight, and in the third year of the independence of 
America. 

On the part and, behalf of the State of New Hampshire. 
Josiah Bartlett, John Wentworth, jcnR. 

August 8, 1778. 

On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts Bay. 
John Hancock, Francis Dana, 

Samuel Adams, James Lovell, 

Elbridge Gerry, Samuel Holten. 

On the part and in behalf of the State of Rhode Island and 
Providence Plantations. 

William Ellery, John Collins. 

Henry Marchant, 

On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut. 
Roger Sherman, Titus Hosmer, 

Samuel Huntington, Andrew Adams. 

Oliver Wolcott, 

On the part and behalf of the State of New York. 

Jas Duane, William Duer, 

Fras Lewis, Gouvr Morris. 

On the part and in behalf of the State of New Jersey. 
Jno Witherspoon, Nathl Scudder, Nov 26, 

1778. 

On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania. 
Robt. Morris, William Clingan, 

Daniel Roberdeau, Joseph Reed, July 22nd, 

Jona Bayard Smith, 1778. 

On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware. 

John Dickinson, May 5, Tho. M’Kean, Feb. 12, 

1779, 1779. 

Nicholas Van Dyke, 

On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland. 
John Hanson, March 1, 1781, 

Daniel Carroll Do 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


589 


On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia. 
Richard Henry Lee, Jno Harvie, 

John Banister, Francis Lightfoot Lee. 

Thomas Adams, 

On the part and behalf of the State of North Carolina. 
John Penn, July 21, 1778, Jno. Williams. 

Corns. Harnett, 

On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina. 
Henry Laurens, Richard Hutson, 

William Henry Drayton, Thos. Heyward, JunR 
Jno Mathews, 

On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia. 

Jno Walton, 24th July, Edw». Langworthy. 

1778, 

Edwd Telfair, 

Austria-Hungary is a monarchy com¬ 
posed of a Cisleithan portion, officially known as 
Austria, and a Transleithan portion known as 
Hungary. The reigning dynasty is the Habs- 
burg-Lorraine dynasty, and the law of succes¬ 
sion is that the Crown passes by right of primo¬ 
geniture and lineal succession to males, or, in 
default of males, to females. Each country has 
according to the compromise made in 1867, its 
own constitution, a limited monarchy, and each 
possesses a separate parliament, but they have 
united under a common sovereign in the estab¬ 
lishment of a common army and navy, and in 
the conduct of foreign affairs. The control in 
regard to common affairs and the voting of 
money for common purposes are entrusted to a 
supreme body known as the delegations. Of 
these there are two, each composed of sixty 
members, representing the legislative bodies of 
Austria and Hungary, the upper houses returning 
twenty and the lower houses forty delegates. 
The members of the delegations are appointed 
for one year, and are summoned annually by the 
emperor alternately at Vienna and at Budapest. 
Subject to the delegations are the three execu¬ 
tive departments for foreign affairs, war, and 
common finance, and the common court of 
public accounts. The compromise is expressly 
subject to periodical revision, only so far as it 
affects the regulation of the fiscal and commer¬ 
cial affairs of the two countries, the quota paid 
by them to the common expenses of the empire, 
and the privileges of the Austro-Hungarian Bank. 
After prolonged negotiations a new customs 
and commercial treaty was signed, October 8, 
1907, which recognized the equality and free¬ 
dom of action of each contracting party, and a 
separate (but identical) customs tariff for each 
country. 

Belgium is a kingdom of Europe, and by 
the constitution of 1831, following on the seces¬ 
sion from the Netherlands in 1830, declared to 
be a constitutional representative, and hereditary 
monarchy. Belgium is a neutral power, her 
neutrality being guaranteed under the Treaty 
of London, 1831, by Great Britain, Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia. The executive power is 
vested in the king and his ministers, the legis¬ 
lative power jointly in king, senate, and cham¬ 
ber of deputies. All citizens over 25, who have 
lived at least a year in the same commune, have 
a vote. An additional vote is accorded them if 
they are (1) either 35 years of age, married, 
with legitimate offspring, and pay a tax of at 
least five francs to the state; or (2) are 25 years 
old and own immovable property to the value 


of at least 2,000 francs, or have a corresponding 
income from such property, or for two years have 
received at least 100 francs a year from Belgium 
funds. Two additional votes are given to citizens 
of 25 years of age who possess a diploma of 
higher education or have filled a public or private 
position implying the possession of such educa¬ 
tion. No citizen can have more than three votes; 
failure to vote is a misdemeanor. > From this 
electorate both houses of the legislature are 
chosen, save for those senators who are elected 
indirectly. The senate of 110 members is elected 
for eight years. The number of members elected 
directly, eighty-three, is equal to half the number 
of deputies. The indirectly elected senators are 
chosen by the provincial councils, two for each 
province with less than 500,000 inhabitants; 
three for each with more than 500,000 and less 
1,000,000; and four for each with over 1,000,000. 
The deputies are elected for four years, in the 
proportion of one to every 40,000 inhabitants, 
and number 166. One-half retire every two 
years. Senators must be 40, and deputies 25 
years of age. Each deputy receives 4,000 francs 
yearly, and travels free. 

Bolivia. The constitution of the Republic 
of Bolivia bears date October 28, 1880. By its 
provisions the executive power is vested in a 
president, elected for a term of four years by 
direct popular vote, and not eligible for reelec¬ 
tion at the termination of his period of office; 
while the legislative authority rests with a con¬ 
gress of two chambers, called the senate and the 
chamber of deputies. The suffrage is possessed 
by all who can read and write. There are six¬ 
teen senators (two for each department) elected 
for six years, and sixty-nine deputies elected for 
four years. Both senators and deputies are 
elected by direct vote of the people. Of the 
senators one-third retire every two years; of the 
deputies one-half retire every two years. Sena¬ 
tors and deputies receive a salary of 500 bolivi¬ 
anos (40 litre) per month during the sittings, 
which, as a rule, last for sixty days, but may be 
extended to ninety days. Extraordinary ses¬ 
sions may be held for special purposes. There 
are a president, two vice-presidents and a min¬ 
istry, divided into six departments — of foreign 
relations and worship; finance and industry; 
government and fomento; justice and educa¬ 
tion; war; colonization and agriculture. 

Brazil. A republic on the east coast of 
Central South America, which, until 1889, was 
an empire under Emperor Pedro II., of the house 
of Braganza. A revolution then, however, 
broke out, and a new constitution was adopted 
in February, 1891. The chief feature of this was 
the establishment of the old provinces as twenty- 
one separate states, self-governed except for 
federal purposes, but with all fiscal matters, the 
maintenance of order, the defense of the country, 
the currency, reserved to the federal govern¬ 
ment. The executive authority is in the hands 
of the president, elected for four years only by 
the people directly. Legislative authority is 
exercised by the national congress, composed of 
a senate of sixty-three members, directly elected 
by the states for nine years, one-third retiring 
every three years, and a chamber of deputies of 
212 members. Deputies and senators are paid. 




590 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


The former must have been citizens for four and 
the latter for six years. Deputies are elected 
directly, with provision for minority representa¬ 
tion, for three years, one member being chosen 
for every 70,000 of the population. 

British Empire. The United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland, the nucleus around 
which the British Empire has been built, was 
perfected in 1603, when the crowns of England 
and Scotland were united. The executive power 
of the empire vests in the sovereign, through his 
ministers. The real power of the empire, how¬ 
ever, is to be found in Parliament, a body which 
not only has complete legislative power, but 
which exercises, through the Lower House, 
much authority in executive matters. Parlia¬ 
ment consists of an Upper House of Lords and 
a Lower House of Commons. It lasts five 
years or until dissolved by the sovereign, and 
it usually meets annually for a term of about 
six months. The members of the House of 
Lords are peers, who hold either by hereditary 
right or by crown appointment to the peerage. 
In 1911 there were 632 peers. The House of 
Commons consists of members elected from 
counties, boroughs, and universities — 670 in 
all in 1911. 

The Colonies proper form three classes: — (1) 
The Crown Colonies , which are entirely controlled 
by the home government; (2) those possessing 
Representative Institutions, in which the Crown 
has no more than a veto on legislation, but the 
home government retains the control of public 
officers; and (3) those possessing Responsible 
Government, in which the home government has 
no control over any public officer, though the 
Crown appoints the governor and still retains a 
veto on legislation. 

The established Church of England is the 
Protestant Episcopal Church, of which the king 
is the supreme head; but all religions are tol¬ 
erated and are equal at law. ‘Public instruction 
is not compulsory, but the national board of 
education maintains control of the school 
boards and requires that accommodations be 
provided for all children between the ages of 
five and fourteen years. Secondary education 
is not controlled by the government, but 
the university system is, perhaps, more per¬ 
fectly developed in England than in any other 
country. England, Ireland, Scotland, and 
Wales each has its system of courts of justice. 

The Parliament. — The present form of Parlia¬ 
ment, divided into two houses, the Lords and 
the Commons, dates from the middle of the 
Fourteenth Century. The members of the 
House of Commons are elected by popular vote, 
about one-sixth of the population being electors, 
and the election must be by secret vote by ballot. 
The House of Lords is composed of peers, who 
hold their seats by hereditary right, by creation 
of the sovereign, by virtue of office (the bishops), 
by election for life (Irish peers), and by election 
for the term of Parliament (Scottish peers). 

No one under 21 years of age can be a 
member of Parliament. All clergymen of the 
Church of England, ministers of the Church of 
Scotland, and Roman Catholic clergymen, and 
all government contractors and sheriffs or re¬ 
turning officers are disqualified. No English or 


Scottish peer can be elected to the House of 
Commons; but non-representative Irish peers 
are eligible for membership. 

Important alterations were made in the 
Constitution by the Parhament Act, 1911. 
Under this Act, ah money bills (so certified by 
the Speaker of the House of Commons), if not 
passed by the House of Lords without amend¬ 
ment, may become law without their concurrence 
on the royal assent being signified. Public bills, 
other than money bills or a bill extending the 
maximum duration of Parliament, if passed by 
the House of Commons in three successive 
sessions, whether of the same Parliament or 
not, and rejected each time by the House of 
Lords, may become law without their concur¬ 
rence on the royal assent being signified, pro¬ 
vided that two years have elapsed between the 
second reading in the first session of the House of 
Commons, and the third reading in the third 
session. All bills coming under this Act must 
reach the House of Lords at least one month 
before the end of the session. * 

The present cabinet consists of the following 
offices: Prime minister and (usually) first lord 
of the treasury, lord high chancellor, lord privy 
seal, lord president of the council and president 
of the board of education, chancellor of the 
exchequer; secretaries of state for home affairs, 
foreign affairs, the colonies, India, war; first 
lord of the admiralty, lord chancellor of Ireland, 
president of local government board, president 
of board of trade, chief secretary to the lord 
lieutenant of Ireland, secretary for Scotland, presi¬ 
dent of board of agriculture and fisheries, postmas¬ 
ter general, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 

The present ruler is “George V., by the 
Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland and of the British Domin¬ 
ions Beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the 
Faith, Emperor of India.” Upon the death of 
his father, Edward VII., he was proclaimed 
king, May 7, 1910. The heir apparent is the 
eldest son'of the King, Edward Albert, Prince of 
Wales,Dukeof Cornwall and York, and of Rothsay. 

Bulgaria. By the treaty of Berlin, 1878, 
Bulgaria was constituted an autonomous and 
tributary principality under the suzerainty of 
the Porte. In 1885, Eastern Roumelia was 
united to Bulgaria. In 1908 Prince Ferdinand 
proclaimed Bulgaria an independent kingdom. 
The executive power is vested in the king, 
assisted by a council of ministers, and the 
legislative power in a single chamber, the 
Sobranje, or national assembly, elected for five 
years by manhood suffrage in the proportion 
of one member to every 20,000 of the population. 
There is also a Great Sobranje, consisting of 
delegates selected in the proportion of one to 
10,000 of the population, to which constitutional 
and other questions, such as a vacancy on the 
throne or the acquisition of territory, must be 
referred. 

California. A Constitution was framed 
by a convention of delegates assembled in the 
pueblo of Monterey in the year 1849, but it did 
not become effective until the Congress of the 
United States passed the act of admission, 
September 9, 1850. In 1862 the Constitution 
received important amendments, and in 1879 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


591 


a new Constitution was adopted. Since that 
ear numerous and important amendments 
ave been made. Especially notable is the group 
of twenty-three amendments adopted in 1911 to 
provide for more direct popular control. These 
include the initiative and referendum, the recall, 
including judges, the extension of the suffrage to 
women, a larger measure of home rule in cities, 
state control of railroads and other public utilities, 
elimination of appeals on technical grounds in 
criminal cases, extension of impeachment to 
appellate judges, employers’ liability and other 
radical changes. The effect of these amendments 
is practically to make the constitution a new 
instrument. To amend the California Consti¬ 
tution it is necessary only to secure a two-thirds 
majority in each branch of the Legislature, and 
a simple majority vote for the amendments at 
the next popular election. The State Legislature 
is composed of the Senate, a body of forty mem¬ 
bers, elected for terms of four years — half the 
number being elected each two years—and the 
Assembly, eighty members, elected for two years. 
The qualifications for eligibility to the Senate or 
Assembly are citizenship of the State for three 
years and residence in the district for one year. 
Neither house of the Legislature possesses any 
advantage over the other in originating legisla¬ 
tion. Certain of the governor’s appointments 
must be submitted to the Senate for approval. 
In impeachment cases the Assembly brings the 
impeachment, and it is tried by the Senate. 
The present Constitution contains numerous 
specific prohibitions of local and special laws, 
besides forbidding them in all cases where a 
general law can be made applicable. Under one 
of the amendments of 1911 the legislature meets 
biennially for a divided session. The first thirty 
days are devoted to the introduction of bills, 
none being passed except emergency measures. 
An adjournment for thirty days is then taken, 
whereupon the legislature reconvenes to pass 
such bills as meet its approval; but no new 
measures can be introduced except by three- 
fourths vote. The term of office of the governor 
is four years. He possesses supreme executive 
authority, issues all commissions, is commander- 
in-chief of the army and navy, and is charged 
with responsibility to see that all laws are faith¬ 
fully executed. All State boards and commis¬ 
sions, with two or three exceptions, are filled by 
his appointment, the concurrence of the Senate 
being required in certain instances, and in others 
not. He is empowered to grant pardons, but 
where a person has been more than once convicted 
there is required the assent of a majority 
of the justices of the Supreme Court. The 
governor is vested with authority to call the 
Legislature together in extraordinary session. 
During sessions of the Legislature the governor 
may veto any bill which has passed, and it does 
not become law unless it again pass, and by a 
two-thirds vote in each house. Besides the 
governor and secretary of state the other 
officials are the lieutenant-governor, who is 
presiding officer of the Senate, the State comp¬ 
troller, the attorney-general, the State treas¬ 
urer, the State surveyor-general, who is also 
registrar of the land office, the superintendent 
of public instruction, and the State printer. 


The most important State boards and com¬ 
missions are: The board of education; the 
board of regents of the university, appointed 
by the governor for terms of sixteen years; the 
State board of prison directors, appointed by 
the governor for terms of ten years, and having 
entire control of the penitentiaries; the State 
board of equalization, elected at general elec¬ 
tions, and dealing with the assessment of prop¬ 
erty for revenue purposes; the public utilities 
commission, with large powers over railroads 
and other public utilities; the bank commission, 
the State board of health, the insurance com¬ 
mission, the State engineering department, the 
State board of charities and corrections, board of 
agriculture, and the commission in lunacy. The 
last-named, which is an ex-officio commission made 
up of State officers, controls the hospitals for the 
insane. California is divided into fifty-eight 
counties, one of which—San Francisco—has a 
combined county and city government; the other 
fifty-seven have county governments distinct from 
the government of the cities and towns which 
they contain. Cities are authorized to adopt 
the commission form of government and to 
construct and operate public utilities. 

Canada. The Dominion of Canada origi¬ 
nally consisted of the two provinces—Upper and 
Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec)— 
but the “British North America Act,” which was 
passed in 1867, not only provided for the con¬ 
solidation of the Canada of that time with the 
provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
into one Dominion, but made provision for the 
admission of British Columbia, Prince Edward 
Island, the Northwest Territories and Newfound¬ 
land, a privilege of which Newfoundland alone 
has not availed herself. Out of the Northwest 
Territories have been formed the provinces of 
Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and the dis¬ 
trict of Yukon. In accordance with this act of 
consolidation the Constitution of the Dominion 
is “similar in principle to that of the United 
Kingdom,” and, while the executive authority 
is vested in the British Sovereign, the legisla¬ 
tive power of the Dominion is exercised by a 
Parliament of two Houses — the Senate and the 
House of Commons. Each province forming the 
Dominion has a separate Parliament and admin¬ 
istration, a lieutenant-governor being at the 
head of all provincial bodies. The Senate of the 
Dominion is composed of eighty-seven members, 
who have been nominated for life. Each must 
be at least 30 years of age, a born or naturalized 
subject and possessed of $4,000 worth of property 
in the province from which he was appointed. 
The 221 members of the House are elected by 
the vote of their constituencies. The Speaker of 
the Senate and the House each receives a salary 
of $4,000, in addition to the regular sessional 
allowance, while each member of the two houses 
is granted a session allowance of $2,500, with ten 
cents per mile for traveling expenses. In cases 
of absence, except for sickness, the sum of $15 
per diem is deducted. The Governor-General, 
who receives a salary of $50,000 per annum, is 
appointed by the British Government for a term 
of five years, and he is assisted in his functions 
by a council composed of fifteen heads of depart¬ 
ments, each of whom receives a salary of $7,000 



592 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


per annum, except the Premier, who has a salary 
of $12,000 per annum. The heads of depart¬ 
ments are as follows: 

1 . Premier and President of the Council. 

2. Secretary of State. 

3. Minister of Trade and Commerce. 

4. Minister of Justice and Attorney-General. 

5 . Minister of Marine , Fisheries , and Naval 

Service. 

6 . Minister of Railways and Canals. 

7 . Minister of Militia and Defence. 

8 . Minister of Finance. 

9 . Postmaster-General. 

10. Minister of Agriculture. 

11 . Minister of Public Works. 

12. Minister of Interior. 

13. Minister of Customs. 

14. Minister of Inland Revenue and Mines. 

15. Minister of Labor. 

Three Ministers without portfolios. 

The representation from the several provinces 
is as follows: There are eighty-seven senators 
—twenty-four from Ontario, twenty-four from 
Quebec, ten from Nova Scotia, ten from New 
Brunswick, four from Manitoba, three from 
British Columbia, four each from Prince Edward 
Island, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. The House 
of Commons consists of two hundred twenty-one 
members — eighty-six for Ontario, sixty-five for 
Quebec, eighteen for Nova Scotia, thirteen for 
New Brunswick, ten for Manitoba, seven for 
British Columbia, four for Prince Edward Island, 
ten for Saskatchewan, seven for Alberta, and 
one for Yukon Territory. 

Provincial Government. By the provisions of 
the British North America Act each province 
has full power to regulate its own local affairs 
and dispose of its own revenue, provided it does 
not interfere with the policy of the central gov¬ 
ernment. The lieutenant-governor of each 
province is appointed by the Governor-General, 
while the other officials are elected by the people. 
There is a very perfect system of municipal 
government throughout the Dominion (except in 
Prince Edward Island where the legislature con¬ 
trols all local matters), the counties and town¬ 
ships having local governments or councils which 
regulate their local taxation. The administration 
of justice is based on the English model, except 
in Quebec Province, where the old French law 
prevails. The only court that has jurisdiction 
throughout the Dominion (except the Exchequer 
and the Maritime Court) is the Supreme Court, 
the ultimate court of appeal in civil and criminal 
cases. In certain cases an appeal may be had to 
his Majesty’s Privy Council. 

Chile. Chile is a Republic, with laws ad¬ 
ministered under a Constitution formed in 1833 
and subsequently amended. The President is 
elected for a term of five years by indirect vote, 
much as the like officer is chosen in the United 
States. He is assisted by a Cabinet as follows: 

Premier and Minister of the Interior. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs. 

Minister of Justice and Public Instruction. 

Minister of Finance. 

Minister of War and Marine. 

Minister of Industry and Public Works. 

He is not eligible for reelection for a succeeding 


term. The day of election is June 25th of the 
last year of the President’s term of office, and 
the inaugural date is September 18th of the 
same year. Congress consists of two Houses — 
a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Mem¬ 
bers of the Senate are elected by popular vote 
for a term of six years, and Deputies are chosen 
in the same way for a term of three years. The 
proportion is one Senator for three Deputies. 
Electors must be 21 years of age and 
able to read and write. The republic is divided 
into provinces, which are subdivided into de¬ 
partments. Local government. is exercised in 
the former by Intendentes and in the latter by 
Gobernadores. The police of Santiago and of 
the capitals of the provinces is organized and 
regulated by the President of the Republic. 

C hina. For a period of nearly five thousand 
years China was an empire. In 1912, by the 
formal abdication of the child emperor, Pu-yi, 
the Manchu dynasty, which has ruled China for 
about three centuries, came to an end. No other 
nation in history has maintained one form of 
government for such a period of time. The 
imperial decree was signed by the Empress 
Dowager for herself and the little emperor, by 
Yuan Shi-kai as prime minister, and also by the 
other ministers. The text of the first edict, which 
embodied the actual abdication, reads as follows: 
“We, the Emperor of China, have respectfully 
received today the following edict from the 
hands of Her Majesty, the Dowager Empress: 

“ ‘In consequence of the uprising of the Repub¬ 
lican army, to which the people of the provinces 
of China have responded, the Empire is seething 
like a boiling caldron, and the people are plunged 
in misery. 

“ ‘Yuan Shi-kai was therefore commanded to 
dispatch commissioners in order to confer with 
the Republicans with a view to the calling of a 
National Assembly to decide on the future form 
of government. Months have elapsed and no 
settlement is now evident. 

“ ‘The majority of the people are in favor of a 
republic. From the preference of the people’s 
hearts the will of Heaven is discernible. How 
could we oppose the desires of millions for the 
glory of one family? 

“ ‘Therefore, the Dowager Empress and the 
Emperor hereby vest the sovereignty of the 
Chinese Empire in the people. 

“ ‘Let Yuan Shi-kai organize to the full the 
powers of the Provisional Republican Govern¬ 
ment and confer with the Republicans as to the 
methods of union, assuring peace in the Empire 
and forming a great Republic with the union of 
Manchus, Chinese, Mongols, Mohammedans, 
and Tibetans. 

“ ‘We, the Empress Dowager and the Emperor, 
will thus be enabled to live in retirement, free 
from responsibilities and cares, and enjoying 
without interruption the nation’s courteous 
treatment.’ ” 

Whether under a constitutional monarchy or 
a republican form of government, the Chinese as 
a people have abundantly proved themselves 
capable of handling their own welfare and of de¬ 
veloping in the arts and methods of civilization 
and progress. In practically every village were 



GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


593 


representatives of the democratic aristocracy, 
who, together with the merchants, formulated 
the new government. They had all, more or 
less, absorbed their ideas of political economy in 
the school of the new world. 

Soon after the abdication of the Manchu 
dynasty, Yuan Shi-kai was elected president of 
the new government by the National Assembly 
at Nanking, and March 10, 1912, took the follow¬ 
ing oath of office as provisional president: 

“Since the Republic has been established, 
many works have to be performed. I shall en¬ 
deavor faithfully to develop the Republic, to 
sweep away the disadvantages of absolute mon¬ 
archism, to observe the constitutional laws, to 
increase the welfare of the country, and to cement 
together a strong nation embracing all the five 
races. When the National Assembly appoints a 
permanent president, I shall retire. This I 
swear before the Chinese Republic.” 

Under the new government the cabinet con¬ 
sists of a premier, ministers of foreign affairs, 
finance, navy, war, justice, communications, 
commerce, interior, education, agriculture. 
The seat of government was removed from Nan¬ 
king to Peking, but the minister of war in the 
former government was appointed chief of the 
general staff, and allowed to maintain head¬ 
quarters at Nanking. An enormous deficit and 
constantly increasing destitution in the famine- 
stricken regions of the interior are the most 
pressing problems that face the government of 
China. With the establishment of the republic 
it seems certain that the Chinese are assured 
a far greater measure both of liberty and justice 
than they have heretofore enjoyed. 

Colombia. The Republic of Colombia 
gained its independence of Spain in 1819, and 
was officially constituted December 27, 1819. 
It split up into Venezuela, Ecuador, and the 
Republic of New Granada, February 29, 1832. 
The Constitution of April 1, 1858, changed the 
Republic into a confederation of eight States, 
under the name of Confederation Granadina. 
On September 20, 1861, the convention of Bogota 
brought out the confederation under the new 
name of Uhited States of New Granada, with 
nine States. On May 8, 1863, an improved 
Constitution was formed, and the States reverted 
to the old name Colombia — United States of 
Colombia. The revolution of 1885 brought 
about another change, and the national council 
of Bogota, composed of three delegates from 
each State, promulgated the Constitution of 
August 4, 1886. The sovereignty of the States 
was abolished, and they became simple depart¬ 
ments, with governors appointed by the President 
of the Republic, though they have retained some 
of their old rights, such as the management of 
their own finances. A new territorial division of 
the country was adopted in 1908, twenty-seven 
circumscriptions or departments being formed. 
The legislative power rests with a Congress of two 
Houses, called the Senate and the House of Rep¬ 
resentatives. The Senate contains thirty-five 
Senators elected indirectly by electors specially 
chosen for the purpose. The House of Repre¬ 
sentatives consists of ninety-two members elected 
by the people in twenty-four electoral circum¬ 
scriptions (one for every fifty thousand of popu¬ 


lation), but in each of the four intendencies 
appointed by the Intendente, his secretary and 
three inhabitants chosen by the municipal 
council of the capital of the intendency. Sena¬ 
tors and Representatives are elected for four 
years. The President is chosen by Congress in 
public session and by an absolute majority of 
votes. His term of office is four years; his 
salary is twelve thousand gold dollars per 
annum. Congress elects, for a term of two years, 
a substitute, who, should the President and 
Vice-President during a Presidential term vacate 
the office of President, fills the vacancy. The 
Ministries are those of the Interior, Foreign 
Affairs, Finance and the Treasury, War, Public 
Instruction, and Public Works. 

Colorado. The original Constitution of 
1876, as amended, is still in force in Colorado. 
In 1910 it was amended to provide for the 
initiative and referendum, and in 1912 to provide 
for the recall of all public officers and of decisions 
of the State Supreme Court declaring laws to 
be unconstitutional. The Legislature, known 
as the General Assembly, consists of a Senate 
of thirty-five members elected for four years, 
one-half retiring every two years, and of a 
House of Representatives of sixty-five members 
elected for two years. Sessions are biennial 
and are limited to ninety days. All bills for 
raising revenue must originate in the House 
of Representatives. It is the right of the House 
of Representatives to impeach; of the Senators, 
to try and determine impeachments. Amend¬ 
ments to the Constitution proposed by initiative 
petition, or in either House and receiving the 
sanction of a two-thirds vote of all the members 
of each House, become part of the Constitution 
upon a majority ratification by popular vote. 
Eligible to either House are all citizens of 
the United States twenty-five years of age, 
and twelve months resident in the district for 
which they seek election. The executive power 
is vested in a governor elected for two years. He 
is commander-in-chief of the State militia. It 
rests with him to nominate and, by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, appoint offi¬ 
cers not otherwise provided for by law or the 
Constitution. He may summon special sessions 
of the Legislature, and has a limited power to 
grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons. In 
legislation he has the power of veto, which may be 
overridden by a two-thirds vote of each House. 
The State officials are the governor, secretary 
of state, a lieutenant-governor, an auditor, 
a treasurer, an attorney-general, and a super¬ 
intendent of public instruction, all of whom, 
with the governor, are elected on a two-year 
tenure. 

Connecticut. The present Constitution 
of Connecticut was adopted in 1818 and there 
have been several amendments to it at differ¬ 
ent times. The Legislative power is vested in 
the General Assembly, consisting of a Senate and 
a House of Representatives. The Senate at pres¬ 
ent consists of thirty-five members, one from 
each of the senatorial districts into which the 
State is divided. The House of Representatives 
consists of 255 members, who must be electors 
of the towns for which they are elected, each 
town of over 5,000 inhabitants being entitled to 



594 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


send two representatives. Members of each 
House are elected for the term of two years. 
The supreme executive power is vested in a 
governor elected for two years by the legal 
voters. He must be an elector of the State and 
be over 30 years of age. His duties include 
the command of the military forces, the ad¬ 
journment of the Legislature when necessary, 
the recommendation of legislation, the granting 
of reprieves until the end of the next session of 
the General Assembly, and the supervision of 
the execution of the laws. Every bill passed 
by both Houses requires the assent of the gov¬ 
ernor, who may within three days remit it for 
reconsideration to the House in which it origi¬ 
nated; if then the bill be approved by a ma¬ 
jority in each House it becomes law. Amend¬ 
ments to the Constitution agreed to by a 
majority in each House, approved by a two- 
thirds majority in each House of the Legis¬ 
lature next elected, and approved by the people 
at special meetings held for the purpose in each 
town, become part of the Constitution. The 
State officials are: the governor, secretary of 
state, treasurer, and the comptroller of public 
accounts. For local administration the State 
is divided into eight counties, which are sub¬ 
divided into cities, boroughs, and townships. 

Constitution of the United States 
of America. In May, 1785, a committee of 
Congress made a report recommending an 
alteration in the Articles of Confederation, but 
no action was taken on it, and it was left to 
the State Legislatures to proceed in the matter. 
In January, 1786, the Legislature of Virginia 
passed a resolution providing for the appointment 
of five commissioners, who, or any three of them, 
should meet such commissioners as might be 
appointed in the other States of the Union, at 
a time and place to be agreed upon, to take into 
consideration the trade of the United States; 
to consider how far a uniform system in their 
commercial regulations may be necessary to 
their common interest and their permanent 
harmony; and to report to the several States 
such an act, relative to this great object, as, 
when ratified by them, will enable the United 
States in Congress effectually to provide for 
the same. The Virginia commissioners, after 
some correspondence, fixed the first Monday in 
September as the time, and the city of Annapolis 
as the place for the meeting, but only four other 
States were represented, viz., Delaware, New 
York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; the com¬ 
missioners appointed by Massachusetts, New 
Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island 
failed to attend. Under the circumstances of 
so partial a representation, the commissioners 
present agreed upon a report (drawn by Mr. 
Hamilton, of New York), expressing their unani¬ 
mous conviction that it might essentially tend to 
advance the interests of the Union if the States 
by which they were respectively delegated would 
concur, and use their endeavors to procure the 
concurrence of the other States, in the appoint¬ 
ment of commissioners to meet at Philadelphia 
on the second Monday of May following, to take 
into consideration the situation of the United 
States; to devise such further provisions as 
should appear to them necessary to render the 


Constitution of the Federal Government ade¬ 
quate to the exigencies of the Union; and to 
report such an act for that purpose to the 
United States in Congress assembled as, when 
agreed to by them and afterwards confirmed 
by the Legislatures of every State, would 
effectually provide for the same. Congress, 
on the 21st of February, 1787, adopted a 
resolution in favor of a convention, and the 
Legislatures of those States which had not 
already done so (with the exception of Rhode 
Island), promptly appointed delegates. On the 
25th of May, seven States having convened, 
George Washington, of Virginia, was unani¬ 
mously elected President, and the consideration 
of the proposed constitution was commenced. 
On the 17th of September, 1787, the Constitu¬ 
tion as engrossed and agreed upon was signed 
by all the members present, except Mr. Gerry, 
of Massachusetts, and Messrs. Mason and Ran¬ 
dolph, of Virginia. The president of the con¬ 
vention transmitted it to Congress, with a reso¬ 
lution, stating how the proposed Federal Gov¬ 
ernment should be put in operation, and an 
explanatory letter. Congress, on the 28th of 
September, 1787, directed the Constitution so 
framed, with the resolutions and letter concern¬ 
ing the same, to “be transmitted to the several 
Legislatures in order to be submitted to a con¬ 
vention of delegates chosen in each State by 
the people thereof, in conformity to the resolves 
of the convention.” On the 4th of March, 1789, 
the day which had been fixed for commencing 
the operations of Government under the new 
Constitution, it had been ratified by the con¬ 
ventions chosen in each State to consider it, as 
follows: Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsyl¬ 
vania, December 12, 1787; New Jersey, Decem¬ 
ber 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788; Connec¬ 
ticut, January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 
6, 1788; Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Caro¬ 
lina, May 23, 1788; New Hampshire, June 21, 
1788; Virginia, June 26, 1788; and New York, 
July 26, 1788. The President informed Con¬ 
gress, on the 28th of January, 1790, that North 
Carolina had ratified the Constitution Novem¬ 
ber 21, 1789; and he informed Congress on the 
1st of June, 1790, that Rhode Island had rati¬ 
fied the Constitution May 29, 1790. Vermont, 
in convention, ratified the Constitution Janu¬ 
ary 10, 1791, and was, by an act of Congress 
approved February 18, 1791, “received and 
admitted into this Union as a new and entire 
member of the United States.” 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Preamble. — We, the people of the United States, in 
order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, 
insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common 
defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the 
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United 
States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

Section I. All legislative powers herein granted shall 
be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall 
consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Section II. 1. The House of Representatives shall 
be composed of members chosen every second year by 
the people of the several States, and the electors in each 
State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors 
of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not 
have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been 



GOVERNMENT 

seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall 
not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in 
which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be appor- 
tioned among the several States which may be included 
withm tins Union according to their respective numbers, 
which shall be determined by adding to the whole num¬ 
ber of free persons, including those bound to service for 
^ term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration 
shall be made within three years after the first meeting 
°i the Congress of the United States, and within every 
subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they 
shall by law direct. The number of Representatives 
shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each 
State shall have at least one Representative; and until 
such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hamp¬ 
shire shall be entitled to choose 3; Massachusetts, 8; 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 1; Connecti¬ 
cut, 5; New York, 6; New Jersey, 4; Pennsylvania, 8; 
Delaware, 1; Maryland, 6; Virginia, 10; North Caro¬ 
lina, 5; South Carolina, 5; and Georgia, 3.* 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from 
any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue 
writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their 
Speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power 
of impeachment. 

Section III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall 
be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen 
by the Legislature thereof, for six years; and each 
Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in con¬ 
sequence of the first election, they shall be divided as 
equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the 
Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expi¬ 
ration of the second year, of the second class at the 
expiration pf the fourth year, and of the third class at 
the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may 
be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen 
by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the 
Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may 
make temporary appointment until the next meeting of 
the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have 
attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years 
a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he 
shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be 
President of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless 
they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and 
also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the 
Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of 
President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im¬ 
peachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall 
be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the 
United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; 
and no person shall be convicted without the concur¬ 
rence of two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not ex¬ 
tend further than to removal from office, and disquali¬ 
fication to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or 
profit under the United States; but the party convicted 
shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, 
trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section IV. 1. The times, places, and manner of 
holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall 
be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; 
but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter 
such regulations, except as to places of choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 
year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in 
December, unless they shall by law appoint a different 
day. 

Section V. 1. Each House shall be the judge of 
the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own 
members, and a majority of each shall constitute a 
quorum to do business; but a smaller number may 
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to 
compel the attendance of absent members in such man¬ 
ner and under such penalties as each House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the rules of its pro¬ 
ceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, 
and with the concurrence of two-thirds expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, 
and from time to time publish the same, excepting such 
parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and 
the yeas ana nays of the members of either House on 


AND POLITICS 595 


I any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those 
present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, 
shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for 
more than three days, nor to any other place than that 
in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives 
shall receive a compensation for their services, to be 
ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of 
the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged 
from arrest during their attendance at the session of 
their respective Houses, and in going to and returning 
from the same; and for any speech or debate in either 
House they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the 
time for which he was elected, be appointed to any 
civil office under the authority of the United States 
which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
whereof shall have been increased during such time; 
and no person holding any office under the United 
States shall be a member of either House during his 
continuance in office. 

Section VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall 
originate in the House of Representatives, but the 
Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on 
other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of 
Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become 
a law, be presented to the President of the United States; 
if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return 
it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall 
have originated, who shall enter the objections at large 
on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after 
such reconsideration two-thirds of that House shall 
agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
objections, to the other House, by which it shall like¬ 
wise be reconsidered; and if approved by two-thirds 
of that House it shall become a law. But in all such 
cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by 
yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for 
and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of 
each House respectively. If any bill shall not be re¬ 
turned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, 
the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had 
signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment 
prevent its return; in which case it shall not be a 
law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the con¬ 
currence of the Senate and House of Representatives 
may be necessary (except on a question of adjourn¬ 
ment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
States; and before the same shall take effect shall be 
approved by him, or being, disapproved by him, shall 
be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and the House 
of Representatives, according to the rules and limita¬ 
tions prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Section VIII. 1. The Congress shall have power: 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defence 
and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, 
imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the 
United States. 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United 
States. 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and 
among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization and 
uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout 
the United States. 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of 
foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and meas¬ 
ures. 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting 
the securities and current coin of the United States. 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads. 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts 
by securing for limited times to authors and inventors 
the exclusive rights to their respective writings and 
discoveries. 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme 
Court. 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies com¬ 
mitted on the high seas, and offences against the law of 
nations. 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and 
reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land 
and water. 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropria¬ 
tion of money to that use shall be for a longer term 
than two years. 

13. To provide and maintain a navy. 


* See Article XIV., Amendments. 




596 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


14. To make rules for the government and regulation 
of the land and naval forces. 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute 
the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel 
invasions. 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin¬ 
ing the militia, and for governing such part of them as 
may be employed in the service of the United States, 
reserving to the States respectively the appointment of 
the officers, and the authority of training the militia 
according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases what¬ 
soever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) 
as may, by cession of particular States and the accept¬ 
ance of Congress, become the seat of Government of the 
United States, and to exercise like authority over all 
places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of 
the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of 
forts, magazines, arsenals, dry-docks and other needful 
buildings. 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, 
and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the 
Government of the United States, or in any department 
or officer thereof. 

Section IX. 1. The migration or importation of 
such persons as any of the States now existing shall 
think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the 
Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such 
importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or in¬ 
vasion the public safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 
passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, 
unless in proportion to the census or enumeration here¬ 
inbefore directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
from any State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of 
commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over 
those of another, nor shall vessels bound to or from 
one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but 
in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a 
regular statement and account of the receipts and ex¬ 
penditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
States. And no person holding any office of profit nor 
trust under them shall, without the consent of the Con¬ 
gress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title 
of any kind whatever from any king, prince, or foreign 
state. 

Section X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, 
alliance, or confederation, grant letters of marque and 
reprisal, coin money, emit bills of credit, make any¬ 
thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts, pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or 
law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any 
title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Con¬ 
gress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, 
except what may be absolutely necessary for executing 
its inspection laws, and the net produce of all duties 
and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, 
shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; 
and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and 
control of the Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, 
lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war 
in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact 
with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage 
in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent 
danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

Section I. 1. The Executive power shall be vested 
in a President of the United States of America. He 
shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, 
together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same 
term, be elected as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the 
Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, 
equal to the whole number of Senators and Representa¬ 
tives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; 
but no Senator or Representative or person holding an 
office of trust or profit under the United States shall be 
appointed an elector. 

3. [The Electors shall meet in their respective States 


and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at 
least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
themselves. And they shall make a list of all the per- 
sons voted for, and of the number of votes for each, 
which list they shall sign and certify and transmit, 
sealed, to the seat of the Government of the United 
States, directed to the President of the Senate, the 
President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the cer¬ 
tificates, and the votes shall then be counted. I he 
person having the greatest number of votes shall be 
the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed, _ and if there be 
more than one who have such majority, and have an 
equal number of votes, then the House of Representa¬ 
tives shall immediately choose by ballot one^of them 
for President; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the five highest on the list the said House shall in 
like manner choose the President. But in choosing the 
President, the vote shall be taken by States, the repre¬ 
sentation from each State having one vote. A quorum, 
for this purpose, shall consist of a member or members 
from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the 
States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, 
after the choice of the President, the person having the 
greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the 
Vice-President. But if there should remain two or 
more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose 
from them by ballot the Vice-President.] * 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing 
the electors and the day on which they shall give their 
votes, which day shall be the same throughout the 
United States. 

5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citi¬ 
zen of the United States at the time of the adoption of 
this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of Presi¬ 
dent; neither shall any person be eligible to that office 
who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five 
years and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States. 

6. In case of the remo val of the President from office, 
or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the 
powers and duties of the said office, the same shall 
devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may 
by law provide for the case of removal, death, resigna¬ 
tion, or inability, both of the President and Vice-Presi¬ 
dent, declaring what officer shall then act as President, 
and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability 
be removed or a President shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for 
his services a compensation which shall neither be in¬ 
creased nor diminished during the period for which he 
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within 
that period any other emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he 
shall take the following oath or affirmation: 

“.I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully 
execute the office of President of the United States, 
and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, 
and defend the Constitution of the United States.” 

Section II. 1. The President shall be Commander- 
in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, 
and of the militia of the several States when called into 
the actual service of the United States; he may require 
the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each 
of the executive departments upon any subject relating 
to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall 
have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences 
against the United States except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and 
consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two- 
thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall 
nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of 
the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, 
and all other officers of the United States whose appoint¬ 
ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which 
shall be established by law; but the Congress may by 
law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as 
they think proper in the President alone, in the courts 
of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacan¬ 
cies that may happen during the recess of the Senate 
by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end 
of their next session. 

Section III. He shall from time to time give to the 
Congress information of the state of the Union, and 
recommend to their consideration such measures as he 
shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extra- 


* This clause is superseded by Article XII., Amend¬ 
ments. 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


597 


ordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
them, and in case of disagreement between them with 
respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn 
them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he 
shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, 
and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section IV. The President, Vice-President, and all 
civil officers of the United States shall be removed from 
office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, 
bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section I. The judicial power of the United States 
shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such infe¬ 
rior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain 
and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and 
inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good be¬ 
havior, and shall at stated times receive for their serv¬ 
ices a compensation which shall not be diminished 
during their continuance in office. 

Section II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to 
all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitu¬ 
tion, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, 
or which shall be made, under their authority; to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime juris¬ 
diction; to controversies to which the United States 
shall be a party; to controversies between two or more 
States, between a State and citizens of another State, 
between citizens of different States, between citizens of 
the same State claiming lands under grants of different 
States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and 
foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
ministers, and consuls, and those in which a State shall 
be party, the Supreme Court shall have original juris¬ 
diction. In all the other cases before-mentioned the 
Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction both 
as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such 
regulations as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach¬ 
ment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in 
the State where the said crimes shall have been com¬ 
mitted; but when not committed within any State the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress 
may by law have directed. 

Section III. 1. Treason against the United States 
shall consist only in levying war against them, or in 
adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 
No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on 
confession in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the pun¬ 
ishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall 
work corruption of blood or forfeiture except during 
the life of the person attained. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section I. Full faith and credit shall be given in 
each State to the public acts, records, and judicial pro¬ 
ceedings of every other State. And the Congress may 
by general laws prescribe the manner in which such 
acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the 
effect thereof. 

Section II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be 
entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in 
the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony,* 
or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found 
in another State, shall, on demand of the Executive 
authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered 
up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of 
the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, 
under the laws thereof, escaping into another shall, in 
consequence of any law or regulation therein, be dis¬ 
charged from such service or labor, but shall be deliv¬ 
ered up on claim of the party to whom such service or 
labor may be due. 

Section III. 1. New States may be admitted by the 
Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be 
formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other 
State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two 
or more States, or parts of States, without the consent 
of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of 
the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and 
make all needful rules and regulations respecting the 
territory or other property belonging to the United 
States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so 
construed as to prejudice any claims of the United 
States, or of any particular State. 


Section IV. The United States shall guarantee to 
every State in this Union a republican form of govern¬ 
ment, and shall protect each of them against invasion, 
and, on application of the Legislature, or of the Execu¬ 
tive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against 
domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses 
shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to 
this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legis¬ 
latures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a 
convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part 
of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures 
of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions 
in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode 
of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; pro¬ 
vided that no amendment which may be made prior 
to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall 
in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
Ninth Section of the First Article; and that no State, 
without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suf¬ 
frage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into 
before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid 
against the United States under this Constitution as 
under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution and the laws of the United 
States which shall be made in pursuance thereof and all 
treaties made, or which shall be made, under the author¬ 
ity of the United States, shall be the supreme law of 
the land, and the judges in every State shall be bound 
thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any 
State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before men¬ 
tioned, and the members of the several State Legisla¬ 
tures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of 
the United States and of the several States, shall be 
bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitu¬ 
tion; but no religious test shall ever be required as a 
qualification to any office or public trust under the 
United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The ratification of the Conventions of nine States 
shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Consti¬ 
tution between the States so ratifying the same. 

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establish¬ 
ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; 
or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or 
the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II. 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the se¬ 
curity of a free State, the right of the people to keep 
and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any 
house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of 
war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches 
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall 
issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or 
affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be 
searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or other 
infamous crime unless on a presentment or indictment 
of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or 
naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, 
in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person 
be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeop¬ 
ardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any 
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be 
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due pro¬ 
cess of law; nor shall private property be taken for 
public use without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy 



598 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial 
jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall 
have been committed, which district shall have been 
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of 
the nature and cause of the accusation; to be con¬ 
fronted with the witnesses against him; to have com¬ 
pulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and 
to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in contro¬ 
versy shall exceed twenty dollars,, the right of trial by 
jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall 
be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United 
States than according to the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive 
fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments in¬ 
flicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage others re¬ 
tained by the people. 

ARTICLE X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are 
reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI. 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be 
construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com¬ 
menced or prosecuted against one of the United States, 
by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of 
any foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII. 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and 
vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of 
whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots 
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 
the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall 
make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, 
and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of 
the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign 
and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the 
Government of the United States, directed to the Presi¬ 
dent of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, 
in the presence of the Senate and House of Representa¬ 
tives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted; the person having the greatest number of 
votes for President shall be the President, if such num¬ 
ber be a majority of the whole number of electors ap¬ 
pointed; and if no person have such majority, then 
from the persons having the highest numbers, not ex¬ 
ceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, 
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, 
by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, 
the votes shall be taken by States, the representation 
from each State having one vote; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from 
two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States 
shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of 
Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever 
the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- 
President shall act as President, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. 
The person having the greatest number of votes as 
Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such num¬ 
ber be a majority of the whole number of electors ap¬ 
pointed, and if no person have a majority, then from 
the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Sen¬ 
ators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally 
ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to 
that of Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. 

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except 
as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have 
been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. 

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 


States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citi¬ 
zens of the United States and of the State wherein they 
reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which 
shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of 
the United States; nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life, liberty, or property without due process 
of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction 
the equal protection of the laws. 

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the 
several States according to their respective numbers, 
counting the whole number of persons in each State, 
excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to 
vote at any election for the choice of electors for Presi¬ 
dent and Vice-President of the United States, Repre¬ 
sentatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers 
of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, 
is denied to any of the male members of such State, 
being of twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the 
United States, or in any way abridged, except for par¬ 
ticipation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of repre¬ 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
which the number of such male citizens shall bear to 
the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of 
age in such State. 

3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in 
Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or 
holding any office, civil or military, under the United 
States, or under any State, who, having previously 
taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer 
of the United States, or as a member of any State 
Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any 
State, to support the Constitution of the United States, 
shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against 
the same, or given aid and comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of 
each House, remove such disability. 

4. The validity of the public debt of the United 
States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for 
payment of pensions and bounties for services in sup¬ 
pressing insurrection and rebellion, shall not be ques¬ 
tioned. But neither the United States nor any State 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in 
aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, 
or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; 
but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appro¬ 
priate legislation the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV. 

1. The right of the citizens of the United States to 
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United 
States or by any State on account of race, color, or 
previous condition of servitude. 

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce the pro¬ 
visions of this article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI. 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes 
on incomes, from whatever source derived, without 
apportionment among the several states and without 
regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII. 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two senators from each state, elected by the people 
thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one 
vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifica¬ 
tions requisite for electors of the most numerous branch 
of the state legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any 
state in the Senate, the executive authority of such state 
shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies, provided 
that the Legislature of any state may empower the 
executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature 
may direct. 

RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 

The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original 
States m the following order: 

Delaware, December 7, 1787, unanimously. 

Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787, vote 46 to 23 

New Jersey, December 18, 1787, unanimously. 

Georgia, January 2, 1788, unanimously. 

Connecticut, January 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40. 

Massachusetts, February 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168 

Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to 12. 

South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73 

New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 to 46. 

Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79. 

New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28. 

North Carolina, November 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75. 

Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32. 





GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


599 


RATIFICATION OF THE AMENDMENTS 

I to X were declared in force December 15, 1791. 

XI was declared in force January 8, 1798. 

XII. regulating elections, was ratified by all the States 
except Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, and New 
Hampshire, which rejected it. It was declared in force 
September 28, 1804. 

XIII. The emancipation amendment was ratified by 
31 of the 36 States; rejected by Delaware and Ken¬ 
tucky; not acted on by Texas; conditionally ratified by 
Alabama and Mississippi. Proclaimed December 18,1865. 

XIV. Reconstruction amendment was ratified by 23 
Northern States; rejected by Delaware, Kentucky, Mary¬ 
land and 10 Southern States, and not acted on by Cali¬ 
fornia. The 10 Southern States subsequently ratified 
under pressure. Proclaimed July 28, 1868. 

XV. Negro citizenship amendment was not acted on 
by Tennessee; rejected by California, Delaware, Ken¬ 
tucky, Maryland, New Jersey, and Oregon; ratified by 
the remaining 30 States. New York rescinded its rati¬ 
fication January 5, 1870. Proclaimed March 30, 1870. 

XVI. The income tax amendment failed of ratifica¬ 
tion in Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, New Hamp¬ 
shire, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, and 
Virginia. It was ratified by the remaining thirty-nine 
states. Proclaimed February 25, 1913. 

XVII. The direct election of senators amendment 
became, de facto, a part of the Constitution on its ratifi¬ 
cation by the last of the required number of states on 
April 8, 1913. 

Corea or Korea. A country embracing 
the peninsula lying between the Yellow Sea and 
the Sea of Japan. Yi Heui, who succeeded to 
the throne in 1864, and assumed the title of 
emperor in 1897, abdicated and was succeeded 
by his son in 1907. Until 1894, China was the 
suzerain of Corea, but on the conclusion of 
the war in 1895, China relinquished her 
suzerainty, and the independence of Corea was 
acknowledged. Then a struggle began with 
Russia, which culminated in the Russo-Japanese 
War, and by the Peace Treaty between Russia 
and Japan, 1905, the paramount interest of the 
latter country in Corea was acknowledged. 
Corea thereupon became a Japanese protector¬ 
ate. On the unanimous advice of the ministry, 
the emperor, on July 19, 1907, abdicated in 
favor of the crown prince. The attitude of 
the ex-emperor, who at once began to conspire 
against the Japanese, led to a new convention 
being promulgated (July 25th), according to 
the terms of which the administration of Corea, 
as well as all laws, state transactions and 
important appointments were placed under the 
Japanese resident-general and made subject 
to his approval; though foreigners could be 
employed only with his consent, Japanese 
recommended by him might become eligible to 
government office; administrative and judicial 
affairs were separated, and the financial adviser 
provided for in the convention of 1904 was dis¬ 
pensed with. On August 1st, the Corean native 
army was disbanded, not without some trouble 
and loss of life. The succeeding years were 
filled with political unrest of which the assassi¬ 
nation of Marquis Ito was both an indication 
and a result. In 1910 Corea became annexed to 
Japan. Provision was made for the suitable 
maintenance of the Corean Emperor in private 
life. 

Cuba, after having been continuously in the 
possession of Spain from its discovery, was, by 
the peace preliminaries and by the definitive 
treaty signed by the Peace Commissioners at 
Paris, December 10, 1898, relinquished by Spain, 
and thus has the position of an independent 


state. The direct armed interposition of the 
United States in the struggle against Spanish 
domination has, however, brought the island 
into close association with the United States 
Government. On November 5, 1900, a conven¬ 
tion met to decide on a Constitution, and on 
February 21, 1901, a Constitution was adopted, 
under which the island has a republican form of 
government, with a President, a Vice-President, 
a Senate, and a House of Representatives. The 
United States Legislature passed a law author¬ 
izing the President of the United States to make 
over the government of the island to the Cuban 
people as soon as Cuba should undertake to 
make no treaty with any foreign power endan¬ 
gering its independence, to contract no debt for 
which the current revenue would not suffice, to 
concede to the United States Government a 
right of intervention, and also to grant to it 
the use of naval stations. On June 12, 1901, 
these conditions were accepted by Cuba, on 
February 24, 1902, the President and Vice- 
President of the Republic were elected, and on 
May 20th the control of the island was formally 
transferred to the new Cuban Government. 
Under treaties signed July 2, 1903, and ratified 
within seven months of that date, the United 
States has coaling stations in the Bay of Guan¬ 
tanamo and Bahia Honda, for which they 
pay $2,000 annually. The connection between 
Cuba and the United States was rendered 
still closer by the reciprocal commercial con¬ 
vention which came into operation on December 
27, 1903. In August, 1906, an insurrection broke 
out and a United States Commission undertook 
the provisional government. In 1909, Cuba 
again resumed the reins of government under 
President Gomez and a native Cabinet. The 
Cabinet consists of the Secretaries of State, of 
Justice, of the Interior, of Finance, of Agricul¬ 
ture, Commerce, and Labor, of Public Instruc¬ 
tion, of Public Works, and of Sanitation and 
Charity. 

Declaration of Independence 

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. 

When in the Course of human events, it becomes 
necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands 
which have connected them with another, and to as¬ 
sume among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Na¬ 
ture’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions 
of mankind requires that they should declare the causes 
which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men 
are created equal, that they are endowed by their 
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among 
these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. 
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted 
among Men, deriving their just powers from the con¬ 
sent of the governed. That whenever any Form of 
Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to 
institute new Government, laying its foundation on 
such principles and organizing its powers in such form, 
as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety 
and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
Governments long established should not be changed 
for light and transient causes; and accordingly all ex¬ 
perience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed 
to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them¬ 
selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus¬ 
tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpa¬ 
tions, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a 
design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it 
is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Gov- 



600 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ernment, and to provide new Guards for their future 
security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains 
them to alter their former Systems of Government. 
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a 
history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having 
in direct object the establishment of an absolute Ty¬ 
ranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be 
submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most whole¬ 
some and necessary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of 
immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended 
in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; 
and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to 
attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommo¬ 
dation of large districts of people, unless those people 
would relinquish the right of Representation in the 
Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable 
to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places 
unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository 
of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing 
them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, 
for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the 
rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolu¬ 
tions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legis¬ 
lative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned 
to the People at large for their exercise; the State 
remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers 
of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of 
these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws 
for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others 
to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the 
conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by 
refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary 
powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, 
for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and pay¬ 
ment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent 
hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat 
out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing 
Armies without the Consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the Military independent of 
and superior to the Civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a juris¬ 
diction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged 
by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended 
Legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among 
us: 

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punish¬ 
ment for any Murders which they should commit on 
the Inhabitants of these States: 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: 

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of 
Trial by jury: 

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pre¬ 
tended offenses: 

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a 
neighboring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary 
government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to ren¬ 
der it at once an example and fit instrument for intro¬ 
ducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: 

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most 
valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms 
of our Governments: 

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring 
themselves invested with power to legislate for us in 
all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us 
out of his Protection and waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt 
our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign 
Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, 
and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of 
Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most bar¬ 
barous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civil¬ 
ized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-Citizens taken Captive 
on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, 
to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, 
or to fall themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, 


and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our 
frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known 
rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all 
ages, sexes and conditions. . 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Peti¬ 
tioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our 
repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated 
injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by 
every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the 
ruler of a free people. 

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our 
British brethren. We have warned them from time to 
time of attempts by their legislature to extend an un¬ 
warrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settle¬ 
ment here. We have appealed to their native justice 
and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the 
ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpa¬ 
tions, which would inevitably interrupt our connections 
and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the 
voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, there¬ 
fore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our 
Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man¬ 
kind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. 

WE, THEREFORE, the Representatives of the 
United States of America, in Generae Congress, 
Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the 
Name, and by authority of the good People of these 
Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these 
United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be free 
and independent States; that they are Absolved from 
all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political 
connection between them and the State of Great Britain, 
is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as free 
and independent States, they have full Power to levy 
War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Com¬ 
merce, and to do all other Acts and Things which inde¬ 
pendent States may of right do. And for the support 
of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection 
of Divine Providence, We mutually pledge to each other 
our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. 

(The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, 
engrossed, and signed by the following members:) 

JOHN HANCOCK. 


New Hampshire. 

Josiah Bartlett, Matthew Thornton. 

Wm. Whipple, 

Massachusetts Bay. 

Saml. Adams, Robt. Treat Paine, 

John Adams, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island, etc. 

Step. Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut. 

Roger Sherman, Wm. Williams, 

Sam’el Huntington, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York. 

Wm. Floyd, Frans. Lewis, 

Phil. Livingston, Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey. 

Richd. Stockton, John Hart, 

Jno. Witherspoon, Abra. Clark. 

Fras. Hopkinson, 

Pennsylvania. 


Robt. Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benja. Franklin, 
John Morton, 
Geo. Clymer, 

Cesar Rodney, 
Geo. Read, 

Sam .l Chase, 
Wm. Paca, 


Jas. Smith, 

Geo. Taylor, 

James Wilson, 

Geo. Ross. 

Delaware. 

Tho. M’Kean. 

Maryland. 

Thos. Stone, 

Charles Carroll of 
Carrollton. 

Virginia. 

Thos. Nelson, jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 


George Wythe, 

Richard Henry Lee, 

Th. Jefferson, 

Benja. Harrison, 

North Carolina. 

Wm. Hooper, John Penn. 

Joseph Hewes, 

South Carolina. 

Edward Rutledge, Thomas Lynch, jr., 

Thos. Heyward, jr., Arthur Middleton 

Georgia. 

Button Gwinnett, Geo. Walton. 

Lyman Hall, 



GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


601 


Delaware. The first Constitution, adopt¬ 
ed in 1776, was followed by those of 1792, 1831, 
and 1897, the last named being still in force. 
Constitutional amendments, proposed in either 
House of the Legislature, agreed to by a two- 
thirds vote of both Houses, and by a similar vote 
of the next Legislature, become law. The Legis¬ 
lature consists of a Senate of seventeen members, 
elected for four years, and a House of Representa¬ 
tives of thirty-five members, elected for two 
years, the two Houses being known as the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly. Senators must be 27 years of 
age, and Representatives 24; both must be 
citizens who have resided three years in the 
State, and one year in the electoral district im¬ 
mediately preceding the election. Money bills 
must originate in the House of Representatives. 
The Senate tries cases of impeachment brought 
by the House of Representatives. The principal 
executive officer of the State is the governor, 
who is elected for four years and is not eligible 
for a third term. He is commander-in-chief of 
the military and naval forces of the State, and, 
with the consent of the Senate, appoints to 
various offices of State. He may call special ses¬ 
sions of the legislature, and has power to pardon, 
limited by the authority of the board of pardons, 
of which he is a member. He has a veto on legis¬ 
lation, which may be overridden by a three- 
fifths vote of each house. The secretary of state 
is appointed by the governor with the consent 
of the Senate. Other State officials are the 
lieutenant-governor, the treasurer, and the 
auditor. 

Denmark. Under the Constitution of 
1849 (modified in 1855, 1863, 1865, and 1866), 
the executive power is vested in king and minis¬ 
ters, the legislative in the Rigsdag or Diet acting 
jointly with the sovereign. The Rigsdag is com¬ 
posed of the Landsthing (or upper house of sixty- 
six members — twelve Crown nominees ap¬ 
pointed for life, and fifty-four indirectly elected 
by electoral bodies, in which large taxpayers are 
well represented, for eight years), and the Folke- 
thing (or house of commons of 114 members 
directly elected by universal suffrage for three 
years). Members of both houses are paid about 
three dollars a day while the Rigsdag is sitting, 
and their traveling expenses. The Rigsdag 
must meet every October, and all money bills 
be submitted first to the Folkething. For local 
government the country is divided into eighteen 
counties, each under a governor, and these are 
subdivided into hundreds and parishes. The 
towns are administered by mayors. 

District of Columbia. The municipal 
government of the District of Columbia is jsted 
by act of Congress approved June 11, lM8, in 
three commissioners, two of whom are appointed 
by the president from citizens of the District 
having had three years' residence therein imme¬ 
diately preceding that appointment, and con¬ 
firmed by the Senate. The other commissioner 
is detailed by the President of the United States 
from the Corps of Engineers of the United 
States Army, and must have lineal rank senior 
to captain, or be a captain who has served at 
least fifteen years in the Corps of Engineers of 
the Army. The commissioners appoint the 
subordinate official service of said government, 


except the board of education which is appointed 
by the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. 
Congress makes all laws for the District, but has 
intrusted to the commissioners authority to 
make police, building, and plumbing regulations, 
and others of a municipal nature. 

Dominican Republic, or Santo Do¬ 
mingo, is the Republic which occupies the 
eastern end of the island of Hayti, and was 
founded in 1844, after a revolution which over¬ 
threw the Spanish rule. It is practically a 
protectorate of the United States. By the 
Constitution of 1908 the legislative power of 
the republic is vested in a National Congress, 
consisting of a Senate of 12 senators and a 
Chamber of Deputies of 24 members. These 
representatives are remunerated at the rate of 
480Z. per annum each. There is one senator 
for each province, and the deputies are elected 
by the provinces in proportion to the number of 
their inhabitants. The members are chosen 
by indirect vote, in the ratio of two for each 
province and two for each district, for the term 
of four years. But the powers of the National 
Congress embrace only the general affairs of 
the republic. 

The President is chosen by an electoral college 
for the term of six years, and receives a salary of 
10,800 dollars per annum. There is no Vice- 
President. In case of death or disability of the 
President, Congress designates a person to take 
charge of the executive office. 

The executive of the Republic is vested in a 
cabinet composed of the president and seven 
ministers, who are the heads of the departments 
of the interior and police, finance and com¬ 
merce, justice and public instruction, war a,nd 
marine, agriculture and immigration, foreign 
affairs, and public works and communications. 

The republic is divided into six provinces and 
six maritime districts. Between a province and 
a district there is practically no difference. 

Ecuador is a Republic of equatorial South 
America, constituted in 1830, by separation 
from the original Republic of Colombia. Under 
the Constitution of 1884, modified in 1887, and 
1897, it is governed by a President elected for 
four years, with the assistance of a Cabinet of 
five ministers and a Congress composed of a 
Senate of thirty-two members, elected for four 
years, representing the sixteen provinces, and a 
Chamber of forty-eight Deputies, which is 
elected every two years. The electors to both 
chambers must be adults able to read and write. 

Florida. The original Constitution, framed 
in 1838, was succeeded by others in 1865, 1868, 
and 1885. That of 1885, as amended from time 
to time, is now in force. Amendments proposed 
by initiative petition, or in either House of the 
Legislature and approved by a three-fifths vote 
of all the members of each House, are thereupon 
submitted to the people and, if accepted by a 
majority of those voting on them, they become 
part of the Constitution. The State Legislature 
consists of a Senate of thirty-two members, 
and a House of Representatives with sixty-eight 
members. Senators are elected for four years, 
Representatives for two, the Senate being renewed 
by one-half every two years. Any bill may origi¬ 
nate in either House. The House of Representa- 



602 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


tives has the sole power of impeachment, but a 
two-thirds vote of all members present is neces¬ 
sary to impeach. Impeachment cases are tried 
by the Senate. Legislators must be qualified 
electors in the counties they represent. The chief 
executive officer of the State is the governor, 
who is elected for four years, and is not eligible 
for the next term of office. He has the usual 
powers of State governors, including a veto on 
legislation which may be overridden by a two- 
thirds vote of the members present in each 
House. Other State officers elected for four 
years are the attorney-general, the comptroller, 
the treasurer, the superintendent of public in¬ 
struction, and the commissioner of agriculture. 

France is a Republic, governed by the Con¬ 
stitution of 1875, modified in 1879, 1884, 1885, 
and 1899. The Legislature consists of the Assem¬ 
bly, sitting in two Houses, viz., the Senate of 
300 members, indirectly elected for nine years 
(one-third retiring every three years) by dele¬ 
gates chosen by the municipal councils and the 
senators, deputies, councilors-general, and 
district councilor of. the departments (there 
are a number of Senators originally elected for 
life by the two chambers, but as these die the 
vacancies are filled by the election of Senators 
for a period of nine years only); and the Chamber 
of Deputies of 597 members, elected for four 
years by universal suffrage. Voters are required 
to be over 21 and to have a six months’ residen¬ 
tial qualification. Both Houses can initiate and 
frame laws, except in the case of financial laws, 
which must first be presented to and voted by 
the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies and Senators 
are both paid at the rate of 15,000 francs a year. 
The presidents of the two chambers each receive 
in addition 72,000 francs a year for the expense 
of entertainment. Members of both chambers 
travel free on all railways on making a small 
annual payment. The executive power is con¬ 
fided to the President, who is elected for seven 
years by the two Houses united in National 
Assembly, and receives 600,000 francs a year, 
and a further allowance of 600,000 francs for 
expenses. He appoints the ministers and makes 
all civil and military appointments. War can 
be declared by the President only with consent 
of the two Houses and his every act must be 
countersigned by a minister. The colonies are 
looked upon as being politically part of France, 
and are represented in the Senate by four Sena¬ 
tors and in the Chamber by ten Deputies. 

Georgia. Georgia entered the Union as 
one of the original States and its first Constitu¬ 
tion, adopted in 1777, was succeeded by those 
of 1789,1798,1861,1865, and 1877. The last has 
been amended seven times, most recently in 
1904. Amendments proposed in either House 
and approved by a two-thirds vote of the mem¬ 
bers of each House , must be submitted to the 
people.; if ratified by a majority of those who 
vote, they become part of the Constitution. 
The Legislature oonsists of a Senate of forty- 
four members and a House of Representatives 
of 184 members, known collectively as the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly. Both Senators and Representa¬ 
tives are elected for two years. Senators must 
be citizens of the United States, 25 years 
old, resident in the State four years pre¬ 


ceding election and one year in the district for 
which elected. Representatives must be 
citizens of the United States, 21 years old, 
resident in the State two years and in the county 
one year next preceding election. The seat of a 
member of either House is vacated on his re¬ 
moval from the district or county from* which 
he was elected. The House of Representatives 
has sole power of impeachment, and the Senate 
tries impeachment cases. All bills to raise money 
must originate in the House of Representatives. 
The chief executive officer of the State is the 
governor, who is elected for two years. He has 
the usual limited powers of pardon and veto. 
He has power to fill vacancies not otherwise 
provided for by law, and is required to see that 
the laws of the State are faithfully executed. 
He is commander-in-chief of the State militia. 
Other elective officials are the secretary of state, 
the-comptroller, the treasurer, the attorney- 
general, and the superintendent of education. 
Georgia is divided into 146 counties. 

German Empire. The Constitution of 
the German Empire is based upon the decree of 
the 16th of April, 1871, which took effect on the 
4th of May following. The presidency of the 
empire belongs to the Crown of Prussia, to 
which is attached the hereditary title of Em¬ 
peror of Germany. The prerogatives of the 
emperor are to represent the empire in its rela¬ 
tion to other states, to declare war if defensive, 
and conclude peace in name of the empire, to 
contract alliances, etc. The emperor has also 
the supreme command of the army and the 
navy, appoints and dismisses officials of the 
empire, appoints consuls, and superintends the 
entire consulate of the empire. The legislative 
authority is vested in the Bundesrath (Federal 
Council) and the Reichstag (Imperial Diet). The 
former consists of sixty-one members, seventeen 
from Prussia, six from Bavaria, four each from 
Saxony and Wiirttemberg, three each from 
Baden, Hesse, Alsace-Lorraine, two each from 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Brunswick, and one 
from each other state. The Reichstag consists 
of 397 deputies elected by secret voting in all 
the states of the empire. As a rule one member 
is returned to the Reichstag for every 131,640 
of the inhabitants of each state. The election 
of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German 
Emperor in 1871, was by the vote of the Reich¬ 
stag of the North German Confederacy, and 
upon his acceptance of the dignity the imperial 
office became hereditary in the House of Hohen- 
zollern. Wilhelm, “Der Grosse,” reigned until 
1888, when he was succeeded by his eon, Frederick, 
who lived but a few weeks. Frederick’s eldest 
son, the present emperor, Wilhelm II., was 
born January 27, 1859. On February 27, 1881, 
he married Princess Victoria of Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (born Octo¬ 
ber 22,1858), daughter of the late Duke Frederick. 

The Heir Apparent .— The heir apparent to 
the German throne is Prince Frederick William, 
born May 6, 1882. 

The Ministry .— The Imperial Secretaries of 
State of Germany do not form a ministry or 
cabinet, but act independently of each other 
under the general direction of the Chancellor of 
the Empire. They are as follows: Chancellor of 



GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


603 


the empire, secretaries for foreign affairs and for 
the colonies, home office and “representative 
of the chancellor,” admiralty, ministry of justice, 
treasury, post office, and, in addition, the 
following presidents of imperial bureaus; rail¬ 
ways, exchequer, invalid fund, bank, debt 
commission, administration of imperial rail¬ 
ways, court martial. 

Greece. The constitution of Greece, 
adopted October 29, 1864, vested the whole 
legislative power in a single chamber, called the 
Bul6, consisting of 235 representatives, elected 
by manhood suffrage (in the proportion of 1 to 
every 12,000 inhabitants) for the term of four 
years. In 1911 the constitution was modified 
and a substitute for a second chamber was 
adopted in the reestablishment of the Council 
of State. The functions of the council are the 
elaboration of the Projets de Loi and the annul¬ 
ling of official decisions and acts which may be 
contrary to law. The new constitution came 
into force June 1, 1911. _The deputies must be 
at least 25 years of age”and their number has 
been fixed at 173. The elections take place by 
ballot, and each candidate must be put in nomi¬ 
nation by the requisition of at least one-thirtieth 
of the voters of an electoral district. The Buie 
must meet annually for not less than three, nor 
more than six, months. No sitting is valid 
unless at least one-third oLthe members of the 
Assembly are present, and no bill can pass into 
law without an absolute majority of members. 
Every measure, before being adopted, must be 
discussed and voted, article by article, thrice, 
and on three separate days. The ministry is 
as follows: Premier and minister of war and 
marine, foreign affairs, interior, finance, com¬ 
merce and agriculture, justice, public instruction. 

Hague Tribunal, The. The Permanent 
Court of Arbitration was established under the 
Act of July 29, 1899, signed (and subsequently 
ratified) on the part of twenty-four powers. 
Under protocol of June 14, 1907, for the acces¬ 
sion of non-signatory powers, the number of 
powers represented in the court has been largely 
increased. The purpose is to facilitate arbitra¬ 
tion for international disputes which it has been 
impossible to settle by diplomacy. The court 
is competent for all arbitration cases unless the 
parties agree to constitute a special tribunal, and 
its jurisdiction may be extended to disputes 
to which one or both of the parties are non¬ 
signatory powers, if the parties so agree. When 
the signatory powers desire to have recourse to 
the permanent court for the settlement of a 
dispute, the arbitrators called upon to form the 
competent tribunal for the purpose must b.e 
chosen from the general list of the members of 
the court. If the parties disagree on the com¬ 
position of this tribunal, its members must be 
appointed in accordance with the course pre¬ 
scribed in the act. The court has an interna¬ 
tional bureau under the direction and control 
of a permanent administrative council composed 
of the diplomatic representatives of the signatory 
powers accredited to the Hague, and of the 
Netherlands minister for foreign affairs, who 
acts as president. The permanent court con¬ 
sists of persons of known competency in ques¬ 
tions of international law, of whom four at the 


most are selected by each signatory power 
for six years and may be reappointed. 

Hay ti. The Republic of Hayti was originally 
a French colony, but was proclaimed independ¬ 
ent in 1804, and is governed under a Constitution 
drawn up in 1889. The executive power is in the 
hands of a President, elected for seven years by 
the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, 
who receives a salary of $24,000. The Chamber 
of ninety-nine members is elected directly for 
three years by all male citizens, and the Senate 
of thirty-nine members indirectly for six years. 
The religion is Roman Catholic, and elementary 
education is free. There is an army of 6,828 
men, and a navy of five small vessels. 

Idaho. The original Constitution, adopted 
in 1889, is still in force. Amendments may be 
proposed in either House of the Legislature, and, 
if approved by a two-thirds vote of all the mem¬ 
bers of each House, are submitted to the popular 
vote for ratification. The Legislature consists of 
a Senate of twenty-three members, and a House 
of Representatives of fifty-three members, all the 
Legislators being elected for two years. The 
chief executive officer is the governor, who is 
elected for two years, and has the powers usually 
vested in State governors, including a limited 
veto. The board of pardons, of which he is a 
member, may pardon or grant reprieves. Other 
State officials elected for two years are the lieu¬ 
tenant-governor, auditor, treasurer, attorney- 
general, and superintendent of public instruction. 
In 1912 the constitution was amended to provide 
for the initiative and referendum and also for 
the recall of all elective public officers except 
judges. 

Illinois. The Constitution adopted in 1818 
was superseded by that of 1848, which gave place 
to the Constitution adopted in 1870. This, with 
several amendments, is now in force. Amend¬ 
ments proposed in either House of the Legislature, 
approved by a two-thirds majority of all the 
members of each House, and ratified by a ma¬ 
jority of the electors voting at the next general 
election, become part of the Constitution. Pro¬ 
vision is also made for Constitutional amend¬ 
ments by means of a convention called for the 
urpose. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 
fty-one members elected for four years (about 
half of whom retire every two years), and a 
House of Representatives of 153 members 
elected for two years. The two Houses have 
equal rights in introducing and passing bills. 
Senators and Representatives must be citizens, 
not holding any State or Federal office to which 
payment is attached. Senators must be 25 and 
Representatives 21 years of age; both must have 
resided in the State five, and in the district two, 
years next before election. The chief executive 
officer is the governor, elected for four years. 
He must be 30 years of age, and must have been 
a citizen for five years. He appoints many State 
officials and has the powers and duties which 
usually belong to State governors, _ including 
limited pardoning power and a limited veto. 
Other members of the executive, elected for 
four years, are the lieutenant-governor, the 
auditor, the superintendent of public instruction, 
and the attorney-general. The treasurer is 
elected for two years. 



604 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE COUNTRIES 


Countries 

AREA AND POPULATION 

STOCK 

OF MONEY 

Area 

per Sq. Miles 

Population 

Population 
per Sq. Mile 

Total 

Dollars 

Per Capita 
Dollars 

Standard 

Currency 

Abyssinia,. 

350,000 

4 000 000 





Argentina,. 

1,135,840 

7,000,000 

6.16 

139,800,000 

19.97 

Gold 

Australia. 

2,974,581 

4,374,138 

1.47 

134,700,000 

30.79 

Gold 

Austria-Hungary, . . . 

241,333 

49,418,598 

204.77 

538,700,000 

10.90 

Gold 

Austria,. 

115,903 

28 567 898 

246 48 



Gold 

Hungary,. 

125 430 

20 850 700 

166 23 



Gold 

Belgium. 

11,373 

7,451,903 

655.23 

198,300,000 

26.61 

G & S* 

Bolivia. 

709,000 

2,267,935 

3.2 

4,233,420 

1.87 

Gold 

Brazil, . .. 

3,218,130 

19,910,646 

6.19 

488,059,800 

24.51 

Gold 

Bulgaria. 

38,080 

4,284,844 

112.52 

13,300,000 

3.10 

Gold 

Canada,. 

3,744,695 

7,081,869 

1.89 

134,200,000 

18.95 

Gold 

Chile. 

290,741 

3,871,000 

13.31 

42,700,000 

11.03 

Gold 

China,. 

4,277,170 

439,214,000 

102.69 

750,000,000 

1.71 

Silver 

Colombia,. 

438,436 

4,500,000 

10.26 

372,000,000 

82.67 

Gold 

Costa Rica. 

18,400 

368,780 

20.04 





Gold 

Guatemala, .... 

48,290 

1,992,000 

41.25 





Silver 

Honduras. 

46,250 

553,446 

11.97 

' 

39,200,000 

7.51 

. 

Silver 

Nicaragua,. 

49,200 

600 000 

12.2 





Silver 

Salvador,. 

7,225 

1,707 000 

236.26 





Silver 

Cuba. 

44,000 

2,150,112 

48.87 


43,200,000 

20.09 


Gold 

Denmark. 

15,582 

2,605,268 

167.2 

39,100,000 

15.01 

Gold 

Ecuador,. 

116,000 

1,500,000 

12.93 

7,104,360 

4.74 

Gold 

Egypt,. 

400,000 

11,287,359 

28.22 

155,000,000 

13.73 

Gold 

Finland. 

144,255 

3,015,700 

20.91 

18,300,000 

6.07 

Gold 

France,. 

207,054 

39,376,000 

190.17 

1,598,900,000 

40.61 

G & S* 

German Empire, . . . 

208,780 

64,903,423 

310.87 

1,545,000,000 

23.80 

Gold 

Greece. 

25,014 

2,631,952 

105.22 

40,700,000 

15.46 

G & S* 

Hayti,. 

10,204 

2,029,700 

198.91 

10,700,000 

5.27 

Gold 

India, British, .... 

1,766,642 

315,000,000 

178.3 

982,100,000 

3.12 

Gold 

Italy,. 

110,659 

34,565,198 

312.36 

460,200,000 

13.31 

G & S* 


147,655 

53,875,390 

364.87 

253,900,000 

4.71 

Gold 

Mexico. 

767,005 

15,063,207 

19.64 

154,800,000 

10.28 

Gold 

Netherlands, . . . » . 

12,648 

5,898,429 

466.35 

147,700,000 

25.04 

Gold 

New Zealand, .... 

104,751 

1,048,347 

10.01 



Gold 

Norway,. 

124,130 

2,392,698 

19.28 

21,700,000 

9.06 

Gold 

Panama,. 

32,380 

419,029 

12.94 



Gold 

Paraguay,. 

97,722 

716,000 

7.33 

35,619,120 

49.75 

Silver 

Persia,. 

628,000 

9,500,000 

15.13 



G & S 

Peru,. 

697,640 

4,500,000 

6.45 

6,800,000 

1.51 

Gold 

Portugal,. 

35,490 

5,423,132 

152.81 

103,200,000 

19.03 

Gold 

Rumania,. 

50,720 

6,865,739 

135.37 

53,100,000 

7.73 

Gold 

Russia,. 

8,647,657 

160,095,200 

18.51 

995,400,000 

6.22 

Gold 

Santo Domingo, . . . 

18,045 

610,000 

33.8 

6,400,000 

10.49 

Gold 

Servia. 

18,650 

2,825,000 

151.47 

11,000,000 

3.89 

Gold 

Siam,. 

220,000 

7,000,000 

31.82 

47,100,100 

6.73 

Gold 

Spain,. 

194,783 

19,503,068 

100.13 

365,436,600 

18.74 

G & S 

Sweden,. 

172,876 

5,476,441 

31.68 

63,598,620 

11.61 

Gold 

Switzerland,. 

15,976 

3,741,971 

234.22 

67,783,380 

18.11 

Gold 

Turkey. 

1,565,000 

35,400,000 

22.62 

161,551,200 

4.56 

Gold 

United Kingdom, . . . 

121,391 

45,365,599 

373.71 

809,215,800 

17.84 

Gold 

United States, .... 

3,026,789 

96,636,000f 

31.93 

3,286,269,640 

34.61 

Gold 

Uruguay. 

72,210 

1,112,000 

15.4 

21,653,700 

19.47 

Gold 

Venezuela,. 

393,976 

2,685,606 

6.82 

23,800,000 

8.86 

Gold 


G & S indicates gold and silver. * Gold is the actual standard, f 1913 estimate by United States Treasury. 






































































































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


605 




OF THE WORLD (From the most reliable statistics and estimates.) 


Approximate 

Debt 

Dollars 

Ruler 

Title 

Capital 

Countries 


Lidj Jeassu, . 

Emperor, . 

Adis Abeba, . 

Abyssinia. 

Argentina. 

Australia. 

545,712,120 

Roque Saenz Pena, . . 
Baron Denman, . . . 

Franz Josef I . 

President, . 

Governor-General, . . 
Emperor . 

Buenos Ayres . 

Melbourne . 

1,063,725,105 

Vienna, . . . 

Austria-Hungary. 

960,997,758 

Franz Josef I., . . . . 

Emperor. 

Vienna,. 

Austria. 

1,146,500,658 

Franz Josef I., . . . . 

King . 

Budapest . 

Hungary. 

663,325,145 

Albert I.,. 

King, . 

Brussels, . 

Belgium. 

2,853,496 

Eliodoro Villazon, . . 

President, . 

La Paz, . 

Bolivia. 

657,097,561 

Hermes da Fonseca, . . 

President . 

Rio de Janeiro, . . . 

Brazil. 

93,500,973 

Ferdinand, . . . - . . 

King . 

Sofia, . 

Bulgaria. 

340,042,052 

Duke of Connaught, . 

Governor-General, . . 

Ottawa, . 

Canada. 

167,069,373 

Ramon Barros Luco, 

President, . 

Santiago, . 

Chile. 

601,916,605 

Yuan Shi-Kai, .... 

President . 

Peking, . 

China. 

22,865,640 

Carlos E. Rest repo, . . 

President . 

Bogota . 

Colombia. 

19,693,924 

Ricardo Jimenez, . . . 

President, . 

San Jos6, . 

Costa Rica. 

19,085,801 

Manuel Cabrera, . . . 

President,. 

Guatemala,. 

Guatemala. 

110,982,932 

Francisco Bertrand, . . 

President,. 

Tegucigalpa,. 

Honduras. 

6,083,125 

Adolfo Diaz,. 

President,. 

Managua, . 

Nicaragua. 

12,035,397 


President . 

San Salvador, .... 

Salvador. 

48,296,585 

Mario Menocal, .... 

President, . 

Havana, . 

Cuba. 

68,057,034 

Christian X, . 

King, . 

Copenhagen, . 

Denmark. 

21,010,345 

Leonidas Plaza, . . . 

President . 

Quito, . 

Ecuador. 

463,854,243 

Abbas II., ...... 

Khedive . 

Cairo . 

Egypt. 

29,352,124 

Emperor of Russia, . . 

Grand Duke . 

Helsingfors, . 

Finland. 

5,898,675,451 

Raymond Poincarfi, . . 

President, . 

Paris, . 

France. 

1,094,790,575 

William II,, . 

Emperor, . 

Berlin, . 

German Empire. 

157,877,067 

Constantine, . 

King, . 

Athens, . 

Greece. 

26,468,849 

Tancrede Auguste, . . 

President, . 

Port au Prince, . . . 

Hayti. 

1,346,997,187 

George Y. of England, . 

Emperor,. 

Delhi,. 

India, British. 

2,602,299,757 

Victor Emmanuel III.,. 

King. 

Rome,. 

Italy. 

1,287,604,261 

Yoshihito,. 

Emperor,. 

Tokyo. 

Japan. 

219,899,231 


President,. 

Mexico,. 

Mexico. 

451,309,203 

W ilhelmina, . 

Queen, . 

The Hague, . 

Netherlands. 

346,439,001 

Baron Islington, . . . 

Governor, . 

Wellington . 

New Zealand. 

88,253,614 

Haakon VII . 

Belisario Porras, . . . 

King . 

President . 

Christiania, . 

Panama . 

Norway. 

Panama. 

5,027,141 

Eduardo Schaerer, . . 

President . 

Asuncion, . 

Paraguay. 

16,737,500 

Ahmed Mirza, .... 

Shah, . 

Teheran, . 

Persia. 

24,911,789 

Guillermo Billinghurst, 

President, . 

Lima, . 

Peru. 

864,561,212 

Manuel de Arriaga, . . 

President, . 

Lisbon, . 

Portugal. 

277,383,133 

Carol I. (Charles), . . . 

King, . 

Bucharest, . 

Rumania. 

4,558,152,565 

Nicholas II . 

Emperor (Czar), . . . 

St. Petersburg, . . . 

Russia. 

13,486,370 

Adolfo Nouel, .... 

President,. 

Santo Domingo, . . . 

Santo Domingo. 

103,573,257 

Peter I., . 

King, . 

Belgradei . 

Servia. 

19,466,000 

Chowfa Maha Vajiravudh 

King, . 

Bangkok, . 

Siam. 

1,817,674,327 

Alfonso XIII , .... 

King . 

Madrid, . 

Spain. 

138,120,699 

Gustaf V., . 

King, . 

Stockholm, . 

Sweden. 

257,400,446 

E. Muller, . 

President, . 

Berne, . 

Switzerland. 

527,983,636 

Mohammed V., . . . 

Sultan, . 

Constantinople, . . . 

Turkey. 

3,669,931,350 

George V . 

King, . 

London, . 

United Kingdom. 

1,023,861,531 

Woodrow Wilson, . . . 

President, . 

Washington,. 

United States. 

134,582,430 

Jos6 Battle y Ordonez, 

President,. 

Montevideo. 

Uruguay. 

38,716,303 

J. V. Gomez. 

President, . 

Caracas, . 

Venezuela. 




















































































































































606 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


India. The present form of government 
of the Indian Empire is established by the Gov¬ 
ernment of India, act of 1858. By this act, all 
the territories theretofore under the government 
of the East India Company are vested in the 
King of Great Britain, and all its powers are 
exercised in his name; all territorial and other 
revenues, and all tributes and other payments, 
are likewise received in his name, and dis¬ 
posed of for the purposes of the government of 
India alone. The secretary of state for India is 
invested with all the powers formerly exercised 
by the company or by the board of control. 
The administration of the Indian Empire in 
England is entrusted to a secretary of state for 
India, assisted by a council of not less than ten 
members, vacancies in which are filled by the 
secretary of state for India. The duties of the 
council, which has no initiative authority, are, 
under the direction of the secretary of state for 
India, to conduct the business transacted in the 
United Kingdom in relation to the Government 
of India. The supreme executive authority in 
India is vested in the governor-general in 
Council, often styled the Government of India. 
The governor-general, who since 1858 has also 
been viceroy, is appointed by the Crown, and 
usually holds office for five years. The salary of 
the governor-general is $83,250 a year. 

Indiana. The Constitution of 1816 was 
superseded by that of 1851 which, as amended 
in 1873 and 1881, is still in force. Amendments 
proposed in and approved by the Legislature 
require the approval of the succeeding General 
Assembly; if then passed by a majority vote, 
they become part of the Constitution. The 
State Legislature consists of a Senate of fifty 
members elected for four years, and a House of 
Representatives of 100 members elected for two 
years, the two Houses together being called the 
General Assembly. Special sessions, called by 
the governor, are limited to forty days. Bill 
for raising revenue may originate only in the 
House of Representatives. Eligible to sit in 
either House are all citizens of the United States 
who have resided in the State two years, and in 
their county or district one year next preceding 
the election; but Senators must be 25, and Repre¬ 
sentatives 21 years of age. The chief executive 
officer of the State is the governor, who is elected 
for four years. He may call special sessions of 
the Legislature, and he has a veto which may be 
overridden by a majority vote of the two Houses. 
He appoints to offices not otherwise provided for 
by law, is commander-in-chief of the militia, 
and may pardon or reprieve in all cases of crime 
except treason or where the accused has been 
impeached. Other elective officials are the 
auditor, the treasurer, and the attorney-general. 

Iowa. The original Constitution of 1846 
was, in 1857, superseded by a new Constitution, 
which, amended three times since 1868, is still in 
force. The Legislature, known as the General 
Assembly, consists of a Senate of fifty, and a 
House of Representatives of 108 members, 
meeting every two years or an unlimited session. 
Senators are elected for four years, half of them 
retiring every second year; Representatives for 
two years. Any bill may originate in either 
House. The House of Representatives alone 


can impeach; the Senate tries impeachments. 
Amendments to the Constitution may be pro¬ 
posed in either House, but to become law they 
must be sanctioned by a majority vote of both 
Houses of the then sitting and next succeeding 
Assembly, followed by a majority vote of the 
people. The executive power is vested in a 
governor, elected for two years. He has the 
powers usually entrusted to State governors, 
including limited pardoning power and a veto 
which may be overridden by a two-thirds 
majority of all the members of each House. 
Other State officials are a lieutenant-governor, 
an auditor, a treasurer, an attorney-general, and 
a superintendent of public instruction, all elected 
for two years. 

Ireland. The head of the executive in 
Ireland is the viceroy or lord-lieutenant, who is 
assisted by a chief secretary, the lord chancellor 
of Ireland, the attorney-general for Ireland, the 
permanent officials, and a privy council (which 
is a separate and distinct body from the privy 
council of Great Britain); but the government 
of the country is in all essential points carried 
on under the direction of or in concert with the 
ministry of the day in London. The lord- 
lieutenant is charged with the maintenance 
of law and order; the Irish constabulary are 
under his control, and he may, if he think it 
to be necessary, direct the commander of the 
forces to send troops to their aid. He has power 
to commute sentences and pardon criminals. 
There are, however, more agreeable and less 
anxious functions attaching to the office; for 
as representing his majesty, the viceroy, as¬ 
sisted by his wife, holds courts, drawing-rooms, 
levies, and maintains in Dublin an establish¬ 
ment of a semi-regal character. On occasions 
he confers the honor of civil knighthood with 
the approval of his majesty. During his absence 
the duties of chief governorship are performed 
by one or more lord justice or lord justices, those 
who act in this capacity being usually the lord 
chancellor of Ireland, the commander of the 
forces, and some of the judges. The lord 
chancellor of Ireland is head of the Irish judicial 
establishment, principal legal adviser of the 
lord-lieutenant, and exercises in Ireland many 
of the powers which in England are vested in the 
lord high-chancellor. The office may be held 
by a Roman Catholic. The chief secretary to 
the lord-lieutenant, or chief secretary for Ireland 
as he is usually called, has been described as 
prime minister to the viceroy. His office is at 
Dublin Castle; but he has also an office in Lon¬ 
don, which remains open during the sitting of 
parliament. He is directly responsible to the 
House of Commons for the acts of the Irish admin¬ 
istration. He is assisted by a permanent under¬ 
secretary, and other officials. There is a sep¬ 
arate local government board; a board of public 
works, which is the great financial agent of the 
Government in Ireland; a board of national 
education, by which the grant made by parlia¬ 
ment for public education is administered, and a 
department of agriculture and other industries 
and technical instruction which was created in 
1899. There are also many other government 
departments in Ireland directly responsible to 
the Irish Government. 



GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


607 


Italy is a constitutional monarchy. Under 
the constitution of 1848, as subsequently modi¬ 
fied and expanded, the executive power is vested 
in the king, and exercised through his ministers. 
The legislative authority is exercised by the king 
in conjunction with a senate of about 380 mem¬ 
bers in 1911 (composed of the princes of the 
royal house who are of age, and of an unlimited 
number of members selected by the ministry and 
nominated by the king for life, who have ren¬ 
dered eminent services to the country, are 
upwards of forty years of age, and pay taxes to 
an annual amount of $600), and a chamber of 
508 deputies, elected by conditional universal 
suffrage for a period of five years, though the 
king can dissolve the chamber at any time. All 
money bills must be initiated in the chamber. 
Senators and deputies are unpaid, but travel free. 

Japan. The Empire of Japan consists of 
the Archipelago of Nippon, which includes the 
four large islands of Honshiu, Kiushiu, Shikoku, 
and Hokkaido, together with Formosa and the 
Pescadores, ceded by China in 1895; the penin¬ 
sula Chosen (Corea); the southern part of the 
island of Sakhalin, and nearly 4,000 smaller 
islands. Although Japan is regarded as one 
of the absolute monarchies of the world, it 
possesses a Constitution which was adopted 
in 1889. It provides that the Emperor shall 
be the head of the empire, with all the rights 
of the sovereign and exercising full executive 
power, with the advice and assistance of the 
Cabinet Ministers who are appointed by him¬ 
self. _ There is also a Privy Council and a House 
of Diet, consisting of two branches, a House 
of Peers, and a House of Representatives. 
The House of Peers is composed of members 
of the imperial family,‘princes and marquises, 
counts, viscounts, barons, persons appointed 
by the Emperor for their meritorious service 
to the state or for erudition, and persons elected 
by each Fu and Ken. The total membership 
of the House of Peers is about 409. According 
to the Constitution the membership of the 
House of Representatives shall be 379, a fixed 
number being returned from each electoral 
district. Voting is by secret ballot ^and the 
proportion of members to the population is 
one to each 136,522. Under the Constitution 
absolute freedom of religious belief and practice 
is assured so long as it does not interfere with 
general peace and order. There is no state 
religion, but the mass of the people follow one 
of the twelve sects of Shintoism, or one of the 
twelve sects and thirty-three creeds of Budd¬ 
hism. The Emperor Mutsuhito was born 
at Kyoto on November 3, 1852. He succeeded 
his father, Komei Tenno, February 13, 1867, and 
was married to Princess Haruko, the daughter 
of Prince Ichijo. Their issue has been: Prince 
Yoshihito, Prince Hirohito, Prince Yasuhito, 
Princess Masako, Princess Fusako, Princess 
Nobuko, Princess Toshiko. 

The Succession .—The Imperial House law, 
which was passed-February 11, 1889, definitely 
fixes the succession to the throne upon the next 
male descendant of the sovereign. As the result, 
Prince Yoshihito, the oldest son of the Emperor, 
succeeded to the throne, July 30, 1912, upon the 
death of Mutsuhito. He was born August 31, 


1879, and was proclaimed Kotaishi, or Crown 
Prince, November 3, 1889. On May 10, 1900, 
he was married to Princess Sadako, the daughter 
of Prince Kujo. They have had three sons, 
Prince Hirohito, Prince Yasuhito and Prince 
Nobuhito, of whom the eldest, Prince Hirohito, 
born April 29, 1901, is now heir apparent. 

The Ministry .— The ministry, or cabinet, 
comprises the following departments: President 
or premier, foreign affairs, finance, interior, 
justice, war, navy, public instruction, agriculture 
and commerce, communications. 

Kansas. Successive Constitutions were 
framed in 1857, 1858, 1859, and 1861, the last 
of which, as amended from time to time, is still 
in force. Amendments, proposed in either House 
of the Legislature, and agreed to by a two-thirds 
majority of each House, are submitted to the 
people, and, if approved by a majority of those 
who vote, become part of the Constitution. The 
Legislature consists of a Senate of forty members, 
elected for four years, half their number retiring 
every two years, and a House of Representatives 
of 125 members, elected for two years. Any bill 
may originate in either House. The Senate tries 
cases of impeachment brought by the House of 
Representatives. Legislators must be voters, 
resident in the county for which they are elected. 
The chief executive officer of the State is the 
governor, elected for two years. He has the 
power usually invested in State governors, 
including authority to call special sessions of the 
Legislature, a limited pardoning power and a 
veto which may be overridden by a two-thirds 
majority of each House. In 1912 the constitu¬ 
tion was amended to give the suffrage to women. 

Kentucky. The Constitution adopted in 
the year 1792 was succeeded by other Constitu¬ 
tions in 1799, 1850, and 1891, that of 1891 being 
still in force. Amendments to the Constitution, 
proposed in either House of the Legislature and 
agreed to by a three-fifths vote of all the members 
of each House, are submitted to the popular vote, 
and, if then approved, become part of the Con¬ 
stitution. The Legislature, known as the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly, consists of a Senate of thirty- 
eight members elected for four years, one-half 
retiring every two years, and a House of Repre¬ 
sentatives of 100 members elected for two years. 
Bills for raising money must originate in the 
House of Representatives. In order to become 
law any bill at its final passage must have a 
majority voting for it not less than two-fifths 
of the members elected to each House. The 
House of Representatives can impeach; the 
Senate tries impeachments. Eligible to the 
Senate are all citizens 30 years of age who have 
resided in the State six years and in the district 
one year next before the election. Representa¬ 
tives must be 24 years of age and must have 
resided in the State two years, and in the county 
or district one year next before election. The 
chief executive authority resides in the governor, 
elected for four years. He has the powers usually 
vested in State governors, including a veto 
which may be overridden by a majority of all 
the members elected to each House. Other 
officials elected for four years are the lieutenant- 
governor, treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, 
and superintendent of public instruction. 



608 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Liberia is a negro Republic on the coast of 
West Africa. Founded in 1822 by American 
philanthropists for the settlement of freed slaves. 
It was declared independent in 1847, was 
recognized as a sovereign state by Great 
Britain in 1848, and by the United States in 
1862. The Constitution is on the model of that 
of the United States. The President is elected 
for four years, the House of Representatives 
(fourteen members) for four years, and the 
Senate (nine members) for six. The Liberian 
Development Chartered Company (British) in 
1906 advanced £100,000 to the government, 
with which a government bank was founded, 
roads were built, other public works were 
commenced, and a military constabulary force 
was established. In addition two British 
officials were appointed to reorganize the cus¬ 
toms service and the country's finance. In 1911, 
through the good offices of the United States, all 
public debts were refunded by means of a new 
loan of $1,000,000; the custom receipts were 
pledged as security. 

Louisiana. The Constitution of 1812 was 
succeeded by those of 1845, 1852, 1864, 1868, 
1879, and 1898; the last-named, as variously 
amended from time to time, is still in force. 
Amendments proposed in the General Assembly 
and approved by a two-thirds vote of each House 
are submitted to the popular vote for ratification. 
The Legislature consists of a Senate of forty-one 
members and a House of Representatives of 115 
members, Senators and Representatives being 
chosen for four years. The powers of the two 
Houses are similar, but bills for raising money 
must originate in the House of Representatives, 
and the Senate tries cases of impeachment 
brought by the other House. Senators must be 
at least 25 and Representatives 21 years of age; 
both must have been citizens of the State for 
five years and residents in the State for two 
years next before their election. The chief 
executive officer is the governor, who is elected 
for four years, and has the powers usually 
entrusted to State governors, including the 
limited veto. Other officials elected for four 
years are the lieutenant-governor, the treasurer, 
the secretary of state, the auditor, the attorney- 
general, and the superintendent of education. 

Maine. The first Constitution of Maine, 
adopted in 1819, was frequently altered by 
amendments, which, to the number of twenty- 
one, were in 1875 incorporated in the document. 
Since that time other amendments have been 
adopted. The Constitution was amended in 
1908 to provide for the initiative and referendum. 
Proposed amendments, passed by a two-thirds 
vote of both Houses of the Legislature, are 
submitted to the voters at the next. election, 
and, if then passed by a majority of those 
voting, they become part of the Constitution. 
The Constitution provides for a Legislature 
of two Houses, the Senate, consisting of thirty- 
one members, and the House of Representa¬ 
tives with 151 members, both Houses being 
elected at the same time for two years. Senators 
are elected in districts formed of groups of towns, 
and Representatives are chosen by cities, towns, 
and plantations according to population. 
Senators must be 25 and Representatives 


21 years of age; members of both Houses 
must be citizens of the United States, resident 
in Maine for one year, and in the district or 
town for three months before the election. But 
no member of Congress, no office holder of the 
Federal Government, except a postmaster, no 
paid officer of the State, except justices of the 
peace, notaries public, coroners, and militia of¬ 
ficers, may sit in either House. The powers of 
the two Houses are similar, but money bills 
must originate in the House of Representatives. 
The chief executive authority resides in the 
governor, who is elected for two years by popular 
vote. He must be 30 years of age, born in 
the United States, resident in the State for five 
years next before election, and he may not hold 
any other office, either under the United States 
or under the State of Maine. He recommends 
legislative measures, and has a veto which lapses 
if unused for five days, and which may be over¬ 
ridden by a two-thirds vote of each House. He 
is commander-in-chief of the military forces 
and he along with the council appoints many 
State officers. He may grant pardons, etc., but 
has to report to the Legislature on each case of 
his exercise of this power. The governor has 
an advisory council consisting of seven members 
chosen every two years by joint ballot of Sena¬ 
tors and Representatives. The council’s advice 
and consent are required for appointments, and 
its warrant for payment of money from the 
treasury. The secretary of state, treasurer, 
and attorney-general are appointed by joint 
ballot of the Legislature. Other officers are the 
superintendent of schools, various commissioners 
(for labor statistics, insurance, land, etc.), and 
also boards and commissions for State institu¬ 
tions, railways, assessment, health, fisheries, etc. 
For local government the State is divided into 
sixteen counties, subdivided into towns, cities, 
plantations, and various unincorporated places. 
Counties are administered by boards of com¬ 
missioners elected for six years, one commis¬ 
sioner retiring every year. These boards have 
elective officers and supervise county finance, 
property, jails, roads, etc. 

Maryland. The first Constitution of 
Maryland, 1776, was succeeded by others in 1851, 
1864, and 1867, that of 1867, as amended from 
time to time, being still in force. Amendments 
proposed in the General Assembly must obtain 
a three-fifths vote of all the members elected to 
each House; they must then be submitted to 
the people, and, if approved by a majority of 
those voting, they become part of the Constitu¬ 
tion. The Legislature consists of a Senate and a 
House of Delegates, the two bodies together 
being known as the General Assembly. There 
are twenty-seven Senators and 101 Delegates. 
The Senators serve for four years, and the Senate 
is renewed to the extent of half every two years. 
The Delegates are elected for two years. Sena¬ 
tors must be 25 years of age, and 
Delegates 21. Clergy, members of Congress, 
and federal officials are ineligible for either 
Senate or House of Delegates. No person is eli¬ 
gible who has not lived in the State three years 
next preceding election. Any bill may originate 
in either House and be altered, amended, or re¬ 
jected by the other. The House of Delegates 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


609 


has sole power of impeachment, and impeach¬ 
ment cases are tried by Senate. The highest 
officer of the State is the governor, elected 
for four years. He is commander-in-chief 
of the State militia, and, with consent of 
Senate, appoints all civil and military officers of 
State whose appointment or election is not 
otherwise provided for by law. He may remove 
for incompetency or misconduct civil officers 
who received appointment from the executive 
for a term of years. He may convene the Legis¬ 
lature or Senate alone for special sessions. He 
has a veto which may be overcome by a three- 
fifths vote of the members elected to both Houses. 
He may grant pardons and reprieves except in 
cases of impeachment, but must report his action 
to the Legislature whenever required. Other 
officers are the secretary of state, treasurer, the 
comptroller, the adjutant-general, the attorney- 
general, and the superintendent of education. 
The State is divided into twenty-three counties 
and the city of Baltimore. 

Massachusetts. The first Constitution 
of the State, after having been submitted to and 
accepted by the people, was formally adopted 
at a Convention held at Boston on June 15, 1780. 
As it has been variously amended from time to 
time, it is still in force. The Constitution 
provides for a legislative body consisting of a 
Senate and a House of Representatives, styled 
collectively the General Court of Massachusetts. 
The Senate consists of forty members elected 
annually by popular vote, the State being di¬ 
vided into forty senatorial districts, each of 
which returns one Senator. The House of Repre¬ 
sentatives consists of 240 members, elected in 
173 districts, each of which returns one, two, or 
three representatives, according to population. 
There is an annual session of the Legislature 
and special sessions may be called by the gov¬ 
ernor in case of exigency. Money bills must 
originate in the House of Representatives, 
but may be amended in the Senate. If the sub¬ 
jects under consideration are of public interest, 
hearings are advertised and the people have a 
right to appear and speak in support of or 
against the passing of certain laws. Amend¬ 
ments to the Constitution must be proposed 
in the General Court, and agreed to by a 
majority of the Senate and two-thirds of the 
House of Representatives present and voting 
thereon; they must be referred to the General 
Court next elected, and if then agreed to by 
similar majorities, they are submitted to the 
people, and, if approved and ratified by a ma¬ 
jority of the qualified voters voting thereon at 
meetings legally held for the purpose, they be¬ 
come part of the Constitution. The executive 
power of the State resides in the governor, 
assisted by a council. He is chosen by popu¬ 
lar vote and holds office for one year, but 
no one is eligible who has not resided within 
the State for the seven years last past. He 
has power to adjourn or prorogue (for not 
more than ninety days), or to summon the Gen¬ 
eral Court. He is commander-in-chief of the 
State’s army and navy. He may, with the ad¬ 
vice of his council, pardon convicted offenders, 
but not those convicted before the Senate on 
impeachment by the House. He appoints (with 


the consent of his council) the judges, the so¬ 
licitor-general, and many other officials, and 
he has general supervision of the administration 
of affairs in the State. The council with which 
he acts consists of eight councillors elected by 
popular vote in the eight districts into which 
the State is, for this purpose, divided. The 
lieutenant-governor, who becomes acting gov¬ 
ernor in case of the death of the governor, or 
of his absence from the State, is similarly elected 
by the people, and holds office for one year. 
The secretary of the commonwealth is also 
elected by the people for one year. Other of¬ 
ficials elected by the people for a year are the 
treasurer and receiver-general, who is ineligible 
for more than five successive years of office; 
the State auditor, and the attorney-general. 
There are fourteen counties in the State, 
thirty-three cities and 321 towns. The cities are 
granted charters by the State Legislature. The 
mayor is the executive officer in each city, and 
the legislative bodies are usually a board of aider- 
men and a common council. The counties are 
administered by officers styled the county com¬ 
missioners. 

Mexico. Under the present Constitution, 
which bears date of February 5, 1857, Mexico 
is a federative republic. It was originally di¬ 
vided into nineteen States, but at this time there 
are twenty-seven, with three Territories, and the 
Federal District, and, while each manages its 
own local affairs, they are bound together as an 
inseparable body by the constitutional laws. 
The form of government in Mexico is in many 
respects, similar to that of the United States. 
The legislative power is vested in a Congress, 
consisting of a House of Representatives and a 
Senate, and the executive in a President. Rep¬ 
resentatives are elected for two years by the 
suffrage of all respectable male adults. The 
qualifications requisite are, to be twenty-five 
years of age and a resident in the State. The 
Senate consists of fifty-six members, two from 
each State, of at least thirty years of age, who 
are returned in the same manner as the deputies. 
The President is elected by electors popularly 
chosen in a general election, holds office for six 
years, and, according to an amendment to the 
constitution in 1887, may be elected for consec¬ 
utive terms. The election of the Vice-president 
takes place in the same manner and at the same 
date as that of the President. The Vice-presi¬ 
dent is ex officio President of the Senate, with a 
voice in the discussions, but without vote. Fail¬ 
ing the President, through absence or otherwise, 
the Vice-president discharges the functions of 
the President. Failing both, Congress shall call 
for new elections to be held at once. Under the 
direction of the President and a Council, the 
administration is carried on by the Secretaries of 
State in charge of the following portfolios: For¬ 
eign Affairs; Interior; Justice; Public Instruction 
and Fine Arts; Fomento, Colonization, and 
Industry; Communications and Public Works; 
Finance and Public Credit; War and Marine. 
The judicial power in Mexico is entirely distinct 
from that of the executive. It includes a Su¬ 
preme Court, consisting of fifteen judges, who 
are chosen for a term of six years, Circuit 
Courts, with three judges, and District Courts, 




610 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


with thirty-two judges. The prevailing religion is 
Roman Catholic, but the church is independent 
of the State, and there is toleration of all other 
religions. No ecclesiastical body can acquire 
landed property. The chief sources of Mexican 
revenue are the internal taxation and the customs. 

Michigan. Its first Constitution was 
framed and adopted in 1835, and Congress passed 
the Act admitting it into the Union as a State 
on January 26, 1837. In 1850 and again in 1908 
new Constitutions were adopted: the latter with 
little alteration is still in force. The legislative 
authority is vested in a Senate of thirty-two 
members elected by the counties or groups of 
counties for two years, and a House of Repre¬ 
sentatives of 100 members, the electoral districts 
being rearranged according to population every 
ten years. Senators and Representatives must 
be citizens of the United States and qualified 
electors of the districts for which they are chosen. 
Any bill may originate in either House. Amend¬ 
ments to the Constitution proposed by popular 
initiative subject to legislative veto, or in either 
House and approved by a two-thirds vote of 
each House, must be submitted for the approval 
of the people in manner prescribed, and, if 
this approval be given, the amendments become 
part of the Constitution. For a complete or 
extensive revision a Convention is required 
and the question is submitted to the electors. 
If the majority of those who vote are on the 
affirmative side, the Legislature makes pro¬ 
vision for a Convention. The executive power 
is vested in the governor, elected for two years. 
He has the powers usually entrusted to State 
governors, including a limited veto, and he 
makes administrative appointments, many of 
which require the approval of the Senate. The 
secretary of state, State treasurer, auditor- 
general, and attorney-general are elected by 
popular vote. The lieutenant-governor, elected 
for two years, presides over the Senate, and in 
case of the death, absence, or default of the 
governor, succeeds to the governor’s authority. 
For local government the State is organized 
in counties, cities, towns, and villages. There 
are eighty-three counties, each of which is a 
corporate body with a board of supervisors as its 
administrative authority. Cities hereafter incor¬ 
porated must have each a population of not less 
than 2,000 inhabitants and 500 persons per 
square mile, but a few which have been long 
incorporated have a smaller population. Cities are 
classified into four groups, according to popula¬ 
tion, and are divided into three or more wards. 

Minnesota. The State Legislature con¬ 
sists of a Senate of sixty-three members, one 
being elected in each of the legislative districts, 
and a House of Representatives of 119 mem¬ 
bers elected in the same districts in numbers 
proportioned to population. Eligible for either 
House are all male citizens of the United States, 
21 years of age, who have resided one year 
in the State and six months in the district 
just before election; but no office-holder under 
the Federal or State government, except a post¬ 
master, may belong to either House. The two 
Houses have similar powers, but money bills 
must originate in the House of Representatives. 
No special laws relating to personal or local 


affairs or corporations can be enacted. The 
House of Representatives can impeach State 
officers before the Senate, which by a two-thirds 
majority of members present may convict and 
deprive of office. Some changes have been 
made in the Constitution of 1857, chiefly, as in 
1896 and 1898, affecting the regulations for local 
organization. Amendments proposed in either 
House and supported by a two-thirds vote of 
each and subsequently approved by the people 
in manner prescribed, become part of the Consti¬ 
tution. For an extensive revision, the proposal, 
after being approved by a two-thirds vote of 
each House, must be submitted to the electors; 
if approved, the Legislature provides for the hold¬ 
ing of a convention; delegates are elected, meet, 
and make the revision which is then referred 
to the people, and, if approved, becomes 
law. The chief executive officer of the State is 
the governor, who is elected by the people for 
two years. He must be a citizen of the United 
States, 25 years of age, and resident in the 
State for one year before election. In legis¬ 
lation he has a limited veto and other powers 
usually entrusted to State governors. The 
lieutenant-governor presides over the Senate 
and, on the death or absence of the governor, 
he acts as governor. The secretary of state 
is elected for two years; the auditor (elected 
for four years) audits State accounts and super¬ 
intends State lands; the treasurer and attor¬ 
ney are elected for two years. Several important 
officials, boards, and commissioners, with duties 
relating to health, equalization, charities, insur¬ 
ance, railways, etc., are appointed by the gov¬ 
ernor. The State is organized in counties (usually 
under special acts), and in townships, villages, 
and cities (usually under general acts). There 
are eighty-two counties. 

Mississippi. The Constitution of 1817 
was followed by others in 1832, 1868, and 1890. 
Proposed amendments of the Constitution ap¬ 
proved by two-thirds of the members of each 
House voting on them on three separate days, 
and ratified by a majority of the qualified electors 
voting on them, become part of the Constitution. 
The Legislature consists of a Senate and a 
House of Representatives, both elected for four 
years. Ordinary sessions, unrestricted in length, 
are held once in four years. Special sessions, 
limited to thirty days, unless extended by proc¬ 
lamation by the governor, are held alternately 
with regular sessions, so that the Legislature in 
fact meets biennially. Bills for raising revenue 
and bills providing for assessment of property 
must be approved by three-fifths of the mem¬ 
bers of each House present and voting. The 
chief executive officer of the State is the 
governor, who is elected for four years, and is 
not eligible for the succeeding term. He has a 
limited veto, and the other powers usually 
vested in State governors. Other officials 
elected for four years are the secretary of 
state, the lieutenant-governor, the treasurer, 
and the auditor. Neither treasurer nor auditor 
is eligible for the succeeding term, nor can the 
one succeed the other. Mississippi is divided 
into seventy-eight counties. 

Missouri. The original Constitution, 
adopted in 1820, was followed by those of 1865 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


611 


and 1875, the latter of which, as amended, is still 
in force. The Constitution was amended in 1908 
to provide for the initiative and referendum. 
Amendments proposed by initiative petition, or 
in either House of the Legislature and supported 
by a majority of the members of each, are 
submitted to the popular vote and, if approved, 
become part of the Constitution. The Legis¬ 
lature, called the General Assembly, consists 
of a Senate of thirty-four members elected 
for four years (half their number retiring every 
two years), and House of Representatives of 
142 members elected for two years. Any bill 
may originate in either House. The Senate 
tries cases of impeachment brought by the 
House of Representatives. Senators must be 
at least 30 years of age, electors in the State 
three years and resident in the district one 
year next before election. Representatives 
must be 24 years of age, citizens, electors 
in the State two years, and resident in the 
county or district one year next before election. 
The chief executive official is the governor, 
who is elected for four years, and possesses the 
powers usually entrusted to State governors, 
including a limited pardoning power and a veto 
which may be overridden by a two-thirds ma¬ 
jority of all the members of each House. Other 
State officials are the secretary of state, lieu¬ 
tenant-governor, auditor, treasurer, attorney- 
general, and superintendent of public instruc¬ 
tion, all elected for four years. The State is 
divided into 115 counties. 

Monaco. Monaco is a small Principality 
in the Mediterranean, surrounded by the French 
Department of Alpes Maritimes, excepting on 
the side towards the sea. From 968 it belonged 
to the House of Grimaldi. In 1715, it passed 
into the female line, Louise Hippolyte, daughter 
of Antony I., heiress of Monaco, marrying 
Jacques de Goyon Matignon, Count of Thorigny, 
who took the name and arms of Grimaldi. 
Antony I. died in 1731, Louise Hippolyte reign¬ 
ing only ten months and dying in 1732. She 
was succeeded by her husband under the name 
of Jacques I., who also succeeded Antony I. as 
Due de Valentinois, who was in his turn suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Honorius III. This prince 
was dispossessed by the French Revolution in 
1792, and died in 1795. In 1814, the Principality 
was reestablished, but placed under the pro¬ 
tection of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Treaty 
of Vienna (1815). In 1848, Mentone and Ro- 
quebrune revolted, and declared themselves 
free towns; in 1861, Charles III. ceded his 
rights over them to France, and the Princi¬ 
pality thus became geographically an enclave 
of France, when the Sardinian garrison was with¬ 
drawn and the protectorate came to an end. 
The Prince was an absolute ruler, there having 
been no elective representation within the 
Principality. In 1911, a Constitution was pro¬ 
mulgated, which provides for a National Council 
elected by universal suffrage and scrutin de liste. 
The Government is carried out under the au¬ 
thority of the Prince by a ministry assisted by a 
Council of State. The legislative power is 
exercised by the Prince and the National Council, 
which consists of 21 members elected for four 
years. The territory of the Principality is 


divided into three communes, administered by 
municipal bodies, in the election of which women 
are entitled to take part. The Principality has 
its own coinage, which is current since 1876 in 
all the States of the Latin Union. 

Montana adopted its first and present Con¬ 
stitution in 1889, the initiative and referendum 
in 1906. The legislative power is vested in 
a Senate and a House of Representatives, 
which meet in regular session on the first Mon¬ 
day of January in each odd-numbered year. 
There are twenty-six Senators, elected for four 
years in such a manner that the Senate is renewed 
to the extent of one-half at each biennial election. 
The members of the House of Representatives, 
eighty in number, are elected for two years. 
Elective State officials are the governor, lieu¬ 
tenant-governor, secretary of state, State treas¬ 
urer, attorney-general, State auditor, and 
superintendent of public instruction. The gov¬ 
ernor has the right of appointment to various 
offices, including those of State land agent, 
commissioner of the bureau of agriculture, 
labor and industry, and inspector of mines. 
For local administrative purposes the State is 
divided into twenty-nine counties, and into four¬ 
teen judicial districts. 

Montenegro. Under the Constitution 
granted by the Prince of Montenegro on Decem¬ 
ber 19, 1905, the form of government has been 
changed. It is now an hereditary Constitutional 
monarchy with popular representation. In 1910 
the Prince assumed the title of King. A 
National Assembly or Skupshtina was convoked 
for a short term in 1905 to receive communica¬ 
tion of the Constitution. An electoral law has 
been framed under which elections took place in 
September, 1906, for the present Skupshtina. 
That assembly is now convoked yearly, on Octo¬ 
ber 31st, by the King. Its members are elected 
by universal suffrage for a period of four years. 
Each of the fifty-six districts or capitanats of 
Montenegro, and each of the six provincial towns, 
Cettinje, Podgoritza, Niksic, Kolashin, Antivari, 
and Dulcigno, elect one representative. There 
are also twelve ex-ofjicio members, including the 
Montenegrin Orthodox Metropolitan, the Roman 
Catholic Archbishop of Antivari, the Montegrin 
Mussulman Mufti, six high officials of the state, 
and three generals, nominated by the King. 
There are thus seventy-four members in all. 
Besides the Prime Minister, there are Ministries 
of the Interior, Justice, Agriculture, War, 
Foreign Affairs, Finance and Public Works, Wor¬ 
ship and Public Instruction. 

Morocco. The internal government of the 
Sultanate, or Empire of Morocco, is in reality 
an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws, 
civil or religious. The Sultan is chief of the 
state, as well as head of the religion. As spirit¬ 
ual ruler, the Sultan stands quite alone, his 
authority not being limited, as in Turkey and 
other countries following the religion of Mo¬ 
hammed, by the expounders of the Koran, the 
class of “ Ulema,” under the “Sheik-ul-Islam.” 
The Sultan has six ministers, whom he consults 
if he deems it prudent to do so; otherwise they 
are merely the executive of his unrestricted will. 
They are the Grand Vizier, the Ministers for 
Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, and War, Chief 



612 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Chamberlain, Chief Treasurer, and Chief Admin¬ 
istrator of Customs. The unsettled condition of 
affairs in Morocco rendered it necessary that 
other countries interested should come to an 
understanding regarding their respective rights. 
By the Anglo-French Convention of April, 1904, 
Great Britain recognizes that it appertains to 
France to assist in the administrative, economic, 
financial, and military forms in Morocco, but 
reserves the rights which by treaties or usage 
she now enjoys. Both governments agree not 
to allow fortifications on the Moorish coast 
between Melilla and the heights dominating 
the right bank of the Sebu, but this arrangement 
does not apply to points held by Spain on that 
coast. Neither government will lend itself to any 
inequality in taxation or railway rates, and 
reciprocal engagements with respect to trade 
are to last for thirty years with prolongation 
for periods of five years, failing denunciation 
a year in advance. Roads, railways, harbor 
works, etc., are to remain under State control. 
These arrangements were accepted also by 
Spain in a Franco-Spanish convention. Ger¬ 
many, however, expressed dissatisfaction with 
this arrangement, and a conference of thirteen 
delegates, representing Morocco, the European 
Powers interested, and the United States of 
America, was held at Algeciras for the settle¬ 
ment of disputed matters, from January 16th 
to April 7, 1906, when an agreement, em¬ 
bodied in a General Act, was signed by all 
the delegates. The Sultan signed the agree¬ 
ment on June 18th, and ratifications of the 
agreement were deposited at Madrid by the other 
powers, December 31, 1906. In July, 1911, the 
German Government sent a cruiser to Agadir, 
informing the Sultan and the European powers 
that their object was to protect German interests 
in that place. Negotiations were thereupon 
entered into between France and Germany, and 
after lasting about three months eventually ter¬ 
minated in the signature of two agreements (Nov. 
4,1911), under which Germany renounces all polit¬ 
ical interests in Morocco and practically agrees to 
the establishment of a French prptectorate, receiv¬ 
ing in exchange ample guarantees for absolute 
equality in economic and commercial matters, and 
the cession of a considerable tract of country in 
the French Congo. Another treaty between 
France and the Sultan has been signed, defining 
the future position of the Sultan and his relations 
with France. Finally (Nov. 27, 1912), a treaty 
was signed between France and Spain in regard 
to the Spanish sphere. Mulai-Abd-el-Hafid, son 
of Mulai-Hassan, revolted against his brother, 
Sultan Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz, and was proclaimed 
Sultan at Marakesh on August 25, 1907, at Fez 
on January 4, 1908, and at Tangier, August 
23, 1908. He was recognized by the Powers as 
Sultan on January 5, 1909, upon his undertaking 
to recognize the Act of Algeciras and to abide 
by the engagements entered into by Mulai-Abd- 
el-Aziz and his predecessors. The present Sultan 
of Morocco, Mulai Youssef, is the seventeenth of 
the dynasty of the Alides, founded by Mulai- 
Ahmed, and the thirty-seventh lineal descendant 
of Ali, uncle and son-in-law of the Prophet. 

Nebraska. The first Constitution, adopted 
in 1867, was succeeded in 1875 by that which as 


since amended is still in force. Amendments 
proposed by initiative petition, or in either 
House of the Legislature and agreed to by a 
two-thirds majority of each House, if approved 
by a majority of the electors voting on them 
at a general election, become part of the Con¬ 
stitution. The Legislature consists of a Sen¬ 
ate of thirty-three members and a House of Rep¬ 
resentatives of 100 members. The Legislators 
are elected for two years. Money bills must 
originate in the House of Representatives. The 
Senate tries cases of impeachment brought by 
the other House, but if the person impeached is 
a justice of the Supreme Court, the trial takes 
place before a court of impeachment consisting 
of the District Court judges. Legislators must 
be citizens resident in the district for one year 
next preceding election. The franchise extends 
not only to citizens but also to aliens who, thirty 
days before the election, have declared their 
intention of becoming citizens. The chief execu¬ 
tive officer of the State is the governor, elected 
for two years. He is commander-in-chief of 
the militia, and, with advice and consent of the 
Senate, appoints to various offices, and may 
grant pardons, etc. He may call special sessions 
of the Legislature, and he has a veto which may 
be overridden by a three-fifths vote of each 
House. Other officials elected for two years, 
besides those named, are the lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor, auditor, treasurer, superintendent of public 
instruction, attorney-general, and commissioners 
of public lands and buildings and of State insti¬ 
tutions. The Constitution was amended in 1912 
to provide for the initiative and referendum. 

Netherlands* The Constitution of 1848, 
revised in 1887, vests the executive in the sover¬ 
eign, and the legislative authority in the sovereign 
and the states-general, the latter sitting in two 
chambers: the first, consisting of fifty members, 
elected for nine years (one-third retiring every 
three years) by the provincial states from among 
the most highly-assessed inhabitants and from 
among a number of specified officials; the second 
of 100 members, elected for four years by all male 
citizens of 25 years or more who pay a direct tax 
to the state, or are householders or own boats of 
not less than twenty-four tons, or receive a 
minimum wage or salary of about $115, or give 
other evidence of their ability to support them¬ 
selves and their families. The government and 
the second chamber possess the initiative in legis¬ 
lation, the upper house having the right of ap¬ 
proval or rejection, but not of amendment. Alter¬ 
ations in constitution are made by a two-thirds 
vote of both houses, followed by a general election, 
and confirmation by a similar vote of the new 
states-general. A state council of fourteen mem¬ 
bers appointed by the sovereign is consulted on 
all legislative and on most executive matters. 

Ne v ad a. The origin al Constitution adopted 
in 1864 is in force as since variously amended. 
Amendments proposed in and approved by the 
Legislature are submitted to the next Legislature 
and if then approved are referred to the people 
for ratification. Amendments may also be pro¬ 
posed by initiative petition. The Legislature con¬ 
sists of a Senate of twenty-two members elected 
for four years, about half their number retiring 
every two years, and a House of Representatives 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


613 


of fifty-three members elected for two years. I 
Any bill may originate in either house. The 
Senate tries cases of impeachment brought by 
the House of Representatives. The chief execu¬ 
tive officer is the governor, elected for four years. 
He has the powers and duties usually entrusted 
to State governors, except that he has not par¬ 
doning power, this authority being vested (apart 
from impeachment cases) in the board of pardons 
of which he is a member. He has the usual 
limited veto. In 1912 the constitution was 
amended to provide for the initiative and refer¬ 
endum and for the recall of all state elective 
officers. 

New Hampshire. The Constitution of 
1792, as amended from time to time, is still in 
force. The sense of the people as to the calling 
of a convention for the revision of the Constitu¬ 
tion must be taken every seven years. If a con¬ 
vention is held the amendments to the Constitu¬ 
tion which it proposes must be laid before the 
towns, and approved by two-thirds of the 
qualified voters present and voting on the sub¬ 
ject. The State Legislature, consisting of a 
Senate and a House of Representatives, meets 
once in two years and remains in session until 
prorogued by the governor, generally about 
three months. The Senate consists of twenty- 
four members, elected for two years. It cannot 
originate money bills. Any qualified elector is 
eligible to sit in the Senate. The House of 
Representatives consists of from 390 to 400 
members, the number varying slightly with each 
session, as representation is on the basis of popu¬ 
lation. The House has the power of impeach¬ 
ment and of originating money bills. The gov¬ 
ernor is chosen by popular election, and holds 
office for two years. He has the nomination of 
all judicial officers, the attorney-general, cor¬ 
oners, and all officers of the navy, and general 
and field-officers of the militia. His appoint¬ 
ments require the approval of the council. He 
has the other powers usually entrusted to State 
governors, including a limited veto and limited 
pardoning power. The secretary of state is 
elected by joint ballot of the senators and repre¬ 
sentatives. The other important State officials 
are the state treasurer, adjutant-general, and 
commissioners of labor, immigration, railroads, 
banks, education, health, agriculture. 

New Jersey. The Constitution ratified 
on August 13, 1844, as since variously amended, 
is still in force. The legislative power is 
vested in a Senate and a General Assembly, the 
members of which are chosen by the people, all 
male citizens (with necessary exceptions) 21 
years of age, resident in the State for a year, and 
in the county for five months preceding the elec¬ 
tion, having the right of suffrage. The Senate 
consists of twenty-one Senators, one for each 
county, elected by the voters for three years, in 
such manner that the Senate is renewed to the 
extent of one-third annually. Senators must be 
30 years of age, and must have resided, just 
before their election, four years in New Jersey, 
and one year in the county for which they are 
elected. The General Assembly consists of 
sixty members elected by the voters of the coun¬ 
ties in numbers proportioned to the population 
of the counties as determined by the decennial 


Federal census. Money bills must originate in 
the Assembly, but the Senate may propose 
amendments. Every bill passed by both Houses 
requires the assent of the governor, who may 
within five days remit it for reconsideration to 
the House in which it originated; if then the bill 
be approved by a majority of each House it 
becomes law. The executive of the State is 
vested in a governor, elected for three years by 
the legal voters. He must be not less than 30 
years of age, have been twenty years a citizen, 
and seven years resident in the State imme¬ 
diately before election. He is not eligible for 
the next term of the office. His duties include 
the military command-in-chief, the summoning 
of the Legislature when necessary, the recom¬ 
mendation of legislation, the granting of com¬ 
missions, and the supervision of the execution of 
the laws. The State secretary is appointed for 
five years by the governor with the advice and 
consent of the Senate. The treasurer and the 
comptroller are appointed for three years by 
the Senate and General Assembly in joint ses¬ 
sion. 

New Mexico. The government of New 
Mexico is divided into three distinct departments, 
legislative, executive, and judicial. The legisla¬ 
tive power is vested in a Senate and a House of 
Representatives. The Sen ate consists of t wen ty- 
four members, elected for a term of four years, 
and the House of Representatives has forty- 
nine members, elected for two-year terms. Sena¬ 
tors shall not be less than twenty-five years 
and representatives not less than twenty-one 
years of age at the time of their election. The 
executive department consists of a governor, 
lieutenant governor, secretary of state, state 
auditor, state treasurer, attorney-general, super¬ 
intendent of public instruction, and commissioner 
of public lands, • who are elected for a term of 
four years. The supreme executive power is 
vested in the governor. He is commander-in¬ 
chief of the military forces of the State, except 
when they are called into the service of the 
United States. He has power to call out militia 
to preserve public peace, execute laws, suppress 
insurrection, and repel invasion. The lieutenant 
governor is President of the Senate but votes 
only in case of tie. The judicial power of the 
State is vested in a Senate when sitting as a 
court of impeachment, a supreme court, district 
courts, probate courts, justices of the peace, and 
such courts, inferior to the district courts, as may 
be established by law from time to time in any 
county or municipality, including juvenile courts. 
Amendments to the constitution may be pro¬ 
posed in either house of the legislature at any 
regular session, and if two-thirds of all members 
elected to each of the two houses voting separ¬ 
ately shall vote in favor thereof, such proposed 
amendments shall be submitted at the next 
general election for approval or rejection. 

New York. From 1609 to 1664 the region 
now called New York was under the sway of the 
Dutch; then it came under the rule of the Eng¬ 
lish who governed the country till the outbreak 
of the War of Independence. Between July 9, 
1776, and April 20, 1777, a Convention framed 
a Constitution under which New York was 
transformed into an independent State, after- 



614 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


wards, in 1788, entering the Union as one of the 
thirteen original States. A new Constitution, 
framed on a wider basis, was ratified by the 
people in 1821. A third Constitution was 
enacted in 1846, and a fourth in 1894. The 
legislative authority is vested in a Senate of 
fifty-one members elected every two years, and an 
Assembly of 150 members elected annually. 
The senatorial electoral districts are counties, 
either singly or grouped according to popula¬ 
tion; the Assembly districts are either counties 
or parts of counties, the various districts having 
approximately equal population. Each sena¬ 
torial and each Assembly district elects one mem¬ 
ber. Senators and representatives must be 
citizens of the United States 21 years of age. 
No member of Congress or Federal officer or 
officer of any city government, nor any person 
who within 100 days of the election has held 
such office, can sit in either house. The two 
Houses have equal powers, even with respect to 
money bills. Every law must be passed by both 
Houses with the assent of the majority of the 
members of each. Bills appropriating money 
for local or private purposes require a two-thirds 
majority. The Legislature is by the Constitu¬ 
tion prevented from enacting special laws in 
numerous matters, and there are important 
restrictions respecting financial legislation. The 
principal executive officer of the State is the 
governor, elected by the people for two years. 
He must be a citizen of the United States, 30 
years of age, and resident in the State for five 
years next preceding the election. He has a 
veto in legislation, provided it be exercised 
within ten days; but it may be overridden by 
a two-thirds majority of each House. He is 
commander-in-chief of the military and naval 
forces; with the assent of the Senate, he appoints 
many State officers; he may convene the 
Senate or the Legislature if necessary; he rec¬ 
ommends legislative measures and sees that the 
laws are faithfully executed. He may reprieve 
or pardon criminals, but not in cases of treason 
or impeachment. Elective officers are the 
state secretary who keeps the State records and 
seal; the comptroller who audits accounts and 
issues warrants for payments; the treasurer 
who pays money on warrants; the attorney- 
general who is law officer of the State; the State 
engineer and surveyor who has charge of public 
lands and the construction of canals. The 
administrative boards (civil service commis¬ 
sioners, railroad commissioners, and many 
others) are generally appointed by the governor 
with the assent of the Senate. 

New Zealand. The present form of 
government for New Zealand was established 
in 1852. By this act the colony was divided 
into six provinces, afterwards increased to nine, 
each governed by a superintendent and provin¬ 
cial council, elected by the inhabitants according 
to a franchise practically amounting to house¬ 
hold suffrage. By a subsequent act of the colo¬ 
nial legislature, in 1875, the provincial system 
of government was abolished, and the powers 
previously exercised by superintendents and 
provincial officers were ordered to be exercised by 
the governor or by local boards. By the terms 
of this and other amending statutes, the legisla¬ 


tive power is vested in the governor and a gen¬ 
eral assembly, consisting of two chambers — the 
first called the legislative council, and the second 
the house of representatives. The governor has 
the power of assenting to or withholding consent 
from bills, or he may reserve them. He sum¬ 
mons, prorogues, and dissolves the parliament. 
He can send drafts of bills to either house for 
consideration, but in case of appropriations of 
public money must first recommend the house 
of representatives to make provision accordingly 
before any appropriations can become law. He 
can return bills for amendment to either house. 
The legislative council consists at present of 
thirty-eight members, who are paid at the rate 
of £200 per annum. Those appointed before 
September 17, 1891, are life members, but those 
appointed subsequently to that date hold their 
seats for seven years only, though they are 
eligible for reappointment. By an act passed 
in 1900, the number of members of the house of 
representatives was increased to eighty, includ¬ 
ing four Maoris, elected by the people for three 
years. They are paid at the rate of £300 per 
annum. 

North Carolina. The Constitution of 
1776, was succeeded by those of 1868 and 1876, 
which last, as since amended from time to time, is 
still in force. Amendments proposed in either 
House, and agreed to by a three-fifths vote of 
each House of the Legislature, require ratification 
by a majority vote of the people. The State 
Legislature, known as the General Assembly, 
consists of a Senate of fifty members, and a 
House of Representatives of 120 members, 
elected for two years. Senators must be United 
States citizens, 25 years of age, resident in the 
State for two years next preceding the election; 
Representatives must be 21 years of age, citizens, 
and resident in the State one year next before 
the election. Any bill may originate in either 
House. The chief executive official is the 
governor, elected for four years. He is com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the militia; has power to 
ardon, etc., except in cases of impeachment, 
ut must report to the General Assembly on his 
exercise of this power; he appoints, with the 
consent of the Senate, to offices not otherwise 
provided for. He has no veto. Officials elected 
for four years are the lieutenant-governor, secre¬ 
tary of state, auditor, treasurer, superintendent 
of public instruction, and attorney-general. 

North Dakota, with its present boun¬ 
daries, was admitted as a State into the Union 
in 1889, and the original Constitution is still in 
force. It may be altered by amendment pro¬ 
posed in either House in two successive Legisla¬ 
tures, agreed to by a majority of all the members 
of each House, and finally approved by a popular 
vote. The Legislature, called the Legislative 
Assembly, consists of a Senate of forty members, 
elected for four years, and a House of Represen¬ 
tatives of 100 members elected for two years. 
Any bill may originate in either House. The 
Senate tries cases of impeachment brought by the 
House of Representatives. Senators must be 
25 years of age; Representatives, 21; both must 
be citizens resident in the State for two years 
next before election. At the head of the execu¬ 
tive is the governor, elected for two years. He 



GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


615 


has the powers usually vested in State governors, 
including limited pardoning power, and a veto 
which may be overridden by a two-thirds 
majority of all the members, of each House. 
Officials elected for two years are the lieutenant- 
governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, 
and superintendent of public instruction. 

Norway. The union with Sweden, which 
had endured from 1814 to 1905, was dissolved 
by the action of the Norwegian Storthing on 
June 7, 1905, following a protracted dispute 
between the two countries as to their diplo¬ 
matic representation abroad; and the Karlsbad 
Convention was signed September 24, 1905, 
settling the details of a mutual agreement for the 
repeal of the union. King Oscar declined the 
offer of the throne to a prince of his house, and 
after a plebiscite it was offered to and accepted 
by Prince Charles of Denmark, who became King 
as Haakon VII. The Norwegian Constitution 
of 1814, several times modified since, vests the 
legislative power in the Storthing, which has 123 
members (forty-one from urban and eighty-two 
from rural districts), who are elected for three 
years. Every male citizen of 25 who has re¬ 
sided in the country for five years is qualified as 
an elector, except for legal disabilities. For 
business purposes it is divided into the Odels- 
thing, composed of three-fourths of the mem¬ 
bers, and the Lagthing, consisting of the remain¬ 
der; all new bills originate in the former. The 
king has the right of vetoing the laws passed by 
the Storthing, but if the same bill pass three 
Storthings separately and subsequently elected, 
his veto is overridden. The executive power 
is in the hands of the king with a council of 
state composed of a minister of state and eight 
councilors. 

Ohio. The Constitution of 1802 was super¬ 
seded by that of 1851, which has been variously 
amended. In 1912 thirty-three amendments, 
proposed by a constitutional convention, were 
incorporated into the constitution by popular 
vote, practically making it a new instrument. 
The principal measures adopted tend toward a 
freer expression of democracy, through munici¬ 
pal home rule, direct primaries, and the initiative 
and referendum. Other important provisions 
are those for judicial reform permitting the 
decision of civil cases by three-fourths vote of 
the juries and limiting the arbitrary power of the 
courts. Advanced ground was also taken on 
industrial and labor questions. Instead of the 
recall, the legislature was authorized to remove 
public officers for cause without impeachment. 
Amendments to the constitution proposed by 
initiative petition, or in either house of the 
legislature and agreed to by three-fifths majority 
of the members of each house, may be finally 
adopted by a majority popular vote. The 
Legislature consists of a Senate of thirty- 
four members, and a House of Representatives 
of 118 members, both Houses being elected for 
two years. Any bill may be proposed in either 
House and is subject to amendment or rejection 
in the other. Eligible to either House are all 
male citizens 21 years of age, resident 
in the State and in the district one year next 
before the election, but paid office-holders of 
the Union or of the State are not eligible. The J 


chief executive authority is vested in the gov¬ 
ernor, elected for a term of two years. He has 
the powers usually entrusted to State govern¬ 
ors, including limited pardoning power and 
the veto, which may be overridden by a three- 
fifths majority of all the members of each 
House. Other state officials are the lieutenant- 
governor, secretary of state, attorney-general, 
treasurer, State auditor, a dairy and food, and a 
common schools commissioner. 

Oklahoma. The President of the United 
States on November 16, 1907, signed the Consti¬ 
tution of Oklahoma and issued a proclamation 
announcing its admission as a State into the 
Union. The Census Bureau on September 19, 
1907, reported the result of a special census 
taken of the population of the new State to be 
1,414,042. 

The most notable feature of the State Constitution 
was its provisions for the regulation of corporations. In 
line with its other corporation provisions were the 
adoption of 2-cent passenger fares, electric lines not 
included (since declared unconstitutional by the United 
States Supreme Court), and the abolition of the doctrine 
of the fellow-servant. 

The initiative and referendum was given a prominent 
place in the constitution, but the recall usually regarded 
as practically a parallel proposition was rejected. 

Separate schools for white and negro children were 
provided; all other races than negroes being classed as 
“white.” 

The State was given the right to engage in any busi¬ 
ness or occupation, but the grant was limited by the 
qualification that it shall be “for public purposes.” 

Trial by jury was granted in contempt cases for viola¬ 
tions of injunctions or orders of restraint, and an oppor¬ 
tunity to be heard must be given on all contempts before 
punishment is imposed. Three-fourths jury verdicts 
were provided for in civil cases and criminal cases less 
than felony. The grand jury system was not made man¬ 
datory. Persons were granted immunity from prose¬ 
cution if their testimony incriminated themselves. 

Records, books and films of all corporations shall be 
subject to full visitation and inquisition, notwithstanding 
the immunities and privileges conferred by the bill of 
•rights. 

For every sale, the applicant must make a sworn 
statement as to the purpose for which the liquor is to 
be used, and each sale must be registered. 

The control of all public-service corporations was 
vested in a corporation commission of three members, 
elected by the people for six-year terms. Commis¬ 
sioners are required to take an oath that they are not 
interested directly or indirectly in any company which 
may come under their supervision. All railroads, oil, 
pipe, car, express, telephone or telegraph lines are 
required to receive and transport each other’s business 
without delay or discrimination. All railroads were 
declared public highways. Public-service corporations 
and their officials were prohibited from consolidating 
with or owning stock in any competing corporation. 

“Transportation companies” were defined as including 
railroads, street railways, canals, steamboat lines, 
freight-car companies or car associations, express com¬ 
panies and sleeping-car companies. “Transportation 
companies ” include telegraph and telephone lines, and 
both of these classes were rated as common carriers. 

The common law doctrine of fellow-servant was 
abrogated as to all railroad, street or interurban electric 
lines and mining companies, and recovery may be had 
as fully in cases where death occurs as where it does not. 

Campaign contributions by corporations were for¬ 
bidden and it was sought to prevent the issuance of 
watered stock by providing that no stock shall be issued 
except for money, labor done or property actually 
received to the amount of the par value of the stock. 

Oman. An independent state in South¬ 
eastern Arabia extending along a coast line — 
southeast and southwest — of almost 1,000 
miles from the Gulf of Ormuz and inland to 
the deserts. Area, 82,000 square miles; popu¬ 
lation, estimated at 500,000, chiefly Arabs. The 
capital, Maskat, and the adjacent town of Matra 
have together about 24,000 inhabitants. Maskat 



616 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


was occupied by the Portuguese from 1508 
until the middle of the Seventeenth Century. 
After various vicissitudes it was recovered 
in the Eighteenth Century by Ahmed bin 
Sa’eed, of Yemenite origin, who was elected 
Imam in 1741. His family have since ruled. 
The present Sultan is Seyyid Feysil bin Turki, 
second son of Seyyid Turki bin Sa’eed bin 
Sultan, who succeeded his father June 4, 1888, 
and was formally recognized by the British 
Government. In the beginning of the last 
century the power of the Imam of Oman ex¬ 
tended over a large area of Arabia, the islands 
in the Persian Gulf, a strip of the Persian coast, 
and a long strip of the African coast south of 
Cape Guardafui, including Socotra and Zanzibar. 
On the death of Sultan Sa’eed in 1856, one son 
proclaimed himself Sultan in Zanzibar and an¬ 
other in Maskat. Eventually the rivals agreed 
to submit their claims to the arbitration of Lord 
Canning, Viceroy of India, who formally sepa¬ 
rated the two sultanates. Subsequent troubles 
curtailed the area of the state in Asia. The 
closest relations have for years existed between 
the Government of India and Oman and a British 
consul and political agent resides at Maskat. 

Oregon. The Constitution adopted in 1857 
is still in force, except as stated below. Amend¬ 
ments proposed in and approved by the Legis¬ 
lature are submitted to the next elected Legis¬ 
lature, and if then approved are formally sub¬ 
mitted to the people for ratification; but this 
method of ratification is not exclusive (see below). 
The Legislature or Legislative Assembly, con¬ 
sists of a Senate of thirty members, chosen for 
four years (half their number retiring every 
two years), and a House of sixty Representa¬ 
tives, elected for two years. Members of either 
House must be 21 years of age and must 
have resided in their county or district for 
one year next before election. Bills for raising 
revenue must originate in the House of Represent¬ 
atives. The Constitution was amended in 1902, 
under the terms of which amendment the people 
reserve to themselves the power to propose laws 
and amendments to the Constitution and to 
enact or reject the same at the polls independent 
of the Legislative Assembly, and also reserve 
the power at their own option to approve or 
reject at the polls any act of the Legislative 
Assembly. This is known as the initiative and 
referendum. Not more than eight per cent, of 
the legal voters are required to propose any 
measure to be voted upon by the people at the 
next ensuing general election. Measures thus 
initiated are enacted or rejected at the polls 
independently of the Legislative Assembly. 
Under the referendum, any bill passed by the 
Legislative Assembly, except such as are for 
the preservation of the public peace, health, 
and safety, may, by petition signed by five per 
cent, of the legal voters, be referred to the 
people to be voted on for approval or rejection 
at the next ensuing general election. By 
virtue of this provision several amendments 
to the Constitution have been voted on, some 
of which have been rejected and some adopted. 
A number of laws have been enacted under 
the initiative covering different subjects. The 
chief executive officer of the State is the gov¬ 


ernor, who is elected for four years and exercises 
the powers usually entrusted to governors, 
including the pardoning power, and a limited 
veto which does not extend to acts referred to 
the people. Elective officers are the secretary 
of state, treasurer, attorney-general, and super¬ 
intendent of public instruction, State printer, 
and labor commissioner. There are thirty- 
four counties in the State. 

Panama. The Republic of Panama was 
constituted on November 4, 1903, having pre¬ 
viously been a department of the Republic of 
Colombia. The inhabitants of the Isthmus of 
Panama being strongly in favor of the acquisi¬ 
tion of the Panama Canal Concession by the 
United States and the construction by them of 
the canal, declared their independence. The 
United States Government at once recognized 
the new Republic, and concluded with it a treaty 
on November 18, 1903, guaranteeing and agree¬ 
ing to maintain its independence. Panama 
then ratified the treaty. There is a President 
elected for four years and a Cabinet of five 
members. The Chamber of Deputies consists 
of thirty-two members elected for two years. 
The Republic is divided into seven provinces, 
each under a governor. 

Paraguay is a Republic, and is governed, 
under a Constitution proclaimed in November, 
1870, by a President elected for four years, a 
Congress consisting of a Senate and a Chamber 
Deputies, both elected by universal suffrage, 
and five Ministers of State chosen by the Presi¬ 
dent. The President has a salary of $9,500, 
ministers of $3,000, and the Senators and Deputies 
each receive $1,000. The state religion is Roman 
Catholic, but all others are tolerated. Educa¬ 
tion is free and nominally compulsory. The 
army numbers about 2,500 men, but every citi¬ 
zen between 20 and 35 is liable to military 
service. 

Pennsylvania. New Constitutions were 
adopted in 1790, 1838 and 1873: the last, as 
since variously amended, is still in force. The 
legislative power is vested in a General Assem¬ 
bly consisting of a Senate and a House of 
Representatives. General elections are held 
biennally. The Senate consists of fifty mem¬ 
bers chosen for four years, twenty-five Senators 
being elected at each General Assembly election. 
The House of Representatives consists of 207 
members chosen for two years. Members of the 
General Assembly must have been citizens and 
inhabitants of the State four years and inhabit¬ 
ants of their respective districts one year next 
before their election. Amendments to the Con¬ 
stitution agreed to by a majority of each House, 
approved by a majority in each House of Legisla¬ 
ture next elected, and ratified by the electors at 
a special election held for the purpose, become 
part of the Constitution. The supreme execu¬ 
tive power is vested in a governor who is elected 
at the general election and holds office for four 
years. He is not eligible for election for the 
next succeeding term. He must be not less than 
30 years of age and have been seven years resi¬ 
dent in the State immediately before election; 
he must not be a member of Congress nor can he 
hold any office under the United States. His 
duties include the command of the military and 




GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


617 


naval forces of the State, except when these are 
called into the actual service of the United States, 
the summoning of the Legislature when necessary, 
the granting of commissions, and the supervision 
of the execution of the laws. Every bill passed 
by both Houses requires the assent of the gov¬ 
ernor, who may within ten days remit it for con¬ 
sideration to the House in which it originated; 
if then the bill be approved by a two-thirds 
majority of each House it becomes law. A lieu¬ 
tenant-governor is chosen at the same time, in 
the same manner, and for the same term as the 
governor. A secretary of the commonwealth 
and an attorney-general are appointed by the 
governor, by and with the advice and consent of 
two-thirds of all the members of the Senate, 
during pleasure, and a superintendent of public 
instruction is similarly appointed for four years. 
The qualified electors choose at each general 
election a secretary of internal affairs for a period 
of four years, an auditor-general for a period of 
three years, and a state treasurer for a period of 
two years. 

Persia. The form of government in Persia 
up to the year 1906 was, in the most important 
features, similar to that of Turkey. The Shah, 
within the limitations imposed by the Moham¬ 
medan religion, was an absolute ruler, generally 
regarded by the people as the vice-regent of the 
Prophet. In 1905, however, the Persian people 
demanded representative institutions, and in 
January, 1906, the government announced that 
the SMh had given his consent to the establish¬ 
ment of a national council. Under the rescript 
of August 5, 1906, it was decided that the 
national council should consist of and be elected 
by members of the reigning dynasty, clergy, 
chiefs, nobles, landowners, merchants, and 
tradesmen. An ordinance of September 10, 
1906, fixed the number of members at 156, and 
early in October elections were held. On Octo¬ 
ber 7th, the national council (or as many of its 
members as could be got together) met, chose 
a president, and was welcomed by the shah, 
whose speech was read before it. The constitu¬ 
tion of January 1, 1907, signed by Muzaffar-ed- 
din, the shah, and countersigned by the Vali 
Ahd, Muhammad Ali, and by the grand vizier, 
deals with the decree of August 5, 1906, and 
states the powers and duties of the national 
council, besides making provision for the regula¬ 
tion of its general procedure by the national 
council itself. The number of members is at 
present limited to 156, but may be raised to 200; 
members will be elected for two years, will 
meet annually, and will have immunity from 
prosecution, except with the knowledge of the 
national council. The publicity of their pro¬ 
ceedings (except under conditions accepted by 
the national council) is secured. Ministers (or 
their delegates) may appear and speak in the 
national council, and will be responsible to that 
body which will have special control of financial 
affairs and internal administration. Its sanction 
will be required for all territorial changes, for 
alienation of state property, for the granting of 
concessions, for the contracting of loans, for the 
construction of roads and railways, and for the 
ratification of all treaties, except such as in the 
interest of the state require secrecy. There is to 


be a senate of sixty members, of whom thirty 
are to be appointed to represent the shah, and 
thirty to be elected on behalf of the national 
council, fifteen of each class being from Teheran, 
and fifteen from the provinces. Provision is 
made as to procedure in case of difference of 
opinion between the national council and the 
senate. The executive government is carried 
on under a ministry, the chief departments 
of which are: interior, foreign affairs, education, 
posts and telegraphs, justice, war, finance. 

Peru. The present Constitution, proclaimed 
October 16, 1856, was revised November 25, 
1860. The legislative power is vested in a 
senate and a house of representatives. Both 
senators and deputies are elected by a direct 
vote. There are fifty-one senators and 116 
deputies, and there are as many suplentes, or 
substitutes, as there are members in each cham¬ 
ber. Every two years one-third of the members 
of each chamber, as decided by lot, retire. 
Congress meets annually on July 28th, and sits 
for ninety days only. It may be summoned as 
often as necessary, but no extraordinary session 
may last more than forty-five days. The execu¬ 
tive power is entrusted to a president, elected for 
four years, and not reeligible till after another 
four years. He receives $15,000 a year and 
$9,000 for expenses. There are two vice-presi¬ 
dents, who take the place of the president only 
in case of his death or incapacity, and they are 
elected for four years. The vice-presidents 
receive no salary as such. The president and 
vice-presidents are elected by direct vote. The 
president exercises his executive functions 
through a cabinet of six ministers, holding office 
at his pleasure. The ministers are those of the 
interior, war and marine, foreign affairs, justice, 
with worship and instruction, finance and public 
works. Each minister receives $3,000 a year. 
None of the president’s acts have any value 
without the signature of a minister. 

Portugal. Since the twelfth century Port¬ 
ugal has been an independent state; until 1910 
it was a monarchy. On October 5, 1910, after 
a short revolution, the republic was proclaimed 
and a provisional government established. On 
August 20, 1911, a new constitution was adopted. 
This provides that there shall be two chambers: 
the national council of 164 members is elected 
by direct suffrage for three years; the upper 
chamber of 171 members is elected by all munic¬ 
ipal councils, renewable half at a time every 
three years. The president is elected by both 
chambers with a mandate for four years, but he 
cannot be reelected. He must be at least 35 
years of age; he appoints ministers but these are 
responsible to parliament. The constitution 
may be revised every ten years. The ministers are 
those of foreign affairs, interior, finance, justice 
and the colonies, war, marine, public works. 

Prussia. The present Constitution of Prus¬ 
sia was drawn up by the government of King 
Friedrich Wilhelm IV., with the co-operation 
of a constituent assembly, sitting August-Decem- 
ber, 1849, and was proclaimed January 31, 1850; 
it was subsequently modified by a number of royal 
decrees. These fundamental laws vest the execu¬ 
tive and part of the legislative authority in a 
king, who attains his majority upon accom- 




6i8 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


plishing his eighteenth year. The Crown is he¬ 
reditary in the male line, according to primogeni¬ 
ture. In the exercise of the government, the 
king is assisted by a council of ministers, ap¬ 
pointed by royal decree. The legislative author¬ 
ity the king shares with a representative assem¬ 
bly, the landtag, composed of two chambers, the 
first called the “Herrenhaus,” or house of lords, 


and the second the “abgeordnetenhaus,” or 
chamber of deputies. The assent of the king and 
both chambers is requisite for all laws. Finan¬ 
cial projects and estimates must first be sub¬ 
mitted to the chamber of deputies, and be either 
accepted or rejected en bloc by the Herrenhaus. 
The right of proposing laws is vested in the 
government and in each of the chambers. 


POPULAR VOTE FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT 
FROM 1789 TO THE PRESENT 

Strictly speaking, there is no popular vote for President and Vice-President; the people vote for 
electors, and those chosen in each State meet therein and vote for the candidates for President 
and Vice-President. The record of any popular vote for electors prior to 1824 is so meager and 
imperfect that a compilation would be useless. In most of the States, for more than a quarter 
century following the establishment of the Government, the State Legislatures “ appointed ” the 
Presidential electors, and the people therefore voted only indirectly for them, their choice being 
expressed by their votes for members of the Legislature. In this tabulation only the aggregate 
electoral votes for candidates for President and Vice-President in the first nine quadrennial elec¬ 
tions appears. 


Year 

Presidential 

Candidates 

State 

Party 

Vote 

Candidates for Vice-President 

States 

Voting 

O 

> 

o 

H 

Electoral 

Vote 

Popular 

Vote 

Name 

State 

Electoral 

Vote 

1789* 

George Washington, 

Va. 


iot 

73 

69 


John Adams, . . . 

Mass. 

34 


John Adams,. . . 

Mass. 




34 






John Jay, .... 

N. Y. 




9 






R. H. Harrison,. . 

Md. 




6 






John Rutledge, . . 

S. C. 




6 






John Hancock, . . 

Mass. 




4 






George Clinton,. . 

N. Y. 




3 






Samuel Huntington, 

Conn. 




2 






John Milton, . . . 

Ga. 




2 






James Armstrong, 

Ga. 




1 






Benjamin Lincoln, 

Mass. 




1 






Edward Telfair, . 

Ga. 




1 






Vacancies, .... 





4 





1792 

George Washington, 

Va. 

Fed., . . 

15 

135 

132 


John Adams, . . . 

Mass. 

77 


John Adams, . . 

Mass. 

Fed., . . 



77 






George Clinton,. . 

N. Y. 

Rep.J, . . 



50 






Thomas Jefferson, 

Va. 




4 






Aaron Burr, . . . 

N. Y. 




1 






Vacancies, .... 

.... 




3 





1796 

John Adams,. . . 

Mass. 

Fed., . . 

16 

138 

71 


Thomas Jefferson, . 

Va. 

68 


Thomas Jefferson, 

Va. 

Rep., . . 



68 






Thomas Pinckney, 

S. C. 

Fed., . . 



59 






Aaron Burr, . . . 

N. Y. 

Rep., . . 



30 






Samuel Adams, . . 

Mass. 

Rep., . . 



15 






Uliver Ellsworth, . 

Conn. 

Ind., . . 



11 






George Clinton, . . 

N. Y. 

Rep., . . 



7 






John Jay, .... 

N. Y. 

Fed., . . 



5 






James Iredell, . . 

N. C. 

Fed., . . 



3 






George Washington, 

Va. 

Fed., . . 



2 






John Henry, . . . 

Md. 

Fed., . . 



2 






S. Johnson, . . . 

N. C. 

Fed., . . 



2 






C. C. Pinckney, . . 

S. C. 

Fed., . . 



1 





1800 

Thomas Jefferson, 

Va. 

Rep., . . 

16 

138 

73§ 


Aaron Burr, .... 

N. Y. 

73 


Aaron Burr, . . . 

N. Y. 

Rep., . . 



73§ 






John Adams, . . 

Mass. 

Fed., . . 



65 






C. C. Pinckney. 

S. C. 

Fed., . . 



64 






John Jay. 

N. Y. 

Fed., . . 



1 





1804 

Thomas Jefferson, 

Va. 

Rep. . . 

17 

176 

162 


George Clinton, . . 

N. Y. 

162 


C. C. Pinckney,. . 

S. C. 

Fed., . . 



14 


Rufus King, .... 

N. Y. 

14 

1808 

James Madison, . 

Va. 

Rep., . . 

17 

176 

122 


George Clinton, . . 

N. Y. 

113 


C. C. Pinckney,. . 

s. c. 

Fed., . . 



47 


Rufus King, .... 

N. Y. 

47 


George Clinton,. . 
Vacancy, .... 

N. Y. 

Rep., . . 



6 

1 


John Langdon,. . . 

N. H. 

9 









James Madison, . . 

Va. 

3 









James Monroe, . . . 

Va. 

3 

1812 

James Madison, . 

Va. 

Rep., . . 

18 

218 

128 


Elbridge Gerry, . . 

Mass. 

131 


He Witt Clinton, . 

N. Y. 

Fed., . . 



89 


Jared Ingersoll, . . 

Pa. 

86 

1816 

James Monroe, . . 

Va. 

Rep., . . 

19 

22 i 

183 


D. D. Tompkins, . . 

N. Y. 

183 


Rufus King, . . . 
Vacancies, .... 

N. Y. 

Fed., . . 



34 

4 


John E. Howard, . . 

Md. 

22 









James Ross, . . . 

Pa. 

5 

1820 

James Monroe, . . 

Va. 

Rep., . . 

24 

235 

231 


John Marshall, . . . 
Robert G. Harper, . 

Va. 

Md. 

4 

3 


John Q. Adams, . 
Vacancy. 

Mass. 

Rep., . . 



1 


D. D. Tompkins, . . 

N. Y. 

218 

1 









Richard Stockton, . 

N~ 

8 








































































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


619 


POPULAR VOTE FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT 
FROM 1789 TO THE PRESENT —Continued 


Year 

Presidential 

Candidates 

State 

Party 

Vote 

Candidates for Vice-President 

States 

Voting 

Total Vote 

Electoral 

Vote 

Popular 

Vote 

Name 

State 

Electoral 

Vote 









Daniel Rodney, . . 

Del. 

4 









Robert G. Harper, . 

Md. 

1 









Richard Rush, . . . 

Pa. 

1 

1824 

John Q. Adams, . 

Mass. 

Rep., . . 

24 

261 

84$ 

108,740 

John C. Calhoun, . . 

S. C. 

182 


Andrew Jackson, . 

Tenn. 

Dem., . . 


, 

99$ 

153,544 

Nathan Sanford, . . 

N. Y. 

30 


Henry Clay, . . . 

Ky. 

Rep., . . 



37 

47,136 

Nathaniel Macon, 

N. C. 

24 


W. H. Crawford, . 

Ga. 

Rep., . . 


• • • 

46 

46,618 

Andrew Jackson, . . 

Tenn. 

13 









Martin Van Buren, . 

N. Y. 

9 









Henry Clay, .... 

Ky. 

2 


Vacancy, .... 









1 

1828 

Andrew Jackson, . 

Tenn. 

Dem., . . 

24 

261 

178 

647,286 

John C. Calhoun, . . 

s'. C. 

171 


John Q. Adams, . 

Mass. 

Nat. Rep. 



83 

508,064 

Richard Rush, . . . 

Pa. 

83 









William Smith, . . . 

S. C. 

7 

1832 

Andrew Jackson, . 

Tenn. 

Dem. . . 

24 

288 

219 

687,502 

Martin Van Buren, . 

N. Y. 

189 


Henry Clay, , . . 

Ky. 

Nat. Rep. 



49 

530,189 

John Sergeant, . . . 

Pa. 

49 


John Floyd, . . . 

Ga. 

Ind., . . 



11 


Henry Lee. 

Mass. 

11 


William Wirt, . . 

Md. 

Anti-M., 



7 


Amos Ellmaker, . . 

Pa. 

7 


Vacancies, .... 





2 


William Wilkins, . . 

Pa. 

30 

1836 

Martin Van Buren, 

N. Y. 

Dem. . . 

26 

294 

170 

762,678 

R.M. Johnson, . . . 

Ky. 

147 


Wm. H. Harrison, 

Ohio 

Whig, . . 



73 

) 

Francis Granger, . . 

N. Y. 

77 


Hugh L. White, . 

Tenn. 

Whig, . . 



26 

y 735,651 

John Tyler, .... 

Va. 

47 


Daniel Webster, . 

Mass. 

Whig, . . 



14 

f 

William Smith, . . 

Ala. 

23 


W. P. Mangum, 

N. C. 

Whig, . . 


• (». 

11 





1840 

Wm. H. Harrison, 

Ohio 

Whig, . . 

26 

294 

234 

1,275,016 

John Tyler, .... 

Va. 

234 


Martin Van Buren, 

N. Y. 

Dem., . . 



60 

1,129,102 

R.M. Johnson, . . . 

Ky. 

48 


James G. Birney, . 

N. Y. 

Lib., . . 



. . • 

7,069 

L. W. Tazewell, . . 

Va. 

11 









James K. Polk, . . . 

Tenn. 

1 









Thomas Earle, . . . 

Pa. 


1844 

James K. Polk, . . 

Tenn. 

Dem., . . 

26 

275 

170 

1,337,243 

George M. Dallas, 

Pa. 

170 


Henry Clay, . . . 

Ky. 

Whig, . . 



105 

1,299,062 

T. Frelinghuysen, 

N. J. 

105 


James G. Birney, . 

N. Y. 

Lib., . . 



. . . 

62,300 

Thomas Morris, . . 

Ohio 


1848 

Zachary Taylor, . 

La. 

Whig, . . 

30 

290 

163 

1,360,099 

Millard Fillmore, . . 

N. Y. 

163 


Lewis Cass, . . . 

Mich. 

Dem., . . 



127 

1,220,544 

Wm. O. Butler, . . 

Ky. 

127 


Martin Van Buren, 

N. Y. 

F. S., . . 



. . • 

291,263 

Chas. F. Adams, . . 

Mass. 


1852 

Franklin Pierce, . 

N. H. 

Dem., . . 

31 

296 

254 

1,601,274 

William R. King, . . 

Ala. 

254 


Winfield Scott, . . 

N. J. 

Whig, . . 



42 

1,386,580 

Wm. A. Graham, . . 

N. C. 

42 


John P. Hale, . . 

N. H. 

Fed. D., 




155,825 

George W. Julian, . 

Ind. 



Daniel Webster, . 

Mass. 

Whig, . . 




1,670 




1856 

James Buchanan, . 

Pa. 

Dem.,. . 

31 

296 

174 

1,838,169 

J. C. Breckenridge, . 

Ky. 

174 


John C. Fremont, . 

Cal. 

Rep., . . 



114 

1,341,264 

Wm. L. Dayton, . . 

N. J. 

114 


Millard Fillmore, . 

N. Y. 

Amer., . 



8 

874,534 

A. J. Donelson,. . . 

Tenn. 

8 

1860 

Abraham Lincoln, 

Ill. 

Rep., . . 

33 

303 

180 

1,866,452 

Hannibal Hamlin, . 

Me. 

180 


J. C. Breckenridge, 

Ky. 

Dem., . . 



72 

847,953 

Joseph Lane, . . . 

Ind. 

72 


Stephen A. Douglas, 

Ill. 

Union D., 



39 

1,375,157 

H. V. Johnson, . . . 

Ga. 

39 


John Bell, .... 

Tenn. 

Amer., . 



12 

590,631 

Edward Everett, . . 

Mass. 

12 

1864 

Abraham Lincoln, 

Ill. 

Rep., . . 

36 

314 

212 

2,213,665 

Andrew Johnson, . . 

Tenn. 

212 


Geo. B. McClellan, 

N. J. 

Dem., . . 



21 

1,802,237 

G. H. Pendleton, . . 

Ohio 

21 

1868 

Ulysses S. Grant, . 

Ill. 

Rep., . . 

37 

317 

214 

3,012,833 

Schuyler Colfax, . . 

Ind. 

214 


Horatio Seymour, 

N. Y. 

Dem., 



80 

2,703,249 

F. P. Blair, Jr.,. . . 

Mo. 

80 

1872 

Ulysses S. Grant, . 

Ill. 

Rep., . . 

37 

366 

286 

3,597,132 

Henry Wilson, . . . 

Mass. 

286 


Horace Greeley, . 

N. Y. 

D.& L., . 



II 

2,834,125 

B. Gratz Brown, . . 

Mo. 

47 


Charles O’Conor, . 

N. Y. 

Dem., . . 




29,489 

John Q. Adams, . . 

Mass. 



James Black, . . . 

Pa. 

Temp., . 




5,608 

John Russell, . . . 

Mich. 



Thos. A. Hendricks, 

Ind. 

Dem., . . 



42 


Geo. W. Julian, . . 

Ind. 

5 


B. Gratz Brown, . 

Mo. 

Dem., . . 



18 


A. H. Colquitt, . . . 

Ga. 

5 


Charles J. Jenkins, 

Ga. 

Dem., . . 



2 


J. M. Palmer, . . . 

Ill. 

3 


David Davis, . . . 

Ill. 

Ind., .. . 



1 


T. E. Bramlette, . . 

Ky. 

3 


Not counted, . . . 





17 

- 

W. S. Grosbeck, . . 

Ohio 

1 


* ' 






W. B. Machen, . . . 

Ky. 

1 









N. P. Banks, .... 

Mass. 

1 

1876 

Ruth’d B. Hayes,. 

Ohio 

Rep., . . 

38 

369 

185 

4,036,298 

Wm. A. Wheeler, . . 

N. Y. 

185 


Samuel J. Tilden, . 

N. Y. 

Dem., . . 



184 

4,300,590 

T. A. Hendricks, . . 

Ind. 

184 


Peter Cooper, . . 

N. Y. 

Grb., . . 



. , , 

81,737 

Samuel F. Cary, . . 

Ohio 



Green Clay Smith, 

Ky. 

Pro., . . 



. . • 

9,522 

G. T. Stewart, . . . 

Ohio 



James B. Walker,. 

Ill. 

Amer., . 




2,636 

D. Kirkpatrick, . . 

N. Y. 


1880 

James A. Garfield, 

Ohio 

Rep., . . 

38 

369 

214 

4,454,416 

Chester A. Arthur, . 

N. Y. 

214 


Win’d S. Hancock, 

Pa. 

Dem., . . 



155 

4,444,952 

Wm. H. English, . . 

Ind. 

155 


James B. Weaver, 

Iowa 

Grb., . . 




308,578 

B. J. Chambers, . . 

Tex. 



Neal Dow, .... 

Me. 

Pro., . . 




10,305 

H. A. Thompson, . . 

Ohio 



John W. Phelps, . 

Vt. 

Amer., . 




707 

S. C. Pomeroy, . . . 

Kan. 


1884 

Grover Cleveland, 

N. Y. 

Dem., . . 

38 

40 i 

219 

4,874,986 

T. A. Hendricks, . . 

Ind. 

219 


James G. Blaine, . 

Me. 

Rep., . . 



182 

4,851,981 

John A. Logan, . . 

Ill. 

182 


John P. St. John, 

Kan. 

Pro., . . 




150,369 

William Daniel, . . 

Md. 



Benjamin F. Butler, 

Mass. 

People’s,. 

• . • 



175,370 

A. M. West. 

Miss. 



P. D. Wigginton, . 

Cal. 

Amer., . 








1888 

Benjamin Harrison, 

Ind. 

Rep., . . 

38 

401 

233 

5,439,853 

Levi P. Morton, . . 

N. Y. 

233 


Grover Cleveland, 

N. Y. 

Dem., . . 


. 

168 

5,540,309 

A. G. Thurman, . . 

Ohio 

168 


Clinton B. Fisk, . 

N. J. 

Pro., . . 




249,506 

John A. Brooks, . . 

Mo. 



Alson J. Streeter, . 

Ill. 

U. L., . . 




146,935 

C. E. Cunningham, . 

Ark. 



R. H. Cowdry, . . 

Ill. 

N’d L., . 




2,808 

W. H. Wakefield,. . 

Kan. 


























































620 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


POPULAR VOTE FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT 
FROM 1789 TO THE PRESENT —Continued_ 


Year 

Presidential 

Candidates 

State 


Vote 


Party 

States 

Vot¬ 

ing 

Total 

Vote 

Elec¬ 

toral 

Vote 

Popular 

Vote 


James L. Curtis, . 

N. Y. 

Amer., . 




1,591 

1892 

Grover Cleveland, 

N. Y. 

Dem., . . 

44 

444 

277 

5,556,918 


Benjamin Harrison, 

Ind. 

Rep., . . 



145 

5,176,108 


James B. Weaver, 

Iowa 

People’s, 



22 

1,041,028 


John Bidwell, . . 

Cal. 

Pro., . . 



. . • 

264,133 


Simon Wing, . . . 

Mass. 

Soc. L., . 




21,164 

1896 

William McKinley, 

Ohio 

Rep., . . 

45 

447 

271 

7,104,779 


William J. Bryan, 

Neb. 

Dem., [ 



176 

6,502,925 


William J. Bryan, 

Neb. 

People’s, f 


. . . 



John M. Palmer, . 

Ill. 

Nat.Dem., 



. . • 

133,148 


Joshua Levering, . 

Md. 

Pro., . 



. . • 

132,007 


Chas. H. Matchett, 

N. Y. 

Soc. L., . 



. . • 

36,274 


Chas. E. Bentley, . 

Neb. 

Nat., . . 



. . • 

13,969 

1900 

William McKinley, 

Ohio 

Rep., . . 

45 

447 

292 

7,207,923 


William J. Bryan, 

iNeb. 

Dem.&P., 



155 

6,358,133 


John G. Woolley, . 

Ill. 

Pro., .. . 




208,914 


Eugene V. Debs, . 

Ind. 

S. D., . . 




87,814 


Wharton Barker, . 

Pa. 

M. R. P., 




50,373 


Jos. F. Malloney, . 

Mass. 

Soc. L., . 




39,739 


Seth H. Ellis, . . 

Ohio 

U. R... . 




5,698 


J. F. R. Leonard, . 

Iowa 

U. C., . . 




1,059 

1904 

TheodoreRoosevelt, 

N. Y. 

Rep., . . 

45 

476 

336 

7,623,486 


Alton B. Parker, . 

N. Y. 

Dem., . . 



140 

5,077,911 


Eugene V. Debs, . 

Ind. 

Soc., . . 



. . . 

402,283 


Silas C. Swallow, . 

Pa. 

Pro., . 


S' * 

. . . 

258,536 


Thomas E.Watson, 

Ga. 

People’s.. 



. . . 

117,183 


Charles H.Corrigan, 

N. Y. 

Soc. L., . 




31,249 

1908 

William H. Taft, . 

Ohio 

Rep., . . 

46 

483 

32i 

7,678,908 


William J. Bryan, 

Neb. 

Dem., 



162 

6,409,104 


Eugene V. Debs, . 

Ind. 

Soc., . . 




420,793 


Eugene W. Chafin, 

Ill. 

Pro., . . 




253,840 


Thomas L. Hisgen, 

Mass. 

Ind. L., . 




82,872 


Thomas E. Watson, 

Ga. 

Peo., . . 


. * • 


29,100 


August Gillhaus, . 

N. Y. 

Soc. L., . 




13,825 

1912 

Woodrow Wilson,. 

N. J. 

Dem., . . 

48 

531 

435 

6,293,454 


William H. Taft, . 

Ohio 

Rep.,. . . 



8 

3,484,980 


Theodore Roosevelt, 

N. Y. 

Prog., . . 



88 

4,119,538 


Eugene V. Debs, 

Ind. 

Soc.,. . . 



. . • 

900,672 


Eugene W. Chafin, 

Ariz. 

Pro ,. . . 




206,275 


Arthur E. Reimer, 

Mass. 

Soc. L., . 




28,750 


Candidates for Vice-President 


Name 

State 

Elec¬ 

toral 

Vote 

James B. Greer, . . 

Tenn. 


A. E. Stevenson, . . 

Ill. 

277 

Whitelaw Reid, . . 

N. Y. 

145 

James G. Field, . . 

Va. 

22 

James R. Cranfill, . 

Texas 


C. H. Matchett, . . 

N. Y. 


Garret A. Hobart, . 

N. J. 

271 

Arthur Sewall, . . 

Me. 

149 

Th. E. Watson, . . 

Ga. 

27 

Sim. B. Buckner, . . 

Ky. 


Hale Johnson, . . . 

Ill. 


Matthew McGuire, . 

N. J. 


J. H. Southgate, . . 

N. C. 


Theo. Roosevelt, . . 

N. Y. 

292 

A. E. Stevenson, . . 

Ill. 

155 

Henry B. Metcalf, . 

R. I. 


Job Harriman, . . . 

Cal. 


Ignatius Donnelly, . 

Minn. 


Val. Remmel, . . . 

Pa. 


Sam T. Nicholson, . 

Pa. 


John G. Woolley, . . 

Ill. 


Charles W. Fairbanks, 

Ind. 

336 

Henry G. Davis, . . 

W. Va. 

140 

Benjamin Hanford,. 

N. Y. 


George W. Carroll, . 

Texas 


Thomas H. Tibbies,. 

Neb. 


William W. Cox, . . 

Ill. 


James S. Sherman, . 

N. Y. 

321 

John W. Kern, . . 

Ind. 

162 

Benjamin Hanford,. 

N. Y. 


Aaron S. Watkins, . 

Ohio 


John Temple Graves, 

Ga. 


Samuel Williams,. . 

Ind. 


Donald L. Munro, , 

Va. 


Thos. R. Marshall, . 

Ind. 

435 

Nicholas M. Butler, . 

N. Y. 

8 

Hiram W. Johnson,. 

Cal. 

88 

Emil Seidel, .... 

Wis. 


Aaron S. Watkins,. . 

Ohio 


August Gillhaus,. . . 

N. Y. 



* Prior to 1804 each elector was entitled to vote for two candidates for President. The candidate receiving 
the greatest number of votes was declared elected, while the candidate receiving the next highest vote was declared 
Vice-President, t Three States not voting, t It is claimed that the first Republican party was the progenitor 
of the present Democratic party. § As there was no election the choice was decided by the House of Representatives. 
|| Owing to the death of Horace Greeley the Democratic electors scattered their vote. 


Rhode Island. On May 29, 1790, the 
State accepted the Federal Constitution and 
entered the Union as one of the thirteen original 
States. The charter of 1663, however, contin¬ 
ued to be the constitutional law of the State 
down to 1842. In that year a new Constitu¬ 
tion was adopted, which, with amendments, 
provides for a Legislature called the General 
Assembly, consisting of a Senate and a House 
of Representatives. The Senate has thirty-eight 
members, besides the lieutenant-governor who is 
ex-officio president. The House of Representa¬ 
tives consists of one hundred members, twelve 
of whom are from the city of Providence and 
the remainder from the other cities and towns 
according to population. Concurrent action 
between the two legislative bodies is necessary 
for the enactment of laws. Senators and repre¬ 
sentatives are elected at town, ward, and district 
meetings biennially in November, and hold office 
for two years, commencing on the first Tuesday 
in January. The governor is the chief executive 
officer of the State. He has the power to 
veto in legislation; most of his appointments 
require the consent of the Senate. By and 
with the advice and consent of the Senate, he 
exercises the pardoning power. The governor, 
lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, attorney- 


general, and general treasurer are elected bien¬ 
nially in the same manner, and at the same time, 
as the senators and representatives. The State 
is divided into five counties and thirty-eight cities 
and towns. The county divisions are now 
recognized only for the holding of courts and 
as defining the jurisdiction of sheriffs. A board 
of control and supply controls all state institu¬ 
tions and a commission regulates common 
carriers and other public utilities. 

Rumania. The Constitution now in force 
in Rumania was voted by a Constituent Assem¬ 
bly, elected by universal suffrage, in the summer 
of 1866. It has twice been modified, viz., in 
1879, and again in 1884. The Senate consists 
of 120 members, elected for eight years, includ¬ 
ing two for the universities, and eight bishops. 
The heir to the crown is also a senator. The 
Chamber of Deputies consists of 183 members, 
elected for four years. A senator must be 40 
years of age, and a deputy 25. Members 
of either House must be Rumanians by 
birth or naturalization, in full enjoyment of 
civil and political rights, and domiciled in the 
country. For the Senate an assured income of 
9,400 lei (SI,880) is required. All citizens of full 
age, paying taxes, are electors, and are divided 
into three electoral colleges. For the Chamber 



















































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


621 


of Deputies, electors who are in possession of 
property bringing in $250 or upwards per annum 
vote in the first college. Those having their 
domicile and residence in an urban commune, 
and paying direct taxes to the state of $4 or 
upwards annually, or being persons exercising 
the liberal professions, retired officers, or State 
pensioners, or who have been through the pri¬ 
mary course of education, vote in the second 
college. The third college is composed of those 
who, paying any tax, however small, to the 
State, belong to neither of the other colleges; 
those of them who can read and write and have 
an income of 300 lei ($60) from rural land, vote 
directly, as do also the village priests and school¬ 
masters, the rest vote indirectly. For each 
election every fifty indirect electors choose a 
delegate, and the delegates vote along with the 
direct electors of the colleges. For the Senate 
there are only two colleges. The first consists 
of those electors having property yielding an¬ 
nually at least $400; the second, of those persons 
whose income from property is from $160 to $400 
per annum. At the election of 1905 there were 
altogether 93,622 enrolled electors for the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies, and 64,086 voted; for the Sen¬ 
ate there were 24,571 enrolled electors, and 16,- 
648 voted. Both Senators and Deputies receive 
20 lei ($4) for each day of actual attendance, 
besides free railway passes. The king has a sus¬ 
pensive veto over all laws passed by the Chamber 
of Deputies and the Senate. The executive is 
vested in a council of eight ministers, the presi¬ 
dent of which is prime minister, and may or may 
not have a special department. 

Russian Empire. The Government of 
Russia is a constitutional hereditary monarchy, 
but, in fact, the whole legislative, executive, and 
judicial power is united in the Emperor, whose 
will alone is law. On August 6 (19), 1905, how¬ 
ever, an elective State Council (Gosudarstven- 
naya Duma) was created, and on October 17 
(30) a law was promulgated granting to the pop¬ 
ulation the firm foundations of public liberty, 
based on the principles of the real inviolability 
of the person, and of freedom of conscience, 
speech, assembly, and association, and estab¬ 
lishing as an unalterable rule that no law shall 
come into effect without the approval of the 
Duma, and that to the elected of the people 
shall be guaranteed the possibility of a real par¬ 
ticipation in the control of the legality of the 
acts of such authorities as are appointed by the 
Emperor. The Duma consists of members elected 
for five years and representing the governments 
or provinces and also St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
and five other of the greatest cities. The 
election of the Deputies is indirect, and is 
made by electoral bodies of the chief towns of 
governments or provinces and of the greatest 
cities, composed of delegates chosen by the dis¬ 
trict or town elective assemblies. In towns, all 
lodgers occupying for twelve months lodging let 
to them, may vote in these assemblies, also sal¬ 
aried clerks of state, or of municipal or railway 
administration; in the country, all owners of a 
determinate area of land, different in different 
districts, or of non-industrial estate more than 
50,000 roubles in value, are electors; the 
volosts or peasant communities and manufac¬ 


tories with more than fifty work people are rep¬ 
resented in the electoral assemblies by delegates, 
two for each volost, and one for each thousand 
workmen. Students, soldiers, governors of 
provinces (in provinces governed by them), and 
police-officers (in the localities for which they 
act) may not vote. Under a manifesto and 
ukases published on March 6, 1906 (N. S.), the 
Council of the Empire is reorganized and changes 
are made in the constitution of the Duma. 
The Council of the Empire is to consist of an 
equal number of elected members and members 
nominated by the Emperor, and will be convoked 
and prorogued annually by imperial ukase. 
The Council of the Empire and the Duma will 
have equal legislative powers and the same right 
of initiative in legislation and of addressing 
questions to ministers. Every measure, before 
being submitted for the imperial sanction, must 
be passed by both the Duma and the Council of 
the Empire, and all such as are rejected by one 
of the two legislative institutions will not be 
laid before the Tsar at all. Both the Duma 
and the Council have the right to annul the 
election of any of their members. The elective 
members of the Council will be eligible for 
nine years, a third of the number being elected 
every three years. Each assembly of the Zemstvo 
of each government will elect one member. 
Six members will be returned by the synod of 
the Orthodox Church, six by the representa¬ 
tives of the Academy of Sciences and the Uni¬ 
versities, twelve by the representatives of the 
bourses of commerce and of industry, eighteen 
by the representatives of the nobility, and six 
by the representatives of the landed proprietors 
of Poland, assembled in congress at Warsaw. 
The congress of the representatives of the 
Academy of Sciences, the nobility, and the 
commercial and industrial communities for the 
election of their members to the Council of 
the Empire will meet in St. Petersburg. In 
those provinces of European Russia which have 
no Zemstvo, a congress of the representatives of 
the landed proprietors will assemble in the chief 
town of their province to elect one member for 
each province to the Council of the Empire. 
All members of the Council must have attained 
their 40th year and have an academical degree. 
The president and the vice-president will be 
appointed by the Tsar. The elective members 
of the Council will receive an honorarium of 25 
roubles ($12.50) a day during the session. The 
sittings of both the Duma and the Council of 
the Empire will be public. The closure of a 
debate may be voted by a simple majority. 
Neither the Council of the Empire nor the Duma 
is empowered to receive deputations or petitions. 
Ministers will be eligible for the Duma and, in 
the capacity of elected members, qualified to 
vote. Members of the Duma are paid 10 rou¬ 
bles ($5) per day during session, and once a year 
traveling expenses to and from St. Petersburg 
at the rate of 5 kopecks per verst (40c. per mile). 
Laws voted by the two Houses will be sub¬ 
mitted for the imperial sanction by the presi¬ 
dent of the Council of the Empire. The mem¬ 
bers of both institutions will have the privilege 
of personal immunity during the session. They 
will only be liable to arrest with the permission 



622 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of the Duma or the Council of the Empire, as 
the case may be, except in cases of flagrant 
offences or offences committed in the exercise 
of their duties. The ukases further provide 
that bills rejected by the Tsar cannot be brought 
forward again in the course of the same session, 
while bills rejected by one of the legislative 
bodies cannot be brought forward again without 
the imperial consent. The administration of 
the empire is still entrusted to great boards, or 
councils, possessing separate functions. One 
of the great colleges, or boards of government, 
is the Ruling Senate or “ Pravitelstvuyush- 
chiy Senat,” established by Peter I. in the year 
1711. The functions of the Senate are partly 
of a deliberative and partly of an executive 
character. To be valid, a law must be promul¬ 
gated by the Senate. It is also the high court 
of justice for the empire. The Senate is divided 
into six departments or sections, which all sit 
at St. Petersburg, two of them being Courts.of 
Cassation. Each department is authorized to 
decide in the last resort upon certain descrip-' 
tions of cases. The Senators are mostly persons 
of high rank, or who fill high stations; but a 
lawyer of eminence presides over each depart¬ 
ment, who represents the emperor, and without 
whose signature its decisions would have no 
force. In the plenum, or general meeting of 
several sections, the minister of justice takes 
the chair. A special department consisting of 
six members is entrusted with disciplinary judg¬ 
ments against officials of the Crown. Another 
is the college, established by Peter I. in the 
year 1721, the Holy Synod, and to it is com¬ 
mitted the superintendence of the religious 
affairs of the empire. It is composed of the 
three metropolitans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
and Kiev), the archbishop of Georgia (Caucasus), 
and several bishops sitting in turn. All its de¬ 
cisions run in the emperor’s name, and have no 
force* till approved by him. A third board of 
government is the committee of ministers, re¬ 
organized by a decree of October 19 (November 
1), 1905. The fourth board of government, 
the most important since the decree for its 
reorganization issued October 19 (November 1), 
1905, is the council of ministers. It consists of 
all the ministers, and of the general directors of 
the most important administrations. 

Local Government .— The empire is divided 
into governments or provinces (oblast), and dis¬ 
tricts (uyezd or okrug). There are seventy-eight 
governments (forty-nine in European Russia 
proper, ten in Poland, eight in Finland, seven 
in Caucasus, four in Siberia). There are twenty- 
one provinces (one in European Russia, five in 
Caucasus, nine in Central Asia, six in Siberia) 
and one circuit, that of Sukhum in Caucasus. 
Some of the governments or provinces are 
united into general governments. At the head 
of each general government is a governor- 
general, the representative of the emperor, who 
as such has the supreme control and direction 
of all affairs, whether civil or military. In Si¬ 
beria the governors-general are each assisted 
by a council, which has a deliberative voice. A 
civil governor assisted by a council of regency, 
to which all measures must be submitted, is 
established in each government, and a military 


governor in seventeen provinces, one town 
(Kronstadt) and the island of Sakhalin. A vice- 
governor is appointed to fill the place of the 
civil governor when the latter is absent or un¬ 
well. There is, also, in each government a 
council of control under the presidency of a 
special officer, depending directly on the depart¬ 
ment of control. Each government is divided 
into from five to fifteen districts (815 in all Rus¬ 
sian Empire), having each several administrative 
institutions. The townships (gradonachalstvo) 
of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Kerch, 
Nikolayev, and Rostov-on-Don, are adminis¬ 
tered by special governors (gradonachalnik ); 
Cronstadt is under a separate military gov¬ 
ernor. 

Scotland. By the local government act 
of Great Britain, in 1894, a local government 
board for Scotland was constituted. It consists 
of the secretary for Scotland as president, the 
solicitor general of Scotland, the under secretary 
for Scotland, and other three members nomi¬ 
nated by the Crown. The local government act 
which was passed for Scotland in 1889, followed 
in its main outlines the English Act of the pre¬ 
vious year. The powers of local administration 
in counties formerly exercised by the commis¬ 
sioners of supply and road trustees were either 
wholly or in part transferred to the new councils, 
which took over their duties and responsibilities 
in 1890. The act of 1894 provided that a 
parish council should be established in every 
parish to take the place of the parochial boards 
and to exercise powers similar to those of the 
parish councils in England. Municipal bodies 
exist in the towns of Scotland, as in those of 
England, but instead of their magistrates being 
called aldermen, they are called bailies, and 
instead of their chief magistrates being called 
mayors they are called provosts. There are in 
Scotland five kinds of burghs — (1) burghs of 
barony; (2) burghs of regality- (no practical dis¬ 
tinction between these two); the councils of 
these two classes of burghs ceased to exist in 
1893, by statutory enactment; (3) royal burghs, 
representatives of which meet together annually 
in a collective corporate character, as the “ con¬ 
vention of royal burghs,” for the transaction of 
business; (4) parliamentary burghs, which pos¬ 
sess statutory constitutions almost identical 
with those of the royal burghs; (5) police burghs, 
constituted under the burgh police (Scotland) 
act, 1892, in which the local authority are the 
police commissioners. These two latter burghs, 
by acts passed in 1879 and 1895, are enabled to 
send representatives to the convention. 

Servia. The independence of Servia, which 
was formerly an autonomous province of Tur¬ 
key, was established by the Treaty of Berlin, 
1878. The constitution, voted by the national 
assembly of 1889, was abrogated by the king in 
May, 1894, and an older constitution of 1869, 
temporarily revived; but in 1903 the 1889 con¬ 
stitution was restored. The executive is vested 
in the king and his ministers, and the legislative 
authority in the king in conjunction with the 
national assembly or narodna-skuptschina and 
a state council. The former contains 160 deputies 
elected by universal male suffrage for four 
years; the latter sixteen members, eight nom- 



GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


623 


inated by the king and eight elected by the 
assembly. 

Siam. The executive power is exercised by 
the king advised by a cabinet (senabodi) con¬ 
sisting of the heads of the various departments 
of the government: foreign affairs, interior, 
justice, finance, public instruction, public works, 
war, marine, police, etc. Most of the portfolios 
are held by the king’s half-brothers and uncles. 
The law of 1874, constituting a council of state, 
has now been superseded by the royal decree of 
1895, creating a legislative council. The latter 
is composed of the ministers of state and others, 
not less than twelve in number, appointed by 
the Crown. The total membership is now 
forty. In the preamble to the royal decree it is 
stated that the object of this body is to revise, 
amend, and complete the legislation of the king¬ 
dom. It is to meet at least once a week, and it may 
appoint committees of three or four members, with 
the addition of competent outsiders who must not 
outnumber the members. An important article 
gives the legislative council power to promulgate 
laws without the royal assent in the event of any 
temporary disability of the Crown. At other 
times the royal signature is indispensable. This 
council has shown considerable legislative activ- J 
ity. The Siamese Malay States are administered 
by the rajahs mostly under the control of com¬ 
missioners sent from Bangkok. 

South Carolina. The first Constitution, 
adopted in 1776, was succeeded by others in 
1778, 1790, 1865, 1868, and 1895, the last-named 
being still in force. Amendments proposed in 
either House of the Legislature, and approved by 
a two-thirds vote of each House, are submitted 
to the popular vote; if approved by a majority 
of the voters and by a majority of each House 
of the next Legislature, they become part of the 
Constitution. The Legislature, called the General 
Assembly, consists of a Senate of forty-two 
members, elected for four years (half retiring 
biennially), and a House of Representatives of 
124 members, elected for two years. Senators 
must be 25, and Representatives 21 years of age, 
and all the Legislators must be duly qualified 
electors of the State. Revenue bills must origi¬ 
nate in the House of Representatives. The chief 
executive officer of the State is the governor, 
elected for two years. He is commander-in-chief 
of the militia, has power to pardon or reprieve, 
and has a veto which may be overcome by a 
two-thirds vote of both Houses. He may call 
special sessions of the Legislature. Other State 
officials are the lieutenant-governor, the treas¬ 
urer, the attorney-general, the comptroller-gen¬ 
eral, the adjutant general, and the superintend¬ 
ent of education. 

South Dakota. Under the Constitution 
of South Dakota, adopted in 1889, the legislative 
power is vested in a Senate and a House of Repre¬ 
sentatives; but to the people is reserved the 
right that not less than 5 per cent, of the electors 
may (1) propose measures which the Legislature 
shall enact and submit to a vote of the general 
body of electors; (2) demand a referendum in 
respect to laws enacted by the Legislature, before 
such laws take effect, save in cases of urgency. 
The Constitution provides that the Senate shall 
consist of not less than twenty-five and not more | 


than forty-five members, and the House of Rep¬ 
resentatives of not less than seventy-five, nor 
more than 135 members. Both Senators and 
Representatives must, among other qualifications, 
have reached the age of 25 years and have 
resided in the State for two years immediately 
preceding election. The term of office of both 
is two years. Any bill may originate in either 
House. The House of Representatives has the 
sole power of impeachment; impeachments 
must be tried by the Senate. The chief execu¬ 
tive authority is in the hands of a governor, 
elected for two years. He himself must be a 
qualified elector and a citizen of the United 
States, must have attained the age of 30 years, 
and have resided in the State during the two 
years immediately preceding his election. He 
has the powers usually resident in State govern¬ 
ors, including the limited veto and pardoning 
powers. At the same time as the governor, and 
for the same period, there are elected a lieuten¬ 
ant-governor, who acts as president of the 
Senate, a secretary of state, an auditor, a 
treasurer (who may not hold office for more than 
two terms consecutively), a superintendent of 
public instruction, a commissioner of schools and 
! public lands, and an attorney-geperal. 

Spain. By the constitution of 1876, Spain 
is declared a constitutional monarchy, with the 
executive power vested in the king, and the leg¬ 
islative power in the cortes with the king. The 
cortes consists of senate and congress. The 
senate is composed of three classes: those who 
sit by right of royal or noble birth or official 
position, 100 members nominated by the Crown 
(these two classes not numbering more than 180 
together), and 180 elected by the communal 
and provincial states, the church, the universi¬ 
ties, and the largest taxpayers of the kingdom. 
The elected senators must be renewed by one- 
half every five years, and altogether whenever 
the cortes are dissolved. The congress contains 
406 deputies, elected for five years by citizens of 
25 years of age who have enjoyed full civil rights 
in any municipality for two years. There is 
some provision for minority representation, and 
for the election of ten deputies, who, though not 
returned in any single district, yet receive a 
cumulative vote of more than 10,000 in several 
districts. The senate and congress are equal in 
authority, and either of them, or the king, can 
introduce new laws. Each of the forty-nine 
provinces has its own parliament, and each com¬ 
mune its own elected ayuntamiento, presided 
over by the alcalde, for municipal and provincial 
administration; and by the constitution neither 
the executive nor the cortes can (although they 
do) interfere in municipal or provincial admin¬ 
istration, except for the protection of national 
and permanent interests. The national church 
of Spain is the Roman Catholic and nearly the 
whole population is of that faith, but liberty of 
worship is now allowed to Protestants. 

In 1903 the army was reorganized on the basis 
of an effective force of 80,000 men, the second 
battalions of the infantry regiments and the 
fourth squadrons of the cavalry being reduced. 
In 1911 a law was passed making military service 
in Spain compulsory. The total strength of the 
I field army is about 220,000. 










624 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

STATE STATISTICS — HISTORICAL, 


States 


Alabama, 


Arizona, . 
Arkansas, 


California, 

Colorado, 


Connecticut, 
Delaware, . 


Florida, , 
Georgia, . 
Idaho,. . 


Illinois, 


Indiana, . 
Iowa, . . 


Kansas, . 
Kentucky, 


Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 


Massachusett 
Michigan, , 


Minnesota, . 
Mississippi,. 
Missouri, 
Montana, . 
Nebraska, . 


Nevada, . , 

New Hampshire, 
New Jersey, 


New Mexico, 
New York, 
North Carolina, 
North Dakota, 


Ohio, . . . . 
Oklahoma, . . 
Oregon, . . . 
Pennsylvania, 
Rhode Island, 


South Carolina, 
South Dakota, 


Tennessee, . 


Texas, 
Utah, . . 
Vermont, 
Virginia, . 


Washington, 


West Virginia, 
Wisconsin, . . 


Wyoming, 


Origin and Meaning 
of Name 


Indian — Here we rest, 


Spanish-Indian — Little Creeks, 
From a tribe of Indians, . . . 


From an old Spanish romance, 
Spanish — Red, or Ruddy, . 


Indian — Long River, . . 
In honor of Lord Delaware, 


Spanish — Blooming. 

In honor of George II., . . . . 
Indian — Gem of the Mountains, 


Indian — The Men, 


Indian’s Ground, . . 
Indian — Drowsy Ones, 


Indian — Smoky Water, . . . 
Indian — Dark and Bloody 

Ground, . .. 

In honor of Louis XIV. 

The Main Land,. 

In honor of Queen Henrietta 

Maria, .. 

The place of great hills. 

Indian — A weir of fish, . . . 


Indian — Cloudy Water, 


Indian — Great River, or Father 
of Waters, . . . . 

Indian — Great Muddy, 


Spanish — A Mountain, 
Indian — Shallow Water, 


Spanish — Snow-covered, 
Hampshire, England, . . 

In honor of governor of Jersey 
Island,. 


In honor of Duke of York, 
In honor of Charles II., . 
Indian — Allied, .... 


Indian — Beautiful River, . . 
Indian — Beautiful Land, . . . 
Spanish — Wild Marjoram, . . 

Latin — Penn’s Woods. 

Rhodes, an island in the iEgian 

Sea,. 

In honor of Charles II., . . . . 
Indian — Allied,. 


Indian — River with the great 

bend, .. 

From tribe of Indians, .... 
Indian — Mountain Dwellers, . 
French — Green Mountain, . . 
In honor of Elizabeth, the Vir¬ 
gin Queen,. 

After George Washington, first 
President of United States, . 

From Virginia, . 

Indian — Wild Rushing Channel, 


Indian — Extensive Plain, 


Date of 

f SETTLEMENT 

Area 

Square 

Miles 

POPULA- 

Admis¬ 

sion 

into 

Union 

Where 

When 

By Whom 

TION 

When 

Admitted 

1819 

Mobile Bay, . . 

1702 

French, 

52,250 

127,901 

1912 

1836 

Tucson, .... 
Arkansas Post, . 

1580 

1685 

Spanish, 

French, 

113,020 

53,850 

204,354 

97,574 

1850 

1876 

San Diego, . . 
Auraria, . . . 

1768 

1859 

Spanish, 

American, 

158,360 

103,925 

92,597 

39,864 

*1788 

*1787 

Windsor, . . . 
Wilmington, . . 

1633 

1637 

English, 

Swedes, 

4,990 

2,050 

237,946 

59,098 

1845 

*1788 

1890 

St. Augustine, . 
Savannah, . . 
Coeur d’Alene, . 

1565 

1733 

1842 

Spanish, 

English, 

American, 

58,680 

59,475 

84,800 

87,445 

82,748 

113,777 

1818 

Kaskaskia, . . 

1682 

French, 

56,650 

55,211 

1816 

1846 

Vincennes,. . . 
Dubuque, . . . 

1702 

1833 

French, 

American, 

36,350 

56,025 

147,178 

192,214 

1861 

Leavenworth, . 

1854 

American, 

82,080 

107,206 

1792 

1812 

1820 

Boonesboro, . . 
New Orleans, . 
Saco, . 

1769 

1718 

1623 

English, 

French, 

English, 

40,400 

48,720 

33,040 

73,077 

76,556 

298,335 

*1788 

*1788 

1837 

St. Mary’s, . . 
Plymouth, . . 
Sault Ste. Marie, 

1632 

1620 

1668 

English, 

English, 

French, 

12,210 

8,315 

58,915 

319,728 

475,327 

212,267 

1858 

St. Paul, . . . 

1838 

American, 

83,365 

172,793 

1817 

1821 

Biloxi, .... 
St. Genevieve, . 

1699 

1755 

French, 

French, 

46,810 

69,415 

75,448 

66,586 

1889 

Yellowstone River 

1809 

American, 

146,080 

175,000 

1867 

Bellevue, . . . 

1847 

American, 

77,520 

122,993 

1864 

*1788 

Genoa, .... 
Portsmouth, . . 

1850 

1623 

American, 

English, 

/ 

Dutch, 

Spanish, 

Dutch, 

English, 

American, 

110,700 

9,305 

42,491 

141,885 

*1787 

1912 

*1788 

*1789 

1889 

Elizabethtown,. 
Santa F6, . . . 
New York, . . 
Albemarle Sound, 
Pembino, . . . 

1617 

1582 

1614 

1653 

1859 

7,815 

122,580 

49,170 

52,250 

70,795 

184,139 

327,301 

340,120 

393,751 

415,610 

1803 

1907 

1859 

*1787 

Marietta, . . . 
Guthrie, . . . 
Astoria, .... 
Chester. 

1788 

1890 

1811 

1638 

American, 

American, 

American, 

Swedes, 

41,060 

70,057 

96,030 

45,215 

45,365 

1,414,042 

52,566 

434,373 

*1790 

*1788 

1889 

Providence, . . 
Ashley River, . 
Southeast part, 

1636 

1670 

1859 

English, 

English, 

American, 

1,250 

30,570 

77,650 

69,110 

249,073 

568,477 

1796 

1845 

1896 

1791 

Fort Loudon, . 
San Antonio, 

Salt Lake City,. 
Fort Dummer, . 

1757 

1692 

1847 

1724 

English, 

Spanish, 

American, 

English, 

42,050 

265,780 

84,970 

9,565 

30,791 

212,592 

207,905 

85,416 

*1788 

Jamestown, . . 

1607 

English, 

42,450 

748,308 

1889 

1863 

1848 

Columbia River, 
Berkeley County, 
Green Bay, . . 

1811 

1726? 

1745 

English, 

American, 

French, 

69,180 

24,780 

56,040 

143,669 

376,688 

305,391 

1890 

Cheyenne, . . . 

1867 

American, 

97,890 

100,000 


* Dates of ratifying the Constitution by the Thirteen Original States, 
early settlements; best authorities differ. 


t Considerable uncertainty exists relative to 


TERRITORIES AND INSULAR 


Territories and Insular 
Possessions 

Date of 
Settle¬ 
ment 

Place of 
Settlement 

By Whom 
Settled 

Capitals 

Organ¬ 

ized 

Popula¬ 
tion When 
Organized 

Alaska, . 

Hawaiian Islands,. 

Porto Rico,. 

1783 

1820 

1509 

1565 

Kodiak, . . 
Honolulu,. . 

Russians, . . . 

Americans, . . 

Spaniards, . . 

Spaniards, . . 

Juneau, .... 
Honolulu, . . . 
San Juan, . . . 
Manila, .... 

1884 

1900 

29,097 

154,001 

Philippine Islands, .. 

Cebu, . . . 
































































































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


625 


GEOGRAPHICAL, AND INDUSTRIAL 


Original Names, or Territory from 
which Derived 


Louisiana and Georgia, Mississippi Territory, 

Alabama Territory,. 

Mexico,. 

Louisiana, Louisiana Territory, Missouri Terri¬ 
tory, Arkansas Territory,. 

New Albion, Upper California,.. . . 

Louisiana and Mexican cession. Colorado Terri¬ 
tory. 

North Virginia, New England,. 

New Sweden, New Netherland, three lower coun¬ 
ties on the Delaware, .. 

Florida Territory.! ! ! ! ! 

One of the Thirteen Original States, ! ! ! ! * 
Oregon Territory, Washington Territory, Idaho 

Territory, . 

Northwest Territory, Indiana Territory, Illinois 

Territory, . 

Northwest Territory, Indian Territory, . ! ! ! 
Louisiana, Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin, and 

Iowa Territories. 

Louisiana, Kansas Territory,. 

Virginia. 

Louisiana, Territory of Orleans. 

New England, Laconia, and Massachusetts, . . 
One of the Original States,. 

North Virginia, New England, Massachusetts Bay, 
Northwest Territory, Indiana Territory, Michi¬ 
gan Territory,.. 

Louisiana and Northwest Territory, Minnesota 

Territory. 

Louisiana and Georgia, Mississippi Territory, . 

Louisiana, Louisiana Territory, Missouri Terri¬ 
tory. 

Louisiana, Nebraska Territory, Idaho Territory, 
Dakota Territory, Montana Territory, . , . 

Louisiana, Nebraska Territory,. 

Upper California, Utah Territory, Nevada Terri¬ 
tory. 

North Virginia, New England, Laconia, .... 
New Netherland,. 

Mexico,. 

New Netherland. 

Albemarle Colony,. 

Louisiana, Minnesota, and Nebraska Territory, 

Dakota Territory.,. 

Northwest Territory. 

Indian Territory, Oklahoma Territory, .... 

Oregon Territory,. 

Original State,. 

North Virginia, New England, Aquiday, Provi¬ 
dence and Rhode Island Plantations, .... 

Carteret Colony,. 

Louisiana, Minnesota, and Nebraska Territories, 

Dakota Territory,. 

North Carolina, Territory south of the Ohio 
River,. 


Mexican Cession, Utah Territory, . . . 
New Netherland, New Hampshire Grants, 
South Virginia. 


Oregon Territory, Washington Territory, . . . 

Virginia, .. 

Northwest Territory, Illinois Territory, Michigan 

Territory, Wisconsin,.■ 

Louisiana (chiefly), Nebraska Territory, Dakota 
Territory, Idaho Territory, Wyoming Territory, 


Popula¬ 
tion, 1910 

Popula¬ 
tion, 1900 

% OF 

Inc. 

1900- 

10 

Rank 

Metropolis 

States 

2,138,093 

1,828,697 

16.9 

18 

Birmingham, . . 

Alabama. 

204,354 

122,931 

66.2 

45 

Tucson. 

Arizona. 

1,574,449 

1,311,564 

20.0 

25 

Little Rock, . . 

Arkansas. 

2,377,549 

1,485,053 

60.1 

12 

San Francisco, . 

California. 

799,024 

539,700 

48.0 

32 

Denver, .... 

Colorado. 

1,114,756 

908,420 

22.7 

31 

New Haven, . . 

Connecticut. 

202,322 

184,735 

9.5 

46 

Wilmington, . . 

Delaware. 

752,619 

528,542 

42.4 

33 

Jacksonville, . . 

Florida. 

2,609,121 

2,216,331 

17.7 

10 

Atlanta. 

Georgia. 

325,594 

161,772 

101.3 

44 

Boise City, . . . 

Idaho. 

5,638,591 

4,821,550 

16.9 

3 

Chicago. 

Illinois. 

2,700,876 

2,516,462 

7.3 

9 

Indianapolis, . . 

Indiana. 

2,224,771 

2,231,853 

-0.3 

15 

Des Moines, 

Iowa. 

1,690,949 

1,470,495 

15.0 

22 

Kansas City, . . 

Kansas. 

2,289,905 

2,147,174 

6.6 

14 

Louisville, . . . 

Kentucky. 

1,656,388 

1,381,625 

19.9 

24 

New Orleans, . . 

Louisiana. 

742,371 

694,466 

6.9 

34 

Portland, . . . 

Maine. 

1,295,346 

1,188,044 

9.0 

27 

Baltimore, . . . 

Maryland. 

3,366,416 

2,805,346 

20.0 

6 

Boston, .... 

Massachusetts. 

2,810,173 

2,420,982 

16.1 

8 

Detroit, .... 

Michigan. 

2,075,708 

1,751,394 

18.5 

19 

Minneapolis, . . 

Minnesota. 

1,797,114 

1,551,270 

15.8 

21 

Meridian, . . , 

Mississippi. 

3,293,335 

3,106,665 

6.0 

7 

St. Louis, . . . 

Missouri. 

376,053 

243,329 

54.5 

40 

Butte,. 

Montana. 

1,192,214 

1,066,300 

11.8 

29 

Omaha. 

Nebraska. 

81,875 

42,335 

93.4 

48 

Reno,. 

Nevada. 

430,572 

411,588 

4.6 

39 

Manchester, , 

New Hampshire. 

2,537,167 

1,883,669 

34.7 

11 

Newark, .... 

New Jersey. 

327,301 

195,310 

67.6 

43 

Albuquerque, . . 

New Mexico. 

9,113,614 

7,268,894 

25.4 

1 

New York, . . . 

New York. 

2,206,287 

1,893,810 

16.5 

16 

Charlotte, . . . 

North Carolina. 

577,056 

319,146 

80.8 

37 

Grand Forks, . . 

North Dakota. 

4,767,121 

4,157,545 

14.7 

4 

Cleveland, . . . 

Ohio. 

1,657,155 

790,391 

109.7 

23 

Oklahoma City, . 

Oklahoma. 

672,765 

413,536 

62.7 

35 

Portland, . . . 

Oregon. 

7,665,111 

6,302,115 

21.6 

2 

Philadelphia, . . 

Pennsylvania. 

542,610 

428,556 

26.6 

38 

Providence, . . 

Rhode Island. 

1,515,400 

1,340,316 

13,1 

26 

Charleston, . . . 

South Carolina. 

583,888 

401,570 

45.4 

36 

Sioux Falls, . . 

South Dakota. 


2,020,616 

8.1 

17 

Memphis, . . . 

Tennessee. 

3,896,542 

3,048,710 

27.8 

5 

San Antonio, . . 

Texas. 

373,351 

276,749 

34.9 

41 

Salt Lake City, . 

Utah. 

355,956 

343,641 

3.6 

42 

Burlington,. . . 

Vermont. 

2,061,612 

1,854,184 

11.2 

20 

Richmond, . . . 

Virginia. 

1,141,990 

518,103 

120.4 

30 

Seattle. 

Washington. 

1,221,119 

958,800 

27.4 

28 

Wheeling, . . . 

West Virginia. 

2,333,860 

2,069,042 

12.8 

13 

Milwaukee, . . . 

Wisconsin. 

145,965 

92,531 

57.7 

47 

Cheyenne, . . . 

W yoming. 


Note. — 1910 Population of United States, 91,972,266; including possessions, 101,100,000. 
District of Columbia, in 1900, 278,718; in 1910, 331,069; increase 21%. 

POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Area in 
Sq. Miles 

Population 

1910 

Population 

1900 

% of Inc. 
1900-10 

Metropolis 

Territories and Insular 
Possessions 

590,884 

64,356 

63,592 

1.2 

Nome,. 

Alaska. 

6,740 

191,909 

154,001 

24.6 

Honolulu,. 

Hawaiian Islands. 

3,600 

1,118,012 

953,243 

16.2 

Ponce,. 

Porto Rico. 

127,800 

7,635,426 

7,635,426* 


Manila,. 

Philippine Islands. 


* The only authentic figures obtainable are from the enumeration made by the War Department in 1903. 
















































































626 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


SUFFRAGE REQUIREMENTS THROUGHOUT 

“ Citizen of the United States ” means, unless otherwise stated, a male of twenty-one years 

California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, 




Requirements as 
to Citizenship 

Previous Residence Req’red 

States 

Capitals 

In 

In 

1 In 

In Pre- 




State 

County Town 

cinct 

Alabama, . . . 

Montgomery, 

Citizen of United 

2 years 

1 year 

3 mos. 

3 mos. 

Arizona, . . . 

Phoenix, . . 

States or alien 
who has declared 
intention. 







Citizen, male or 

1 year 

30 days 

30 days 

30 days 



female, of United 
States by nativity 
or naturalization. 









Arkansas, . . . 

Little Rock, 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

6 mos. 

30 days 

30 days 



States or alien 
who has declared 
intention. 








California, . . 

Sacramento, 

Citizen, male or fe- 

1 year 

90 days 


30 days 

Colorado, . . . 

Denver, . . 

male, by nativity, 
naturalization (90 
days prior to elec¬ 
tion), or treaty of 
Queretaro. 











Citizen, native or 

1 year 

90 days 

30 days 

10 days 



naturalized, male 
or female, who is 
duly registered. 









Connecticut,. . 

Hartford,. . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 


6 mos. 


Delaware, . . 


States who can 
read English. 





Dover, . . . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

3 mos. 


30 days 



States.! 



Florida,.... 

Tallahassee, 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 



States. 


Georgia, . . . 

Atlanta, . . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

6 mos. 



Idaho, .... 

Bois£ City, . 

States who has 
paid all his taxes 
since 1877. 






Citizen of United 

6 mos. 

30 days 





States, male or 
female. 





Illinois. 

Springfield, . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

90 days 

30 days 

30 days 

Indiana, . . . 

Indianapolis, 

States or one who 
obtained certifi¬ 
cate of natural¬ 
ization prior to 
Jan. 1, 1870 ( b). 







Citizen or alien who 

6 mos. 


60 days 

30 days 



has declared in¬ 
tention and re- 





Iowa. 


sided one year in 
United States. 





Des Moines, 

Citizen of United 

6 mos. 

60 days 


10 days 



States (o). 



(r) 

Kansas,. . . . 

Topeka, . . 

Citizen of United 

6 mos. 

30 days 

30 days 

10 days 

Kentucky, . . 

Frankfort, . 

States or alien 
who has declared 
intention (o). 







Citizen of United 

1 year 

6 mos. 


60 days 



States (6). 



Louisiana, . . 

Baton Rouge, 

Citizen of United 

2 years 

1 year 


6 mos. 

a 


States ( k ) (s) (z) 


Maine, .... 

Augusta, . . 

Citizen of United 

3 mos. 

3 mos. 

3 mos. 

3 mos. 



States. 



Maryland,. . . 

Annapolis, . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

1 day 



States. 


Massachusetts,. 

Boston, . . 

Citizen who can 

1 year 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

Michigan, . . . 

Lansing, . . 

read and write(6). 
Citizen of U. S. or 

6 mos. 

20 days 

20 days 

20 days 



alien who de¬ 
clared intention 

2 years and 6 
months prior to 
Nov. 8, 1894 (s). 










Persons Excluded 
from Suffrage 


Convicted of treason 
or other felonies, 
idiots, vagrants, 
insane. 

Idiot, insane, felon, 
under guardian¬ 
ship. 

Idiots, insane, con¬ 
victed of felony, 
failure to pay poll- 
tax, U. S. soldiers, 
or marines. 

Chinese, idiots, in¬ 
sane. embezzlers of 
public moneys, con¬ 
victed of infamous 
crime, t 

While confined in 
public prison, un¬ 
der guardianship, 
non compos mentis , 
insane. 

Convicted of heinous 
crime, unless par¬ 
doned. 

Insane, paupers, or 
personsconvicted of 
felony unpardoned. 

Idiots, duelists, con¬ 
victed of felony or 
any infamous 
crime. 

Convicted of felony, 
unless pardoned, 
idiots, and insane. 

Idiots, insane, con¬ 
victed of felony, 
bigamists, polyga¬ 
mists, under guar¬ 
dianship ( y ). 

Convicted of felony 
or bribery in elec¬ 
tions, unless re¬ 
stored to citizen¬ 
ship O'). 

United States sol¬ 
diers, sailors, and 
marines, and per¬ 
sons convicted of 
infamous crime (<)• 

Idiots, insane, con¬ 
victed of infamous 
crime, U. S. sol¬ 
diers (/). 

Convicted of treason 
or felony, insane, 
under guardian¬ 
ship. (U) 

Convicted of treason, 
felony, or bribery in 
an election, idiots, 
and insane (/) ( x). 

Idiots, insane, felons 
under indictment, 
inmates of prison 
or charitable insti¬ 
tution except Sol¬ 
diers’ Home. 

Paupers and Indians 
not taxed, under 
guardianship.! 

Felons not pardoned, 
lunatics, non com¬ 
pos mentis, bribery. 

Paupers and persons 
under guardianship. 

Indians with tribal 
relations. 


Governors 


Sala¬ 

ries 

L’gth 

derm 

Yrs. 

$5,000 

4 

4,000 

4 

! 

4,000 

2 

10,000 

4 

5,000 

2 

4,000 

2 

4,000 

4 

5,000 

4 

5,000 

2 

5,000 

j 

2 

J 

12,000 

4 

8.000 

4 

6,800 

2 

5.000 

2 

6,000 

. 

5,000 

4 

3,000 

2 

4,500 

4 

8,000 

1 

5,000 

2 











































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


627 


THE UNITED STATES 

and over. Women vote at school elections in several States, and have full suffrage in Arizona, 
Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. 


Legislatures 

Mem’s Terms 

Elec. 
Vote, 1912 

Total 

Assessed 

Valuation 

Per Ct. 

Actual 

Value 

Tax Rate 

PER 

SI,000 

Voting 

Population, 1910 

Ann. 

or 

Bien. 

Limit 

of 

Session 

Salaries 

of 

Members 

Sena¬ 

tors 

Repre¬ 

sent¬ 

atives 

Total 

Whites 

Negroes 

Quad. 

50 days 

$4 per diem 

4 

4 

12 

$ 561,521,193 


$6.50 

513,111 

298,943 

213,923 

Bien. 

60 days 

7 per diem 

2 

2 

3 

142,624,635 

50 

9.00 

74,051 

65,097 

764 

Bien. 

60 days 

6 per diem 

4 

2 

9 

425,568,953 

35-40 

21.50 

395,824 

284,301 

111,365 

Bien. 

None 

1,000 per term 

4 

2 

13 

2,626,247,311 

60 


920,397 

846,299 

8,143 

Bien. 

None 

1,000 per term 

4 

2 

6 

416,060,308 

33 M 

4.00 

271,648 

264,603 

4,283 

Bien. 

None 

300 per annum 

2 

2 

7 

948,399,019 



347,692 

342,392 

4,765 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

3 




61,887 

52,804 

9,050 

Bien. 

60 days 

6 per diem 

4 

2 

6 

196,805,441 


7.50 

214,195 

124,311 

89,659 

Annual 

50 days 

4 per diem 

2 

2 

14 

681,608,608 

60 

5.00 

620,616 

353,569 

266,814 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

2 

2 

4 

418,780,394 

Full 

.... 

110,863 

107,469 

328 

Bien. 

None 

1,000 per annum 

4 

2 

29 

2,199,714,709 

33^' 

3.50 

1,743,182 

1,701,042 

39,983 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

15 

1,891,602,077 


3.18 

822,434 

801,431 

20,651 

Bien. 

None 

1,000 per sess’n 

4 

2 

13 

641,307,532 

25 

3.90 

663,672 

657,829 

5,528 

Bien. 

90 days 

3 per diem 

4 

2 

10 

2,746,865,967 

90-100 

1.20 

508,529 

489,882 

17,931 

Bien. 

60 days 

10 per diem 

4 

2 

13 

846,454,020 

60 

5.00 

603,454 

527,661 

75,694 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

4 

4 

10 

544,820,340 

40-60 


414,919 

240,025 

174,211 

Bien. 

None 

300 per annum 

2 

2 

6 

451,780,119 

.... 

21.70 

235r727 

234,855 

476 

Bien. 

90 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

8 

1,174,725,954 

.... 

2.32 

367,908 

303,561 

63,963 

Annual 

None 

1,000 per annum 

1 

1 

18 

5,249,175,995 


.... 

1,021,669 

1,006,431 

12,591 

Bien. 

None 

800 per annum 

2 

2 

15 

1,898,057,356 


20.71 

870,876 

862,222 

6,266 
















































628 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


SUFFRAGE REQUIREMENTS THROUGHOUT 




Requirements as 
to Citizenship 

Previous Residence Req’red 

States 

Capitals 

In 

State 

In 

County 

In 

Town 

In Pre¬ 
cinct 

Minnesota. . . 

St. Paul, . . 

Citizen of United 
States who has 
been such for 3 
months preceding 
election (6). 

1 year 

30 days 

30 days 

30 days 

Mississippi, . . 

JacksoD, . . 

Citizen of United 
States who can 
read or under¬ 
stand Constitu¬ 
tion. 

2 years 

1 year 

1 year 

iyr.(||) 

Missouri, . . . 

Jefferson City, 

Citizen of United 
States or alien 
who has declared 
intention not less 
than 1 year or 
more than 5 be¬ 
fore election. 

1 year 

60 days 

60 days 


Montana, . . . 

Helena, . . 

Citizen of United 
States (6). 

1 year 

30 days 

* * * * 

• . . • 

Nebraska, . . . 

Lincoln, . . 

Citizen of United 
States or alien 
who has declared 
intention 30 days 
before election (5). 

6 mos. 

40 days 

30 days 

10 days 

Nevada, . . . 

Carson City, 

Citizen of United 
States. 

6 mos. 

30 days 

30 days 

30 days 

New Hampshire, 

Concord, . . 

Citizen of United 
States (6). 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

New Jersey, . . 

Trenton, . . 

Citizen of United 
States. 

1 year 

5 mos. 

. • • • 


New Mexico, . 

Santa Ffi, 

Citizen of United 
States (6). 

1 year 

90 days 

.... 

30 days 

New York, . . 

Albany, 

Citizen who shall 
have been a citi¬ 
zen for ninety 
days prior to elec¬ 
tion. 

lyr.(fc) 

4 mos. 

(D 

(9 

North Carolina, 

Raleigh, . . 

Citizen of United 
States. 

2 years 

6 mos. 

• • . . 

4 mos. 

North Dakota,. 

Bismarck, . 

Citizen of United 
States and civil¬ 
ized Indian. J ( b ). 

1 year 

6 mos. 

90 days 

90 days 

Ohio,. 

Oklahoma, . . 

Columbus, . 

Oklahoma 

Citizen of United 
States (5). 

1 year- 

30 days 

20 days 

20 days 


City, . . 

Citizen of United 
States (b) (j). 

1 year 

6 mos. 

None 

30 days 

Oregon, .... 

Salem, . . . 

Citizen of United 
States, male or 
female, or alien 
who has declared 
intention more 
than 1 year prior 
to election (b ). 

6 mos. 

None 
(w) 

None 

None 

Pennsylvania, . 

Harrisburg, 

Citizen of United 
States, at least 
one month and 
if 22 years old or 
more must have 
paid tax within 
two years. 

1 year 



2 mos. 


Persons Excluded 
from Suffrage 


Convicted of treason 
or felony, unpar¬ 
doned, under guar¬ 
dianship,insane,In¬ 
dians lacking cus¬ 
toms of civilization. 

Insane, idiots, In¬ 
dians not taxed, 
felons, persons who 
have not paid taxes, 
bigamists. 

Persons in poor- 
houses or asylums 
at public expense, 
those in prison, or 
convicted of in¬ 
famous crimes (w). 

Felons not pardoned, 
idiots, insane, In¬ 
dians who have not 
severed tribal rela¬ 
tions (n). 

Convicted of treason 
or felony, unless re¬ 
stored to civil 
rights, persons non 
compos mentis (;’). 

Idiots, insane, unpar¬ 
doned convicts, 
Chinese. 

Paupers, insane, 
idiots ( [h ). 

Idiots, paupers, in¬ 
sane, convicted of 
certain crime un¬ 
less pardoned or 
restored by law (j). 

Idiots, insane, felons 
unless restored to 
political rights, In¬ 
dians not taxed. 

Offenders against 
elective franchise 
rights, guilty of 
bribery, betting on 
elections, and per¬ 
sons convicted of 
a felony and not 
restored to citizen¬ 
ship by the Execu¬ 
tive. Convicts in 
House of Refuge or 
Reformatory not 
disqualified. 

Convicted of felony 
or infamous crime, 
idiots, lunatics (o). 

Under guardianship, 
tribal Indians, per¬ 
sons non compos 
mentis, or convicted 
of felony or treason 
unless pardoned. 

Idiots, insane, and 
felons, persons in 
U. S. military and 
naval service on 
duty in Ohio. 

Felons (p), idiots, in¬ 
sane, paupers (g). 

Idiots, insane, con¬ 
victed of felony, 
Chinese. 


Convicted of perjury 
and fraud as elec¬ 
tion officers, o r 
bribery of voters. 


Governors 


Sala¬ 

ries 

L’gtl 

Tern 

Yrs. 

$7,000 

2 

4,500 

4 

5,000 

4 

5,000 

4 

2,500 

2 

4,000 

4 

3,000 

2 

10,000 

3 

5,000 

4 

10,000 

2 

5,000 

4 

5,000 

2 

10,000 

2 

4,500 

4 

5,000 

4 

10,000 

4 

































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


629 


THE UNITED STATES —Continued 



Legislatures 

Mem’s Terms 

Elec. 

Vote,1912 

Total 

£ d g 

w 

2 Q 

Voting Population, 1910 

Ann. 

or 

Bien. 

Limit 

of 

Session 

Salaries 

of 

Members 

Sena¬ 

tors 

Repre¬ 

sent¬ 

atives 

Assessed 

Valuation 

tu < ^ 

Tax R. 

per 

$1,00 

Total 

Whites 

Negroes 

Bien. 

90 days 

SI ,000 per annum 

4 

2 

12 

$1,365,676,469 

37 

$29.67 

642,669 

636,903 

3,390 

Bien. 

None 

500 per sess’n 

4 

4 

• 

10 

393,297,173 

50-75 

6.00 

426,953 

192,741 

233,701 

Bien. 

70 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

18 

1,857,676,173 

40 

19.00 

973,062 

919,480 

52,921 

Bien. 

60 days 

10 per diem 

4 

2 

4 

341,000,000 

50 

2.75 

155,017 

148,733 

851 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

2 

2 

8 

463,371,889 

20 

5.50 

353,626 

348,915 

3,225 

Bien. 

60 days 

10 per diem 

4 

2 

3 

95,170,227 

40-60 

6.00 

40,026 

36,632 

229 

Bien. 

None 

200 per annum 

2 

2 

4 

263,074,386 

Full 

21.00 

136,668 

136,393 

200 

Annual 

None 

500 per annum 

3 

1 

14 

2,166,735,535 

Full 

.... 

774,702 

744,843 

28,601 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

3 

64,506,560 

20 

10.00 

94,637 

88,733 

644 

Annual 

None 

1,500 per annum 

2 

1 

45 

11,023,802,214 

88 

• • • • 

2,836,773 

2,783,381 

45,877 

Bien. 

60 days 

4 per diem 

2 

2 

12 

639,713,962 

70 

4.30 

506,134 

357,611 

146,752 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

5 

294,770,325 

25 

4.40 

173,890. 

171,941 

311 

Bien. 

None 

1,000 per annum 

2 

2 

24 

6,201,303,588 

Full 

.... 

1,484,265 

1,444,477 

39,188 

Bien. 

60 days 

6 per diem 

4 

2 

10 

1,193,655,846 

Full 

22.50 

447,266 

395,377 

36,841 

Bien. 

40 days 

3 per diem 

4 

2 

5 

890,644,164 

69 

• • . • 

257,188 

245,343 

792 

Bien. 

None 

1,500 per sess’n 

4 

2 

38 

5,783,668,326 

60 

.... 

2,309,026 

2,242,597 

64,272 



































630 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


SUFFRAGE REQUIREMENTS THROUGHOUT 




Requirements as 

Previous Residence Req’red 

Persons Excluded 

Governors 

States 

Capitals 






L’gth 
T erTTI 

to Citizenship 

In 

In 

In 

In Pre- 

from Suffrage 

Sala- 



State 

County 

Town 

cinct 


ries 

Yrs. 

Rhode Island, . 

Providence, 

Citizen of United 

2 years 


6 mos. 


Paupers, lunatics ( g ). 

$3,000 

2 

States. 




3,500 


South Carolina, 

Columbia, . 

Citizen of United 

2 yr.(c) 

1 year 

4 mos. 

4 mos. 

Felons, bribery un- 

2 


States (e). 



less pardoned, in¬ 
sane, paupers. 

Under guardianship, 

3,000 





South Dakota, 

Pierre, . . . 

Citizen of United 

6 mos.§ 

30 days 

10 days 

10 days 

2 


States or alien 

insane, convicted 





who has de- 



t 


of treason or felony 





dared intention, 





unless pardoned. 





Indian -who has 





U. S. soldiers, sea- 





severed tribal re¬ 
lations (5). 





men, and marines. 

4,000 


Tennessee, . . 

Nashville, . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

6 mos. 



Convicted of bribery 

2 



States who has 




or other infamous 





paid poll-tax 
of preceding year. 





offense. 



Texas. 

Austin,. . . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

6 mos. 

6 mos. 

(d) 

• 

Idiots, lunatics, pau- 

4,000 

2 



States or alien 
who has de- 



pers, felons unless 
pardoned or restor- 







dared intention 





ed, United States 





six months prior 





soldiers, marines, 




Salt Lake City, 

to election (aa). 





and seamen ( aa ). 



Utah, .... 

Citizen of United 

l year 

4 mos. 


60 days 

Idiots, insane, con- 

6,000 

4 



States, male or 



victed of treason or 





female, 90 days 





crime against elec- 




Montpelier, . 

prior to election. 





tive franchise, un¬ 
less pardoned O'). 



Vermont, . . . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

3 mos. 

3 mos. 

3 mos. 

Those who have not 

2,500 

2 



States. 




obtained the appro¬ 
bation of the local 
board of civil au- 




Virginia, . . . 

Richmond, . 






thority. 



All persons who six 

2 years 

1 year 

1 year 

30 days 

Idiots, lunatics, pau- 

5,000 

4 



months before 




pers (/) (/)• 





the election have 
paid their State 
poll-taxes for the 
three preceding 
years. Also any 












person who 
served in time 
of war in the 










army or navy of 










theUnitedStates, 
of the Confeder- 










ate States, or of 
any State of the 
United States or 
of the Confeder- 










ate States. 








Washington, 

Olympia, . . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

90 days 

30 days 

30 days 

Idiots, lunatics, con- 

6,000 

4 



States, male or 



victed of infamous 





female, and all 





crimes, Indians not 





electors of Terri¬ 
tory prior to 
Statehood. 

, 




taxed. 



West Virginia, . 

Charleston, . 

Citizen of the State. 

1 year 

60 days 


(d) 

Paupers, idiots, luna- 

5,000 

4 








tics, convicted of 










treason, felony, or 



Wisconsin, . . 

Madison, . . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 



10 days 

bribery at elections. 
Insane, convicted of 

5,000 

2 



States, civilized 




treason or felony 





Indians J (6). 





(p), betting on elec- 



Wyoming, . . 

Cheyenne, . 

Citizen of United 

1 year 

60 days 

10 days 

10 days 

tions, duelists. 
Idiots, insane, felons, 

4,000 

4 



States, male or 





unable to read 





female. 





State Constitution 
in the English lan- 










guage. 



,. The District of Columbia is without suffrage, f Or a person unable to read the Constitution in English and to write 
nis name. I Indian must have severed tribal relations. (§) One year’s residence in the United States prior to election re¬ 
quired. (i I) Clergymen are quahned after six months’residence in precinct. (If) Also public embezzlers, persons guilty of 
bribery, or dishonorably discharged soldiers from the United States service, unless reinstated, (a) Or citizens of Mexico who 
desire to become citizens under treaties of 1848 and 1854. ( b ) Women can vote in school elections, (c) Ministers in charge 

ot an organized church and teachers of public schools are entitled to vote after six months’ residence in the State, (d) Actual 
residence in the precinct or district required, (e) Who has paid six months before election any poll-tax then due, and can 
read and write any section of the State Constitution, or can show that he owns, and has paid all taxes due the previous 
year on property in the State assessed at $300 or more, (f) Or convicted of bribery, embezzlement of public funds, treason, 
forgery, perjury, felony, and petty larceny, duelists and abettors, unless pardoned by Legislature, (gr) Or persons non compos 
mentis, under guardianship, sentence to state prison for one year or more takes away right to vote until restored by General 
Assembly. ( h) And those unable to read and write English, (j) No soldier, seaman, or marine deemed a resident because 




































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


631 


THE UNITED STATES — Continued 



Legislatures 

Mem’s Terms 

04 

t-H 

Total 

Assessed 

Valuation 


w 

£ o 

Voting Population, 1910 

Ann. 

?r 

Bien. 

Limit 

of 

Session 

Salaries 

of 

Members 

Sena¬ 

tors 

Repre¬ 

sent¬ 

atives 

Elec 

Vote,! 

^ £ P 
a £ 3 

P-i 

Tax 

per 

$1,001 

Total 

Whites 

Negroes 

Annual 

60 days 

$5 per diem 

2 

2 

5 

8552,784,617 

60-75 

$ .90 

163,834 

160,412 

3,067 

Annual 

None 

120 per annum 

4 

2 

9 

287,132,019 

40 

5.75 

335,046 

165,769 

169,155 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

2 

2 

5 

349,640,703 

33K 

4.00 

178,189 

172,722 

341 

Bien. 

75 days 

4 per diem 

2 

2 

12 

506,005,366 


3.50 

552,668 

433,431 

119,142 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

20 

2,500,000,000 


5.30 

1,003,357 

835,978 

166,398 

Bien. 

60 days 

4 per diem 

4 

2 

4 

146,204,050 

60 

5.00 

104,115 

100,449 

568 

Bien. 

None 

4 per diem 

2 

2 

4 

202,340,487 


16.90 

113,506 

112,513 

975 

Bien. 

60 days 

8 per diem 

4 

2 

12 

579,565,539 

.... 

3.50 

523,532 

363,659 

159,593 

Bien. 

60 days 

5 per diem 

4 

2 

7 

1,005,086,251 

42 y<i 

30.39 

441,294 

422,719 

3,120 

Bien. 

45 days 

4 per diem 

4 

2 

8 

1,138,009,807 

Full 

.... 

338,349 

315,498 

22,757 

Bien. 

None 

500 per annum 

2 

2 

13 

2,941,412,842 

Full 

11.08 

683,743 

679,841 

1,082 

Bien. 

40 days 

8 per diem 

4 

2 

3 

180,750,629 

60 

3.08 

63,201 

59,720 

1,325 


stationed in the state. ( k ) Those able to read and write, or who own &300 worth of property assessed in their name, or whose 
father or grandfather was entitled to vote on Jan. 1, 1867. (1) Thirty days in election district, (m) All persons unable 

to read and write and whose ancestor was not entitled to vote prior to Jan. 1, 1867. (n) Also soldiers (except those living in 

soldiers’ homes), sailors and marines in United States service, (o) Women can vote in school and city elections, (p) Unless 
restored to civil rights. ( q ) Except Federal and Confederate ex-soldiers, (r) In municipal elections must be a resident, (s) 
Women taxpayers allowed to vote on tax propositions. 00 During term fixed by court. ( w) Must be resident of county to 
vote for county officers. Or) Widows and spinsters owning property or having ward of school age may vote in school elec¬ 
tions. ( y ) Also inmates of houses of ill fame, (z) Poll-taxes must be paid to date by Dec. 31 of each year, for two years 
preceding year in which he offers to vote, (oo) In cities of 10,000 or more inhabitants all persons exempt from payment of 
poll-tax must procure certificate of exemption from county tax collector and have their names placed on list of qualified 
voters in said city. 










































632 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Sweden. Under the Swedish Constitution 
of 1809, with subsequent amendments, the 
executive power is lodged in the king, who also 
possesses legislative power in matters of political 
administration; in all other respects such power 
is exercised jointly by the Diet, which alone 
may impose taxes. Every new law must have 
the assent of the king. The Diet consists of two 
chambers, the first of 150 members (elected by 
provinces and municipalities for nine years), 
the second of 230 members (150 representing 
rural and eighty urban constituencies), elected 
directly for three years. Members of the second 
chamber are paid $330 per session. 

Switzerland is a confederation of nineteen 
entire and six half cantons, which have been 
united for federal purposes since 1848. The 
Constitution of 1874 vests supreme legislative 
and executive authority in two chambers — viz: 
(1) a state council of forty-four members, chosen 
two for each canton and one for each half-canton 
for three years; and (2) a national council of 
167 delegates of the Swiss people (of whom 
twenty-nine are sent by Berne and twenty-two 
by Zurich), chosen also for three years, directly 
by manhood suffrage, one deputy for every 
20,000 of the population. The united chambers 
form the federal assembly, to which is confided 
the supreme government. The executive author¬ 
ity is deputed to a federal council of seven 
members, elected for three years by the assembly, 
the president and vice-president of which are 
elected annually, and are the first magistrates 
of the republic. The council sits at Berne, 
which is the headquarters of the federal admin¬ 
istration. The principles of the referendum and 
of the initiative are in force. The latter signifies 
the right of any 50,000 citizens to demand a 
direct popular vote on any constitutional ques¬ 
tion. The federal government can alone con¬ 
tract treaties or declare war. The army, postal 
system, finance, and customs are also under its 
control. Civil and criminal law, justice, police, 
public works, and schools are all left under the 
'urisdiction of the cantonal authorities, while 
abor legislation may be initiated either by the 
confederation or by the cantons. The neutrality 
of the country is guaranteed by the treaty of 
Vienna, 1815. 

Tennessee. The Constitution adopted in 
1796, was superseded by that of 1834, which 
gave place to that of 1870, now in force. Con¬ 
stitutional amendments proposed in either 
House of the Legislature and agreed to by a 
majority of all the members of each are referred 
to the Legislature next elected. If they are then 
passed by a two-thirds majority of the members 
elected to each House, they are submitted to the 
popular vote, and, if ratified by a majority of 
those who vote, become part of the Constitution. 
Amendments, however, may not be proposed in 
the Legislature oftener than once in six years. 
The legislature, known as the General Assembly, 
consists of a Senate of thirty-three members, 
elected for two years, and a House of Representa¬ 
tives of ninety-eight members elected also for 
two years. Any bill may originate in either 
House. Senators must be 30 years of age, and 
representatives 21; both must have resided in 
the State three years and in the county or dis¬ 


trict one year next before election. No clergy¬ 
man of any denomination is eligible to either 
House. The chief State officer is the governor, 
who is elected for two years. “ He shall not be 
eligible more than six years of any term of eight.” 
He has the usual powers of State governors, 
including-limited pardoning powers and a veto 
which may be overridden by a majority of the 
members of each House. Other State officers are 
the treasurer, comptroller, adjutant-general, 
attorney-general, and superintendent of public 
instruction. 

Texas. The Constitution of 1845 was suc¬ 
ceeded by new Constitutions in 1866, 1868, and 
1875, which last, as variously amended from time 
to time, is now in force. Amendments proposed 
in either House of the Legislature, approved by 
a two-thirds majority of the members of each 
House, and ratified by a majority of the electors 
voting on them, become part of the Constitution. 
The Legislature consists of a Senate of thirty- 
one members, elected for four years (about half 
their number retiring every two years), and a 
House of Representatives of 142 members. 
Bills for raising revenue must originate in the 
House of Representatives. The Senate tries 
cases of impeachment brought by the other 
House. Eligible as Senators are citizens 26 years 
of age, resident in the State five years next before 
the election; as Representatives, citizens 21 years 
of age, resident in the State two years next before 
the election. The chief executive officer is the 
governor, elected for two years. He has the 
authority usually vested in State governors, 
including the limited veto and pardoning powers. 
With the advice and consent of the Senate he 
appoints the State secretary, and also fills vacan¬ 
cies not otherwise provided for. N State officials 
elected for two years are the lieutenant-governor, 
comptroller, treasurer, commissioner of the gen¬ 
eral land office, and attorney-general. 

Turkey. The commands of the sultan are 
absolute, unless opposed to the express directions 
of the Koran, a legal and theological code upon 
which the fundamental laws of the empire are 
based. The legislative and executive authority 
is exercised through the grand vizier and the 
Sheik-ul-Islam, who are appointed by the sultan, 
the latter with the nominal concurrence of the 
ulema or general body of lawyers and theolo¬ 
gians, over which the Sheik-ul-Islam, as head of 
the Church, presides. The grand vizier, as head 
of the temporal government, is assisted by the 
medjliss-i-hass or cabinet of ministers, of whom 
there are thirteen, including the grand vizier 
and the Sheik-ul-Islam. The other ministers 
each take charge of a department, e. g., the 
interior, war, foreign affairs, finance, justice, etc. 

United States. The Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence was adopted by the First Congress of 
the United States, July 4, 1776. On November 
30, 1782, Great Britain acknowledged the inde¬ 
pendence of the colonies, and on September 3, 
1783, the treaty of peace was concluded. The 
form of government is based on the Constitu¬ 
tion adopted September 17, 1787, to which ten 
amendments were added, December 15, 1791; 
an eleventh amendment, January 8, 1798; a 
twelfth amendment, September 25, 1804; a 
thirteenth, December 18, 1865; a fourteenth, 











GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


633 


July 28, 1868; a fifteenth, March 30, 1870; a six¬ 
teenth, February 25, 1913, and a seventeenth, 
de facto, on April 8, 1913. The government 
is intrusted to three separate authorities—the 
Executive, the Legislative, and the Judicial. 
The Executive is vested in the President, who 
holds his office during the term of four years. 
He is commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy and of the militia in the service of the 
United States. The Vice-President is, ex- 
officio, president of the Senate, and, in case 
of the death or resignation of the President, 
he becomes President for the remainder of 
the term. Electors for President and Vice- 
President are chosen in all States the Tuesday 
after the first Monday in November of every 
fourth year (leap year), and the President is 
inaugurated on the 4th of March next following. 
By an act which became a law January 19, 
1886, in case of the removal, death, resignation, 
or inability of both President and Vice-President, 
the Secretary of State succeeds, and after him 
other members of the Cabinet in this order: 
Secretary of Treasury, Secretary of War, Attor¬ 
ney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of 
the Navy, Secretary of the Interior (the others 
cannot succeed, as their offices were created 
after the passage of the Acts of the Forty- 
ninth Congress, Chapter IV). The incumbent 
shall act as President until the disability of 
the President is removed or a new President 
shall be elected. In case of death or removal 
of the Vice-President the duties of the office 
shall fall upon the pro tempore president of 
the Senate, who then receives the salary of Vice- 
President. Members of the Cabinet are ap¬ 
pointed by the President, but are confirmed by 
the Senate. The legislative power is vested in 
a Congress, which consists of a Senate and a 
House of Representatives. The judicial power 
is vested in a Supreme Court and inferior courts. 
The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice 
and eight associate justices, appointed by the 
President and approved by the Senate. The 
United States is composed of thirteen original 
States, seven States which were admitted with¬ 
out having been organized as Territories, and 
twenty-eight States which have been Territories. 
States are admitted into the Union by special 


acts of Congress, either in the form of “ enabling 
acts,” providing for the drafting and ratification 
of a State Constitution, in which case the Terri¬ 
tory becomes a State as soon as the conditions 
are fulfilled, or by accepting a Constitution 
already framed, and at once gaining admission. 
In each of the four Territories, including 
Hawaii, there are local Legislatures, the form 
of which has been prescribed by the Federal 
Government. Acts made by the Legislatures 
may be modified or annulled by the Federal 
Congress. Territorial governors are appointed 
by the President for terms of four years. 
The unit of local government in New England 
is the township, governed directly by the voters. 
In large cities the city government takes its 
place. Townships are united to form counties. 
In the South the unit is the county. -In the 
Middle and Northwestern States the two sys¬ 
tems of local government are mixed. In the 
West the township system is used and public 
lands are divided into townships six miles square. 
Representatives to the Federal Congress must 
not be less than 25 years of age and must 
have been citizens of the United States for 
seven years, and residents of the State in 
which they are elected. In addition to the 
Representatives from the States, each Territory 
is allowed a “ delegate,” who has a right to 
speak on any subject and make motions, but 
not to vote. Senators must be 30 years of 
age, must have been citizens of the United 
States for nine years and residents of the State 
in which they are chosen. The franchise is not 
absolutely universal. In most States residence 
for at least one year is necessary; in Ken¬ 
tucky and Rhode Island two years’ residence 
is necessary; in Michigan and Maine three months 
is the minimum. In some of the Western States 
unnaturalized persons who have declared their 
intention of becoming citizens are admitted to 
the franchise. Nine States admit women to the 
franchise on equal terms with men. Untaxed 
Indians are excluded from the right to vote, 
and in some States convicts, duellists, and 
fraudulent voters are debarred. The following 
is a synoptical outline of the main features of 
the constitutional government of the United 
States: 


THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 


The Senate 

Number. — Two Senators from each State. Elected .— By the State Legislatures. 

Term. — Six years; one-third of the Senate being elected every two years. 

Eligibility. —Citizen of United States nine years; resident of State; minimum age, 30 years. 
Salary. — Fixed by law at $7,500 per year. 

President of the Senate. — The Vice-President. 

Powers of the Senate: 

Confirms or rejects nominations of the President. 

Ratifies or rejects treaties with Foreign Powers. 

Elects President pro tempore of the Senate, and its other officers. 

Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails. 

Acts as a Court for the Trial of Impeachments. 

The House of Representatives 

Number. —Four hundred thirty-five members, according to the present apportionment.* 

Elected. — By the voters of the Congressional Districts. 

Term. — Two years,— the entire House being elected every two years. 

Eligibility. — Citizen of the United States seven years; resident of the State; minimum age, 
25 years. 

* There are, besides, two Territorial Delegates from the Philippines, and one each from Porto Rico, Hawaii, 
and Alaska, 



634 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Salary. — Fixed by law at $7,500 per year; the Speaker, $12,000 per year 
Powers of the House of Representatives: — 

Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers. 

Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. 

Prosecutes Impeachments before the Senate. 

Originates all bills for raising revenue. 

The Congress 

Consisting of both the Senate and the House of Representatives as coordinate bodies. 

Duration. — The term of each Congress is for two years, commencing March 4th of the odd years. 
Regular Sessions. — Annual, beginning the first Monday in December. 

Special Sessions. — At the call of the President. 

Membership. — Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members. 
Congress has General Powers of Legislation: — 

To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. 

To borrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights 
and measures. 

To regulate foreign and interstate commerce. 

To declare war, and to maintain an army and a navy. 

To establish post offices and post roads. 

To enact patent and copyright laws. 

To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. 

To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. 

To establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court. 

To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. 

To admit new States into the Union. 

To provide for the government of the Territories. 

To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, public buildings, 
forts, and navy yards. 

To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by 
the Constitution in the government of the United States. 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 
The President 

How Elected. — The several steps in the election of the President are: 

State Electors are chosen at a General Election held on the Tuesday following the first Monday 
of November of every fourth year, the number of Electors of each State being equal to the 
number of Senators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress. 

The Electors meet in their respective States on the second Monday in January following their 
election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President; at the same time they make 
certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate. 

The Senate and House of Representatives meet jointly on the second Wednesday of February 
next ensuing, and count the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the 
President of the Senate declares who are elected President and Vice-President. 

In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President, 
in which election the vote is taken by States, each State having but one vote, and a majority 
of all the States being necessary to a choice. 

Term of Office. — Four years. 

Eligibility. — A natural born citizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum 
age 35 years. 

Salary. — Fixed by law at $75,000 per year. 

Powers and Duties of the President: — 

Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. 

Communicates with Congress by message. 

Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. 

Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. 

Appoints Public Officers with the advice and consent of the Senate. 

Commissions Public Officers of the United States. 

Grants reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States. 

The Vice-President: — 

Elected by State Electors the same as the President; or 
By the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. 

Term of Office,— same as for the President. 

Eligibility,— same as required of the President. 

Salary,— fixed by law at $12,000 per year. 

The Presidential Succession: — In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability 
Of the President, the Vice-President takes the President’s place. 

Of both President and Vice-President, the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to 


GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


635 


the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are named below; but 
such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed 
to the cabinet by the advice and with the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeach¬ 
ment. The Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor are ineligible to the presidency 
by reason of the fact that these three cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage 
of the act of the forty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential 
succession. 

The Executive Departments 
Department of State. — Has charge of foreign affairs. 

Treasury Department Has charge of fiscal affairs. 

Department of War. — Has charge of the Army and military affairs. 

Department of Justice. — Has charge of the legal affairs of the Government. 

Post-office Department. — Has charge of postal affairs. 

Navy Department.— Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs. 

Department of the Interior. — Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, 
patents, Bureau of Education, etc. 

Department of Agriculture. — Has charge of agricultural affairs, including Weather Bureau, etc. 
Department of Commerce. —Has charge of domestic and foreign affairs, relating to commerce, 
transportation, etc. 

Department of Labor. —Has charge of immigration, naturalization, children’s bureau and labor 
affairs. 

The Cabinet 

Composed of the Heads of the Executive Departments. 

Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. 

Salary. —All cabinet members, $12,000 annually. 

The President and Legislation 
Acts of Congress become laws: — 

When signed (approved) by the President; or, 

By his failure to make objections in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted 
to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time prevents its return; but 
Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House. 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 
Judges of the United States Courts 
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. 

Tenure of Office. — During fife or good behavior; but may retire on full salary after reaching the 
age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench. 

The Supreme Court of the United States 
Members. — A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices. 

Salaries. —Chief Justice, $15,000; Associate Justices, each, $14,500. 

Terms of Court. — One each year, beginning on the second Monday in October. 

Original Jurisdiction: —In ail cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers and Consuls, and in all cases 
in which a State is a party. 

Appellate Jurisdiction: — In cases of law and equity where the Inferior Courts have original juris¬ 
diction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made. 

The Chief Justice. — Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial 
of the President. 

Inferior Courts 

Jurisdiction: — 

In cases between citizens of different States. 

In cases in which the United States is a party. 

In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. 

In trials for crimes against the United Status; but the trial of crimes must be by jury, and must 
be held in the State where the crime was committed. 

Appeals to the Supreme Court may be had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions 
and regulations as Congress has made. 

Kinds of Inferior Courts 

United States Circuit Courts of Appeals: — 

Organized in 1891 to relieve the United States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. 

Number.— One in each Judicial Circuit. Salary of Circuit Judge.—$7,000 per year. 

Members.—Three judges: the Chief Justice, the Associate Justice assigned to the circuit, or 
any Circuit or District Judge within the circuit is competent to sit. 

United States District Courts: — 

Number of Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there are seventy-nme 
Judicial Districts, exclusive of non-contiguous territory. 

Salary of District Judge.— Fixed by law at $6,000 per year. 


636 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


United States Court of Claims: — 

Jurisdiction.— Claims against the United States, including those referred to it by Congress. 
Members.— One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. 

Salaries.— Chief Justice, $6,500; Associate Justices, each $6,000. 

United States Court of Customs Appeals: — 

Jurisdiction.— Cases involving appeals from customs duties. 

Members.— One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. 

Salaries.— Fixed by law at $7,000 per year. 

United States Commerce Court: — 

Jurisdiction.— Interstate commerce cases formerly within the jurisdiction of Circuit Courts. 
Members.— One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices, additional Circuit Court Judges. 
Salaries.— $7,000 per year; expense allowance of $1,500. 

In addition to the above named Courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction in 
the District of Columbia and in the Territories. 


Department of State. The Secretary of State 
is charged, under the direction of the Presi¬ 
dent, with the duties appertaining to correspond¬ 
ence with the public ministers and the consuls of 
the United States, and with the representatives of 
foreign powers accredited to the United States; 
and to negotiations of whatever character re¬ 
lating to the foreign affairs of the United States. 
He is also the medium of correspondence be¬ 
tween the President and the chief executives of 
the several States of the United States; he has 
the custody of the Great Seal of the United 
States, and countersigns and affixes such seal 
to all executive proclamations, to various com¬ 
missions, and to warrants for the extradition of 
fugitives from justice. He is regarded as the 
first in rank among the members of the Cabinet. 
He is also the custodian of the treaties made 
with foreign States, and of the laws of the 
United States. He grants and issues passports, 
and exequaturs to foreign consuls in the United 
States are issued through his office. He pub¬ 
lishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, 
amendments to the Constitution, and proclama¬ 
tions declaring the admission of new States. 


SECRETARIES OF STATE 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Washington, . 

Thomas Jefferson, . . 

Va. 

1789 

Washington, . 

Edmund Randolph, . 

Va. 

1794 

Washington, . 

Timothy Pickering, . 

Mass. 

1795 

Adams, . . . 

Timothy Pickering, . 

Mass. 

1797 

Adams, . . . 

John Marshall, . . . 

Va. 

1800 

Jefferson, . . 

James Madison, . . . 

Va. 

1801 

Madison, . . 

Robert Smith. 

Md. 

1809 

Madison, . . 

James Monroe, . . . 

Va. 

1811 

Monroe, . . . 

John Quincy Adams, . 

Mass. 

1817 

J. Q. Adams, . 

Henry Clay. 

Ky. 

1825 

Jackson, . . 

Martin Van Buren, . . 

N. Y. 

1829 

Jackson, . . 

Edward Livingston, . 

La. 

1831 

Jackson, . . 

Louis McLane, . . . 

Del. 

1833 

Jackson, . . 

John Forsyth .... 

Ga. 

1834 

Van Buren, . 

John Forsyth, . . . 

Ga. 

1837 

Harrison, , . 

Daniel Webster, . . . 

Mass. 

1841 

Tyler, . . . 

Daniel Webster, . . . 

Mass. 

1841 

Tyler, . . . 

Hugh S. Legar£, . . . 

S. C. 

1843 

Tyler, . . . 

Abel P. Upshur, . . . 

Va. 

1843 

Tyler, . . . 

John C. Calhoun, . . 

s. c. 

1844 

Polk, . . . . 

James Buchanan, . . 

Pa. 

1845 

Taylor, . . . 

John M. Clayton, . . 

Del. 

1849 

Fillmore, . . 

Daniel Webster, . . . 

Mass. 

1850 

Fillmore, . . 

Edward Everett, . . 

Mass. 

1852 

Pierce, . . . 

William L. Marcy, . . 

N. Y. 

1853 

Buchanan, . . 

Lewis Cass. 

Mich. 

1857 

Buchanan, . . 

Jeremiah S. Black, . . 

Pa. 

1860 

Lincoln, . . . 

William H. Seward, . 

N. Y. 

1861 

Johnson, . . 

William H. Seward, . 

N. Y. 

1865 

Grant, . . . 

Elihu B. Washburn, . 

Ill. 

1869 

Grant, . . . 

Hamilton Fish, . . . 

N. Y. 

1869 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Hayes, . . . 

William M. Evarts, 

N. Y. 

1877 

Garfield, . . . 

James G. Blaine, . . 

Me. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

F. T. Frelinghuysen, . 

N. J. 

1881 

Cleveland, . . 

Thomas F. Bayard, . 

Del. 

1885 

B. Harrison, . 

James G. Blaine,. . . 

Me. 

1889 

B. Harrison, . 

John W. Foster, . . . 

Ind. 

1892 

Cleveland, . . 

Walter Q. Gresham, . 

Ill. 

1893 

Cleveland, . . 

Richard Olney, . . . 

Mass. 

1895 

McKinley, . . 

John Sherman, . . . 

Ohio 

1897 

McKinley, . . 

William R. Day, . . . 

Ohio 

1897 

McKinley, . . 

John Hay. 

Ohio 

1898 

Roosevelt, . . 

John Hay,. 

Ohio 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

Elihu Root. 

N. Y. 

1905 

Roosevelt, . . 

Robert Bacon,.... 

N. Y. 

1909 

Taft. 

Philander C. Knox, . 

Pa. 

1909 

Wilson, . . . 

William J. Bryan, . . 

Neb. 

1913 


Treasury Department. The Secretary of the 
Treasury is charged by law with the man¬ 
agement of the national finances. He prepares 
plans for the improvement of the revenue and 
for the support of the public credit; superin¬ 
tends the collection of the revenue, and directs 
the forms of keeping and rendering public ac¬ 
counts and of making returns; grants warrants 
for all moneys drawn from the Treasury in pur¬ 
suance of appropriations made by law, and for 
the payment of moneys into the Treasury; and 
annually submits to Congress estimates of the 
probable revenues and disbursements of the 
Government. He also controls the construction 
of public buildings; the coinage and printing 
of money; the administration of the Life-Sav¬ 
ing, Revenue-Cutter, and the Public Health and 
Marine-Hospital -branches of the public service, 
and furnishes information required by either 
branch of Congress pertaining to the foregoing. 

The routine work of the Secretary’s office is 
transacted in the offices of the Supervising 
Architect, Director of the Mint, Director of 
Engraving and Printing, Surgeon-General of the 
Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, 
General Superintendent of the Life-Saving Serv¬ 
ice, and in the following divisions: Bookkeep¬ 
ing and warrants; appointments; customs; 
public moneys; loans and currency; revenue- 
cutter; stationery, printing, and blanks; mails 
and files; special agents, and miscellaneous. 


SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Washington, . 
Washington, . 

Alexander Hamilton, 
Oliver Wolcott, . . . 

N. Y. 
Ct. 

1789 

1795 








































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


637 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Adams, . . . 

Oliver Wolcott, . . . 

Ct. 

1797 

Adams, . . . 

Samuel Dexter, . . . 

Mass. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Samuel Dexter, . . . 

Mass. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Albert Gallatin, . . . 

Pa. 

1801 

Madison, . . 

Albert Gallatin, . . . 

Pa. 

1809 

Madison, . . 

George W. Campbell, . 

Tenn. 

1814 

Madison, . . 

Alexander J. Dallas, . 

Pa. 

1814 

Madison, . . 

William H. Crawford, 

Ga. 

1816 

Monroe, . . . 

William H. Crawford, 

Ga. 

1817 

J. Q. Adams, . 

Richard Rush, . . . 

Pa. 

1825 

Jackson, . . . 

Samuel D. Ingham, . 

Pa. 

1829 

Jackson, . . . 

Louis McLane, . . . 

Del. 

1831 

Jackson,. . . 

Roger B. Taney, . . . 

N. H. 

1833 

Jackson, . . . 

William J. Duane, . . 

Pa. 

1833 

Jackson, . . . 

Levi Woodbury, . . . 

N. H. 

1834 

Van Buren, . 

Levi Woodbury, . . . 

N. H. 

1837 

Harrison, . . 

Thomas Ewing, . . . 

Ohio 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

Thomas Ewing, . 

Ohio 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

Walter Forward,. . . 

Pa. 

1841 

Tyler. 

John C. Spencer,. . . 

N. Y. 

1843 

Tyler. 

George M. Bibb, . 

Ky. 

1844 

Polk. 

Robert J. Walker, . . 

Miss. 

1845 

Taylor, . . . 

William M. Meredith,. 

Pa. 

1849 

Fillmore, . . 

Thomas Corwin, . . . 

Ohio 

1850 

Pierce, . . . 

James Guthrie, . . . 

Ky. 

1853 

Buchanan, . . 

Howell Cobb. 

Ga. 

1857 

Buchanan, . . 

Philip F. Thomas, . . 

Md. 

1860 

Buchanan, . . 

John A. Dix. 

N. Y. 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

Salmon P. Chase, . . 

Ohio 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

William P. Fessenden, 

Me. 

1864 

Lincoln, . . . 

Hugh McCulloch, . . 

Ind. 

1865 

Johnson, . . 

Hugh McCulloch, . . 

Ind. 

1865 

Grant, . . . 

George S. Boutwell, . 

Mass. 

1869 

Grant, . . . 

Wm. A. Richardson, . 

Mass. 

1873 

Grant, . . . 

Benjamin H. Bristow, 

Ky. 

1874 

Grant, .... 

Lot M. Morrill, . . . 

Me. 

1876 

Hayes, . . . 

John Sherman, . . . 

Ohio 

1877 

Garfield, . . . 

William Windom, . . 

Minn. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

Charles J. Folger, . . 

N. Y. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

Walter Q. Gresham, . 

Ind. 

1884 

Arthur, . . . 

Hugh McCulloch, . . 

Ind. 

1884 

Cleveland, . . 

Daniel Manning, . . . 

N. Y. 

1885 

Cleveland. . . 

Charles S. Fairchild, . 

Ind. 

1887 

B. Harrison, . 

William Windom, . . 

Minn. 

1889 

B. Harrison, . 

Charles Foster, . . . 

Ohio 

1891 

Cleveland, . . 

John G. Carlisle, . . . 

Ky. • 

1893 

McKinley, . . 

Lyman J. Gage, . . . 

Ill. 

1897 

Roosevelt, . . 

Lyman J. Gage, . . . 

Ill. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

Leslie M. Shaw, . . . 

la. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

George B. Cortelyou, . 

N. Y. 

1907 

Taft. 

Franklin MacVeagh, . 

Ill. 

1909 

Wilson, . . . 

William G. McAdoo, . 

N. Y. 

1913 


War Department. The Secretary of War is 
head of the War Department, and performs such 
duties as are required of him by law or may be 
enjoined upon him by the President concerning 
the military service. 

He is charged by law with the supervision of 
all estimates of appropriations for the expenses 
of the Department, including the military estab¬ 
lishment; of all purchases of army supplies; 
of all expenditures for the support, transporta¬ 
tion, and maintenance of the army, and of such 
expenditures of a-civil nature as may be placed 
by Congress under his direction. 

He also has supervision of the United States 
Military Academy at West Point and of military 
education in the army, of the Board of Ord¬ 
nance and Fortification, of the various battle¬ 
field commissions, and of the publication of the 
Official Records of the War of the Rebellion. 

He has charge of all matters relating to na¬ 
tional defense and seacoast fortifications, army 
ordnance, river and harbor improvements, the 
prevention of obstruction to navigation, and the 
establishment of harbor lines, and all plans and 
locations of bridges authorized by Congress to 
be constructed over the navigable waters of the 
United States require his approval. He also 


has charge of the establishment or abandonment 
of military posts, and of all matters relating to 
leases, revocable licenses, and all other privileges 
upon lands under the control of the War De¬ 
partment. 


SECRETARIES OF WAR 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Washington, . 

Henry Knox. 

Mass. 

1789 

Washington, . 

Timothy Pickering, . 

Mass. 

1795 

Washington, . 

James McHenry,. . . 

Md. 

1796 

Adams, . . . 

James McHenry,. . . 

Md. 

1797 

Adams, . . . 

John Marshall, . . . 

Va. 

1800 

Adams, . . . 

Samuel Dexter, . . . 

Mass. 

1800 

Adams. . . . 

Roger Griswold, . . . 

Ct. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Henry Dearborn, . . 

Mass. 

1801 

Madison, . . 

William Eustis, . . . 

Mass. 

1809 

Madison, . . 

John Armstrong, . . 

N. Y. 

1813 

Madison, . . 

James Monroe, . . . 

Va. 

1814 

Madison, . . 

William H. Crawford, 

Ga. 

1815 

Monroe, . . . 

Isaac Shelby, .... 

Ky. 

1817 

Monroe, . . . 

Geo. Graham (ad in.). 

Va. 

1817 

Monroe, . . . 

John C. Calhoun, . . 

S. C. 

1817 

J. Q. Adams, . 

Janies Barbour, . . . 

Va. 

1825 

J. Q. Adams, . 

Peter B. Porter, . . . 

N. Y. 

1828 

Jackson,. . . 

John H. Eaton, . . . 

Tenn. 

1829 

Jackson,. . . 

Lewis Cass,. 

Ohio 

1831 

Jackson,. . . 

Benjamin F. Butler, . 

N. Y. 

1837 

Van Buren, . 

Joel R. Poinsett, . . . 

S. C. 

1837 

Harrison, . . 

John Bell,. 

Tenn. 

1841 

Tyler. 

John Bell,. 

Tenn. 

1841 

Tyler. 

John McLean, .... 

Ohio 

1841 

Tyler. 

John C. Spencer, . . . 

N. Y. 

1841 

Tyler. 

James M. Porter, . . 

Pa. 

1843 

Tyler, .... 

William Wilkins,. . . 

Pa. 

1844 

Polk. 

William L. Marcy, . . 

N. Y. 

1845 

Taylor, . . . 

George W. Crawford, . 

Ga. 

1849 

Taylor, . . . 

Edward Bates, . . . 

Mo. 

1850 

Fillmore, . . 

Charles M. Conrad, . . 

La. 

1850 

Pierce, . . . 

Jefferson Davis, . . , 

Miss. 

1853 

Buchanan, . . 

John B. Floyd, . . . 

Va. 

1857 

Buchanan, . . 

Joseph Holt, , 

Ky. 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

Simon Cameron, . . . 

Pa. 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

Edwin M. Stanton, . . 

Ohio 

1862 

Johnson, . . . 

Edwin M. Stanton, . . 

Ohio 

1865 

Johnson, . . . 

U. S. Grant (ad in.), . 

Ill. 

1867 

Johnson, . . . 

Lor. Thomas (ad in.) , 


1868 

Johnson, . . . 

John M. Schofield, . . 

N. Y. 

1868 

Grant, .... 

John A. Rawlins, . . 

Ill. 

1869 

Grant, .... 

William T. Sherman, . 

Ohio 

1869 

Grant, .... 

William W. Belknap, . 

la. 

1869 

Grant, .... 

Alphonso Taft, . . . 

Ohio 

1876 

Grant. 

James Don. Cameron, 

Pa. 

1876 

Hayes, . . . 

George W. McCrary, . 

Ia. 

1877 

Hayes, . . . 

Alexander Ramsey, . 

Minn. 

1879 

Garfield, . . . 

Robert T. Lincoln, . . 

Ill. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

Robert T. Lincoln, . . 

Ill. 

1881 

Cleveland, . . 

William C. Endicott, . 

Mass. 

1885 

B. Harrison, . 

Redfield Proctor, . . 

Vt. 

1889 

B. Harrison, . 

Stephen B. Elkins, . . 

W.Va. 

1891 

Cleveland, . . 

Daniel S. Lamont, . . 

N. Y. 

1893 

McKinley, . . 

Russell A. Alger,. . . 

Mich. 

1897 

McKinlev, . . 

Elihu Root. 

N. Y. 

1899 

Roosevelt, . . 

Elihu Root,. 

N. Y. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

William H. Taft,. . . 

Ohio 

1904 

Roosevelt, . . 

Luke E. Wright,. . . 

Tenn. 

1908 

Taft. 

J. M. Dickinson, . . . 

Tenn. 

1908 

Taft, .... 

Henry L. Stimson, 

N. Y. 

1911 

Wilson, . . . 

Lindley M. Garrison, . 

N. J. 

1913 


Department of Justice. The Attorney-Gen¬ 
eral is the head of the Department of Justice 
and the chief law officer of the Government. He 
represents the United States in matters involv¬ 
ing legal questions; he gives his advice and 
opinion, when they are required by the Presi¬ 
dent or by the heads of the other Executive 
Departments, on questions of law arising in the 
administration of their respective Departments; 
he appears in the Supreme Court of the United 
States in cases of especial gravity and impor¬ 
tance; he exercises a general superintendence 
and direction over United States attorneys and 
marshals in all judicial districts in the States 














































638 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and Territories; and he provides special counsel 
for the United States whenever required by any 
Department of the Government. 

ATTORNEYS-GENERAL 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Washington, . 

Edmund Randolph, . 

Va. 

1789 

Washington, . 

William Bradford, . . 

Pa. 

1794 

Washington, . 

Charles Lee,. 

Va. 

1795 

Adams, . . . 

Charles Lee,. 

Va, 

1797 

Adams, . . . 

Theophilus Parsons, . 

Mass. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Levi Lincoln, .... 

Mass. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Robert Smith, .... 

Md. 

1805 

Jefferson, . . 

John Breckinridge, . . 

Ky. 

1805 

Jefferson, . . 

Csesar A. Rodney, . . 

Del. 

1807 

Madison, . . 

Caesar A. Rodney, . . 

Del. 

1809 

Madison, . . 

William Pinkney, . . 

Md. 

1811 

Madison, . . 

Richard Rush, . . . 

Pa. 

1814 

Monroe, . . . 

Richard Rush, . . . 

Pa. 

1817 

Monroe, . . . 

William Wirt. 

Va. 

1817 

J. Q. Adams, . 

William Wirt, .... 

Va. 

1825 

Jackson,. . . 

John McP. Berrien, 

Ga. 

1829 

Jackson, . . . 

Roger B. Taney, . . . 

Md. 

1831 

Jackson,. . . 

Benjamin F. Butler, . 

N. Y. 

1833 

Van Buren, . 

Benjamin F. Butler, . 

N. Y. 

1837 

Van Buren, . 

Felix Grundy, .... 

Tenn. 

1838 

Van Buren, . 

Henry D. Gilpin, . . . 

Pa. 

1840 

Harrison, . . 

John J. Crittenden, 

Ky. 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

John J. Crittenden, 

Ky. 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

Hugh S. Legare, . . . 

S. C. 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

John Nelson. 

Md. 

1843 

Polk. 

John Y. Mason, . . . 

Va. 

1845 

Polk. 

Nathan Clifford, . . . 

Me. 

1846 

Polk. 

Isaac Toucey, .... 

Ct. 

1848 

Taylor, . . . 

Reverdy Johnson, . . 

Md. 

1849 

Fillmore, . . 

John J. Crittenden, 

Ky. 

1850 

Pierce, . . . 

Caleb Cushing, . . . 

Mass. 

1853 

Buchanan, . . 

Jeremiah S. Black, . . 

Pa. 

1857 

Buchanan, . . 

Edwin M. Stanton, . . 

Ohio 

1860 

Lincoln, . . . 

Edward Bates, . . . 

Mo. 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

Titian J. Coffey(ad in.) 

Pa. 

1863 

Lincoln, . . . 

James Speed, .... 

Ky. 

1864 

Johnson, . . . 

James Speed, .... 

Ky. 

1865 

Johnson, . . . 

Henry Stanbery,. . . 

Ohio 

1866 

Johnson, . . . 

William M. Evarts, 

N. Y. 

1868 

Grant, .... 

Ebenezer R. Hoar, . . 

Mass. 

1869 

Grant. 

Amos T. Ackerman, . 

Ga. 

1870 

Grant, .... 

George H. Williams, . 

Ore. 

1871 

Grant, .... 

Edwards Pierrepont, . 

N. Y. 

1875 

Grant, .... 

Alphonso Taft, . . . 

Ohio 

1876 

Hayes, . . . 

Charles Devens, . . . 

Mass. 

1877 

Garfield, . . . 

Wayne MacVeagh, . . 

Pa. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

Benjamin H. Brewster, 

Pa. 

1881 

Cleveland, . . 

Augustus H. Garland, 

Ark. 

1885 

B. Harrison, . 

William H. H. Miller,. 

Ind. 

1889 

Cleveland, . . 

Richard Olney, . . . 

Mass. 

1893 

Cleveland, . . 

Judson Harmon, . . . 

Ohio 

1895 

McKinley, . . 

Joseph McKenna, . . 

Cal. 

1897 

McKinley, . . 

John W. Griggs, . . . 

N. J. 

1897 

McKinley, . . 

Philander C. Knox, 

Pa. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

Philander C. Knox, 

Pa. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

William H. Moodv, . . 

Mass. 

1904 

Roosevelt, . . 

Charles J. Bonaparte, 

Md. 

1906 

Taft. 

George W Wickersham, 

N. Y 

1909 

Wilson, . . . 

James C. McReynolds, 

Tenn. 

1913 


Department of the Interior. The Secretary of 
the Interior is charged with the supervision 
of public business relating to patents for inven¬ 
tions; pensions and bounty lands; the public 
lands and surveys; the Indians; education; the 
Geological Survey and Reclamation Service; the 
Hot Springs Reservation, Arkansas; Yellow¬ 
stone National Park, Wyoming, and the Yosem- 
ite, Sequoia, and General Grant parks, Califor¬ 
nia, and other national parks; forest reserva¬ 
tions; distribution of appropriations for agri¬ 
cultural and mechanical colleges in the States 
and Territories; the custody and distribution 
of certain public documents; and supervision 
of certain hospitals and eleemosynary institu¬ 
tions in the District of Columbia. He also 
exercises certain powers and duties in relation 
to the Territories of the United States. 


SECRETARIES OF THE INTERIOR 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

A P - 

pointed 

Taylor, . . . 

Thomas E-wing, . . . 

Ohio 

1849 

Fillmore, . . 

James A. Pearce, . . 

Md. 

1850 

Fillmore, . . 

Thos. M. T. McKernon, 

Pa. 

1850 

Fillmore, . . 

Alexander H.H.Stuart, 

Va. 

1850 

Pierce, . . . 

Robert McClelland, 

Mich. 

1853 

Buchanan, . . 

Jacob Thompson, . . 

Miss. 

1857 

Lincoln, . . . 

Caleb B. Smith, . . . 

Ind. 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

John P. Usher, . . . 

Ind. 

1863 

Johnson,. . . 

John P. Usher, . . . 

Ind. 

1865 

Johnson,. . . 

James Harlan,.... 

Iowa 

1865 

Johnson,. . . 

Orville H. Browning, . 

Ill. 

1866 

Grant, .... 

Jacob D. Cox, .... 

Ohio 

1869 

Grant, .... 

Columbus Delano, . . 

Ohio 

1870 

Grant. 

Zachariah Chandler, . 

Mich. 

1875 

Hayes, . . . 

Carl Schurz. 

Mo. 

1877 

Garfield, . . . 

Samuel J. Kirkwood, . 

Iowa 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

Henry M. Teller, . . . 

Col. 

1882 

Cleveland, . . 

Lucius Q. C. Lamar, . 

Miss. 

1885 

Cleveland, . . 

William F. Vilas, . . 

Wis. 

1888 

B. Harrison, . 

John W. Noble, . . . 

Mo. 

1889 

Cleveland, . . 

Hoke Smith. 

Ga. 

1893 

Cleveland, . . 

David R. Francis, . . 

Mo. 

1896 

McKinley, . . 

Cornelius N. Bliss, . . 

N. Y. 

1897 

McKinley, . . 

Ethan A. Hitchcock, . 

Mo. 

1899 

Roosevelt, . . 

Ethan A. Hitchcock, . 

Mo. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

James R. Garfield, . . 

Ohio 

1907 

Taft. 

Richard A. Ballinger, 

Wash. 

1909 

Taft. 

Walter L. Fisher, . . 

Ill. 

1911 

Wilson, . . . 

Franklin K. Lane, . . 

Cal. 

1913 


Post-office Department. The Postmaster- 
General has the direction and management 
of the Post-office Department. He appoints all 
officers and employees of the Department, except 
the four Assistant Postmasters-General and the 
purchasing agent, who are appointed by the 
President, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate; appoints all postmasters whose 
compensation does not exceed SI,000; makes 
postal treaties with foreign governments, by 
and with the advice and consent of the Presi¬ 
dent; awards and executes contracts, and 
directs the management of the mail service. 


POSTMASTERS-GENERAL* 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Washington, . 

Samuel Osgood, . . . 

Mass. 

1789 

Washington, . 

Timothy Pickering, . 

Mass. 

1791 

Washington, . 

Joseph Habersham, . 

Ga. 

1795 

Adams, . . . 

Joseph Habersham, . 

Ga. 

1797 

Jefferson, . . 

Joseph Habersham, . 

Ga. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Gideon Granger, . . . 

Ct. 

1801 

Madison, . . 

Gideon Granger, . . . 

Ct. 

1809 

Madison, . . 

Return J. Meigs, Jr., . 

Ohio 

1814 

Monroe, . . . 

Return J. Meigs, Jr., . 

Ohio 

1817 

Monroe, . . . 

John McLean, .... 

Ohio 

1823 

J. Q. Adams,. 

John McLean. 

Ohio 

1825 

Jackson, . . . 

William T. Barry, . . 

Ky. 

1829 

Jackson, . . . 

Amos Kendall, . . . 

Ky. 

1835 

Van Buren, . 

Amos Kendall, . . . 

Ky. 

1837 

Van Buren, . 

John M. Niles. 

Ct. 

1840 

Harrison, . . 

Francis Granger,. . . 

N. Y. 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

Francis Granger,. . . 

N. Y. 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

Charles A. Wickliffe, . 

Ivy. 

1841 

Polk. 

Cave Johnson, .... 

Tenn. 

1845 

Taylor, . . . 

Jacob Collamer, . . . 

Vt. 

1849 

Fillmore, . . 

Nathan K. Hall, . . . 

N. Y. 

1850 

Fillmore, . . 

Samuel D Hubbard, . 

Ct. 

1852 

Pierce, . . . 

James Campbell,. . . 

Pa. 

1853 

Buchanan, . . 

Aaron V. Brown, . . 

Tenn. 

1857 

Buchanan, . . 

Joseph Holt. 

Ky. 

1859 

Buchanan, . . 

Horatio King. 

Me. 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

Montgomery Blair, . . 

Md. 

1861 

Lincoln, . . . 

William Dennison, . . 

Ohio 

1864 

Johnson,. . . 

William Dennison, . . 

Ohio 

1865 

Johnson,. . . 

Alexander W. Randall, 

Wis. 

1866 

Grant. 

John A. J. Cresswell, . 

Md. 

1869 

Grant, ... . 

James W. Marshall, . 

Va. 

1874 














































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


639 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Grant, .... 

Marshall Jewell, . . . 

Ct. 

1874 

Grant, .... 

James N. Tyner, . . . 

Ind. 

1876 

Hayes, . . . 

David McK. Key, . . 

Tenn. 

1877 

Hayes, . . . 

Horace Maynard, 

Tenn. 

1880 

Garfield, . . . 

Thomas L. James, . . 

N. Y. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

Timothy 0. Howe, . . 

Wis. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

Walter Q. Gresham, . 

Ind. 

1883 

Arthur, . . . 

Frank Hatton, . . . 

la. 

1884 

Cleveland, . . 

William F. Vilas, . . 

Wis. 

1885 

Cleveland, . . 

Don M. Dickinson, . . 

Mich. 

1888 

B. Harrison, . 

John Wanamaker, . . 

Pa. 

1889 

Cleveland, . . 

Wilson S. Bissell, . . 

N. Y. 

1893 

Cleveland, . . 

William L. Wilson, . . 

W.Va. 

1895 

McKinley, . . 

James A. Gary, . 

Md. 

1897 

McKinley, . . 

Charles Emory Smith, 

Pa. 

1898 

Roosevelt, . . 

Charles Emory Smith, 

Pa. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

Henry C. Payne, . . . 

Wis. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

Robert J. Wynne, . . 

Pa. 

1904 

Roosevelt, . . 

George B. Cortelyou, . 

N. Y. 

1905 

Roosevelt, . . 

George Von L. Meyer,. 

Mass. 

1907 

Taft. 

Frank H. Hitchcock, . 

Mass. 

1909 

Wilson, . . . 

Albert S. Burleson, 

Tex. 

1 1913 


* The Postmaster-General was not considered a 
Cabinet officer until 1829. 


Navy Department. The Secretary of the 
Navy performs such duties as the President of 
the United States, who is Commander-in-chief, 
may assign him, and has the general superin¬ 
tendence of construction, manning, armament, 
equipment, and employment of vessels of war. 


SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Adams, . . . 

Benjamin Stoddert. . 

Md. 

1798 

Jefferson, . . 

Benjamin Stoddert, . 

Md. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Robert Smith, .... 

Md. 

1801 

Jefferson, . . 

Jacob Crowninshield, . 

Mass. 

1805 

Madison, . . 

Paul Hamilton, . . . 

S. C. 

1809 

Madison, . . 

William Jones, . . . 

Pa. 

1813 

Madison, . . 

B. W. Crowninshield,. 

Mass. 

1814 

Monroe, . . . 

B. W. Crowninshield,. 

Mass. 

1817 

Monroe, . . . 

Smith Thompson, . . 

N. Y. 

1818 

Monroe, . . . 

Samuel L. Southard, . 

N. J. 

1823 

J. Q. Adams, . 

Samuel L. Southard, . 

N. J. 

1825 

Jackson, . . . 

John Branch. 

N. C. 

1829 

Jackson,. . . 

Levi Woodbury, . . . 

N. H. 

1831 

Jackson,. . . 

Mahlon Dickerson, . . 

N. J. 

1834 

Van Buren, . 

Mahlon Dickerson, . . 

N. J. 

1837 

Van Buren, . 

James K. Paulding, . 

N. Y. 

1838 

Harrison, . . 

George E. Badger . . 

N. C. 

1841 

Tyler. 

George E. Badger, . . 

N. C. 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

Abel P. Upshur, . . . 

Va. 

1841 

Tyler, .... 

David Henshaw, . . . 

Mass. 

1843 

Tyler, .... 

Thomas W. Gilmer, . 

Va. 

1844 

Tyler. 

John Y. Mason, . . . 

Va. 

1844 . 

Polk, .... 

George Bancroft, . . 

Mass. 

1845 

Polk. 

John Y. Mason, . . . 

Va. 

1846 

Taylor, . . . 

William B. Preston, . 

Va. 

1849 

Fillmore, . . 

William A. Graham, . 

N. C. 

1850 

Fillmore, . . 

John P. Kennedy, . . 

Md. 

1852 

Pierce, . . . 

James C. Dobbin, . . 

N. C. 

1853 

Buchanan, . . 

Isaac Toucey. 

Ct. 

1857 

Lincoln, . . . 

Gideon Welles, . . . 

Ct. 

1861 

Johnson, . . . 

Gideon Welles, . . . 

Ct. 

1865 

Grant, .... 

Adolph E. Borie, . . . 

Pa. 

1869 

Grant, .... 

George M. Robeson, . 

N. J. 

1869 

Hayes, . . . 

Richard W. Thompson, 

Ind. 

1877 

Hayes, . . . 

Nathan Goff, Jr., . . 

W.Va. 

1881 

Garfield, . . . 

William FI. Hunt, . . 

La. 

1881 

Arthur, . . . 

William E. Chandler, . 

N. H. 

1882 

Cleveland, . . 

William C. Whitney, . 

N. Y. 

1885 

B. Harrison, . 

Benjamin F. Tracy, . 

N. Y. 

1889 

Cleveland, . . 

Hilary A. Herbert, . . 

Ala. 

1893 

McKinley, . . 

John D. Long, .... 

Mass. 

1897 

Roosevelt, . . 

John D. Long, .... 

Mass. 

1901 

Roosevelt, . . 

William H. Moody,. . 

Mass. 

1902 

Roosevelt, . . 

Paul Morton, .... 

N. Y. 

1904 

Roosevelt, . . 

Charles J. Bonaparte, 

Md. 

1906 

Roosevelt, . . 

Victor H. Metcalf, . . 

Cal. 

1907 

Roosevelt, . . 

Truman H. Newberry, 

Mich. 

1908 

Taft. 

George Von L. Meyer, 

Mass. 

1909 

Wilson, . . . 

Josephus Daniels, . . 

N. C. 

1913 


Department of Agriculture. The Secretary 
exercises personal supervision of public busi¬ 
ness relating to the agricultural industry. He ap¬ 
points all the officers and employees of the 
Department with the exception of the Assistant 
Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 
who are appointed by the President, and directs 
the management of all the divisions, offices, 
and bureaus embraced in the Department. He 
sustains an advisory relation to the agricultural 
experiment stations deriving support from the 
National Treasury; has control of the quaran¬ 
tine stations for imported cattle, of interstate 
quarantine rendered necessary by sheep and 
cattle diseases, and of the inspection of cattle¬ 
carrying vessels; and directs the inspection of 
domestic meats and of all imported food prod¬ 
ucts. He also is charged with carrying into 
effect the laws prohibiting the transportation 
by interstate commerce of game killed in viola¬ 
tion of local laws and excluding from importa¬ 
tion certain noxious animals, and has authority 
to control the importation of other animals. 


SECRETARIES OF AGRICULTURE 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Cleveland, . . 

Norman J. Colman, 

Mo. 

1889 

B. Harrison, . 

Jeremiah M. Rusk, . . 

Wis. 

1889 

Cleveland, . . 

J. Sterling Morton, . . 

Neb. 

1893 

McKinley, . . 

James Wilson, .... 

Ia. 

1897 

Roosevelt, . . 

James Wilson, .... 

Ia. 

1901 

Taft. 

James Wilson,.... 

Ia. 

1909 

Wilson, . . . 

David F. Houston, . . 

Mo. 

1913 


Department of Commerce. The Secretary of 
Commerce is charged with the work of promoting 
the commerce of the United States, and its 
mining, manufacturing, shipping, fishery, and 
transportation interests. His duties also comprise 
the investigation of the organization and manage¬ 
ment of corporations (excepting railroads) 
engaged in interstate commerce; the adminis¬ 
tration of the Light-House Service, and the 
aid and protection to shipping thereby; the 
taking of the census, and the collection and 
publication of statistical information connected 
therewith; the making of coast and geodetic 
surveys; the collecting of statistics relating 
to foreign and domestic commerce; the inspec¬ 
tion of steamboats, and the enforcement of 
laws relating thereto for the protection of life 
and property; the supervision of the fisheries as 
administered by the Federal Government; the 
supervision and control of the Alaskan fur-seal, 
salmon, and other fisheries; the jurisdiction 
over merchant vessels and seamen of the United 
States; the custody, construction, maintenance, 
and application of standards of weights and 
measurements; and the gathering and supplying 
of information regarding industries and markets. 


SECRETARIES OF COMMERCE * 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap- 

pointed 

Roosevelt, . . 

George B. Cortelvou, . 

N. Y. 

1903 

Roosevelt, . . 

Victor H. Metcalf, . . 

Cal. 

1904 

Roosevelt, . . 

Oscar S. Straus, . . . 

x Y. 

1907 

Taft, .... 

Charles Nagel. 

Mo. 

1909 

Wilson, . . . 

William C. Redfield, . 

N. Y. 

1913 


*Prior to 1913 these officers were known as Secretaries 
of Commerce and Labor. 





















































640 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Department of Labor. The Secretary of Labor 
is charged to foster, promote, and develop the 
welfare of the wage-earners of the United States, 
to improve the working conditions, and to 
advance their opportunities for profitable em¬ 
ployment; to gather and publish information 
regarding labor interests, and to act as mediator 
in labor disputes. He also has supervision over 
the bureaus of immigration and naturalization, 
and of the children’s bureau. 


SECRETARIES OF LABOR 


Presidents 

Cabinet Officers 

Resi¬ 

dences 

Ap¬ 

pointed 

Wilson, . . . 

William B. Wilson, . . 

Pa. 

1913 


Speaker of the House of Representatives. The 
title of the presiding officer of the House of 
Representatives. He is elected by the members 
of that body. Below is given a list of the Speak¬ 
ers who have presided since the first Congress: 


SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE 


Name 

State 

Born 

Died 

Con¬ 

gress 

Years 

F. A. Muhlenburg, . 

Pa. 

1750 

1801 

1 

1789-91 

Jonathan Trumbull, 

Conn. 

1740 

1809 

2 

1791-93 

F. A. Muhlenburg, . 

Pa. 

1750 

1801 

3 

1793-95 

Jonathan Dayton, . 

N. J.) 

1760 

1824 

4, 5 

1795-99 

Theo. Sedgwick, . . 

Mass. 

1746 

1813 

6 

1799-01 

Nathaniel Macon, . 

N. C. 

1757 

1837 

7-9 

1801-07 

Joseph B. Varnum, 

Mass. 

1750 

1821 

10, 11 

1807-11 

Henry Clay. 

Ky. 

1777 

1852 

12, 13 

1811-14 

Langdon Cheves, 

S. C. 

1776 

1857 

13 

1814-15 

Henry Clay,.... 

Ky. 

1777 

1852 

14-16 

1815-20 

John W. Taylor, . . 

N. Y. 

1784 

1854 

16 

1820-21 

Philip P. Barbour, . 

Va. 

1783 

1841 

17 

1821-23 

Henry Clay,.... 

Ky. 

1777 

1852 

18 

1823-25 

John W. Taylor, . . 

N. Y. 

1784 

1854 

19 

1825-27 

Andrew Stevenson, 

Va. 

1784 

1857 

20-23 

1827-34 

John Bell, .... 

Tenn. 

1797 

1869 

23 

1834-35 

Jame9 K. Polk, . . 

Tenn. 

1795 

1849 

24, 25 

1835-39 

R. M. T. Hunter, 

Va. 

1809 

1887 

26 

1839-41 

John White, .... 

Ky. 

1805 

1845 

27 

1841-43 

John W. Jones, . . 

Va. 

1805 

1848 

28 

1843-45 

John W. Davis, . . 

Ind. 

1799 

1850 

29 

1845-47 

Robert C. Winthrop, 

Mass. 

1809 

1894 

30 

1847-49 

Howell Cobb, . . . 

Ga. 

1815 

1868 

31 

1849-51 

Linn Boyd. 

Ky. 

1800 

1859 

32, 33 

1851-55 

Nathaniel P. Banks, 

Mass. 

1816 

1894 

34 

1855-57 

James L. Orr, . . . 

S. C. 

1822 

1873 

35 

1857-59 

Wm. Pennington, . 

N. J. 

1796 

1862 

36 

1859-61 

Galusha A. Grow, . 

Pa. 

1823 

1907 

37 

1861-63 

Schuyler Colfax, . . 

Ind. 

1823 

1885 

38-40 

1863-69 

James G. Blaine,. . 

Me. 

1830 

1893 

41-43 

1869-75 

Michael C. Kerr, . . 

Ind. 

1827 

1876 

44 

1875-76 

Samuel J. Randall, 

Pa. 

1828 

1890 

44-46 

1876-81 

Joseph W. Keifer, . 

Ohio 

1836 


47 

1881-83 

John G. Carlisle, . . 

Ky. 

1835 


48-50 

1883-89 

Thomas B. Reed, . 

Mo. 

1839 

1902 

51 

1889-91 

Charles F. Crisp, . . 

Ga. 

1845 

1896 

52, 53 

1891-95 

Thomas B. Reed, . 

Me. 

1839 

1902 

54, 55 

1895-99 

David B. Henderson, 

Iowa 

1840 

1906 

56, 57 

1899-03 

Joseph G. Cannon, . 

Ill. 

1836 

.... 

58-61 

1903-11 

Champ Clark, . . . 

Mo. 

1850 


62 

1911- 


JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT 
(Names of the Chief Justices in italics.) 


Name 

Service 

Born 

Died 

Term 

Yrs 

John Jay, N. Y., . . . . 

1789-1795 

6 

1745 

1829 

John Rutledge, S. C., . . 

1789-1791 

2 

1739 

1800 

William Cushing, Mass., . 

1789-1810 

21 

1733 

1810 

James Wilson, Pa., . . . 

1789-1798 

9 

1742 

1798 

John Blair, Va., .... 

1789-1796 

7 

1732 

1800 

Robert H. Harrison, Md., 

1789-1790 

1 

1745 

1790 

James Iredell N. C., . . 

1790-1799 

9 

1751 

1799 


Name 

Service 

Born 

Died 

Term 

Yrs 

Thomas Johnson, Md., . 

1791-1793 

2 

1732 

1819 

William Paterson, N. J., . 

1793-1806 

13 

1745 

1806 

John Rutledge, S. C., . . . 

1795-1795 

, . 

1739 

1800 

Samuel Chase, Md., . . . 

1796-1811 

15 

1741 

1811 

Oliver Ellsworth, Ct., . . 

1796-1800 

4 

1745 

1807 

Bushrod Washington,Va., 

1798-1829 

31 

1762 

1829 

Alfred Moore, N. C., . . . 

1799-1804 

5 

1755 

1810 

John Marshall, Va. 

1801-1835 

34 

1755 

1835 

William Johnson, S. C., . 

1804-1834 

30 

1771 

1834 

Brock. Livingston, N. Y., 

1806-1823 

17 

1757 

1823 

Thomas Todd, Ky. 

1807-1826 

19 

1765 

1826 

Joseph Story, Mass., . . 

1811-1845 

34 

1779 

1845 

Gabriel Duval, Md. 

1811-1836 

25 

1752 

1844 

Smith Thompson, N. Y., 

1823-1843 

20 

1767 

1843 

Robert Trimble, Ky., . . 

1826-1828 

2 

1777 

1828 

John McLean, Ohio,. . . 

1829-1861 

32 

1785 

1861 

Henry Baldwin, Pa., . . 

1830-1844 

14 

1779 

1844 

James M. Wayne, Ga., 

1835-1867 

32 

1790 

1867 

Roger B. Taney, Md., . . 

1836-1864 

28 

1777 

1864 

Philip P. Barbour, Va., . 

1836-1841 

5 

1783 

1841 

John Catron, Tenn.,. . . 

1837-1865 

28 

1786 

1865 

John McKinley, Ala., . . 

1837-1852 

15 

1780 

1852 

Peter V. Daniel, Va., . . 

1841-1860 

19 

1785 

1860 

Samuel Nelson, N. Y., . . 

1845-1872 

27 

1792 

1873 

Levi Woodbury, N. H., . 

1845-1851 

6 

1789 

1851 

Robert C. Grier, Pa., . . 

1846-1870 

23 

1794 

1870 

Benj. R. Curtis, Mass., . . 

1851-1857 

6 

1809 

1874 

John A. Campbell, Ala., . 

1853-1861 

8 

1811 

1889 

Nathan Clifford, Me., . . 

1858-1881 

23 

1803 

1881 

Noah H. Swayne, Ohio, . 

1861-1881 

20 

1804 

1884 

Samuel F. Miller, Iowa, . 

1862-1890 

28 

1816 

1890 

David Davis, Ill., . . , . 

1862-1877 

15 

1815 

1886 

Stephen J. Field, Cal., . . 

1863-1897 

34 

1816 

1899 

Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, . 

1864-1873 

9 

1808 

1873 

William Strong, Pa., . . 

1870-1880 

10 

1808 

1895 

Joseph P. Bradley, N. J., 

1870-1892 

22 

1813 

1892 

Ward Hunt, N. Y., . . . 

1872-1882 

10 

1811 

1886 

Morrison R. Waite, Ohio, 

1874-1888 

14 

1816 

1888 

John M. Harlan, Ky., . . 

1877-1911 

34 

1833 

1911 

William B. Woods, Ga., . 

1880-1887 

7 

1824 

1887 

Stanley Matthews, Ohio, . 

1881-1889 

8 

1824 

1889 

Horace Gray, Mass., . . 

1881-1902 

21 

1828 

1902 

Samuel Blatchford, N.Y., 

1882-1893 

11 

1820 

1893 

Lucius Q.C.Lamar, Miss., 

1888-1893 

5 

1825 

1893 

Melville W. Fuller, Ill., . 

1888-1910 

22 

1833 

1910 

David J. Brewer, Ivan., . 

1889-1910 

21 

1837 

1910 

Henry B. Brown, Mich., . 

1890-1906 

16 

1836 


George Shiras, Jr., Pa., . 

1892-1903 

11 

1832 


Howell E. Jackson,Tenn., 

1893-1895 

2 

1832 

i.895 

Edward D. White, La., . 

1893-_ 


1845 


Rufus W. Peckham,N.Y., 

1895-1909 

14 

1837 

i.909 

Joseph McKenna, Cal., 

1898-_ 


1843 


Oliver W. Holmes, Mass., 

1902-_ 


1841 


William R. Day, Ohio, . . 

1903-_ 


1849 


William H. Moody, . . . 

1906-1910 

4 

1853 


Horace H. Lurton, Tenn., 

1909-_ 


1844 


Charles E. Hughes, N. Y., 

1910-_ 


1862 


Willis VanDevanter, Wyo., 

1910-_ 


1859 


Joseph R. Lamar, Ga., 

1910-_ 


1857 


Mahlon Pitney, N. J., 

1912-_ 


1858 

.. .. 


Uruguay. The Republic of Uruguay 
declared its independence August 25, 1825. Its 
Constitution was sworn to July 18, 1830. By 
the terms of this charter, the legislative power 
is in a Parliament, composed of two Houses, the 
Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, 
which meet in annual session, extending from 
February 15th to July 15th. In the interval 
of the session, a permanent committee of two 
senators and five members of the lower house 
assume the legislative power, as well as the 
general control of the administration. The 
representatives are chosen for three years, 
in the proportion of one to every 3,000 inhab¬ 
itants, of male adults who can read and 
write. The senators are chosen by an electoral 
college, directly elected by the people. There 
is one senator for each department, chosen for six 
years, one-third retiring every two years. There 
are seventy-five representatives and nineteen 

























































GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 


641 


senators. The executive is given by the Con¬ 
stitution to the president of the Republic, 
elected for the term of four years. The presi¬ 
dent is assisted in his executive functions by a 
council of ministers divided into seven depart¬ 
ments, namely, those of the interior and wor¬ 
ship, foreign affairs, finance, war and marine, 
justice and public instruction, industry, labor 
and communications, and public works. 

Utah. The original Constitution of 1895 
is in force as since amended. The Legislature 
consists of a Senate and a House of Representa¬ 
tives; but the Constitution provides for the 
initiation of any desired legislation by the legal 
voters or such number of them as may be deter¬ 
mined by law, and such voters may require any 
law passed by less than a two-thirds vote of each 
House of the Legislature to be submitted to the 
voters of the State before coming into effect. 
The Senate (in part renewed every two years) 
consists of eighteen members, elected for four 
years; the House of Representatives has forty- 
five members elected for two years. Bills may 
originate in either House. The House of Repre¬ 
sentatives may impeach; the Senate tries im¬ 
peachments. Eligible to either House are 
citizens 25 years of age, three years resi¬ 
dent in the State, and one year in the district 
next before the election. Amendments to the 
Constitution may be proposed in either branch 
of the Legislature, but to be embodied in the 
Constitution, they must be carried by a two- 
thirds vote of all the members of each House 
and ratified by a majority vote of the people. 
The chief executive power is vested in a 
governor elected for four years. He is com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the militia. With the con¬ 
sent of the Senate he has the appointment of 
various officials. The governor, justices of the 
Supreme Court, and attorney-general consti¬ 
tute a board of pardons. The governor has 
the power of veto but its exercise may be over¬ 
ridden by a two-thirds vote of all the members of 
each House. Other State officials are the secre¬ 
tary of state, auditor, the treasurer, the at¬ 
torney-general, and the superintendent of 
public instruction, all elected for four years. 
There are twenty-seven counties in the State. 

Venezuela. The Republic of Venezuela 
was formed in 1830, by secession from the other 
members of the Republic of Colombia. The Con¬ 
stitution in force is that of 1909. Legislative 
authority is vested in a congress of two chambers, 
the senate and the chamber of deputies. The 
former consists of forty members elected for four 
years, two for each state, Venezuelans by birth 
and over 30 years of age. The latter is constituted 
as follows: Each state chooses by direct election 
for four years one deputy, a Venezuelan by 
birth and over 21 years of age, for every 35,000 
inhabitants, and one more for an excess of 15,000. 
The federal district and the territories which are 
sufficiently populous elect deputies in manner 
prescribed by law. Executive power is in the hands 
of the president and cabinet of ministers. The 
president holds office for four years and cannot be 
elected for the following term. He must be a 
Venezuelan by birth and over 30 years of age. 
In case of temporary or permanent disability to 
act, his place is taken by the presiding member 


of the Council of Government. This Council 
consists of ten members, one for each two states, 
who are chosen by Congress for four years. The 
cabinet consists of the ministers of internal 
affairs, foreign affairs, finance and public credit, 
war and marine, development,. public works, 
public instruction. 

Vermont. The Constitution in force at 
the time of admission was that of 1786. In 1793 
a new Constitution was adopted which, with 
numerous amendments since made from time 
to time, is still in force. The State Legislature 
consists of a Senate and a House of Representa¬ 
tives having, the former thirty and the latter 
246 members. Senators must be 30 years of age 
and Representatives 21. The governor is elected 
for two years. He exercises the chief executive 
power and appoints all State officers not other¬ 
wise provided for by law. He has power to par¬ 
don, or in certain cases only to reprieve; his 
veto can be overridden by a majority vote of 
each House. Other important officials are 
the lieutenant-governor, treasurer, and auditor. 
The state is divided into fourteen counties. 

Virginia. The first Constitution of Vir¬ 
ginia was adopted on June 29, 1776, and with 
little change it survived till recent years. The 
Constitution now in force was adopted by the 
Convention of 1902. It provides for a Legisla¬ 
ture called the General Assembly, consisting of 
a Senate and a House of Delegates, the former 
containing not more than forty nor less than 
thirty-three members, and the latter not more 
than 100 nor less than ninety. Senators are 
elected for four years, one-half retiring every 
two years. Eligible to either House are persons 
resident in the district and qualified to vote for 
members of the General Assembly, except paid 
office-holders of the State or of the Union. The 
executive power resides in a governor, elected for 
four years by the voters of the State. He must 
be 30 years of age, must have been a citizen of 
the United States for ten years, and have resided 
in the State for five years. He is not eligible for 
the succeeding term. He is required to take 
care that the laws are faithfully administered; 
he recommends the legislative measures which 
he considers necessary; is commander-in-chief 
of the military forces; has power to grant re¬ 
prieves and pardons after conviction, but must 
report to the Legislature on each case. In legis¬ 
lation he has a limited power of veto, which may 
be overridden by a two-thirds majority of each 
House, if such majority includes a majority of the 
elected members. There is a lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor, a secretary of the commonwealth, and a 
State treasurer, each of whom is elected for the 
same term and in the same manner as the gov¬ 
ernor. The auditor is appointed for four years 
by the two Houses sitting together. 

Washington was admitted into the Union 
as a State in 1889. The Constitution of that year 
has been variously amended from time to time. 
Legislative authority is vested in a Legis¬ 
lature consisting of a Senate and a House of 
Representatives, the latter composed of not less 
than sixty-three nor more than ninety-nine 
members (actually ninety-six in 1911), the 
number of Senators being not more than half 
1 nor less than one-third of that of members of the 




642 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


House of Representatives (actually forty-two 
in 1911). The membership of both Houses is 
apportioned anew every five years according to 
the results of the federal decennial census and of 
the intervening decennial State census. Eligible 
for either house are citizens of the United States 
who are qualified voters in the districts for which 
the election is held. But members of the 
United States Congress and holders of United 
States or State offices are disqualified. The 
chief executive authority resides in a governor, 
chosen by the qualified electors of the State and 
holding office for four years. He is charged to 
watch over the faithful execution of the law’s; 
he recommends legislative measures, communi¬ 
cating by message every session with the Legis¬ 
lature. He is commander-in-chief of the State 
military forces; he has pardoning powers as to 
the use of which he reports to the Legislature; he 
has a veto in legislation, but his veto may be 
overridden by a two-thirds majority of each 
House. He signs all commissions. In 1912 the 
Constitution was amended to provide for the 
initiative and referendum, for the recall of all 
elective public officers, except judges, and for 
a mandatory system of official publicity touching 
measures submitted to the electorate. 

West Virginia. The Constitution framed 
and adopted in 1872, superseding the Constitu¬ 
tion of 1862, as variously amended from time 
to time, is now in force. The Legislature consists 
of a Senate and a House of Delegates. The 
members of both Houses are elected by the gen¬ 
eral electors. The Senate is composed of thirty 
members elected for a term of four years in such 
a manner that half the Senate is renewed bien¬ 
nially. Senators must be at least 25 years of age 
and have been resident five years in the State 
and in the senatorial districts for which they are 
severally chosen. The House of Delegates con¬ 
sists of eighty-six members. Every bill passed 
by both Houses requires the assent of the gov¬ 
ernor, but if this is refused the bill may become 
law on being revoted by a majority in the Legis¬ 
lature. The executive department consists of 
a governor, secretary of state, superintendent 
of free schools, auditor, treasurer, and attorney- 
general, each elected for four years. The gov¬ 
ernor must be at least 30 years of age and is not 
eligible for reelection. He is commander-in- 
chief of the State military establishment, con¬ 
venes the Legislature in extra session, approves 
or disapproves all acts of the Legislature, fills 
vacant State offices by appointment, and is 
president of the board of public works. 

Wisconsin, was admitted to the Union in 
1848. The Constitution of that year is in force, 
but has been frequently amended. The legisla¬ 
tive power is vested in a Senate and an Assembly. 
The Senate consists of thirty-three members 
elected for a term of four years, only about one- 
half of the members being elected at one time. 
The Assembly consists of 100 members, elected 
for a term of two years, all of the members being 
elected at the same time. The powers of the two 
Houses as to appropriations and revenue bills are 
the same. Eligible to the Legislature are all 
males who are qualified electors in the district 
to be represented and who have resided one year 
within the State, except members of Congress 


and office holders under the United States. The 
chief executive authority in the State is vested 
in the governor, who is elected for two years and 
has the powers usually resident in State govern¬ 
ors, including the limited veto and pardoning 
power. The secretary of state is elected for two 
years. Other important elective offices are 
those of lieutenant-governor, treasurer, attorney- 
general, superintendent of schools, and insurance 
commissioner. Among the more important 
appointive offices are the following: commis¬ 
sioner of labor and industrial statistics, appointed 
for four years, commissioner of banking, dairy 
and food commissioner, superintendent of public 
property, and adjutant-general. The railroad 
commission consisting of three members is ap¬ 
pointed by the governor, with the consent of the 
Senate, for a term of six years. The tax com¬ 
mission is composed of three members similarly 
appointed for a term of eight years. The civil 
service commission is appointed for a term of 
six years, and the board of control for five 
years. 

Wyoming was admitted into the Union as 
a State in 1890. The original Constitution, 
adopted in 1889, is still in force. Constitutional 
amendments proposed in either House of the 
Legislature, agreed to by a two-thirds vote of all 
the members of each House, and approved by a 
majority vote of the people, become part of the 
Constitution. The Legislature consists of a 
Senate of twenty-seven members, elected for 
four years (about one-half retiring every two 
years), and a House of Representatives of fifty- 
six members elected for two years. Legislators 
must be citizens (Senators 25 and Representatives 
21 years of age), and must have resided in the 
county or district one year next preceding the 
election. Revenue bills must originate in the 
House of Representatives. The Senate tries 
cases of impeachment brought by the other 
House. The chief executive officer of the State 
is the governor, elected for four years. He may 
appoint to offices not otherwise provided for by 
law, has a limited power of pardoning, etc., may 
call special sessions of the Legislature, and has a 
veto which may be overridden by a two-thirds 
vote of each House. Other officials elected for 
four years, are the secretary of state, auditor, 
treasurer, and superintendent of public instruc¬ 
tion. The treasurer is not eligible for the 
succeeding term. 

Zanzibar. The dominions of the Sultan 
of Zanzibar include only the islands of Zanzibar 
and Pemba, and the coast of the British East 
Africa up to ten miles inland. The Sultan is still 
the titular sovereign, under a British Protecto¬ 
rate. In October, 1891, a regular government 
was formed for Zanzibar. All accounts are now 
kept in English and Arabic, and are always open 
to the inspection of the British agent and consul- 
general, and no new undertakings or additional 
expenditure can be incurred without his consent. 
On February 1, 1892, Zanzibar was declared a 
free port, and it remained so until October 1, 
1899. One court, His Britannic Majesty’s, 
deals with all actions to which a British, or 
British protected, person or the subject of a for¬ 
eign power is a party, and others ; the sultan’s 
local courts deal with cases between natives. 












































■ 














































































m -• ;• 






. ■ 












' 

. » 












UNION STATION, WASHINGTON 
















































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


Adulteration, a term not only applied in 
its proper sense to the fraudulent mixture of 
articles of commerce, food, drink, drugs, seeds, 
etc., with noxious or inferior ingredients, but 
also by magistrates and analysts to accidental 
impurity, and even in some cases to actual sub¬ 
stitution. The chief objects of adulteration are 
to increase the weight or volume of the article, 
to give a color which either makes a good article 
more pleasing to the eye, or else disguises an 
inferior one, to substitute a cheaper form of the 
article, or the same substance from which the 
strength has been extracted, or to give it a false 
strength. Among the adulterations which are 
practised for the purpose of fraudulently in¬ 
creasing the weight or volume of an article are 
the following:— Bread is adulterated with alum 
or sulphate of copper, which gives solidity to the 
gluten of damaged or inferior flour; with chalk 
or carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of 
such flour; and with boiled rice or potatoes, 
which enables the bread to carry more water, 
and thus to produce a larger number of loaves 
from a given quantity of flour. Wheat flour is 
adulterated with other inferior flours, as the 
flour from rice, bean, Indian-corn, potato, and 
with sulphate of lime, alum, etc. Milk is usually 
adulterated with water. The adulterations gen¬ 
erally present in butter consist of an undue pro¬ 
portion of salt and water, lard, tallow, and other 
fats; when of poor quality it is frequently col¬ 
ored with a little annatto, and, at times, with the 
juice of carrots. Genuine butter should not con¬ 
tain less than eighty per cent, of butter-fat. 
Cheese is also colored with annatto and other 
substances. Tea is adulterated (chiefly in China) 
with sand, iron-filings, chalk, gypsum, China 
clay, exhausted tea leaves, and the leaves of the 
sycamore, horse-chestnut, and plum, whilst color 
and weight are added by black-lead, indigo, 
Prussian-blue (one of the deleterious ingredients 
used by the Chinese in converting the lowest 
qualities of black into green teas), gum, tur¬ 
meric, soapstone, catechu, and other substances. 
Coffee is mingled with chicory, roasted wheat, 
roasted beans, acorns, mangel-wurzel, rye-flour, 
and colored with burned sugar and other materi¬ 
als. Chicory is adulterated with different flours, 
as rye, wheat, beans, etc., and colored with fer¬ 
ruginous earths, burned sugar, Venetian red, etc. 
Cocoa and chocolate are mixed with the cheaper 
kinds of arrowroot, animal matter, corn, sago, 
tapioca, etc. Sugar (moist) may be adulterated 
to some extent with sand and flour. Tobacco is 
mixed with sugar and treacle, aloes, liquorice, 
oil, alum, etc., and such leaves as rhubarb, chic¬ 
ory, cabbage, burdock, coltsfoot, besides excess 
of salt and water. Snuffs are adulterated with 
carbonate of ammonia, glass, sand, coloring mat¬ 
ter, etc. Confections are adulterated with flour 
and sulphate of lime. Preserved vegetables 
are kept green and poisoned by salts of copper. 
The acridity of mustard is commonly reduced 
by flour, and the color of the compound is im¬ 
proved by turmeric. Pepper is adulterated with 
linseed-meal, flour, mustard husks, etc. Color 
is given to pickles by salts of copper, acetate of 


copper, etc. Ale is adulterated with common 
salt, Cocculus Indicus, grains of paradise, quassia, 
and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, etc. 
Porter and stout are mixed with sugar, treacle, 
salt, and an excess of water. Brandy is diluted 
with water, and burned sugar is added to im¬ 
prove the color; sometimes bad whiskey is 
flavored and colored so as to resemble brandy, 
and sold under its name. Gin is mixed with ex¬ 
cess of water, and flavoring matters of various 
kinds, with alum and tartar, are added. Rum 
is diluted with water, and the flavor and color 
are kept up by the addition of cayenne and 
burned sugar. For champagne, gooseberry, 
and other inferior wines are often substituted. 
Port is manufactured from red Cape and other 
inferior wines, the body, flavor, strength, and 
color being produced by gum-dragon, the wash¬ 
ings of brandy casks, and a preparation of Ger¬ 
man bilberries. Cheap brown sherry is mixed 
with Cape and other low-priced brandies, and is 
flavored with the washings of brandy-casks, 
sugar-candy, and bitter almonds. Pale sherries 
are produced by gypsum, by a process called 
plastering, which removes the natural acids as 
well as the color of the wine. Other wines are 
adulterated with elderberry, logwood, Brazil¬ 
wood, cudbear, red beetroot, etc., for color; 
with lime or carbonate of lime, carbonate of 
soda, carbonate of potash, and litharge, to cor¬ 
rect acidity; with catechu, sloe-leaves, and oak- 
bark for astringency; with sulphate of lime and 
alum for removing color; with cane-sugar for 
giving sweetness and body; with alcohol for 
fortifying; and with ether, especially acetic 
ether, for giving bouquet and flavor. Medicines, 
such as jalap, opium, rhubarb, chinchona bark, 
scammony, aloes, sarsaparilla, squills, etc., are 
mixed with various foreign substances. Castor- 
oil has been adulterated with other oils; and 
inferior oils are often mixed with cod-liver oil. 
Cantharides are often mixed with golden-beetle 
and also artificially-colored glass. The adultera¬ 
tion of seeds is largely practiced also, the seed 
which forms the adulterant being of course of the 
most worthless kind that can be had. Thus 
turnip-seed is mixed with rape, wild mustard, 
or charlock, which are steamed and kiln-dried 
to destroy their vitality, so as to evade detection 
in the progress of growth; old and useless turnip- 
seed is also used fraudulently mixed with fresh 
seeds. Clover is also much mixed with plantain 
and mere weeds. 

Acts against adulteration have been passed in 
various countries and at various times. In 1906, 
the United States Congress passed comprehen¬ 
sive laws against food adulteration, under the 
titles of the Pure Food Act and the Meat Inspec¬ 
tion Act. 

Aerial Navigation. The first balloon 
was sent up by the brothers Stephen and Joseph 
Montgolfier, paper manufacturers at Annonay, 
near Lyons, on June 5, 1783, and reached an 
altitude of nearly a mile. It was inflated with 
heated air, for which hydrogen gas was soon 
substituted. The modern balloon is but a slight 
improvement on that invented by Montgolfier. 




646 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


In place of heated air or hydrogen, common coal 
gas is now used. This improvement was intro¬ 
duced by Mr. Green, the English aeronaut. As 
gas expands rapidly as the balloon ascends, and 
the pressure of the external air is diminished, 
the neck of the balloon is commonly left open, 
and the machine is also furnished with a safety 
valve at the top, which can be opened or shut 
at pleasure. Mr. Glaisher, a noted English 
aeronaut, is of the opinion that in order to reach 
great altitudes the balloon must have a capacity 
of at least 90,000 cubic feet, of which not more 
than one-third need be inflated with gas, and 
must carry upward of 600 pounds of ballast. 
The question of the extreme altitude to which 
a balloon can ascend can only be theoretically 
determined, since the vital powers at 37,000 to 
40,000 feet of elevation must succumb to the 
intense cold and the attenuated atmosphere. 
Mr. Glaisher seriously doubts the practical use 
of the balloon. He sees no probability that any 
method of steering it will be invented; but 
Messrs. Fonvielle and Tissandier believe it pos¬ 
sible to devise means for its guidance. 

Recent progress in ballooning would excite 
admiration if not overshadowed by the develop¬ 
ment of the modern dirigible airship. Inter¬ 
national and other balloon races are held annually 
and at the end of 1912 the world’s record for 
distance had been advanced by Bienaime to 
1,366 miles, the altitude record by Siiring and 
Berson to 34,433 feet, and the record for duration 
by Schack to 73 hours and 47 minutes. The 
dirigible airship, however, exhibited by Santos- 
Dumont in 1901, and especially the rigid type 
of dirigible first built by Count Zeppelin in 1900, 
speedily supplanted the rudderless balloon in 
popular regard. Several European nations are 
building and flying such craft in military maneu¬ 
vers and in Germany passengers and excursion¬ 
ists are regularly carried from city to city and 
even hundreds of miles over sea to other lands 
in the mammoth Zeppelin dirigibles. 

While the results achieved suggest the likeli¬ 
hood of a considerable future development for 
the dirigible airship, interest in aeronautics 
centers in the aeroplane, the practical value of 
which for many important purposes has been 
fully demonstrated. Experiments suggested by 
the work of Lilienthal and Samuel Langley were 
begun at Kitty Hawk, N. C., in 1900 by Orville 
and Wilbur Wright with gliders and later with 
heavier-than-air flying machines, supported by 
air and propelled by motor. Here, in December, 
1903, the Wrights first achieved the actual 
conquest of the air. It was not until 1906, 
however, that their invention was-perfected and 
they delayed until May 10, 1908, the first public 
demonstration. About two months later Henry 
Farman with his biplane made a successful 
flight in France. Since then progress has been 
so rapid that the aeroplane now ranks with the 
automobile as a mechanical contrivance, the 
possibilities of which can be quite definitely 
forecasted; it is the basis of a great and rapidly 
growing industry. 

Among the most notable flights made in 
Europe are the crossing of the Mediterranean by 
Garros, of the Pyrenees by Bider, and the Alps 
by Bielovucei; and, in America, the St. Louis to 


New York flight of Harry Atwood and the trans¬ 
continental flights of C. P. Rodgers and Robert 
G. Fowler. Remarkable progress in efficiency 
is shown by the advance of the various world’s 
records, the highest marks for 1912 having been 
set as follows: speed, Vedrines, 107.4 miles an 
hour; duration and distance, Fourny, 13 hours 
and 18 minutes of continuous flying, covering 
a distance of 628 miles; height, Garros, 19,032 
feet. The tendency of these records from year 
to year is to show a steady increase. From one 
to a dozen passengers can now be carried in 
various types of machines and, to provide for 
comfort, manufacturers are adding bodies 
similar to those of automobiles. Many tests 
have demonstrated that the aeroplane can con¬ 
tend with most ordinary conditions of weather 
and can alight and rise with safety in cross¬ 
country flight. 

Experimental mail routes served by aeroplanes 
have been established in both England and 
America. Numerous aviators were employed 
in the Italian-Turkish and the Balkan wars. 
Moving pictures, as well as ordinary photographs, 
have been successfully made from flying machines, 
wireless telegraph messages transmitted, guns 
fired, bombs thrown, and important military 
observations and sketches taken. Men have 
been dropped safely from aeroplanes by means 
of parachutes. The heavier-than-air flying 
machine is already essential in warfare and every 
important nation has added air-craft to its 
military equipment. Biplanes are preferred 
over monoplanes as safer, although not equally 
as fast. Dirigibles are not favored on account 
of their excessive cost. The use of the aeroplane 
in warfare, however, is likely to be limited 
chiefly to scouting and carrying dispatches. It 
will hardly become an important engine of offense. 

A most important event which occurred on 
Jan. 26, 1911, at San Diego, Cal., was the demon¬ 
stration by Glenn H. Curtiss of a practical hydro¬ 
aeroplane or flying boat. Hydro-aeroplanes are 
now launched and successfully picked up by 
naval vessels. They seem destined to important 
uses in warfare and are also likely to give rise 
to a new and fascinating type of sport. 

Agriculture, the art of farming. From 
Egypt a knowledge of agriculture extended to 
Greece, where it flourished 1,000 years before 
Christ. Hesiod describes a plough consisting of 
a beam, a share, and handles. The Greek 
farmers composted with skill, and saved the 
materials for the compost with care. A high 
appreciation of agriculture seems to have been 
a fundamental idea among the early Romans. 
A tract of land was allotted to every citizen by 
the state itself, and each one was carefully re¬ 
stricted to the quantity granted. The Roman 
agriculturists whose works have come down to 
us are Cato, Varro, Virgil, Columella, Pliny, and 
Palladius. The difference of soils and their 
adaptation to particular crops were well under¬ 
stood. Manures were saved with care. Com¬ 
posts were made in suitable places, hollows being 
scraped out in the form of a bowl to receive the 
wash from the house, and properly protected 
from the heat of the sun. But the inhabitants 
of the East were familiar with many mechanical 
appliances unknown to the Romans, and proba- 




INDUSTRY, INVENTION. COMMERCE 647 


ably their agricultural systems were more com¬ 
plete.—In Britain, the Romans made many 
improvements during their 400 years of occupa¬ 
tion; but the agriculture of the island was ex¬ 
tremely rude even when they left it, by far the 
greater part being covered with forests and 
marshes. Then the Saxons overran the coun¬ 
try, subsisting mainly by the chase and by 
keeping cattle, sheep, and especially swine, 
which readily fatten on the mast of the oak and 
the beech. In general, the only grains raised 
were wheat, barley, and oats, and they had but 
small quantities of these. No hoed crops of 
edible vegetables were cultivated, and even as 
late as the reign of Henry VIII. Queen Catharine 
was obliged to send to Flanders or Holland for 
salad. Neither Indian corn, potatoes, squashes, 
carrots, cabbages, nor turnips were known in 
England till after the beginning of the Sixteenth 
Century. From that time to the present, the 
radual elevation of the middle and lower classes 
as continued, and agriculture has steadily 
advanced. The first work on agriculture pub- 
ished in England was the “Boke of Husband- 
rie,” in 1523, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert. 

The advance in the art and science of agricul¬ 
ture in the United States during the last half 
dozen years has been remarkable, and has had a 
tremendous effect upon the nation’s prosperity. 
The total value of farm products in 1911 was 
$8,417,000,000, and in 1910, $8,694,000,000. 
The value of the products in 1909 was over twelve 
and one half per cent greater than that of 1908, 
nearly seventeen per cent over 1907, and twenty- 
nine and one half per cent over 1906. 

This marked progress is due to a number of 
circumstances and conditions, chief of which are 
our great variety of soil and climate, superior 
intelligence of the American farmer, improved 
machinery and implements, scientific education 
in all branches of agriculture, and increased 
pride of occupation. 

Among the chief improvements we may men¬ 
tion deep plowing and thorough draining. By 
the introduction of new or improved implements 
the labor necessary to the carrying out of agri¬ 
cultural operations has been greatly diminished. 
Science, too, has been called in to act as the hand¬ 
maid of art, and it is by the investigations of the 
chemist that agriculture has been put on a 
really scientific basis. The organization of 
plants, the primary elements of which they are 
composed, the food on which they live, and the 
constituents of soils, have all been investigated, 
and most important results obtained, particular¬ 
ly in regard to manures and rotations. Artificial 
manures, in great variety, to supply the elements 
wanted for plant growth, have come into com¬ 
mon use, not only increasing the produce of lands 
previously cultivated, but extending the limits 
of cultivation itself. An improvement in all 
kinds of stock is becoming more and more gen¬ 
eral, feeding is conducted on more scientific prin¬ 
ciples, and improved varieties of plants used as 
field crops have been introduced. One of the 
recent innovations in the United States is the 
introduction of the system of ensilage for pre¬ 
serving fodder in a green state, which promises 
to give valuable results, though it has hardly 
been tested long enough to decide as to its value. 


As a result of the new conditions, to be a 
thoroughly trained and competent agriculturist 
requires a special education, partly theoretical 
and partly practical. In particular, no scien¬ 
tific cultivator can now be ignorant of agri¬ 
cultural chemistry, which teaches the constit¬ 
uents of the various plants grown as crops, 
their relation to the various soils, the nature and 
function of different manures, etc. In some 
.countries there are now agricultural schools or 
colleges supported by the state. In the United 
States nearly all the states have colleges, or 
departments of colleges, devoted to the teaching 
of agriculture, and large allotments of public 
land have been made for their support. In 
Germany such institutions are numerous and 
highly efficient. For teaching agriculture prac¬ 
tically model farms are commonly established. 
In many countries, too, there is a ministry of 
agriculture as one of the chief departments of 
government. Our own Department of Agricul¬ 
ture has achieved the foremost place in the 
world for its scientific work in practical hus¬ 
bandry and its stimulating influence. 

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHIN¬ 
ERY, VALUE OF, LAST CENSUS REPORT. 


States 

Value of, 
on Farms 

Alabama,. 

$16,290,004 

Arizona,. 

1,787,790 

Arkansas,.. 

16,864,198 

California. 

36,493,158 

Colorado,. 

12,791,601 

Connecticut,. 

6,916,648 

Delaware,. 

3,206,095 

District of Columbia,. 

92,350 

Florida.. 

4,446,007 

Georgia,. 

20,948,056 

Idaho,. 

10,476,051 

Illinois,. 

73,724,074 

Indiana,. 

40,999,541 

Iowa,. 

95,477,948 

Kansas,. 

48,310,161 

Kentucky,. 

20,851,846 

Louisiana,. >- 

18,977,053 

Maine,. 

14,490,533 

Maryland,.. 

11,859,771 

Massachusetts. 

11,563,894 

Michigan,. 

49,916,285 

Minnesota,. 

52,329,165 

Mississippi,. 

16,905,312 

Missouri, . .. 

50,873,994 

Montana,. 

10,539,653 

Nebraska,. 

44,249,708 

Nevada,. 

1,576,096 

New Hampshire,. 

5,877,657 

New Jersey,. 

13,109,507 

New Mexico,. 

4,122,312 

New York,. 

83,644,822 

North Carolina,. 

18,441,619 

North Dakota. 

43,907,595 

Ohio,. 

51,210,071 

Oklahoma.. 

27,088,866 

Oregon,. 

13,205,645 

Pennsylvania,. 

70,726,055 

Rhode Island,. 

1,781,407 

South Carolina,. . . ;. 

14,108,853 

South Dakota,. 

33,786,973 

Tennessee,. 

21,292,171 

Texas,. 

56,790,260 

Utah,. 

4,468,178 

Vermont,. 

10,168,687 

Virginia,.. 

18,115,883 

Washington,. 

16,709,844 

West Virginia,. 

7,011,513 

Wisconsin,. 

52,956,579 

Wyoming,. 

3,668,294 


























































648 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


AGRICULTURE, GOLD AND 

(From the latest 



Corn 

Winter 

Wheat 

Spring 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 

Buck¬ 

wheat 

Flax¬ 

seed 

Rice 

(rough) 

States 

Total Farm 

Total Farm 

Total Farm 

Total Farm 

Total Farm 

Total Farm 

Total Farm 

Total Farm 


Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Alabama, . . . 

$ 45,037,000 

$ 1,763,000 


$ 3,296,000 

$ 29,000 



$ 18,000 

Arizona, . . . 

429,000 

$ 455,000 

144,000 



Arkansas, . . . 

40,145,000 

2,547,000 

2,176,000 

24,000 



1,680,000 

California, . . . 

1,470,000 

16,074,000 


4,162,000 

848,000 



2,000 

Colorado, , . . 

1,708,000 

1,961,000 

5,190,000 

3,633,000 

47,000 



Connecticut,. . 

2.279,000 

178,000 

172,000 

$ 48,000 



Delaware, . . . 

3,340,000 

1,867,000 


58,000 

11,000 

27,000 



Florida,.... 

7,492,000 


326,000 


14,000 

Georgia, . . . 

51,257,000 

3,549,000 


3,996,000 

204,000 



66,000 

Idaho, .... 

136,000 

5,887,000 

3,187,000 

2,975,000 

53,000 



Illinois, .... 

157,629,000 

27,720,000 

51,300,000 

865,000 

72,000 



Indiana, . . . 

80,486,000 

35,653,000 


20,302,000 

591,000 

62,000 



Iowa,. 

123,793,000 

3,244,000 

6,218,000 

48,989,000 

379 000 

99 000 

$ 429 000 


Kansas,.... 

76,095,000 

51,290,000 

847,000 

15,851,000 

388,000 

14,000 

861,000 


Kentucky, . . 

55,793,000 

8,928,000 


1,912,000 

144,000 




Louisiana, . . . 

32,359,000 



379,000 



8,555,000 

Maine, .... 

555,000 


272,000 

2,666,000 


509,000 


Maryland,. . . 

13,795,000 

12,711,000 


373,000 

254,000 

110,000 



Massachusetts,. 

1,592,000 



124,000 

80,000 

56,000 



Michigan, . . . 

36,061,000 

13,921,000 


17,910,000 

3,641,000 

522,000 



Minnesota, . . 

25,369,000 


88,435,000 

25,127,000 

1,251,000 

46,000 

8,142,000 


Mississippi, . . 

41,741,000 

81,000 

1,848,000 

59,000 

Missouri, . . . 

120,516,000 

21,863,000 


8,387,000 

158,000 

29,000 

353,000 

Montana, . . . 

175,000 

5,392,000 

3,689,000 

6,118,000 

54,000 


Nebraska, . . . 

74,304,000 

27,720,000 

3,892,000 

20,776,000 

720,000 

18,000 

180,000 


Nevada, . . . 



1,264,000 

197,000 





New Hampshire, 

984,000 



305,000 


38 000 



New Jersey, . . 

6,264,000 

2,012,000 


979,000 

1,178,000 

193,000 



New Mexico, . 

1,449,000 


860,000 

510,000 



New York, . . 

16,408,000 

10,102,000 


19,388,000 

2,302,000 

4,679,000 



North Carolina, 

43,426,000 

8,176,000 


2,075,000 

152,000 

76,000 


20,000 

North Dakota,. 

1,738,000 


32,494,000 

4,217,000 

81,000 

13,578,000 

Ohio,. 

66,488,000 

28,344,000 


22,980,000 

665 000 

189,000 


Oklahoma, . . 

47,100,000 

22,066,000 


8,535,000 

45,000 

50,000 


Oregon, .... 

367,000 

9,297,000 

4,491,000 

4,897,000 

226,000 



Pennsylvania, . 

38,365,000 

25,481,000 


14,403,000 

4,716,000 

3,506,000 



Rhode Island, . 

365,000 



34,000 



South Carolina, 

36,681,000 

6,279,000 


2,989,000 

58,000 



268,000 

South Dakota, . 

21,620,000 


41,581,000 

10,522,000 

363 000 


7,557,000 

Tennessee, . . 

53,955,000 

10,434,000 


2,116,000 

81,000 

13,000 


Texas. 

114,206,000 

18,404,000 


11,433,000 

47,000 


5,942,000 

Utah,. 

331,000 

2,670,000 

2,125,000 

1,197,000 

38,000 



Vermont, . . . 

1,901,000 


30,000 

1,764,000 

30,000 

134 000 



Virginia, . . . 

35,504,000 

9,871,000 


2,091,000 

216,000 

291,000 



Washington, . . 

336,000 

10,809,000 

9,161,000 

4,232,000 

109,000 



West Virginia, . 

16,266,000 

5,228,000 


1,260,000 

140,000 

443 000 



Wisconsin, . . 

26,618,000 

1,233,000 

2,133,000 

23,506,000 

3,465,000 

147,000 

396,000 


Wyoming, . . . 

40,000 

998,000 

1,544,000 

2,080,000 

15,000 




United States, 

$1,523,968,000 

$413,575,000 

$207,868,000 

$384,716,000 

$23,840,000 

$11,321,000 

$32,554,000 

$16,624,000 ji 

































































































































































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


646 


SILVER IN THE 

available statistics.) 


UNITED STATES. 


Tobacco 

Hay 

Potatoes 

(Irish) 

Barley 

Wool 

Scoured 

(pounds) 

Total Farm 
Value 

Total Farm 
Value 

Total Farm 
Value 

Total Farm 
Value 

$ 60,000 

$ 2,270,000 

$ 1,354,000 


336,000 


3,172,000 


$ 1,102,000 

1,732,500 

93,600 

3,124,000 

2,213,000 

480,000 


12,298,000 

6,851,000 

23,870,000 

4,522,000 


15,120,000 

3,575,000 

518,000 

3,185,000 

3,825,030 

12,578,000 

3,062,000 


106,575 


1,628,000 

618,000 


21,175 

547,400 

425,000 

540,000 


224,250 

217,600 

2,001,000 

861,000 


405,000 


13,257,000 

2,215,000 

1,072,000 

6,643,000 

120,080 

44,604,000 

7,478,000 

507,000 

2,450,000 

2,257,200 

32,487,000 

3,864,000 

136,000 

3,217,500 


36,288,000 

7,344,000 

8,425,000 

2,808,000 


16,076,000 

4,514,000 

2,430,000 

472,500 

33,149,088 

8,450,000 

2,339,000 

16,000 

2,356,000 

68,750 

506,000 

990,000 


338,365 


22,400,000 

11,735,000 

188,000 

756,000 

1,514,205 

6,052,000 

1,847,000 

19,000 

385,320 

1,141,800 

14,420,000 

3,062,000 


125,860 


45,832,000 

10,904,000 

1,010,000 

5,737,500 


8,263,000 

6,442,000 

16,191,000 

1,326,000 

11,000 

1,732,000 

719,000 


348,000 

945,000 

32,292,000 

5,380,000 

32,000 

3,190,600 


10,500,000 

2,550,000 

903,000 

12,096,000 


13,350,000 

5,544,000 

1,124,000 

650,000 


8,478,000 

480,000 

252,000 

1,904,000 

25,800 

12,134,000 

1,638,000 

40,000 

210,000 


11,939.000 

6,484,000 


145,750 


4,680,000 

98,000 

20,000 

6,720,000 

626,875 

87,009,000 

21,444,000 

1,545,000 

2,574,000 

13,737,000 

3,825,000 

1,689,000 


443,700 


783,000 

1,306,000 

2,985,000 

702,000 

6,382,395 

49,350,000 

7,611,000 

530,000 

8,281,000 


7,938,000 

1,560,000 

518,000 

171,600 


11,156,000 

3,231,000 

1,250,000 

4,620,000 

4,603,500 

66,495,000 

14,643,000 

150,000 

3,276,000 


1 450,000 

563,000 


23,055 

1,625,400 

1,344,000 

945,000 


108,750 


2,897,000 

2,057,000 

10,633,000 

1,625,000 

5,426,400 

8,536,000 

1,560,000 

18,000 

742,050 

105,000 

8,532,000 

3,366,000 

135,000 

2,951,438 


10,260,000 

1,257,000 

281,000 

4,819,500 

46,400 

15,574,000 

1,696,000 

316,000 

573,300 

11,232,000 

8,192,000 

3,808,000 

59,000 

1,034,775 


12,796,000 

3,730,000 

3,075,000 

1,255,500 

1,318,000 

12,150,000 

2,527,000 


1,759,500 

2,378,250 

34,126,000 

9,386,000 

14,355,000 

3,219,750 

; . 

9,000,000 

902,000 

80,000 

11,532,000 

>91,458,773 

$747,769,000 

$187,985,000 

$ 93,785,000 

112,605,813 


Cotton 

(Bales) 


1,194,250 

821,233 

5,986 


58,949 

1,767,202 


245,648 


1,262,680 

59,633 


706,142 


923,063 


1,163,501 

331,947 

3,049,409 


14,815 


11,604,458 


Gold 


Silver 


(As estimated by the 
director of the mint.) 


5 32,900 

3,413,200 

20,441,400 

20,526,500 


24,000 

1,035,900 


3,720,400 

18,873,700 

2,950 

477,200 

64,500 


681,400 

2,950 

37,800 

5,380,200 

2,800 

.400 

4,312,700 

900 

806,000 


4,100 


$ 200 
1,434,100 

967,400 

4,602,400 


200 

3,794,600 

1,100 


$79,841,900 


100 


141.600 

17,400 

6,632,800 

6,677,600 

200 

420.600 
4,500 


23,600 

200 


65,100 

37,700 

196,800 

5,640,800 

100 

110,600 


States 


700 


Alabama, 
Arizona, . 
Arkansas, 
California, 
Colorado,. 
Connecticut 
Delaware, 
Florida, 

Georgia, 

Idaho, . 

Illinois,, 

Indiana, 

Iowa,. . 

Kansas, 
Kentucky, 
Louisiana, 
Maine, . . 
Maryland, 
Massachusetts 
Michigan, 
Minnesota, 
Mississippi, 
Missouri, . 
Montana, 
Nebraska, 
Nevada, . 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey, 
New Mexico, 
New York, . 
North Carolina, 
North Dakota, 

Ohio. 

Oklahoma, . . 
Oregon, . . . 
Pennsylvania,. 
Rhode Island, 
South Carolina, 
South Dakota, 
Tennessee, . . 
Texas, .... 

Utah. 

Vermont, . . . 
Virginia, . . . 
Washington, . 
West Virginia, 
Wisconsin, . . 
Wyoming, . . 


$30,770,400 


United States. 































































































































































650 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


OTHER FARM PRODUCTS 


(From the United States Census Reports.) 


Product 

Unit 

of 

Meas¬ 

ure 

Quantity 

Value 

Product 

Unit 

OF 

Meas¬ 

ure 

Quantity 

Beans (castor), . . 

Bu’s 

143,388 

$ 134,084 

Persimmons, . . 

Lbs. 

136,030 

Beans (dry), . . . 

Bu’s 

5,064,844 

7,634,262 

Pineapples, . . . 

.... 

2,980,240 

Broom corn, . . . 

Lbs. 

90,947,370 

3,588,414 

Pomeloes. 

Bxs. 

30,791 

Butter. 

Lbs. 

1,071,745,127 

l 

Unclassified, . . 

Lbs. 

2,969,239 

Cheese. 

Lbs. 

16,372,330 

l 

Olive oil, .... 

Gall’s 

8,643 

Chicory,. 

Lbs. 

21,495,870 

73,627 

Coffee,. 

Lbs. 

2,297,000 

Clover seed,.... 

Bu’s 

1,349,209 

5,395,578 

Grapes. 

Cen’ls 

13,010,134 

Cotton seed, . . . 

Tons 

2 4,566,100 

46,950,575 

Grass seed, .... 

Bu’s 

3,515,869 

Eggs. 

Dozs. 

1,293,819,186 

144,286,158 

Hemp,. 

Lbs. 

11,750,630 

Flowers and plants, 



18,759,464 

Hops,. 

Lbs. 

49,209,704 

Forest products, . . 

.... 


109,989,868 

Kaffir corn, .... 

Bu’s 

5,169,113 

Fruits (orchard), . 

Bu’s 

212,366,646 

3 83,751,840 

Maple sugar, . . . 

Lbs. 

11,928,770 

Apples,. 

Bu’s 

175,397,626 


Maple syrup, . . . 

Gall’s 

2,056,611 

Apricots, „ . . . 

Bu’s 

2^642,128 


Milk,. 

Gall’s 

7,266,392,674 

Cherries, .... 

Bu’s 

2,873,499 


Mohair and goat hair 

Lbs. 

961,328 

Peaches etc. 

Bu’s 

15 433,623 


Nursery products, . 



Pears,. 

Bu’s 

6,625,417 


Nuts,. 



Plums, etc., . . . 

Bu’s 

8J64;032 


Onions, ..... 

Bu’s 

11,791,121 

Unclassified, . . 

Bu’s 

630,321 


Peanuts,. 

Bu’s 

11,964,957 

Cider,. 

Bbls. 

1,754,927 


Peas (dry), .... 

Bu’s 

9,440,269 

Cider vinegar, . . 

Bbls. 

'392497 


Peppermint, . . . 

Lbs. 

187,427 

Fruits (small), . . . 

Qts. 

431,628,520 

25,030,877 

Potatoes (sweet), . 

Bu’s 

42,526,696 

Blackberries, 

Qts. 

62,189,885 


Seeds (misc.), . . . 



Currants. 

Qts. 

18,592,695 


Sorghum cane, . . 

Tons 

5 291,703 

Gooseberries, . . 

Qts. 

9,320,530 


Sorghum syrup, . . 

Gall’s 

16,972,783 

Raspberries, . . 

Qts. 

76,628,107 


Sugar beets, . . . 

Tons 

793,353 

Strawberries, . . 

Qts. 

257,437,523 


Sugar cane, .... 

Tons 

6,441,578 

Unclassified, . . 

Qts. 

7,459,780 


^ Cane sold, . . . 

Tons 

1,298,620 

Fruits (sub-tropical) 



8,549,863 

Cane for seed, . . 

Tons 

1,453,447 

Bananas, .... 

B’ches 

141,653 


Sugar made, . . 

Lbs. 

664,020,814 

Citrons. 

Boxes 

90 


Molasses made, . 

Gall’s 

10,379,210 

Figs, . 

Lbs. 

13,016,274 


Syrup made, . . 

Gall’s 

12,293,032 

Guava,. 

Lbs. 

L677J65 


Vegetables, (misc.), 


Lemons, .... 

Boxes 

876^978 


Wax, . . '. . .". 

Lbs. 

1,765,315 

Limes,. 

Boxes 

24*375 


Willows,. 


Olives. 

Lbs. 

5,053,637 


Wool,. 

Lbs. 

276,991,812 

Oranges, .... 

Boxes 

6,171,259 





Value 


$ 246,181 

14,090,937 
2,868,839 
546,338 
4,081,929 
1,367,040 
1,074,260 
1,562,451 

l 

267,864 

10,123,873 

1,950,161 

6,637,625 

7,271,230 

7,909,074 

143,618 

19,876,200 

826,019 

815,019 

5,288,083 

3,323,240 


4,611,239 

5,018,469 

24,584,459 

796,990 

4,293,475 

113,871,842 


36,523 

45,723,739 


1 Includes all milk products, the value of which was $472,369,255. 1 2 Not including products sold with fiber 

- before ginning. 3 Includes value of cider, etc. 6 Amount sold as cane only. 


Air-pump, an instrument for removing the 
air from a vessel. The essential part is a hollow 
brass or glass cylinder, in which an air-tight 
piston is made to move up and down by a rod. 
From the bottom qf the cylinder, a connecting 
tube leads to the space which is to be exhausted, 
which is usually formed by placing a bell-glass, 
called the receiver, with edges ground smooth, 
and smeared with lard, on a flat, smooth plate or 
table. When the piston is at the bottom of the 
barrel, and is then drawn up, it lifts out the air 
from the barrel, and a portion of the air under 
the receiver, by its own expansive force, passes 
through the connecting tube, and occupies the 
space below the piston, which would otherwise 
be a vacuum. The air in the receiver and barrel 
is thus rarefied. The piston is now forced down, 
and the effect of this is to close a valve placed 
at the mouth of the connecting tube, and opening 
inwards into the barrel. The air in the barrel 
is thus cut off from returning into the receiver, 
and, as it becomes condensed, forces up a valve 
in the piston, which opens outwards, and thus 
escapes into the atmosphere. When the piston 
reaches the bottom, and begins to ascend again, 
this valve closes; and the same process is repeat¬ 
ed as at the first ascent. Each stroke thus 
diminishes the quantity of air in the receiver; 
but from the nature of the process, it is evident 
that the exhaustion can never be complete. 
Even theoretically, there must always be a por¬ 
tion left, though that portion may be rendered 


less than any assignable quantity; and practi¬ 
cally the process is limited by the elastic force of 
the remaining air being no longer sufficient to 
open the valves. The degree of rarefaction is 
indicated by a gauge on the principle of the 
barometer. The air-pump was invented by 
Otto Guericke, 1654. 

Alcohol, the purely spirituous or intoxi¬ 
cating part of all liquids that have undergone 
vinous fermentation, extracted by distillation — 
a limpid colorless liquid, of an agreeable smell 
and a strong, pungent taste. When brandy, 
whisky, and other spirituous liquors, themselves 
distilled from cruder materials, are again dis¬ 
tilled, highly volatile alcohol is the first product 
to pass off. The alcohol thus obtained contains 
much extraneous matter, including a proportion 
of water, from the first as high as 20 or 25 per 
cent., and increasing greatly as the process con¬ 
tinues. Charcoal and carbonate of soda put in 
the brandy or other liquor, partly retain the 
fusel-oil and acetic acid it contains. The prod¬ 
uct thus obtained by distillation is called recti¬ 
fied spirits or spirits of wine, and contains from 
55 to 85 per cent, of alcohol, the rest being 
water. By distilling rectified spirits over car¬ 
bonate of potassium, powdered quicklime, or 
chloride of calcium, the greater part of the water 
is retained, and nearly pure alcohol passes over. 
It is only, however, by very prolonged digestion 
with desiccating agents and subsequent distilla¬ 
tion that the last traces of water can be removed. 






















































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


651 


The specific gravity of. alcohol varies with its 
purity, decreasing as the quantity of water it 
contains decreases. This property is a con¬ 
venient test of the alcoholic strength of liquors 
that contain only alcohol and water; but on 
account of the condensation that invariably 
takes place on the mixture of these two liquids, 
it can be applied only in connection with special 
tables of reference, or by means of an instrument 
specially adapted for the purpose. Its very low 
freezing point renders it valuable for use in 
thermometers for very low temperatures. Alco¬ 
hol is extremely inflammable, and bums with a 
pale blue flame, scarcely visible in bright day¬ 
light. It occasions no carbonaceous deposit 
upon substances held over it, and the products 
of its combustion are carbonic acid and water. 
The steady and uniform heat which it gives 
during combustion makes it a valuable material 
for lamps. It dissolves the vegetable acids, the 
volatile oils, the resins, tan, and extractive mat¬ 
ter, and many of the soaps; the greater number 
of the fixed oils are taken up by it in small 
quantities only, but some are dissolved largely. 
When alcohol is submitted to distillation with 
certain acids a peculiar compound is formed, 
called ether. It is alcohol which gives all intoxi¬ 
cating liquors the property whence they are so 
called. Alcohol acts strongly on the nervous 
system, and though in small doses it is stimulat¬ 
ing and exhilarating, in large doses it acts as a 
poison. In medicine it is often of great service. 

Annuity, a sum of money paid annually to 
a person, and continuing either a certain number 
of years, or for an uncertain period, to be deter¬ 
mined by a particular event, as the death of the 
recipient or annuitant, or that of the party 
liable to pay the annuity; or the annuity may 
be perpetual. The payments are made at the 
end of each year, or semi-annually, or at other 
periods. An annuity is usually raised by the 
present payment of a certain sum as a consider¬ 
ation whereby the party making the payment, 
or some other person named by him, becomes 
entitled to an annuity, and the rules and prin¬ 
ciples by which this present value is to be com¬ 
puted have been the subjects of careful investi¬ 
gation. The present value of a perpetual an¬ 
nuity is evidently a sum of money that will 
yield an interest equal to the annuity, and 
payable at the same periods; and an annuity 
of this description, payable quarterly, will evi¬ 
dently be of greater value than one of the same 
amount payable annually, since the annuitant 
has the additional advantage of the interest on 
three of the quarterly payments until the expi¬ 
ration of the year. In other words, it requires 
a greater present capital to be put at interest to 
yield a given sum per annum, payable quarterly, 
than to yield the same annual sum payable at 
the end of each year. The present value of an 
annuity for a limited period is a sum which, if 
put at interest, will at the end of that period 
give an amount equal to the sum of all the pay¬ 
ments of the annuity and interest; and, accord¬ 
ingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum 
of money in the purchase of an annuity for a 
given number of years the comparative value of 
the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of 
interest being given. But annuities for uncer¬ 


tain periods, and particularly life annuities, are 
more frequent, and the value of the annuity is 
computed according to the probable duration of 
the life by which it is limited. Such annuities 
are often created by contract, whereby the gov¬ 
ernment or a private annuity office agrees, for 
a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, to 
pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other 
periodical payments, to the person advancing 
the money, or to some other named by him, 
during the life of the annuitant. Or the annuity 
may be granted to the annuitant during the life 
of some other person, or during two or more 
joint lives, or during the life of the longest liver 
or survivor among a number of persons named. 
If a person having a certain capital, and intend¬ 
ing to spend this capital and the income of it 
during his own life, could know precisely how 
long he should live, he might lend this capital 
at a certain rate during his life, and by taking 
every year, besides the interest, a certain amount 
of the capital, he might secure the same annual 
amount for his support during his life in such 
manner that he should have the same sum to 
spend every year, and consume precisely his 
whole capital during his life. But since he does 
not know how long he is to live he agrees with 
the government or an annuity office to take the 
risk of the duration of his life, and agree to pay 
him a certain annuity, during his life in ex¬ 
change for the capital which he proposes to 
invest in this way. The probable duration of 
his life therefore becomes a subject of compu¬ 
tation; and for the purpose of making this cal¬ 
culation tables of longevity are made by noting 
the proportions of deaths at certain ages in the 
same country or district. Founding on a com¬ 
parison of many such tables, the British Govern¬ 
ment has empowered the postmaster-general to 
grant annuities, which are probably more closely 
adjusted to their actual value than those of 
insurance companies and other dealers in annu¬ 
ities. In the United States the granting of 
annuities is conducted by private companies or 
corporations. The following are the approxi¬ 
mate rates of the best managed companies: In 
consideration of $1,000 paid to a company, the 
annuity granted to a person aged 40 would be 
$52.75; aged 45, $58.10; aged 50, $64.70; aged 
55, $73.50; aged 60, $86.20; aged 65, $100; 
aged 70, $123.45; aged 75, $145.95; aged 80, 
$180.15. The purchase of annuities, as a sys¬ 
tem, has never gained much foothold in America 
— the endowment plan of life insurance, by 
which after the lapse of a term of years the in¬ 
sured receives a sum in bulk, being preferred. 
Massachusetts, however, passed a law in 1907 
with the direct purpose of encouraging annuities. 

Automobiles, or Motor Cars. Auto¬ 
matic-propelling vehicles, the motive power of 
which is furnished by coal oil, gasoline, electric- 
storage battery, compressed air, steam, etc. 
They are usually supplied with two gearings, one 
for a low rate of speed and the other for more 
rapid movement. 

Motor cars are largely in use in America and in 
Europe and are rapidly supplanting horse-drawn 
vehicles for commercial use as well as for pleasure. 
Electric trucks and delivery wagons are ex¬ 
tensively used by large stores, manufacturing 



652 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


concerns, express companies, etc. Gasoline cabs 
and omnibuses are much used for public passenger 
service, also large electric and gasoline cars 
for sight-seeing purposes. Motor stage lines are 
operated to connect towns and villages which 
often lack good steam railroad and trolley car 
communication. Motor fire apparatus, ambu¬ 
lances, patrol wagons, and touring cars are em¬ 
ployed in municipal work where speed is a prime 
requisite. Motor cycles are used by the police 
departments to regulate street traffic. 

There is great demand for American cars in 
foreign countries and automobiles have become 
one of the staple articles of commerce. Exports 
indicate that the United States will soon lead 
the world in automobile industry. 

Banking was authorized in the United 
States during the War of the Revolution, a reso¬ 
lution being adopted in Congress on May 26, 
1781, approving a plan for a national bank 
proposed by Robert Morris of Philadelphia. 
As a result the Bank of North America was in¬ 
corporated on December 31st following, with a 
capital of $4,000,000, of which $254,000 had been 
subscribed by the United States Government. 
This bank, rechartered from time to time, con¬ 
tinues in existence in Philadelphia, and is one 
of the national banks of the present. Another 
oank, known as the Bank of the United States, 
was projected by Alexander Hamilton when 
the government had been organized under the 
Constitution. It was duly established, and 
continued in existence until 1811, when it went 
out of existence, owing to the failure to obtain 
a renewal of its charter. A second Bank of the 
United States was incorporated on April 3, 1816, 
and went into operation January 7, 1817. Mean¬ 
while other banks had been established in vari¬ 
ous parts of the country, and these, driven to 
suspension of specie payments by the War of 
1812, were aided by the operation of the new 
bank to an extent which enabled them to re¬ 
sume. This bank itself, however, was driven 
to the wall in 1840 by legislation which com- 
elled it to resume specie payments, which it 
ad suspended. The present system of national 
banks was inaugurated in 1864, under exigencies 
created by the Civil War. In towns of a popu¬ 
lation of 3,000 or less the minimum capital al¬ 
lowed national banks is $25,000. In towns of 
between 3,000 and 6,000 people the minimum 
capital allowed is $50,000; and in cities and 
towns having a population of 6,000 or more, 
but not exceeding 50,000, the minimum capital 
must be $100,000; while in cities of over 50,000 
people the bank must have a capital of at least 
$200,000. There is no limit to the amount of 
excess capital. Every national bank must pur¬ 
chase and deliver to the treasurer of the United 
States registered United States bonds to an 
amount not less than $50,000, except banks 
with a capital" of $150,000, or less, the minimum 
amount of bonds required being one quarter of 
the capital. The government then issues and de¬ 
livers to the bank circulating notes in denomi¬ 
nations of $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, as desired, 
in total amount equal to the par value of the 
bonds deposited. A bank may deposit bonds 
and receive circulating notes to an amount equal 
to its capital. Each bank is required to make 


a sworn statement of its condition to the comp¬ 
troller of the currency at Washington at least five 
times a year, and to publish the same in a news¬ 
paper. Two examinations a year are made by 
capable men employed by the government as na¬ 
tional bank examiners, their visits being always 
without notice. Requirement is made in the na¬ 
tional bank act for the accumulation of a surplus 
by each bank from its earnings as an additional 
protection above its capital to the depositors. 
The depositors are further protected against loss 
by the liability of each stockholder to the pay¬ 
ment of an amount equal to the par value of 
the stock held, in event of failure of the bank. 

Canal, an artificial water-course for the 
transportation of goods or passengers by boats 
or ships, or for purposes of drainage or irriga¬ 
tion. The canals most familiar to ordinary 
readers are for navigation. These consist usu¬ 
ally of a number of different sections, each on 
one level throughout its course, but differing in 
relative height from the others. From one 
section to another boats are transferred by 
means of locks, or it may be by inclines or lifts. 
The lock is a water-tight inclosure with gates at 
either end, constructed between two successive 
sections of a canal. When a vessel is descend¬ 
ing, water is let into the lock till it is on a level 
with the higher water, and thus permits the 
vessel to enter; the upper gates are then closed, 
and by the lower gates being gradually opened, 
the water in the lock falls to the level of the 
lower water, and the vessel passes out. In as¬ 
cending the operation is reversed. The incline 
conveys the vessel from one reach to another, 
generally on a specially-constructed carriage 
running on rails, by means of drums and cables. 
The lift consists of two counterbalancing troughs, 
one going up as the other descends, carrying the 
vessel from the higher to the lower level, or 
vice versa. Works of great magnitude in the 
way of cuttings, embankments, aqueducts, 
bridges, tunnels, reservoirs for water-supply, 
etc., are often necessary in constructing canals. 
Canals have been known from remote times, 
Egypt being intersected at an early period by 
canals branching off from the Nile to distant 
parts of the country, for purposes of irrigation 
and navigation. Under the Ptolemies, before 
the Christian era, there existed a canal between 
the Red Sea and the Nile. In China, also, 
canals were early made on a very large scale. 
In Holland, where the country is flat and water 
abundant, canals were constructed as early as 
the Twelfth Century. The lock, however, was 
not invented until the Fifteenth Century, both 
the Dutch and the Italians claiming the honor. 
Since then Europe has been provided with 
numerous canals, which, being connected usually 
with navigable rivers, give access by water to 
most parts of its interior. Among the numerous 
canals of Holland, the most important is now 
the great ship canal, from 200 to 300 feet wide 
and twenty-three feet deep, which connects 
Amsterdam with the North Sea. In France 
there are many canals and canalized rivers, the 
principal being the Canal du Midi, branching off 
from the Garonne at Toulouse, and falling into 
the Gulf of Lyons at Narbonne, thus connecting 
the Bay of Biscay and Mediterranean, and 



INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


653 


three canals connecting the basins of the Rhone, 
Loire, Seine, and Rhine. The canals of France 
have a total length of 3,000 miles. In Belgium 
there is the Ghent-Terneuzen Canal, which al¬ 
lows large vessels to sail to Ghent from the 
Scheldt estuary. The chief canals in Germany 
are the Ludwigs Canal in Bavaria, connecting 
(through the Main and Regnitz) the Rhine and 
the Danube; and the Holstein Canal, connect¬ 
ing the North Sea and Baltic by means of the 
Eider. The latter was superseded by the 
great Baltic Canal for sea-going vessels, which 
was constructed at a cost of about $40,000,000 
starting near the mouth of the Elbe and reach¬ 
ing the Baltic near Kiel. In Russia there is 
canal and river communication between the 
Caspian and the Baltic, a large part of the route 
consisting of the Volga. In Britain one of the 


earliest and most celebrated is the Bridgewater 
Canal (1761-65), in Lancashire and Cheshire, 
with a length of thirty-eight miles. In Scot¬ 
land there are the Forth and Clyde Canal, 
thirty-five miles long, joining these two rivers; 
and the Caledonian, sixty and one-half miles 
(including lakes), from the Moray Firth on the 
east coast to Loch Eil on the west, passing 
through Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. 
In the British Islands there is a total length of 
canal of about 3,000 miles; more than five- 
sixths being in England. The Manchester Ship 
Canal, a waterway for ocean-going steamers 
from the estuary of the Mersey, near Runcorn, 
to Manchester, through a few locks and partly 
in the beds of the Mersey and the Irwell, was 
begun in the latter end of 1887; estimated cost, 
$75,000,000. 


CANALS 


Tabulation showing the cost and date of construction, length, number of locks, and navigable depth of the 
principal American canals: 


Canals 

j Cost of 
l Construc¬ 
tion* 

When 

Com¬ 

pleted 

Length 

Miles 

No. OF 
Locks 

Depth 

Feet| 

Location 

Albemarle and Chesa¬ 
peake, .. . 

$1,641,363 

1860 

44 

1 

74 

Norfolk, Va., to Currituck Sound, N. C. 

Augusta,. 

1,500,000 

1847 

9 


11 

Savannah River, Ga., to Augusta, Ga. 

Black River,. 

3,581,954 

1849 

35 

109 

4 

Rome, N. Y., to Lyons Falls, N. Y. 

Cayuga and Seneca, . . . 

2,232,632 

1839 

25 

11 

7 

Montezuma, N. Y., to Cayuga and 

Champlain,. 

4,044,000 

1822 

81 

32 

6 

Seneca Lakes, N. Y. 

Whitehall, N. Y., to West Troy, N. Y. 

Chesapeake and Delaware, 

3,730,230 

1829 

14 

3 

9 

Chesapeake City, Md., to Delaware 

Chesapeake and Ohio, . . 

11,290,327 

1850 

184 

73 

6 

City„Del. 

Cumberland, Md., to Washington, D.C. 

Companys,. 

90,000 

1847 

22 

1 

6 

Mississippi River, La., to Bayou Black, 
La. 

New Brunswick, N. J., to Bordentown, 
N. J. 

Easton, Pa., to Bristol, Pa. 

Delaware and Raritan, . 

4,888,749 

1838 

66 

14 

8-9 

Delaware Division, . . . 

2,433,350 

1830 

60 

33 

6 

Des Moines Rapids, . . . 

4,582,009 

1877 

7* 

3 

5 

At Des Moines Rapids, Mississippi 

Dismal Swamp,. 

2,800,000 

1822 

22 

7 

6 

River. 

Connects Chesapeake Bay with Albe- 

Erie,. 

52,540,800 

1825 

363 

72 

7 

marie Sound. 

Albany, N. Y., to Buffalo, N. Y. 

Fairfield,. 


4i 

None 


Alligator River to Lake Mattimuskeet, 
N. C. 

Galveston, Texas, to Brazos River, Tex. 

Galveston and Brazos, . . 

340,000 

1851 

38 


34 

Hocking. 

975,481 

1843 

42 

26 

4 

Carroll, O., to Nelsonville, O. 

Illinois and Michigan, . . 

7,357,787 

1848 

102 

15 

6 

Chicago, Ill., to La Salle, Ill. 

Illinois and Mississippi, . 

7,250,000 

1895 

75 

3 

7 

Around lower rapids of Rock River, 

Lehigh Coal and Naviga¬ 
tion Co.,. 

4,455,000 

1821 

108 

57 

6 

Ill., connects with Mississippi River. 

Coalport, Pa., to Easton, Pa. 

Louisville and Portland, 

5,578,631 

1872 

2i 

2 


At Falls of Ohio River, Louisville, Ky. 

Miami and Erie. 

8,062,680 

1835 

274 

93 

54 

Cincinnati, O., to Toledo, O. 

Morris,. 

6,000,000 

1836 

103 

33 

5 

Easton, Pa., to Jersey City, N. J. 

Muscle Shoals and Elk 
River Shoals. 

3,156,919 

1889 

16 

11 


Big Muscle Shoals, Tenn., to Elk River 
Shoals, Tenn. 

Newberne and Beaufort, 


3 

None 


Clubfoot Creek to Harlow Creek, N. C. 

Ogeechee,. 

407,810 

i.840 

16 

5 

3 

Savannah River, Ga., to Ogeechee 

Ohio,. 

4,695,204 

1835 

317 

150 

4 

River, Ga. 

Cleveland, 0., to Portsmouth, O. 

Oswego. 

5,239,526 

1828 

38 

18 

7 

Oswego, N. Y., to Syracuse, N. Y. 

Pennsylvania. 

7,731,750 

1839 

193 

71 

6 

Columbia, Northumberland, Wilkes- 

Portage Lake and Lake 
Superior,. 

528,892 

1873 

25 

None 

15 

barre, Huntingdon, Pa. 

From Keweenaw Bay to Lake Superior. 

Port Arthur. 


1899 

7 


26 

Port Arthur, Tex., to Gulf of Mexico. 

Santa F£,. 

70,000 

1880 

10 


5 

Waldo, Fla., to Melrose, Fla. 

Schuvlkill Navigation Co., 

12,461,600 

1826 

108 

71 

64 

Mill Creek, Pa., to Philadelphia, Pa. 

Sturgeon Bay and Lake 
Michigan,. 

99,661 

1881 

H 

None 

15 

Between Green Bay and Lake Michigan. 

St. Mary’s Falls, .... 

7,909,667 

1896 

H 

1 

21 

Connects Lakes Superior and Huron at 

Susquehanna and Tide¬ 
water, . 

4,931,345 

1840 

45 

32 

54 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 

Columbia, Pa., to Havre de Grace, Md. 

Walhonding,. 

607,269 

1843 

25 

11 

4 

Rochester, O., to Roscoe, O. 

Welland (ship canal), . . 

26,0S0,366 

1833 

26f 

26 

14 

Connects Lake Ontario and Lake Erie 


* And improvements, t Navigable depth. 

The Harlem River Ship Canal, connecting the Hudson River and Long Island Sound, by way of Spuyten 
Duyvil Creek and Harlem River, was opened for traffic on June 17, 1895, and cost about $2,700,000. 














































654 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 
THE GREAT SHIP CANALS OF THE WORLD 


Canal 

Com¬ 

pleted 

Connecting 

Length 

Miles 

Width 

Feet* 

Depth 

Feet 

No. OF 
Locks 

CosTf 

Suez,. 

1869 

Mediterranean and Red 








Seas,. 

99 

121J 

28 

None 

$100,000,000 

Cronstadt and St. Peters¬ 


Bay of Cronstadt and St. 






burg, . 

1884 

Petersburg,. 

18| 

275 

22 

None 

7,200,000 

Corinth,. 

1893 

Gulfs of Corinth and 








iEgina,. 

4 

72 

26J 

None 

5,000,000 

Manchester, . 

1894 

Manchester, England, and 








the Mersey,. 

35.50 

120 

26 

5 

75,000,000 

Kaiser Wilhelm,. 

1895 

Baltic and North Seas, . . 

60 

85 

28 

.. 

40,000,000 

Elbe and Trave,. 

1900 

Baltic and North Seas, . . 

41 

72 

10 


25,200,000 

Welland,. 

1833 

Lakes Ontario and Erie, . 

26f 

156 

14 

26 

27,275,869 

Sault Ste. Marie (American), 

1855 

Lakes Superior and Huron, 

1.6 

160 

25 

1 

6,033,533 

Sault Ste. Marie (Canadian), 

1895 

Lakes Superior and Huron, 

1.125 

150 

22 

1 

3,770,621 


* Minimum width, or width at bottom, given wherever possible, t Cost of construction to state. 


Celluloid is an artificial substance exten¬ 
sively used as a substitute for ivory, bone, hard 
rubber, coral, etc., having a close resemblance 
to these substances in hardness, elasticity, and 
texture. It was invented by J. W. and Isaac 
Hyatt in 1870. It is composed of cellulose or 
vegetable fibrine reduced by acids to pyroxyline 
(or gun-cotton), camphor is then added, and 
the compound molded by heat and pressure 
to the desired shape. It is used chiefly for such 
articles as buttons, handles for knives, forks, 
and umbrellas, billiard-balls, backs to brushes, 
piano keys, napkin-rings, opera-glass frames, etc. 
It can be variously colored. Manufactures of 
celluloid now run into millions of dollars annually. 

Champagne takes its name from the 
province of Champagne, France, where it was 
originally produced. There are white and red 
champagnes; the white is either sparkling or 
still. Sparkling or effervescent champagne is 
the result of a peculiar treatment during fermen¬ 
tation. In December, the wine is racked off, 
and clarified with isinglass, and in March it is 
bottled and tightly corked. The fermentation 
being incomplete when the wine is bottled, the 
carbonic acid gas generated in a confined space 
dissolves in the wine, and communicates the 
sparkling property to champagne. To clear 
the wine of sediment, the bottles are first placed 
in a sloping position with the necks downward, 
so that the sediment may be deposited in the 
necks of the bottles. When this sediment has 
been poured off, a solution of sugar-candy in 
cognac is added to the wine, and every bottle is 
filled up with bright clarified wine, and securely 
recorked. The effervescence of the wine thus 
prepared bursts many bottles, in some cases 10 
er cent.; and in seasons of early and sudden 
eat, as many as 20 and 25 per cent, have been 
bursted. Wine-buyers estimate the value of 
wine according to the breakage, that which 
breaks most bottles being considered best. Still 
or non-effervescent champagne is first racked off 
in the March after the vintage. Creaming or 
slightly effervescent champagne has more alcohol 
but less carbonic acid gas than sparkling cham¬ 
pagne. The best varieties of this wine are 
produced at Rheims and Epernay, and generally 
on a chalky soil. The fact that the sale of cham¬ 
pagne is very extensive and lucrative has 
naturally given rise to adulterations. Sugar, 
and the juices of pears or gooseberries, or birch- 
juice, etc., have been used for making spurious 
champagne. Probably not even a third part of 


the wine sold for champagne is genuine. The 
greater part of it is readily manufactured by 
simply charging other light wines with carbonic 
acid gas. German purveyors have succeeded in 
preparing light wines — such as Rhenish, Main, 
Necker, Meissner, and Naumburg — much like 
genuine champagne. In recent years a con¬ 
siderable amount of champagne of excellent 
quality has been produced in the United States. 

Charcoal, a term applied to an impure 
variety of carbon, especially such as is produced 
by charring wood. One kind of it is also ob¬ 
tained from bones; lampblack and coke are also 
varieties. Wood charcoal is prepared by piling 
billets of wood in a pyramidal form, with vacu¬ 
ities between them for the admission of air, and 
causing them to burn slowly under a covering 
of earth. In consequence of the heat, part of 
the combustible substance is consumed, part is 
volatilized, together with a portion of water, 
and there remains behind the carbon of the 
wood, retaining the form of the ligneous tissue. 
Another process consists in heating the wood in 
close vessels, by which the volatile parts are 
driven off, and a charcoal remains in the retorts, 
not so dense as that obtained by the other pro¬ 
cess. Wood charcoal, well prepared, is of a 
deep-black color, brittle and porous, tasteless 
and inodorous. It is infusible in any heat a 
furnace can raise; but by the intense heat of a 
powerful galvanic apparatus it is hardened, and 
at length is volatilized, presenting a surface 
with a distinct appearance of having undergone 
fusion. Charcoal is insoluble in water, and is 
not affected by it at low temperatures; hence, 
wooden stakes which are to be immersed in 
water are often charred to preserve them, and 
the ends of posts stuck in the ground are also 
thus treated. Owing to its peculiarly porous 
texture, charcoal possesses the property of ab¬ 
sorbing a large quantity of air or other gases at 
common temperatures, and of yielding the 
greater part of them when heated. Charcoal 
likewise absorbs the odoriferous and coloring 
principles of most animal and vegetable sub¬ 
stances, and hence is a valuable deodorizer and 
disinfectant. Water which, from having been 
long kept in wooden vessels, as during long 
voyages, has acquired an offensive smell, is de¬ 
prived of it by filtration through charcoal pow¬ 
der. Charcoal can even remove or prevent the 
putrescence of animal matter. It is used as 
fuel in various arts, where a strong heat is re¬ 
quired, without smoke, and in various metal- 


























INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


655 


lurgic operations. By cementation with char¬ 
coal, iron is converted into steel. It is used in 
the manufacture of gunpowder. In its finer 
state of aggregation, under the form of ivory- 
black, lampblack, etc., it is the basis of black 
paint; and mixed with fat oils and resinous 
matter, to give a due consistence, it forms the 
composition of printing ink. 

Clearing House. The place where is 
carried on the operation of clearing off balances 
and adjusting daily accounts between bankers 
of the same city, thus avoiding the inconven¬ 
ience of handling large amounts in currency or 
convertible paper. Each bank, or banker, dis¬ 
patches a clerk to the clearing house, who there 
draws up an abstract of the checks upon other 
firms, and effects a clearance by exchanging 
them against those drawn on the bank to which 
he belongs. The balance is paid over in cash. 
The first clearing house in the United States 
was established in New York in 1833. In Eng¬ 
land, the railway companies, as well as the banks, 
make use of the clearing system. 

Clay. The name of various earths, which 
consist of hydrated silicate of aluminium, with 
small proportions of the silicates of iron, calcium, 
magnesium, potassium, and sodium. All the 
varieties are characterized by being firmly co¬ 
herent, weighty, compact, and hard when dry, 
but plastic when moist, smooth to touch, not 
readily diffusible in water, but when mixed not 
readily subsiding in it. Their tenacity and duc¬ 
tility when moist, and their hardness when dry, 
has made them from the earliest times the ma¬ 
terials of bricks, tiles, pottery, etc. Of the chief 
varieties, porcelain clay, kaolin, or china clay, 
a white clay with occasional gray and yellow 
tones, is the purest. Potter’s clay and pipe 
clay, which are similar but less pure, are gener¬ 
ally of a yellowish or grayish color, from the 
presence of iron. Fire clay is a very refractory 
variety, always found lying immediately below 
the coal; it is used for making fire bricks, cru¬ 
cibles, etc. Loam is the same substance mixed 
with sand, oxide of iron, and various other for¬ 
eign ingredients. The boles, which are of a red 
or yellow color from the presence of oxide of 
iron, are distinguished by their conchoidal frac¬ 
ture. The ochres are similar to the boles, con¬ 
taining only -more oxide of iron. Other varieties 
are fuller’s earth, Tripoli, and boulder clay, the 
last a hard clay of a dark brown color, with 
rounded masses of rock of all sizes embedded in 
it, the result of glacial action. The distinctive 
property of clays as ingredients of the soil is 
their power of absorbing ammonia and other 
gases and vapors generated on fertile and ma¬ 
nured lands; indeed no soil will long remain 
fertile unless it has a fair proportion of clay in 
its composition. The best wheats both in Brit¬ 
ain and the European continent, as well as in 
America and Siberia, are grown on calcareous 
clays, as also the finest fruits and flowers of the 
rosaceous kind. 

Coal. A solid, opaque, inflammable sub¬ 
stance, mainly consisting of carbon, found in the 
earth, largely employed as fuel, and formed from 
vast masses of vegetable matter deposited 
through the luxuriant growth of plants in former 
epochs of the earth’s history. In the varieties 


of coal in common use the combined effects of 
pressure, heat, and chemical action upon the 
substance have left few traces of its vegetable 
origin; but in the sandstones, clays, and shales 
accompanying the coal, the plants to which it 
principally owes its origin are presented in a 
fossil state in great profusion, and frequently 
with their structure so distinctly retained, al¬ 
though replaced by mineral substances, as to 
enable the microscopist to determine their botan¬ 
ical affinities with existing species. The sigil- 
laria and stigmaria, the lepidodendron, the cala- 
mite, and tree ferns are amongst the commoner 
forms of vegetable life in the rocks of the coal 
formation. Trees of considerable magnitude 
have also been brought to light, having a recog¬ 
nizable relation to the modern araucaria. The 
animal remains found in the coal measures indi¬ 
cate that some of the rocks have been deposited 
in fresh water, probably in lakes, whilst others 
are obviously of estuarine origin, or have been 
deposited at the mouths of rivers alternately 
occupied by fresh and salt water. The great 
system of strata in which coal is chiefly found 
is known as the carboniferous. There are many 
varieties of coal, varying considerably in their 
composition, as anthracite, nearly pure carbon, 
and burning with little flame, much used for 
furnaces and malt kilns; bituminous (popularly 
so called) or “household coal”; and cannel, or 
“gas coal,” which burns readily like a candle, 
and is much used in gas making. All varieties 
agree in containing from sixty to over ninety 
per cent, of carbon, the other elements being 
chiefly oxygen and hydrogen, and frequently a 
small portion of nitrogen. Lignite, or brown 
coal, may contain only fifty per cent, carbon. 
For manufacturing purposes coals are generally 
. considered to consist of two parts, the volatile 
or bituminous portion, which yields the gas used 
for lighting, and the substance, comparatively 
fixed, usually known as coke, which is obtained 
by heating the coals in ovens or other close 
arrangements. 

China and Japan contain about 200,000 square 
miles of coal fields; United States, 194,000; 
India, 35,000; Russia, 27,000; Great Britain, 
9,000; Germany, 3,600; France, 1,800; Bel¬ 
gium, Spain, and other countries, 1,400. Total, 
471,800. 

DISTRIBUTION OF COAL IN THE UNITED 
STATES 

Coal is found in commercial quantities in 
twenty-eight of the States of the United States 
and in Alaska. The following table shows the 
area of coal-bearing formations in the several 
States and the rank of the coal-producing States 
in area and production: 


States 

Area of Coal¬ 
bearing For¬ 
mations (Sq. Mi.) 

Tons 

BITUMINOUS 
Alabama,. 

8,500 

14,385,234 

Arkansas,. 

1,728 

1,701,748 

California,. 

280 

10,861 

Colorado,. 

18,100 

10,646,775 

Georgia, . 

967 

158,254 

Idaho,. 

. 

3,971 

Illinois,. 

42,900 

40,982,362 

Indiana,. 

9,300 

16,419,478 

















656 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


States 

Area of Coal¬ 
bearing For¬ 
mations (Sq.Mi.) 

Tons 

Bituminous 



Iowa,. 

20,000 

7,078,679 

Kansas,. 

20,000 

4,394,153 

Kentucky,. 

15,800 

13,056,535 

Maryland,. 

510 

4,658.147 

Michigan,. 

11,300 

1,370,506 

Missouri. 

23,000 

2,662,887 

Montana,. 

13,000 

2,608,009 

New Mexico,. 

2,890 

3,095,530 

North Dakota. 


356,287 

Ohio. 

12,000 

30,544,346 

Oklahoma,. 


2,362,702 

Oregon, . 

320 

60,297 

Pennsylvania. 

15,800 

134,394,220 

Tennessee,. 

4,400 

6,358,375 

Texas,. 

11,300 

1,689,443 

Utah. 

2,000 

2,248,044 

Virginia,. 

1,850 

5,810,712 

Washington. 

450 

3,492,767 

West Virginia, .... 

17,280 

55,063,410 

Wyoming,. 

7,500 

6,725,971 



372,339,703 

Anthracite 



Colorado and N.Mexico, 


80,960 

Pennsylvania. 

484 

75,433,426 



75,514,386 


Coal Tar, or gas tar, a substance obtained 
in the distillation of coal for the manufacture 
of illuminating gas, a dark-colored more or less 
viscid mass, consisting principally of oily hydro¬ 
carbons. It passes over with the gas into the 
condensers along with ammonia liquor, but being 
heavier than the latter, it is easily separated 
from it when the whole is allowed to stand. It 
was formerly of comparatively little use; but 
in recent years a great number of valuable prod¬ 
ucts have been derived from it by distillation, 
such as ammonia, naphtha, creosote, carbolic 
acid, and benzine, while it is also the source of 
the whole series of aniline colors, and other dyes, 
of alizarine, salicylic acid, etc. 

Coins and Coinage. Coins were 
probably used as early as the Eighth Century 
B. C., and by the Fourth Century every civilized 
state had its proper coinage. Most of the com¬ 
moner metals have in turn been used for making 
coins. The early coins of Asia Minor were of 
electrum, a mixture of gold and silver, in the 
proportion of three of the former to one of the 
latter. Lycurgus made the money of Sparta of 
iron. Copper formed the early money of the 
Romans; and when Caesar landed in Britain, 
coins of brass and iron were found in use. Tin 
was coined by Charles II., and James II. even 
resorted to gun metal and pewter. At the pres¬ 
ent day, gold and silver, with copper for the 
lowest denomination, are almost universally 
employed. Coins of platinum were formerly 
struck in Russia. Although in a few countries 
coins have been issued of almost absolute purity, 
such as the gold sequins of Tuscany, yet for the 
most part the gold and silver are alloyed with 
some other metal, generally copper, in definite 
proportions fixed by law. In the United States 
an alloy of about nine-tenths copper and one- 
tenth silver is used with gold. The proportion 
of alloy varies in different countries. In Great 
Britain it is one-twelfth; while in the United 
States, France, Belgium, and some other coun¬ 


tries, one-tenth has been adopted. In the 
United States the power to coin money is vested 
by the Constitution in Congress, and is expressly 
withheld from the States. The earliest colonial 
coinage was in Massachusetts, in pursuance of 
'an order of the General Court, passed May 27, 
1652, which required the coinage of “ 12 
pence, 6 pence, and 3 pence pieces.” From 
1778 to 1787 the power of coinage was exercised 
not only by the confederation in Congress, but 
also by several of the individual States. In 
Vermont a mint was established in 1785, and 
copper cents were issued; a few half cents were 
also coined. Connecticut the same year estab¬ 
lished a mint at New Haven, and copper coins 
were issued. New Jersey authorized a copper 
coinage in 1786. In 1788 cents and half cents 
were coined by Massachusetts. In 1787 copper 
cents were coined under authority of Congress. 
On April 2, 1792, a code of law's was enacted for 
the establishment and regulation of the mint, 
under which, with slight amendments, the coin¬ 
age was executed for forty-two years. The 
act of February 12, 1873, known as the coinage 
act of 1873, consolidated the regulations govern¬ 
ing the coinage of the United States. The fol¬ 
lowing table gives a complete exhibit of the coin¬ 
age of the United States from the organization 
of the mints, 1792, to 1911: 


Denominations 

Pieces 

Values 

gold 

Double eagles, . . . 

117,364,536 

$2,347,290,720.00 

Eagles,. 

49,156,181 

491,561,810.00 

Half eagles,. 

73,958,403 

369,792,015.00 

Three-dollar pieces 
(coinage discontin¬ 
ued under act of 
September 26,1890), 

539,792 

1,619,376.00 

Quarter eagles, . . . 

15,223,970 

38,059,925.00 

Dollars (coinage dis¬ 
continued under act 
of September 26, 
1890). 

19,499,337 

19,499,337.00 

Dollars, Louisiana Pur- 


chase exposition 
(act of June 28, 
1902). 

250,000 

250,000.00 

Dollars, Lewis & Clark 
exposition, .... 

60,000 

60,000.00 

Total gold, .... 

276,052,219 

$3,268,133,183.00 

SILVER 


- 

Dollars (coinage dis¬ 
continued, act of 
February 12, 1873, 
resumed, act of Feb¬ 
ruary 28, 1878), . . 

578,303,848 

$578,303,848.00 

Trade dollars (discon¬ 
tinued, act of Feb¬ 
ruary 19, 1887), . . 

35,965,924 

35,965,924.00 

Dollars (Lafayette sou¬ 
venir, act of March 
3, 1899). 

50,000 

50,000.00 

Half dollars, .... 

368,077,605 

184,038,802.50 

Half dollars (Colum¬ 
bian souvenir), . . 

5,000,000 

2,500,000.00 

Quarter dollars, . . . 

388,756,145 

97.189,036.25 

Quarter dollars (Co¬ 
lumbian souvenir), 

40,000 

10,000.00 

Twenty-cent pieces 
(coinage discontin- 

- 

ued, act of May 2, 
1878), .. 

1,355,000 

271,000.00 

Dimes,. 

621,108,370 

62,110,837.00 

Half dimes (coinage 
discontinued, act of 
February 12, 1873), 

97,604,388 

4,880,219.40 








































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


657 


Denominations 

Pieces 

Values 

Denominations 

Pieces 

Values 

Three-cent pieces 

(coinage discontin¬ 
ued, act of Febru¬ 
ary 12, 1873),. . . 

42,736,240 

$ 1,282,087.20 

One-cent pieces, cop¬ 
per (coinage discon¬ 
tinued, act of Febru¬ 
ary 21, 1857),. . . 
One-cent pieces, nickel 
(coinage discontin¬ 
ued, act of April 22, 

1864). 

One-cent pieces, 

bronze,. 

Half-cent pieces, cop¬ 
per (coinage discon¬ 
tinued, act of Feb¬ 
ruary 21, 1857), . . 

156,288,744 

$ 1,562,887.44 

Total silver, . . . 

2,138,997,520 

$966,601,754.35 



MINOR 

Five-cent pieces, 

nickel,. 

Three-cent pieces, 
nickel (coinage dis¬ 
continued, act of 
September 26, 1890) 
Two-cent pieces, 
bronze (coinage dis¬ 
continued, act of 
September 26, 1890) 

695,139,357 

31,378,316 

$34,756,967.85 

941,349.48 

200,772,000 

1,991,336,988 

7,985,222 

2,007,720.00 

19,913,369.88 

39,926.11 



Total minor, . . . 

3,128,501,627 

$60,134,240.76 

45,601,000 

912,020.00 

Total coinage, . . 

5,543,551,366 

$4,294,869,178.11 


VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES MONEY 


Country 

Legal 

Standard 

Monetary Unit 

Value in 
U. S. 
Money 

(f) Remarks 

Argentina. 

Gold, . . 

Peso,. 

$0,965 

Currency: Paper, 44% face value. 

Austria-Hungary, . 

Gold, . . 

Crown. 

.203 


Belgium,. 

Gold& silT 

Franc,. 

.193 

Member of Latin Union*. 

Bolivia,. 

Gold, . . 

Boliviano,. 

.389 

12K bolivianos equal 1 pound sterling. 

Brazil, '. 

Gold, . . 

Milreis, . 

.546 

Currency: Inconvertible paper; exchange 

British Colonies in 




rate, approximately, $0.3245 

Aust’lasia & Africa, 

Gold, . . 

Pound sterling, . . . 

4.8665 


Canada,. 

Gold, . . 

Dollar. 

1.000 


Central Am. States: 





Costa Rica, . . . 

Gold, . . 

Colon,. 

.465 


British Honduras, 

Gold, . . 

Dollar,. 

1.000 


Guatemala, . . ] 





Honduras, . . 1 

Silver, . . 

Peso,. 

.400 

Currency: Inconvertible paper, much depre- 

Nicaragua, . . [ 
Salvador, ... 1 




dated and subject to wide fluctuations. 

Chile. 

Gold, . . 

Peso. 

.365 

Currency: Inconvertible paper; exchange 





rate, approximately, $0.2156. 


( 


f Haikwan, 

.667 

Other Provinces between these extreme 

China,. 

Silver, . < 

Tael, . . •< 

Kiaochow, 

.635 

values. 


l 


Shanghai, 

.599 





Hongkong, 

.431 




Dollar, . -< 

British, 

.431 





Mexican. 

.434 


Colombia, .... 

Gold, . . 

Dollar,. 

1.000 

Currency: Inconvertible paper; exchange 





rate, approximately, $100 paper to $1 gold. 

Denmark. 

Gold, . . 

Crown,. 

.268 


Ecuador,. 

Gold, . . 

Sucre. 

.487 


Egypt. 

Gold, . . 

Pound (100 piasters),. 

4.943 

Actual Standard, British pound sterling, 





which is legal tender for 97% piasters. 

Finland. 

Gold, . . 

Mark,. 

.193 


France,. 

Gold&sil’r 

Franc,. 

.193 

Member of Latin Union*. 

German Empire,. . 

Gold, . . 

Mark,. 

.238 


Gt. Britain, . . . 

Gold, . . 

Pound Sterling, . . . 

4.8665 


Greece,. 

Gold& sil’r 

Drachma. 

.193 

Member of Latin Union*. 

Hayti. 

Gold, . . 

Gourde,. 

.965 

Currency: Inconvertible paper; exchange 





rate, approximately, $0,238. 

India (British), . . 

Gold, . . 

Rupee,. 

.3244 

(15 rupees equal 1 pound sterling.) 

Italy, . 

Gold&silT 

Lira, . 

.193 

Member of Latin Union*. 

Japan, . 

Gold, . . 

Yen. 

.498 


Mexico,. 

Gold, . . 

Peso. 

.498 


Netherlands, . . . 

Gold, . . 

Florin. 

.402 


Newfoundland, . . 

Gold, . . 

Dollar,. 

1.014 


Norway,. 

Gold, . . 

Crown,. 

.268 


Panama,. 

Gold, . . 

Balboa,. 

1.000 


Persia,. 

Gold&sil’r 

Kran,. 

.1704 

This is the value of the gold kranj. 

Peru. 

Gold, . . 

Libra. 

4.8665 


Philippine Islands, . 

Gold, . . 

Peso,. 

.500 


Portugal,. 

Gold, . . 

Milreis, . 

1.080 

Currency: Inconvertible paper; exchange 





rate, approximately, $0.9973. 

Roumania, .... 

Gold, . . 

Leu,. 

.193 


Russia. 

Gold, . . 

Ruble,. 

.515 


Santo Domingo, . . 

Gold, . . 

Dollar,. 

1.000 


Servia, . 

Gold, . . 

Dinar,. 

.193 


Siam, .. 

Gold, . . 

Tical,. 

.3708 


Spain. 

Gold&sil’r 

Peseta. 

.193 

Valuation is for the gold peseta§. 

Straits Settlements, 

Gold, . . 

Dollar. 

.5677 


Sweden,. 

Gold, . . 

Crown,. 

.268 


Switzerland, . . . 

Gold, . . 

Franc,. 

.193 

Member of Latin Union*. 

Turkey,. 

Gold, . . 

Piaster, . 

.044 


Uruguay,. 

Gold, . . 

Peso. 

1.034 


Venezuela, .... 

Gold, . . 

Bolivar. 

.193 



* Gold is the actual standard, t Currency is silver circulating above its metallic value; exchange value of silver 

kran, approximately, $0.0896. § Currency is silver circulating above its metallic value; exchange value, approxi¬ 

mately, $0.1794. f Exchange rates are recent quotations and indicate values of currencies fluctuating in relation to 
legal standard. They are not to take the place of the consular certificate. 





































































































658 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Coke, the carbonaceous residue of coal 
which has been heated in an oven or retort, or 
in any way by which little air is admitted, until 
all volatile matter has been expelled. The 
simplest method of producing coke is based on 
the preparation of wood charcoal, the coal being 
arranged in heaps which are smothered with 
clay or coal dust, and then set on fire, sufficient 
air being admitted to keep the mass at the proper 
temperature for decomposition without wasting 
the coke. After the volatile portions are got 
rid of, the heap is allowed to cool, or is extin¬ 
guished with water, and the coke is then ready. 
Methods of heating the coal in close or open 
ovens until the gaseous and fluid products are 
driven off are also commonly used. Gas coke is 
that which remains in the retorts after the gas 
has been given off. Good oven coke has an iron- 
gray color, sub-metallic luster, is hard, and some¬ 
what vesicular; but gas coke has rather a 
slagged and cindery look, and is more porous. 
Coke contains about ninety per cent, of carbon, 
and is used where a strong heat is wanted with¬ 
out smoke and flame, and it is accordingly largely 
consumed in drying malt and similar purposes. 
It used to be burned regularly in locomotive 
engines, but raw coal is now commonly substi¬ 
tuted. The largest quantities are consumed in 
smelting operations. 

Cold Storage. A system for the preser¬ 
vation of fruits, meats, and other food stuffs, 
in which the air of the storage chambers is 
kept near or below the freezing temperature 
by refrigerating methods similar to those 
employed in making artificial ice. By this 
means food can be kept in an unchanged 
state for an indefinite period. The system is 
widely applied both on land and in ocean 
steamers. 

Copper, one of the most anciently known 
metals, deriving its name from Cyprus, large 
supplies having in Greek and Roman times come 
from that island. Next to gold, silver, and 
platinum it is the most ductile and malleable of 
metals; it is more elastic than any metal except 
steel, and the most sonorous of all except alu¬ 
minium. Its conducting power for heat and elec¬ 
tricity is inferior only to that of silver. It has a 
distinct odor and a nauseous metallic taste. 
It is not altered by water, but tarnishes by ex¬ 
posure to the air, and becomes covered with a 
green carbonate. It occurs native in branched 
pieces, dendritic, in thin plates, and rarely in 
regular crystals, in the primitive and older 
secondary rocks. Blocks of native copper have 
sometimes been got weighing many tons. Its 
ores are numerous and abundant. All the com¬ 
pounds of copper are poisonous. It is found in 
most European countries, in Australia and Japan, 
in Africa and in North and South America 
(especially in the vicinity of Lake Superior). 
In Britain the mines of Cornwall are the richest. 

Copper is extracted from its ores either by the 
dry or the wet process. For the former, what is 
known as the Welsh process is most common in 
Great Britain. It consists in alternately roast¬ 
ing the ore, and then smelting it in a furnace 
with a suitable slag, until impure or blister cop¬ 
per is obtained. Before this stage is reached 
a metallic compound of copper, sulphur, and 


iron has been produced, technically known as 
matte, regulus, or coarse metal, and subsequently 
a tolerably pure sulphide of copper called fine 
metal. The blister copper is refined by burning 
off the sulphur, arsenic, and other volatile im¬ 
purities, and by melting it along with wood char¬ 
coal and stirring it with a wooden pole. The 
quality is then tested, and, if found satisfactory, 
the copper is cast into ingots. In extracting the 
metal from pyrites by the wet process, the ore is 
first roasted to get rid of the larger proportion 
of sulphur, then the calcined residue still con¬ 
taining sulphur is mixed with common salt, 
ground and heated in ovens. The copper is thus 
converted into chloride, part of which volatilizes, 
but is condensed, along with arsenic and other 
substances, by passage through flues and water- 
condensers. After some hours the calcined mix¬ 
ture is raked out of the ovens, cooled, and trans¬ 
ferred to tanks, where it is exhausted by suc¬ 
cessive treatment with water. The solution, 
containing chloride of copper, sulphate and 
chloride of sodium, and iron salts, is next heated 
along with scrap iron. Copper precipitates in 
the form of a ruddy, lustrous, tolerably compact 
mass, with a crystalline appearance, and mixed 
with metallic iron and oxide. The larger pieces 
of iron are picked out, the precipitate washed 
and drained, and then rendered compact by 
heating in a furnace. A slag containing the 
oxide of iron forms, and the copper, when 
judged sufficiently pure, is run into moulds. 
Afterwards this crude metal is refined and 
toughened. 

Some of the alloys of copper, especially those 
containing tin and zinc, are of considerable 
importance, e. g., bronze, an alloy of copper 
with about eight or ten per cent, of tin; bell 
metal composed of eighty parts of copper and 
twenty of tin; British bronze coinage, copper 
ninety-five, tin four, zinc one. 

Copper is applied to a great many useful pur¬ 
poses. In sheets it is used for sheathing the 
bottoms of ships, covering roofs and domes, the 
constructing of boilers and stills of a large size, 
etc. It is also used in electrotyping and en¬ 
graving, for various household utensils and fit¬ 
tings; but its use for household utensils is by no 
means free from danger on account of the action 
of acids on it, which produces verdigris. 

The copper production in the world, in 1910, 
was as follows: United States, 492,672 tons; 
Spain and Portugal, 51,062; Chile, 35,801; 
Japan, 46,738; Germany, 25,107; Mexico, 
59,769; Australasia, 40,962; Canada, 26,128; 
other localities, 88,401. 

In the United States, Montana, Arizona, and 
Michigan are the chief copper producing States. 

Cotton. A soft, downy substance, consist¬ 
ing of fine hair growing round the seeds of plants 
belonging to the genus Gossypium, O. Malvaceae. 
The genus is indigenous to both the American 
and Asiatic continents, but it has been so ex¬ 
tensively spread by means of cultivation that it 
is now found throughout all parts of the world, 
within the limits of 36° north and south of the 
equator. All the species and varieties form 
herbaceous or shrubby perennial plants, varying 
in height according to the climate and soil in 
which they grow, some not exceeding two or three 




INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


659 


feet, while others reach a height of fifteen or 
twenty feet. Their leaves grow upon stalks 
placed alternately upon the branches, and are 
generally heart-shaped, and most commonly 
either three or five-lobed, with the lobes sharp 
or rounded. The flowers are usually large and 
showy, and grow singly upon stalks in the axils 
of the leaves. They have a cup-shaped shortly 
five-toothed calyx, surrounded by a larger outer 
calyx or involucel of three broad deeply-cut seg¬ 
ments, joined together and heart-shaped at the 
base; a corolla of five petals; many stamens 
united into a central column; and a three or 
five-celled ovary. The fruit is a three or five- 
celled capsule, which bursts open through the 
middle of each cell when ripe, exposing the num¬ 
erous seeds covered with the beautiful cellular 
filaments known under the name of cotton. 
The seeds themselves contain a considerable 
quantity of bland oil, which has been brought 
greatly into use during the last few years; and 
the cake formed by pressing the decorticated 
seeds has proved a valuable food for cattle. 
G. Barbadense is the species cultivated in the 
United States, where two well-marked.varieties 
are recognized. First, the Sea Island or long- 
staple cotton, which was introduced from the 
Bahamas in 1785, and is grown only on the low 
islands and sea-coast of Georgia and South Caro¬ 
lina ; it is the most valuable kind, having a fine, 
soft, silky staple from one and one-half to one 
and three-fourths inches long, and is easily sepa¬ 
rated from the seed. Second, Upland, Georgian, 
Bowed, or short-staple cotton, which forms the 
bulk of American cotton, and is the produce of 
the upland or inland districts of the Southern 
States; the staple is only one or one and one- 
fourth inches long, and it adheres firmly to the 
seed, which is also covered with short down. 
Egyptian cotton, and the kind called Bourbon, 
are likewise referable to this species. G. herba- 
ceum is the indigenous Indian species, and yields 
the bulk of the cotton of that country; it is also 
rown in the south of Europe and other countries 
ordering on the Mediterranean, Persia, etc. 
Its seeds are woolly and yield a very short-stapled 
cotton. G. peruvianum yields the cotton ex¬ 
ported from Pernambuco, Bahia, and other parts 
of Brazil, from Peru, etc. It is sometimes called 
kidney cotton, on account of its seeds adhering 
firmly together in the form of a kidney. The 
harvest of this country commences in August, 
and lasts till December. After being picked 
and dried, the cotton is separated from the seeds 
by means of machines called gins , and is then 
tightly compressed into bales averaging about 
500 pounds in weight. Two kinds of gins are 
used: the saw gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 
1793, and the roller gin, — the first consisting 
of numerous circular saws revolving between 
iron grids, being used for the short-staple variety; 
and the latter, which is merely a pair of rollers, 
for the long-staple. The production of cotton 
in the United States has grown from 1,038,848 
bales in 1831 to 12,005,688 in 1910. 

Cotton-spinning, a term employed to 
describe in the aggregate all the operations in¬ 
volved in transforming raw cotton into yarn. 
The word “spinning” has also a more limited 
signification, being used to denote the conclud¬ 


ing process of the series. The following affords 
a general notion of the nature and order of the 
successive operations carried on in the manu¬ 
facture of cotton yarn:— (1) Mixing, the blend¬ 
ing of different varieties of raw cotton, in order 
to secure economical production, uniform qual¬ 
ity and color, and an even thread in any desired 
degree. (2) The willowing, scratching, or blow¬ 
ing, an operation which cleans the cotton and 
prepares it in the form of a continuous lap or 
rolled sheet for the next process. (3) Carding, 
an operation in which the material is treated in 
its individual fibers, which are taken from the 
lap, further cleansed, and laid in a position ap¬ 
proximately parallel to each other, forming a 
thin film, which is afterwards condensed into a 
sliver — a round, untwisted strand of cotton. 

(4) Drawing, the drawing out of several slivers 
to the dimensions of one, so as to render the 
new sliver more uniform in thickness, and to 
place the fibers more perfectly in parallel order. 

(5) Slabbing, the further drawing or attenuation 
of the sliver, and slightly twisting it, in order to 
preserve its cohesion and rounded form. (6) 
Intermediate or second stubbing, a repetition of 
the former operation and further attenuation, 
not necessary in the production of coarse yarns. 

(7) Roving, a continuation of the preceding, its 
principal object being to still further attenuate 
the sliver, and give it a slight additional twist. 

(8) Spinning, which completes the extension 
and twisting of the yam. This is accomplished 
either with the throstle or the mule. By means 
of the former machine the yarn receives a hard 
twist, which renders it tough and strong. By 
means of the latter yams of less strength are 
produced, such as warps of light fabrics and 
wefts of all kinds. Up to the middle of the Eight¬ 
eenth Century the only method of spinning 
known was that by the hand-wheel, or the still 
more primitive distaff and spindle. In 1763, a 
poor weaver of the name of Hargreaves, residing 
at Stanhill, near Blackburn, in Lancashire, in¬ 
vented a machine for spinning cotton, which he 
named a spinning jenny. It consisted at first 
of eight spindles, turned by a horizontal wheel, 
but was afterwards greatly extended and im¬ 
proved, so as to have the vertical substituted 
for the horizontal wheel, and give motion to from 
fifty to eighty spindles. In 1769, Arkwright, 
originally a barber’s apprentice, took out a patent 
for spinning by rollers. From the circumstances 
of the mill erected by Arkwright at Cromford, 
in Derbyshire, being driven by water power, his 
machine received the name of the water frame, 
and the thread spun on it that of water twist. 
The next important invention in cotton-spinning 
was that of the mule, introduced by Samuel 
Crompton of Bolton, in 1775, and so called from 
its combining the principle of the spinning jenny 
of Hargreaves with the roller-spinning of Ark¬ 
wright. Numerous improvements in cotton¬ 
spinning have been introduced up to the present 
day, but they are all modifications of the original 
inventions. Among these is the throstle, an 
extension and simplification of the original spin¬ 
ning frame, introduced about the year 1810. 
The first machines set up in the United States 
were at East Bridgewater, Mass., in 1786, by 
two Scotchmen. In 1812, Francis C. Lowell 



660 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


introduced the Cartwright power loom at Lowell, 
Mass., which is now the largest cotton-manu¬ 
facturing center in America. There are also ex¬ 
tensive mills in active operation in Alabama, 
Georgia, and other Southern States. In 1911, 
Great Britain had 56,500,000 spindles in opera¬ 
tion; the continent of Europe, 42,000,000; 
United States, 29,003,000; and the East Indies, 
6,250,000. 

Credit, in finance, is the postponement 
to a future day agreed on by the parties of the 
payment of a debt. It implies confidence of 
the creditor in the debtor; and a “credit sys¬ 
tem” is one of general confidence of people in 
each other’s honesty, solvency, and resources. 
By means of a credit system a comparatively 
small stock of money can be made to do duty for 
carrying on a number of different transactions; 
but it is indispensable for every good system of 
credit that money must be instantly available 
when required, and this principle applies to 
every species of transaction where postponed 
payment is concerned. Public credit is the con¬ 
fidence which men entertain in the ability and 
disposition of a nation to make good its engage¬ 
ments with its creditors, or the estimation in 
which individuals hold the public promises of 
payment, whether such promises are expressed 
or implied. The term is also applied to the gen¬ 
eral credit of individuals in a nation; when 
merchants and others are wealthy and punctual 
in fulfilling engagements; or when they transact 
business with honor and fidelity; or when trans¬ 
fers of property are made with ease. So we 
speak of the credit of a bank when general con¬ 
fidence is placed in its ability to redeem its notes, 
and the credit of a mercantile house rests on its 
supposed ability and probity, which induce men 
to trust to its engagements. When the public 
credit is questionable it raises the premium on 
loans. 

Cutlery. A term comprising all cutting 
instruments made of steel, but more particularly 
confined to the manufacture of knives, scissors, 
razors, surgical instruments, and swords. Those 
articles which require the edge to possess great 
tenacity, at the same time that superior hardness 
is not required, are made from sheer steel. The 
finer kinds of cutlery are made from steel which 
has been in a state of fusion, and which is termed 
cast steel, no other being susceptible of a fine 
polish and very keen edge. Razors are made 
of cast steel, the edge of the razor requiring the 
combined advantages of great hardness and 
tenacity. After the razor-blade is formed, it is 
hardened by gradually raising it to a bright-red 
heat, and plunging it into cold water. It is 
tempered by heating it afterwards till a bright¬ 
ened part appears of a straw color. But the 
beauty and elegance of polished steel is dis¬ 
played to great advantage in the manufacture 
of the finer kinds of scissors. Damascus was 
anciently famed for its razors, sabers, and swords 
— the last especially, which possessed all the 
advantages of flexibility, elasticity, and hard¬ 
ness, while they presented a beautiful wavy ap¬ 
pearance called the water. It is not known how 
this effect is produced; but it is well imitated 
in Europe by scooping hollows in the blade and 
filling them up; also by welding together a 


bundle of steel bars, cutting and rewelding them, 
etc. In recent times, the English and German 
cutlery has been long celebrated for excellence 
and cheapness. The manufacture of table cut¬ 
lery in the United States was introduced in 
1834 by John Russell, of Greenfield, Mass., and 
has assumed such an importance as to com¬ 
mand a large export. 

Forestry is the act, occupation, or art of 
forming and cultivating forests; the systematic 
utilization, reproduction and improvement in 
productive capacity of trees in masses, including 
the planting and culture of new forests. The 
usefulness of forests to man lies: (1) In their 
furnishing him with timber for fuel and for 
manufacturing and building purposes as well 
as with other serviceable products, such as their 
bark, their sap (by distillation), turpentine, 
creosote, wood alcohol, vanilin, etc.; also fer¬ 
tilizers, fodders, materials for textile fabrics, 
dyes, inks, etc. (2) In their influence on climate, 
by furnishing large tracts of superior coolness, 
by conserving humidity, decreasing evapora¬ 
tion, breaking the force of winds, etc. (3) In 
their influence on the waterflow, by keeping 
the ground more moist, conserving the springs, 
making the outflow of water more steady and 
regular, and causing the snow within them to 
melt more slowly, thus preventing dangerous 
floods; causing the rainfall to sink slowly into 
the soil rather than to flow in torrents over the 
surface; also by holding the soil together with 
their roots, so keeping the hillsides from being 
denuded and preventing their soil from being 
carried down over the cultivable fields below, 
sanding over valleys and silting up streams. 
This being the case, not only private interest 
exists in forests but a public interest, which 
necessitates at times governmental action — an 
action to which in the United States we have 
but recently awaked. Such action rests on the 
following principles: (1) The widest scope should 
be allowed to private enterprise in production, 
care being taken that abundant statistics in 
regard to supply and demand and opportunity 
for education on the subject be furnished. 
(2) Adequate legal protection should be given 
to forest property. (3) Whenever improper 
management threatens damage to neighboring 
property the State should interfere to enforce 
proper management. (4) Wherever public wel¬ 
fare demands the reforestation of denuded tracts 
the State should assist individual or communal 
enterprise in performing this, or else do the 
reforesting as a work of internal improvement. 
(5) In cases where a permanent forest is desir¬ 
able and private interest can not be relied on 
for its proper management, the State should 
own and manage it. 

Our forests now cover 550,000,000 acres, or 
about one fourth of the United States. Three 
fourths of the standing timber of the country is 
privately owned. Forests publicly owned consist 
chiefly of holdings of the national government. 
We take from our forests yearly, including waste 
in logging and in manufacture, 20,000,000,000 
cubic feet of wood,valued at about $1,250,000,000. 
We use in a single year 90,000,000 cords of fire¬ 
wood, 45,000,000,000 board feet of lumber, 148,- 
000,000 hewed ties, 1,750,000,000 staves, over 



INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


661 


125,000,000 sets of heading, nearly 300,000,000 
barrel hoops, 3,200,000 cords of native pulp 
wood, 165,000,000 cubic feet of round mine tim¬ 
bers, and 1,250,000 cords of wood for distillation. 
The industries which use wood wholly or mainly 
yield each year a product worth nearly $3,000,- 
000,000. Our industries which subsist wholly or 
mainly upon wood, pay the wages of more than 


1,500,000 men and women. At the present rate 
of cutting, the forest land of the United States 
cannot long meet the enormous demand made 
upon it. By far the greater part of the white 
pine has been cut, and vast inroads have been 
made into the supply of other valuable timbers. 
In many sections of the country more timber 
falls by fire than by the axe. 


GREAT INDUSTRIES OF UNITED STATES 


ACCORDING TO THE LATEST CENSUS 



Num- 


Aver- 


Value of Products 


Industry 

BER OF 

Estab¬ 

lish¬ 

ments 

Capital 

AGE 

Number 
of Wage 
Earners 

Wages 

Net 

Gross 

Rank 

Agricultural implements, 

640 

$256,281,000 

50,551 

$ 28,609,000 

$ 86,022,000 

$146,329,000 

30 

Automobiles, including 
bodies and parts. 

743 

173,837,000 

75,721 

48,694,000 

117,556,000 

249,202,000 

19 

Baskets, rattan, and willow 
ware,. 

456 

4,199,000 

4,664 

1,747,000 

3,360,000 

5,695,000 

58 

Beet sugar,. 

58 

129,629,000 

7,204 

4,808,000 

20,857,000 

48,122,000 

45 

Boots and shoes, including 
cut stock and findings, . . 

1,918 

222,324,000 

198,297 

98,463,000 

180,060,000 

512,798,000 

8 

Bread and other bakery 
products,. 

23,926 

212,910,000 

100,216 

59,351,000 

158,831,000 

396,865,000 

11 

Brick and tile,. 

4,215 

174,673,000 

76,528 

37,139,000 

69,040,000 

92,776,000 

40 

Buttons,. 

444 

15,640,000 

16,427 

6,789,000 

13,167,000 

22,708,000 

49 

Canning and preserving, . . 

3,767 

119,207,000 ' 

59,968 

19,082,000 

55,278,000 

157,101,000 

28 

Carriages and wagons, . . . 

5,492 

175,474,000 

69,924 

37,595,000 

77,942,000 

159,893,000 

27 

Cars and general shop con¬ 
struction and repairs by 
steam railroad companies, 

1,145 

238,317,000 

282,174 

181,344,000 

206,188,000 

405,601,000 

10 

Cars, steam railroad, not in¬ 
cluding operations of rail¬ 
road companies,. 

110 

139,805,000 

43,086 

27,135,000 

44,977,000 

123,730,000 

34 

Cars, street railroad, not in¬ 
cluding operations of rail¬ 
road companies. 

14 

14,168,000 

3,583 

2,177,000 

3,550,000 

7,810,000 

56 

Chemicals,. 

349 

155,144,000 

23,714 

14,085,000 

53,567,000 

117,689,000 

35 

Clocks and Watches, . . . 

120 

57,500,000 

23,857 

12,944,000 

24,066,000 

35,197,000 

46 

Clothing, men’s,. 

6,354 

275,320,000 

239,696 

106,277,000 

270,562,000 

568,077,000 

7 

Clothing, women’s, .... 

4,558 

129,301,000 

153,743 

78,568,000 

175,964,000 

384,752,000 

13 

Coffee and spice, roasting and 
grinding,. 

607 

46,042,000 

7,490 

3,676,000 

27,328,000 

110,533,000 

38 

Confectionery,. 

1,944 

68,326,000 

44,638 

15,615,000 

53,645,000 

134,796,000 

32 

Copper, smelting and refining, 

38 

111,443,000 

15,628 

13,396,000 

45,274,000 

378,806,000 

14 

Cotton manufactures, . . . 

1,324 

822,238,000 

378,880 

132,859,000 

257,383,000 

628,392,000 

6 

Electrical machinery, appar¬ 
atus and supplies, .... 

1,009 

267,844,000 

87,256 

49,381,000 

112,743,000 

221,309,000 

22 

Electroplating,. 

461 

2,324,000 

2,717 

1,652,000 

3,305,000 

4,510,000 

59 

Engraving, wood,. 

Fertilizers, . 

82 

193,000 

318 

259,000 

585,000 

711,000 

60 

550 

121,537,000 

18,310 

7,477,000 

34,438,000 

103,960,000 

39 

Flavoring extracts, .... 

420 

5,341,000 

1,229 

558,000 

4,370,000 

8,828,000 

55 

Flour mill and grist mill 
products,. 

11,691 

349,152,000 

39,453 

21,464,000 

116,008,000 

883,584,000 

4 

Foundry and machine shop 
products,. 

13,253 

1,514,332,000 

531,011 

321,521,000 

688,464,000 

1,228,475,000 

2 

Furniture and refrigerators, 
Gas, illuminating and heat¬ 
ing, . 

3,155 

227,134,000 

128,452 

65,618,000 

131,111,000 

239,886,000 

20 

1,296 

915,537,000 

37,215 

20,931,000 

114,386,000 

166,814,000 

26 

Glass,. 

363 

129,288,000 

68,911 

39,300,000 

59,976,000 

92,095,000 

41 

Gloves and mittens, leather, 

377 

16,909,000 

11,354 

4,764,000 

10,423,000 

23,631,000 

47 

Gold and silver, reducing 
and refining, not from the 
ore,. 

62 

3,894,000 

456 

346,000 

1,628,000 

23,612,000 

48 

Hosiery and knit goods, . . 

1,374 

163,641,000 

129,275 

44,740,000 

89,902,000 

200,143,000 

24 

Iron and steel, blastfurnaces, 

208 

487,581,000 

38,429 

24,607,000 

70,791,000 

391,429,000 

12 

Leather, tanned, curried, and 
finished,. 

919 

332,727,000 

62,202 

32,103,000 

79,595,000 

327,874,000 

16 

Liquors, distilled,. 

613 

72,450,000 

6,430 

3,074,000 

168,722,000 

204,699,000 

23 

Liquors, malt,. 

1,414 

671,158,000 

54,579 

41,206,000 

278,134,000 

374,730,000 

15 

Lumber and timber products, 

40,671 

1,176,675,000 

695,019 

318,739,000 

648,011,000 

1,156,129,000 

3 

Marble and stone work, . . 

4,964 

114,842,000 

65,603 

42.546,000 

75,696,000 

113,093,000 

36 

Millinery and lace goods, . 

1,579 

35,705,000 

39,201 

16,308,000 

40,854,000 

85,894,000 

42 

Mirrors,. 

148 

4,890,000 

2,994 

1,763,000 

3,666,000 

9,571,000 

54 

Needles, pins, hooks, eyes, . 

49 

6,705,000 

4,638 

2,064,000 

4,365,000 

6,694,000 

57 

Oil, cottonseed and cake, 

817 

91,086,000 

17,071 

5,835,000 

28,035,000 

147,868,000 

29 

Paint and varnish, .... 

791 

103,995,000 

14,240 

8,271,000 

45,873,000 

124,889,000 

33 

Paper and wood pulp, . . . 

777 

409,348,000 

75,978 

40,805,000 

102,215,000 

267,657,000 

18 

Patent medicines and com¬ 
pounds, . . .. 

Petroleum, refining, .... 

3,642 

99,942,000 

22,895 

9,897,000 

91,566,000 

141,942,000 

31 

147 

181,916,000 

13,929 

9,830,000 

37,725,000 

236,998,000 

21 

Printing and publishing, . . 

31.445 

588,346,000 

258,434 

164,628,000 

536,101,000 

737,876,000 

5 



















































662 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


GREAT INDUSTRIES OF UNITED STATES — Continued 



Num- 


Aver- 


Value 

of Products 


Industry 

BER OF 

Estab¬ 

lish¬ 

ments 

Capital 

age 

Number 
of Wage 
Earners 

Wages 

Net 

Gross 

Rank 

Rice, cleaning and polishing, 

71 

13,347,000 

1,239 

564,000 

2,870,000 

22,371,000 

50 

Salt. 

124 

29,012,000 

4,936 

2,531,000 

6,125,000 

11,328,000 

53 

Shipbuilding, . 

1,353 

126,118,000 

40,506 

25,268,000 

42,146,000 

73,360,000 

44 

Silk and silk goods, .... 

852 

152,158,000 

99,037 

38,570,000 

89,145,000 

196,912,000 

25 

Slaughtering and meat pack- 
ing,. 

1,641 

383,249,000 

89,728 

51,645,000 

168,740,000 

1,370,568,000 

1 

Soap, . 

420 

71,951,000 

12,999 

6,227,000 

39,179,000 

111,358,000 

37 

Stoves and furnaces includ¬ 
ing gas and oil stoves, . . 

576 

86,944,000 

37,130 

22,944,000 

49,515,000 

78,853,000 

43 

Sugar and molasses, .... 

233 

153,167,000 

13,526 

7,484,000 

31,666,000 

279,249,000 

17 

Tobacco manufactures, . . 

15,822 

245,660,000 

166,810 

69,355,000 

239,509,000 

416,695,000 

9 

Typewriters and supplies, . 

89 

26,309,000 

9,578 

6,221,000 

15,642,000 

19,719,000 

51 

Window shades and fixtures, 

219 

10,334,000 

3,930 

1,918,000 

5,918,000 

18,571,000 

52 


IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF UNITED STATES 

FROM THE LATEST STATISTICS 

EXPORTS 


Articles 

Quantities 

Domestic Merchandise 
Agricultural implements, 
Aluminum, and manufac- 
turps of,. 


AniTrials,. 


Brass, and manufactures 


Breadstuffs: Corn, 

bushels,. 

Breadstuffs: Oats, 

bushels,. 

Breadstuffs: Wheat, 

bushels. 

Breadstuffs: Wheat 
flour, barrels, .... 
Broom and brushes, . . 
"Piltt-Gns,. 

63,761,458 

2,044,912 

23,729,302 

10,129,435 

Cars, carriages, and other 
vehicles, and parts of, 
Chemicals, drugs, d yes, 
and medicines, . . . 
Clocks and watches, and 


Coal: Anthracite, tons, . 
Coal: Bituminous, tons,. 

Coffee, pounds. 

Copper, and manufac- 

3,146,388 

11,839,099 

36,337,891 

Cotton, unmanufactured, 

pounds,. 

Cotton, manufactures of 
Earthen, stone, and 
china ware, .... 

Fertilizers, .... 

4,033,940,915 

Fibers, vegetable, and 
textile, grasses, man¬ 
ufactures of. 

Fish,. 


Fruit, apples, green or 
ripe, barrels, .... 

Fruits and nuts, all other, 

Furs and fur skins, . . 

Glass and glassware, . . 

Glucose and grape 
sugar, pounds, . . . 

Gunpowder, and other 
explosives t . 

1,721,106 

181,963,046 

Hay, tons,. 

TTnnpy, . 

55,223 

Hops, pounds,. 

India rubber, manufac- 

13,104,774 

Instruments for scien¬ 
tific purposes, . . . 
Iron and steel, and 
manufactures of, . . 
Leather, and manufac- 
of t 


Malt, bushels . 

138,958 


Values 

Articles 

$35,973,398 

Marble and stone, and 
manufactures of, . . . 

1,330,018 

Molasses, gallons, . . . 
Musical instruments, and 

19,048,653 

parts of,. 

6,230,092 

Naval stores. 

Nickel, nickel oxide, and 

35,961,479 

matte, pounds. 

Oil cake and oil cake 

832,718 

meal,. 

Oils: Animal, gallons, . . 

22,040,273 

Oils: Mineral, crude, gal¬ 
lons, .. . 

49,386,946 

Oils: Mineral, refined or 
manufactured, .... 

757,181 

Oils: Vegetable, .... 

556,504 

Paints, pigments, and 

30,534,936 

colors,. 

Paper,and manufactures of 

23,007,414 

Paraffin and paraffin 
wax, pounds, .... 
Provisions: Beef prod¬ 
ucts, pounds. 

3,126,771 

15,690,331 

i Provisions: Hog prod- 

29,323,105 

ucts, pounds, .... 

5,380,481 

Provisions :01eomargarine, 

pounds,. 

Provisions: Other meat 

104,908,406 

585,318,869 

products. 

Provisions: Dairy products 

40,851,918 

Seeds: Clover, pounds, 

3,138,188 

Seeds: All other, .... 
Soap. 

10,721,132 

Spirits, distilled. 

8,565,990 

Spirits, malt,. 

Starch, pounds, .... 
Sugar, pounds,. 

7,698,321 

Syrup, gallons,. 

5,777,458 

Tobacco, unmanufac¬ 
tured, pounds, .... 

18,721,007 

Tobacco, manufactures of, 

10,473,517 

Vegetables,. 

3,246,391 

Wood,and manufactures of 

3,395,383 

Wool, and manufactures of 
All other articles, . . . 

4,763,242 

Total exports, domes- 

1,032,591 

tic merchandise, . . 

81,649 

Exports, foreign mer- 

2,130,972 

chandise,. 

12,452,562 

Total exports, domes- 

12,421,512 

233,221,643 

tic and foreign, . . 

Specie: Gold,. 

Specie: Silver, .... 

53,673,056 

Total exports, domes- 

103,099 

tic and foreign, .. . 


Quantities 


3,386,811 


18,947,810 

' l‘,i8i,630 
185,190,761 


218,592,330 

262,129,044 

879,455,006 

3,794,939 


4,359,167 


158,239,178 
54,947,444 
. 12,001,799 

355,327,072 


Values 


$ 1,690,180 
354,180 

3,471,401 

25,022,720 

6,004,414 

19,631,127 

788,860 

5,417,513 

92,698,003 

19,805,232 

6,294,746 

19,215,499 

7,378,736 

24,827,002 

104,152,059 

408,459 

16,718,401 

3,283,816 

577,929 

1,897,137 

4,046,981 

1,885,491 

1,075,559 

3,137,552 

2,244,379 

1,752,118 

39,255,320 

4,383,584 

5,545,091 

92,255,951 

2,293,473 

94,158,906 


$2,013,549,025 

35,771,174 


$2,049,320,199 


22,509,653 

64,749,958 


$2,136,579,810 




























































































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


663 


IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF UNITED STATES — Continued 

IMPORTS 


Articles 


Merchandise 


Quantities 


Values 


Articles 


Quantities 


Values 


Animals. 

Art works,. 

Bristles,. 

Cement, Portland, hy¬ 
draulic, pounds, . . . 
Chemicals, drugs, dyes, 
and medicines, . . . 
Clocks and watches, and 

parts of,. 

Coal, bituminous, tons,. 
Cocoa, crude, and shells 

of, pounds,. 

Coffee, pounds,. 

Copper, and manufac¬ 
tures of (not ore), . . 
Cork wood, and manu¬ 
factures of,. 

Cotton, unmanufac¬ 
tured, pounds . . . 
Cotton, manufactures of 
Earthen, stone, and 
china ware, .... 
Feathers, flowers, etc.,. 

Fertilizers,. 

Fibers, vegetable, un¬ 
manufactured, tons, . 
Fibers, vegetable, man¬ 
ufactures of, ... . 
Fruits and nuts, v . 
Furs, and manufactures 

of,. 

Glass and glassware,. . 
Hair, unmanufactured, 

pounds,. 

Hats, bonnets, hoods, 
and materials for, . . 
Hides and skins, other 
than fur, pounds, . . 

Hops,. 

India rubber and gutta¬ 
percha, crude,.... 
Iron and steel, and man¬ 
ufactures of, ... . 



$ 6,850,964 
22,495,842 
2,980,284 

93,297,749 

324,949 


95,101,006 

1,761,210 

3,162,961 

4,975,914 

138,058,341 

875,366^797 

14,552,879 

90,567,788 


32,013,562 


6,609,813 

113,768,313 

24,776,320 

66,996,551 


11,411,665 

9,845,344 

10,150,142 

290,434 

30,752,250 


54,765,999 

41,515,067 


23,618,948 

6,881,891 

19,207,601 

4,755,131 


7,653,548 

374,891,195 

70,504,980 

2,706,600 


92,910,513 


43,113,295 


Jewelry and precious 

stones,. 

Lead, and manufactures 
of, pounds, . . ... . 
Leather, and manufac¬ 
tures of,. 

Malt liquors, gallons, . . 
Meat and dairy prod¬ 
ucts, . 

Oils,. 

Paper, and manufac¬ 
tures of,. 

Paper, stock, crude, . . 

Rice, pounds. 

Silk, unmanufactured, 
Silk, manufactures of, . . 

Spices, pounds,. 

Spirits, distilled, gallons, 

Sugar, pounds,. 

Tea, pounds,. 

Tin, in bars, blocks, or 
pigs, pounds, .... 
Tobacco, unmanufac¬ 
tured, pounds, .... 
Tobacco, manufactures 

of. 

Toys,. 

Vegetables,. 

Wines,. 

Wood, and manufac¬ 
tures of,. 

Wool, unmanufactured, 

pounds,. 

Wool, manufactures of, . 
All other articles, . . . 

Total merchandise, . . 

Specie: Gold, . . . . 
Specie: Silver, . . . . 

Total imports, .... 



$ 42,599,709 

208,709,726 

4,205,917 

7,293,892 

14,636,720 

3,396,366 


14,209,970 

33,023,687 

76,657,970 

58,222,912 

3,674,350 

3,937,978,265 

102,653,942 

18,626,880 

5,481,680 

2,126,822 

74,998,265 

32,137,837 

4,946,200 

6,076,929 

96,691,096 

17,613,569 

103,439,058 

37,935,978 

48,197,613 

27,864,260 


5,416,466 

7,964,835 

9,293,855 

8,531,613 


52,931,803 

137,647,641 

23,228,005 

18,569,791 

182,723,647 


$1,527,226,106 


73,607,013 

45,937,249 


$1,646,770,368 


IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 


Countries 

Imports 

Exports 

Countries 

Imports 

Exports 

Argentina,. 

Australia,. 

Austria-Hungary, . . 

Belgium,. 

Bulgaria. 

Canada,. 

Chile,. 

China,. 

Cuba,. 

Denmark,. 

Egypt,. 

France,. 

Germany,. 

Greece. 

$ 339,459,000 
292,060,000 
579,129,000 
823,137,000 
34,230,000 
472,247,540 
108,582,000 
310,956,000 
108,007,000 
170,021,000 
116,422,000 
1,384,453,000 
2,126,322,000 
26,547,000 

$ 359,584,000 
349,591,000 
490,977,000 
657,634,000 
24,907,000 
297,196,365 
120,022,000 
248,498,000 
128,542,000 
146,884,000 
143,072,000 
1,203,124,000 
1,778,969,000 
19,626,000 

India, British, .... 

Italy,. 

Japan. 

Mexico,. 

Netherlands, .... 

Norway. 

Portugal,. 

Russia, . 

Spain,. 

Sweden, .. 

Switzerland,. 

United Kingdom, . . 
United States,.... 
Uruguay,. 

$ 419,686,000 
626,473,000 
231,188,000 
102,506,000 
1,249,423,000 
107,761,000 
69,939,000 
466,763,000 
180,007,000 
165,304,000 
336,789,000 
3,300,738,000 
1,527,966,000 
42,797,000 

$ 664,676,000 
401,436,000 
226,636,000 
146,289,000 
984,397,000 
75,737,000 
33,350,000 
735,252,000 
174,693,000 
126,759,000 
230,803,000 
2,094,467,000 
2,013,549,000 
43,333,000 


IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF UNITED STATES BY COUNTRIES 


Countries 

Imports 

Exports 

Countries 

Imports 

Exports 

Austria-Hungary, . . 

$ 16,958,099 

$ 19,514,787 

Russia in Europe, . . 

$ 11,004,164 

$ 23,524,267 

Azores and Madeira 



Servia,. 

574,141 

13,058 

Islands,. 

188,994 

174,943 

Spain,. 

19,784,998 

25,064,916 

Belgium,. 

37,084,743 

45,016,622 

Sweden,. 

8,532,422 

7,973,820 

Denmark. 

1,712,600 

13,196,950 

Switzerland. 

25,652,299 

704,808 

France,. 

115,414,784 

135,271,648 

Turkey in Europe, . . 

7,540,440 

2,536,141 

Germany,. 

163,242,560 

287,495,814 

Great Britain and Ire- 



Gibraltar,. 

6,824 

328,909 

land,. 

261,289,106 

576,613,974 

Greece,. 

3,133,049 

627,320 

Bermuda,. 

599,516 

1,357,631 

Greenland, Iceland, etc. 

12,943 

5,599 

British Honduras, . . 

1,184,373 

1,562,583 

Italy,. 

47,334,809 

60,580,766 

British North America: 



Malta, Gozo, etc., . . 

14,427 

230,704 

Nova Scotia, New 



Netherlands,. 

32,926,492 

96,103,769 

Brunswick, etc., . . 



Norway,. 

8,009,490 

7,356,405 

Quebec, Ontario, 



Portugal,. 

7,015,358 

2,669,910 

Manitoba, British 



Roumania,. 

273,597 

964,398 

Columbia, etc., . . 

100,863,418 

269,806,013 















































































































































664 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF UNITED STATES BY COUNTRIES 


(CONTINUED) 


Countries 

Imports 

Exports 

Countries 

Imports 

Exports 

Newfoundland and 



China. 

$ 34,227,503 

8 19,287,836 

Labrador. 

$ 1,380,935 

$ 4,604,382 

East Indies: .... 



Cen’l American States: 



British,. 

72,633,824 

11,937,796 

Costa Rica, .... 

4,838,416 

3,473,376 

Dutch,. 

9,934,163 

8,213,698 

Guatemala, .... 

2,562,488 

2,431,769 

French,. 

87 

255,944 

Honduras, .... 

2,657,009 

2,126,014 

Hong Kong, .... 

2,718,315 

7,756,138 

Nicaragua, .... 

1,442,299 

2,475,792 

Japan,. 

78,527,496 

36,721,409 

Panama,. 

3,506,735 

20,867,919 

Korea,. 

245,551 

1,144,583 

Salvador,. 

1,463,792 

2,100,713 

Russia in Asia, . . . 

1,199,298 

1,179,782 

Mexico,. 

57,450,111 

61,281,715 

Turkey in Asia, . . . 

10,150,372 

1,403,912 

Miquelon, Langley, etc. 

6,967 

67,200 

All other Asia, . . . 

2,183,490 

1,327,488 

West Indies: 



British Australasia, . 

11,779,738 

45,080,548 

British,. 

12,258,580 

11,873,400 

Oceania:. 



Cuba,. 

110,309,468 

60,709,062 

British,. 

14,766 

506,342 

Danish,. 

135,117 

810,537 

French, . 

1,017,478 

637,264 

Dutch,. 

353,256 

768,802 

German,. 

62,072 

113,546 

French, . 

25,257 

1,578,181 

Philippine Islands, . 

17,400,398 

19,723,113 

Hayti,. 

813,713 

5,358,761 

British Africa:. . . . 



Santo Domingo, . . 

3,632,453 

3,805,329 

West. 

212,155 

2,041,893 

Argentina,. 

29,090,732 

43,918,511 

South,. 

2,160,342 

12,842,442 

Bolivia,. 

327 

891,624 

East,. 

1,184,191 

639,517 

Brazil,. 

100,867,184 

27,240,146 

Canarv Islands, . . . 

95,121 

683,526 

Chile,. 

19,941,000 

12,044,578 

Africa:. 



Colombia,. 

8,994,460 

4,905,934 

French, . 

672,851 

1,460,955 

Ecuador,. 

3,628,805 

2,238,539 

German,. 

536,274 

239,456 

Guianas: 



Italian, 


2,161 

British,. 

473,050 

1,850,867 

Liberia,. 

745 

103,161 

Dutch,. 

999,221 

722,853 

Madagascar, . . . 

61,575 

14,294 

French, ...... 

31,433 

287,034 

Portuguese. .... 

250,036 

3,395,737 

Paraguay. . . 

34,516 

86,986 

Spanish,. 


20,422 

Peru,. 

9,314,030 

5,597,123 

Turkey in Africa,Egypt 

21,674,653 

2,114,596 

Uruguay,. 

1,613,736 

5,317,711 

All other Africa. . . . 

365,677 

48,947 

Venezuela,. 

7,635,256 

3,791,620 




Aden. 

1,629,631 

1,193,942 

Total,. 

$ 656,398,148 

$ 468,317,326 


India Rubber. A peculiar elastic sub¬ 
stance composed of carbon and hydrogen, found 
in suspension in the milky juice of the Siphonia 
Elastica, and other arboraceous plants. The 
crude rubber is usually prepared where the juice 
is collected, by drying the juice over a fire or in 
the sun on molds of clay, paddles, or lasts; 
by evaporating the juice in the sun and removing 
the successive pellicles formed on the surface; 
or by coagulating the juice, as in Nicaragua, by 
an application of the juice of the bejuca vine, 
and kneading and rolling the coagulated mass. 
Most of the rubber of commerce is derived from 
South America, from Para, Central America, 
Mexico, Carthagena, etc.; smaller quantities 
from Java, Penang, Singapore, Assam, and 
South Africa. The purest comes from Para in 
large bottles and thick plates. Prior to the in¬ 
troduction of rubber into Europe in the early 
part of the Eighteenth Century it had already 
been turned to various domestic and industrial 
uses, such as the making of bottles, syringes, 
boots, and waterproofing, by the natives and 
residents along the banks of the Amazon. In 
Europe the first important practical applica¬ 
tions of it are associated with the names of 
Mackintosh, the patentee in 1823 of a water¬ 
proofing process by the solution of the gum in 
oil of turpentine and alcohol, and in coal tar, 
naphtha; Hancock, the inventor of the “mas¬ 
ticator,^” a machine for the condensation of 
crude lumps or shreds of caoutchouc, as im¬ 
ported, into compact homogeneous blocks for 
subsequent division into cakes, sheets, rollers, 
etc.; and Goodyear, the inventor of the vulcan¬ 
izing process, patented in 1844. Since then its 
uses have multiplied so rapidly that it is em¬ 


ployed in every department of industry. Thus 
apart from its use in blocks and sheets, etc., in 
tapes or threads for weaving into elastic tissues, 
and as varnish for waterproofing, it is employed, 
in combination with other resinous materials in 
a solvent such as naphtha, as a cement or marine 
glue. When combined with a small quantity of 
sulphur, etc., it is used for the manufacture of 
overshoes, boots, gloves, life preservers, gas bags, 
steam and water packing, belting, fire hose, tub¬ 
ing, springs, tires, artificial sponges, etc. With 
a larger proportion of sulphur, and cured or 
vulcanized by exposure to a high temperature, 
it is used for the manufacture of combs, pen and 
pencil holders, rulers, inkstands, buttons, canes, 
syringes, jewelry, and, when colored with ver¬ 
milion, for mountings for artificial teeth, etc. 
In combination with asphalts, oils, and sulphur, 
etc., and vulcanized ( kerite ), it is used for cover¬ 
ing telegraph wires. 

Insurance. The act of providing against 
a possible loss, by entering into a contract with 
one who is willing to give assurance; that is, to 
bind himself to make good such possible loss, 
should it occur. The instrument by which the 
contract is made is denominated a 'policy , and 
the stipulated consideration is called the pre¬ 
mium. In this country, Fire and Marine insur¬ 
ance are almost invariably effected by joint- 
stock companies, whose modes of operations are 
too well known to call for expatiation here. 
Life Insurance (to which the word “ assurance ” 
is now more generally applied) is a contract by 
which a party, for a certain premium, agrees to 
pay a certain sum, should a person, to whose 
life it relates, die within a time specified; or to 
pay the executors of the insured a certain sum 






































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 665 


at the time of his death. Such policies, how¬ 
ever, formerly made an exception in the case of 
death by suicide. By this means, a family may 
be furnished with means of support in case of 
the death of its head. According to general 
practice, a life insurance is seldom made by the 
payment of a single sum at the time it is effected, 
but almost always by the payment of an annual 
premium during its continuance. An individual, 
therefore, who has insured a sum on his own 
life, would forfeit certain advantages of the in¬ 
surance were he not to continue regularly to 
make his periodical payments. Life insurance 
is conducted by several kinds of societies; as 
the proprietary, mutual insurance, and mixed so¬ 
cieties. The proprietary, or joint-stock com¬ 
panies, are formed of persons who have sub¬ 
scribed a capital, on the insurance of which the 
business of the company is carried on, and who 
divide the profits entirely among themselves. 
In the mutual insurance societies, on the other 
hand, there is no proprietary, the assured being 
likewise the assurers, and dividing the profits 
among themselves, after deducting the expenses 
of management, and reserving a guaranty fund. 
In the mixed class of offices, which is the most 
numerous in the United States, there is a pro¬ 
prietary, but, at the same time, the assured are 
allowed to participate largely in the profits of 
the society, which are usually divided in the 
form of bonuses at stated periods. The pre¬ 
miums to be paid are adjusted according to the 
age of the party on whose life the insurance is 
made, being lowest on young lives, and increas¬ 
ing from year to year as the expectancy of life 
diminishes. 

It is within the past sixty years that the vast 
business of life insurance in the United States 
has been developed. The experimental stage 
was ended and the era of advance was opened 
when, in 1843, the Mutual Life Insurance Com- 
any of New York began business, its first policy 
aving been issued on February 1st of that year. 
Since then a large number of life insurance com¬ 
panies have been established. The following 
list includes those now transacting business 
which had their inception between 1843 and 1860 
inclusive, arranged according to the date of the 
first policy issued: 

Mutual Life Insurance Company, 1843; New 
England Mutual Life Insurance Company (1), 
1844; New York Life Insurance Company, Mu¬ 
tual Benefit Life Insurance Company, State 
Mutual Life Assurance Company (3), 1845; 
Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Company, 
1846; Penn Mutual Life Insurance Company, 
1847; Union Mutual Life Insurance Company, 
1849; National Life Insurance Company of Ver¬ 
mont, United States Life Insurance Company, 
ACtna Life Insurance Company, Manhattan Life 
Insurance Company, 1850; Massachusetts Mu¬ 
tual Life Insurance Company, Phoenix Mutual 
Life Insurance Company, Berkshire Life Insur¬ 
ance Company (4), 1851; Northwestern Mutual 
Life Insurance Company, 1858; Equitable Life 
Assurance Society, 1859; Washington Life In¬ 
surance Company, Home Life Insurance Com¬ 
pany, Germania Life Insurance Company, 1860. 

How life insurance has progressed since the 
early part of 1843 is shown in the subjoined 


table by periods of years as indicated, assess¬ 
ment insurance not being included: 


Year 

Amount of Outstand¬ 
ing Insurance 

Amount of 
A8SETS 

1843 . 

$ 6 , 500,000 

$ 1 , 000,000 

1867 . 

1 , 235 , 000,000 

124 , 534,000 

1892 . 

4 , 898 , 000,000 

919 , 310,131 

1899 . 

7 , 774 , 484,478 

1 , 595 , 208,408 

1906 . .... 

13 , 706 , 810,284 

2 , 924 , 253,848 

1910 . 

16 , 404 , 261,042 

3 , 875 , 877,059 


The following is the table of expectation of 
life usually recognized by American life insur¬ 
ance companies: 


EXPECTATION OF LIFE 


Age 

Expecta¬ 

tion in 
Years 

Age 

Expecta¬ 

tion in 
Years 

Age 

_ 

Expecta¬ 

tion IN 
Years 

Age 

Expecta¬ 

tion in 

YEARS 

Age 

Expecta¬ 

tion in 
Years 

0 

28.15 

20 

34.22 

40 

26.04 

60 

15.45 

80 

5.85 

1 

36.78 

21 

33.84 

41 

25.61 

61 

14.86 

81 

5.50 

2 

38.74 

22 

33.46 

42 

25.19 

62 

14.26 

82 

5.16 

3 

40.01 

23 

33.08 

43 

24.77 

63 

13.66 

83 

4.87 

4 

40.73 

24 

32.70 

44 

24.35 

64 

13.05 

84 

4.66 

5 

40.88 

25 

32.33 

45 

23.92 

65 

12.43 

85 

4.57 

6 

40.69 

26 

31.93 

46 

23.37 

66 

11.96 

86 

4.21 

7 

40.47 

27 

31.50 

47 

22.83 

67 

11.48 

87 

3.90 

8 

40.14 

28 

31.08 

48 

22.27 

68 

11.01 

88 

3.67 

9 

39.72 

29 

30.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

10.50 

89 

3.56 

10 

39.23 

30 

30.25 

50 

21.17 

70 

10.06 

90 

3.43 

11 

38.64 

31 

29.83 

51 

20.61 

71 

9.60 

91 

3.32 

12 

38.02 

32 

29.43 

52 

20.05 

72 

9.14 

92 

3.12 

13 

37.41 

33 

29.02 

53 

19.49 

73 

8.69 

93 

2.40 

14 

36.79 

34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.25 

94 

1.98 

15 

36.17 

35 

28.22 

55 

18.35 

75 

7.83 

95 

1.62 

16 

35.76 

36 

27.78 

56 

17.78 

76 

7.40 



17 

35.37 

37 

27.34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.99 



18 

34.98 

38 

26.91 

58 

16.63 

78 

6.59 



19 

34.59 

39 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

79 

6.21 




Interest is the allowance made for the loan 
or retention of a sum of money which is lent for, 
or becomes due at, a certain time, this allow¬ 
ance being generally estimated at so much per 
cent, per annum, that is, so much for the use of 
$100 for a year. The money lent or forborne is 
called the principal; the sum paid for the use of 
it, the interest. The interest of $100 for one 
year is called the rate per cent., and the sum of 
any principal and its interest together, the 
amount. Interest is either simple or compound. 
Simple interest is that which is allowed upon the 
principal only, for the whole time of the loan or 
forbearance. Compound interest is that which 
arises from any sum or principal in a given time 
by increasing the principal, at fixed periods, by 
the interest then due, and hence obtaining inter¬ 
est upon both interest and principal. The rate 
of interest, supposing the security for the prin¬ 
cipal to be equal, depends obviously upon what 
may be made by the employment of money in 
various industrious undertakings, or on the rate 
of profit. Where profits are high, interest is 
high, and vice versa; in fact, the rate of interest 
is simply the net profit on capital. Besides this, 
however, the interest on each particular loan 
must further vary according to the supposed 
risk of the lender, etc. Bills and notes, by the 
usage of trade, carry interest from the date they 
become due, such interest being recoverable as 
damages, but the jury are not bound to give 
it. In the United States interest is generally 
awarded by the courts on overdue debts. 



























666 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


TABULATED 


States and Terri¬ 
tories 

INTEREST LAWS 

DAYS OF GRACE 

Legal 

Rate 

Per 

Cent. 

Allowed 

by 

Contract 
Per Cent. 

Forfeiture for Usury. 

Notes 
and Bills 

Sight 

Drafts 

Alabama,. 

8 

8 

Interest and costs,. 

0 

0 

Alaska,. 

8 

12 

Interest; double amount paid recoverable, . 

3 

0 

Arizona,. 

6 

12 

No provision,. 

0 

0 

Arkansas,. 

6 

10 

Principal and interest. 

3 

3 

California,. 

7 

Any 

No provision. 

0 

0 

Colorado. 

8 

Any 

N o provision, exceptre pawn andnotebrokers, 

0 

0 

Connecticut, . . . . 

6 

12 

'Fine or imprisonment, or both,. 

0 

0 

Delaware, . 

6 

6 

Loan void; an equal amount recoverable, . 

0 

0 

District of Columbia, . 

6 

10 

Interest,. 

0 

0 

Florida. 

8 

10 

Interest; double excess paid recoverable, . . 

0 

0 

Georgia,. 

7 

8 

Excess of interest. 

0 

0 

Idaho. 

7 

12 

Interest and 10% of principal,. 

0 

0 

Illinois. 

5 

7 

Interest,. 

0 

0 

Indiana,. 

6 

8 

Excess interest,. 

0 

0 

Iowa,. 

6 

8 

Interest, 8% of principal and costs, .... 

0 

0 

Kansas,. 

6 

10 

Double the excess interest,. 

0 

0 

Kentucky,. 

6 

6 

Interest,.. 

0 

0 

Louisiana. 

5 

8 

Interest,. 

0 

0 

Maine,. 

6 • 

Any 

No provision,. 

0 

3 

Maryland,. 

6 

6 

Interest, ... . 

0 

0 

Massachusetts, . . . 

6 

Any 

No provision,. 

0 

3 

Michigan, . 

5 

7 

Interest,. 

0 

0 

Minnesota,. 

6 

10 

Loan void; principal andinterestrecoverable, 

0 

0 

Mississippi,. 

6 

10 

Interest,. 

3 

3 

Missouri. 

6 

8 

Excess interest and costs. 

0 

0 

Montana,. 

8 

Any 

No provision. 

0 

0 

Nebraska,. 

7 

10 

Interest and costs. 

0 

0 

Nevada,. 

7 

Any 

No provision,. 

3 

3 

New Hampshire, . . 

6 

6 

Three times excess interest,. 

0 

3 

New Jersey, . . . . 

6 

6 

Interest and costs,. 

0 

0 

New Mexico. 

6 

12 

Excess interest; twice excess paid recover- 






able. 

0 

0 

New York. 

6 

6 

Principal and interest; also misdemeanor, . 

0 

0 

North Carolina, . . . 

6 

6 

Interest; double amount paid recoverable, . 

0 

0 

North Dakota, . . . 

7 

12 

Interest,. 

0 

0 

Ohio. 

6 

8 

Interest over 6%,. 

0 

0 

Oklahoma,. 

6 

10 

Interest; double amount paid recoverable, . 

3 

3 

Oregon,. 

6 

10 

Principal and interest,. 

0 

0 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

6 

Excess of interest,. 

0 

0 

Rhode Island. 

6 

Any 

No provision,. 

0 

3 

South Carolina, . . . 

7 

8 

Interest; double interest paid recoverable, . 

0 

3 

South Dakota, . . . 

7 

12 

Interest; also misdemeanor,. 

3 

3 

Tennessee,. 

6 

6 

Excess interest,. 

0 

0 

Texas. 

6 

10 

Interest. 

3 

3 

Utah,. 

8 

12 

Loan void; principal and interest recoverable, 

0 

0 

Vermont,. 

6 

6 

Excess interest. 

0 

0 

Virginia,. 

6 

6 

Interest,. 

0 

0 

Washington, .... 

6 

12 

Double interest unpaid; or double interest 






paid plus accrued interest unpaid, . . 

0 

0 

West Virginia, . . . 

6 

6 

Excess interest,. 

0 

0 

Wisconsin. 

6 

10 

Excess interest; thrice amount paid recover- 






able,. 

0 

0 

Wyoming,. 

8 

12 

Interest.. 

0 

3 




























































































4 

5 

4 

6 

17 

20 

12 

20 

20 

5 

10 

20 

10 

5 

15 

5 

20 

12 

20 

10 

6 

6 

10 

8 

5 

6 

20 

16 

6 

20 

10 

10 

15 

5 

10 

20 

20 

20 

20 

4 

6 

8 

10 

6 

10 

20 


INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


667 


Open 

Account 

Years 


3 

6 

3 

3 

4 
6 
6 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

5 

3 

2 or 5 
3 

6 
3 
6 
6 
6 

3 
5 

5 

4 
4 

6 
6 

4 

6 

3 

6 

6 

3 
6 
6 
6 

6 

6 

6 

2 

4 
6 
2 

3 

5 

6 
8 


Arrest 

for 

Debt 

EXEMPTION LAWS 

Jurisdic¬ 
tion of 
Justices of 
the Peace 

States and Terri¬ 
tories 

Personal 

Property, 

Exempt 

Homestead, 

Exempt 

No 

81,000 

$2,000 

$100 

Alabama. 

No* 

300 

2,500 

1,000 

Alaska. 

No 

500 

2,500 

300 

Arizona. 

No* 

500 

2,500 

300 

Arkansas. 

No* 

t 

5,000 

300 

California. 

No 

t 

2,000 

300 

Colorado. 

No* 

t 

1,000 

100 

Connecticut. 

No* 

t 


200 

Delaware. 

No 

300 

.... 

300 

District of Columbia. 

No* 

1,000 

160 Acres 

100 

Florida. 

No 

1,600 

or 1,600 

100 

Georgia. 

No* 

t 

5,000 

300 

Idaho. 

No* 

400 

1,000 

200 

Illinois. 

No* 

600 

or 600 

200 

Indiana. 

No* 

200 

or 40 Acres 

100 

Iowa. 

No* 

t 

160 Acres 

300 

Kansas. 

No* 

t 

1,000 

100 

Kentucky. 

No* 

t 

Total, 2,000 

100 

Louisiana. 

No* 

t 

500 

20 

Maine. 

No 

100 


100 

Maryland. 

No* 

t 

800 

300 

Massachusetts. 

No* 

500 

1,500 

300 

Michigan. 

No* 

500 

80 Acres 

100 

Minnesota. 

No 

t 

2,000 

200 

Mississippi. 

No 

300 

1,500 (min.) 

250 

Missouri. 

No 

t 

2,500 

300 

Montana. 

No* 

500 

or 2,000 

200 

Nebraska. 

No* 

t 

5,000 

300 

Nevada. 

No* 

t 

500 

13J 

New Hampshire. 

No* 

200 

1,000 

200 

New Jersey., 

No* 

t 

1,000 

100 

New Mexico. 

No* 

250 

1,000 

200 

New York. 

No* 

500 

1,000 

200 

North Carolina. 

No* 

1,000 

5,000 

200 

North Dakota. 

No* 

500 

or 1,000 

300 

Ohio. 

No 

t 

5,000 

200 

Oklahoma. 

No* 

t 

1,500 

250 

Oregon. 

No* 

300 

• ■ • • 

300 

Pennsylvania. 

No* 

t 

.... 

.... 

Rhode Island. 

No* 

500 

1,000 

100 

South Carolina. 

No* 

750 

5,000 

100 

South Dakota. 

No 

t 

1,000 

500 

Tennessee 

No 

500 

5,000 

200 

Texas. 

No* 

t 

1,500 (min.) 

300 

Utah. 

No* 

200 

500 

200 

Vermont. 

No* 

t 

2,000 

100 

Virginia. 

No 

t 

2,000 

100 

Washington. 

No* 

200 

1,000 

300 

West Virginia. 

No* 

200 

5,000 

200 

Wisconsin. 

No* 

500 

1,500 

200 

W yoming. 


presumption of fraud or likelihood of debtor absconding. fVaries widely according to circumstances. 







































668 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

INVENTIONS SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY 


Inventions 


Discoveries of electrical phenomena,. 

Won the title of “founder of the science of electricity,”. 

Screw printing-press,. 

Spirally grooved rifle barrel,. 

Iron furnaces,. 

The use of steam,. 

The first authentic reference in English literature to the 
use of steam in the arts. 

Bay Psalm Book, first book published in the colonies, . . 

Barometer,. 

Steam engine, atmospheric pressure. 

Machine for generating electricity,. 

First newspaper in America, “Public Occurrences,” . . . 

First paper mill in America, . 

First steam engine with a piston,. 

The manufacture of plate glass established,. 

First to discover difference between electric conductors and 

insulators,. 

The first practical application of the steam engine. 

First to produce electric spark,. 

Thermometer,. 

Electrometer, the well-known pith ball, . 

The “Franklin” printing-press,. 

Electrical glass plate machine. 

Stereotyping,. 

First to discover that electricity is of two kinds,. 

Flying shuttle in weaving,. 

Rotary 3-color printing-press (multi-color). 

Electric or Leyden Jar,. 

Substitution of coke for coal in melting iron,. 

Lightning conductor, . 

Spinning jenny,.. 

Pianoforte, played in public in England in,. 

Drawing rolls in a spinning machine,. 

The introduction of the “Hollander ” or beating engine for 

pulping rags in the manufacture of paper,. 

The mule spinner,. 

Cut nails,. 

Circular wood saw. 

Embryo bicycle. 

Steam engine, the basis of the modern engine,. 

Gas balloon,. .. 

Fuddling iron. 

Plow, with cast-iron mold board, and wrought and cast- 

iron shares. 

Power loom,. 

First steamboat in the United States. 

Steam road wagon (first automobile). 

Grain threshing machine,. 

Hobby horse, forerunner of bicycle,. 

Rotary steam power printing-press, the first idea of, . . . 

Wood planing machine. 

Gas first used as an illuminant,. 

Cotton gin.. 

Art of lithography, . ... 

Machine for making continuous webs of paper. 

Electric battery discovered,. 

Steam coach,. 

Wood mortising machine, . .. 

Pattern loom. 

First fire-proof safe,. 

Steamboat on the Clyde, “Charlotte Dundas,”. 

First photographic experiments,. 

Planing machine,. 

The application of steam to the loom,. 

Steel pen, .. 

Steam locomotive on rails,. 

Application of twin-screw propellers in steam navigation, . 

Process of making malleable-iron castings,. 

First life preserver. 

Electro-plating,. 

Knitting machine, the latch needle in the,. 

Steamboat navigation on the Hudson River,. 

Percussion or detonating compound. 

First street gas lighting in England,. 

Band wood saw,.. 

Voltaic arc,. 

First steamboat to make a trip to sea, the “Phoenix,” . . 

Multi-wire telegraphy, .. 

Revolving cylinder printing-press,. 

Breech-loading shotgun. 

Storage battery,... 

Dry pile (prototype of dry battery), .. 

First practical steam rotary printing-press, paper printed on 
both sides. . ... . 


Date 

Inventor 

( 1560 

William Gilbert, . . . 

l 1603 


1620 


1620 

Blaew,. 

1621 

Koster. 

1630 

Lord Dudley,. 


David Ramseye, . . . 

1640 


1643 

Torricelli,. 

1663 

Thomas Newcomen, . . 

1681-6 

Otto von Guericke, . . 

1690 


1690 

William Rittenhouse, 

1690 

Denys Papin,. 

1695 


( 1696 


| 1736 

Stephen Gray, .... 

1702 

Thomas Savery, .... 

( 1708 

Dr. J. Wall. 

( 1716 


1709 

Fahrenheit, . 

( 1718 

John Cantor,. 

( 1772 


1725 

Benjamin Franklin, . . 

( 1727 

Martin de Planta, . . . 

l 1772 


1731 

William Ged,. 

1733-9 

Cisternay du Fay, . . . 

1733 

John Kay. 

1743 

Platt & Keen. 

1745 

Kleist,. 

1750 

Abraham Darby, . . . 

1752 

Benjamin Franklin, . . 

1763 

James Hargreaves, . . 

1767 


1769 

Richard Arkwright, . . 

1773 


1774 

Samuel Crompton, . . 

1775 

Jeremiah Wilkinson, . . 

1777 

Miller. 

1779 

Branchard & Magurier,. 

1782 

James Watt. 

1783 

J. E. & J. M. Montgolfier, 

1783-4 

Henry Cort,. 

1784 

James Small,. 

1785 

James Cartwright, . . 

1786 

John Fitch,. 

1787 

Oliver Evans, .... 

1788 

Andrew Meikle, .... 

1790 


1790 

Wm. Nicholson, . . . 

1791 

Samuel Bentham, . . . 

1792 

Wm. Murdoch, .... 

1793 

Eli Whitney,. 

1796 

Alois Senefelder, . . . 

1800 

Louis Robert, .... 

1800 

Volta,. 

1801 

Richard Trevithick, . . 

1801 

M. J. Brunei,. 

1801 

M. J.Jacquard. 

1801 

Richard Scott, .... 

1802 

William Symington, . . 

1802 

Wedgwood & Davy, . . 

1802 

J. Bramah,. 

1803 

William Horrocks, . . 

1803 

Wise,. 

1804 

Richard Trevithick, . . 

1804 

John Stevens, .... 

1804 

Lucas,. 

1805 

John Edwards. 

1805 

Luigi Brugnatelli, . . . 

1806 

Jeandeau, . 

1807 

Robert Fulton, .... 

1807 

A. J. Forsyth. 

1807 

F. A. Winsor, .... 

1808 

Newberry,. 

1808 

Sir Humphry Davy, . . 

1808 

John Stevens, .... 

1809 

Sommering,. 

1810 

Frederick Koenig, . . . 

1811 

Thornton & Hall, . . . 

1812 

J. B. Ritter,. 

1812 

Zamboni,. 

1814 

Frederick Koenig, . . . 


Nativity 


England 


Germany 

England 

England 

England 

Massachusetts 

Italy 

England 

Germany 

Pennsylvania 

France 

France 

England 

England 

England 

Danzig 

England 

United States 
France 

Scotland 

France 

England 

England 

Germany 

England 

United States 

England 

England 

England 


England 

United States 

England 

France 

Scotland 

F ranee 

England 

Scotland 

England 

United States 

United States 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

United States 

Germany 

France 

Italy 

England 

England 

France 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

England 

United States 

England 

England 

Italy 

France 

U nited States 

Scotland 

England 

England 

England 

United States 

Germany 

Germany 

United States 

Germany 

Italy 

Germany 



























































































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 669 

INVENTIONS SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY 

_ (CONTINUED) 


Inventions 


Date 


Inventor 


Nativity 


First locomotive in United States,. 

First circular wood saw made in this country, * ’ ’ " ’ ’ 

Heliography,.-. \ ’ ' 

Kaleidoscope. ’ ’ ' 

Miners’ safety lamp,. [ [ 

Dry gas meter,. 

Knitting machine,. 

“ Draisine ” bicycle,. 

“Columbian” press, elbowed pulling bar, number of im¬ 
pressions per hour, 50. 

Stethoscope,.’ 

Electro-magnetism discovered. 

Lathe for turning irregular wood forms,. 

The theory of electro-dynamics first propounded, .... 

Electroscope,. 

The conversion of the electric current into mechanical mo¬ 
tion, . 

Galvanometer,. 

Multi-color printing. 

Calculating machine,. 

Discovery of thermo-electrieity. 

Liquefaction and solidification of gas,. 

Water gas, discovery of. 

Portland cement,. 

Electro-magnet, .. 

First passenger railway, opened between Stockton and Dar¬ 
lington, England,... 

Electrical spur wheel,., . 

First railroad in United States, near Quincy, Mass., . . . 

The law of galvanic circuits formulated,. 

Friction matches,. 

The reduction of aluminum, . 

Law of electrical resistance,. 

Improved rotary printing-press, “London Times,” 5,000 

impressions per hour, . 

Hot air blast for iron furnaces. 

Wood planing machine, . 

Spool electro-magnet,. 

Tubular locomotive boiler,. 

Spinning ring frame,. 

The “Washington” printing-press, lever motion and 
knuckle joint for a screw, number of impressions per 

hour, 200,.... 

First steam locomotive in United States, “ Stourbridge Lion,” 

Double fluid galvanic battery,. 

First portable steam fire engine. 

Magneto-electric induction,. 

Chloroform. 

First conception of electric telegraph,. 

First magneto-electric machines, . 

Rotary electric motor,. 

Chloral-hydrate, .. 

Locomotive, “Old Ironsides,” built,. 

Link-motion for locomotives, .. 

Adoption of steam whistle for locomotives,. 

Reciprocating saw-tooth cutter within double guard fingers 

for reapers,. 

“McCormick” reaper. 

Rotary electric motor,. 

Carbolic acid discovered,. 

Horseshoe machine. 

Constant electric battery,. 

Acetylene gas discovered,.. 

The revolver; a device “for combining a number of long 
barrels so as to rotate upon a spindle by the act of cock¬ 
ing the hammer,”. 

The screw applied to steam navigation, . 

The galvanizing of iron,. 

Indicator-telegraph, .. 

Photographic carbon printing, . 

Babbitt metal,. 

Vulcanization of rubber,. 

The first boat electrically propelled. 

Daguerreotype,. •*•••• • • • .• • • 

(First to produce a direct photographic positive in the 
camera by means of highly polished silver surfaced 
plate exposed to the vapors of iodine and subsequent 
development with mercury vapor.) 

Making photo-prints from paper negatives, ....... 

(First production of positive proofs from negatives.) 
Photographic portraits (Daguerreotype process), .... 

First incandescent electric lamp, . 

Celestial photography. 

Artesian well,. 

Pneumatic caissons, .. 


1814 

George Stephenson, . . 

England 

1814 

Benjamin Cummings, . 

United States 

1814 

Jos. N. Niepce. 

France 

1814 

Sir David Brewster, . 

England 

1815 

Sir Humphry Davy, . . 

England 

1815 

S. Clegg, . 

England 

1816 

Brunei,. 

England 

1816 

Baron von Drais, . . . 

Germany 

1817 

George Clymer, .... 

United States 

1819 

Laennec,. 

France 

1819 

H. C. Oersted. 

Denmark 

1819 

Thomas Blanchard, . . 

United States 

1820 

Andre Ampere, .... 

France 

1820 

Bohenberg. 

Germany 

1821 

Michael Faraday, . . . 

England 

1822 

Schweigger. 

Germany 

1822 

P. Force, . 

U nited States 

1822 

Charles Babbage, . . . 

England 

1823 

Professor Seebeck, . . 

England 

1823 

Michael Faraday, . . . 

England 

1823 

Ibbetson,. 

England 

1825 

Joseph Aspdin, .... 

England 

1825 

Sturgeon,. 

England 

1825 

1826 

Barlow,. 

England 

1826 

1827 

George S. Ohm, .... 

Germany 

1827 

John Walker,. 

United States 

1827 

Friedrich Wohler, . . . 

Germany 

1827 

George S. Ohm, .... 

Germany 

1827 

Cowper & Applegarth, . 

England 

1828 

J. B. Neilson, ..... 

Scotland 

1828 

William Woodworth,. . 

United States 

1828 

Joseph Henry, .... 

United States 

1828 

Sdquin,. 

France 

1828 

John Thorp. 

England 

1829 

Samuel Rust,. 

United States 

1829 

1829 

A. C. Becquerel, . . . 

France 

1830 

Brathwaite & Ericsson, 

England 

1831 

Michael Faraday, . . . 

England 

1831 

G. J. Guthrie, .... 

Scotland 

1832 

Professor S. F. B. Morse, 

United States 

1832 

Saxton,. 

United States 

1832 

Wm. Sturgeon, .... 

England 

1832 

Justus von Liebig, . . 

Germany 

1832 

M. W. Baldwin, .... 

United States 

1832 

Sir Henry James, . . . 

England 

1833 

George Stephenson, . . 

England 

1833 

Obed Hussey, .... 

United States 

1834 

Cyrus H. McCormick, . 

United States 

1834 

M. H. Jacobi,. 

Russia 

1834 

Runge. 

Germany 

1835 

H, Burden,. 

United States 

1836 

J. P. Daniell,. 

England 

1836 

Edmund Davy, .... 

England 

1836 

Samuel Colt,. 

United States 

1836 

John Ericsson. 

United States 

1841 

1837 

Henry Craufurd, . . . 

England 

1837 

Cooke & Wheatstone, . 

England 

1838 

Mungo Ponton, .... 

France 

1839 

Isaac Babbitt. 

United States 

1839 

Charles Goodyear, . . . 

United States 

1839 

Jacobi, . 

Germany 

1839 

Louis Daguerre, . . . 

France 

1839 

Fox Talbot,. 

England 

1839 

Profs. Draper & Morse, 

United States 

1840 

Grove,. 

England 

1840 

Draper,. 

United States 

1840 

Paris 

1841 

M. Triger,. 

France 


























































































































670 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


INVENTIONS SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY 


(CONTINUED) 


Inventions 


Pianoforte e utomatically played,. 

Water gas, utilization of,. 

Steam hammer,. 

Typewriting machine. 

First telegram sent,. 

The use of nitrous oxide gas as an anaesthetic,. 

The electric arc light (gas retort carbon in a vacuum), . . 

First telegraphic message, Washington, Baltimore. 

Automatic adjustment of electric arc light carbons, . . . 

Double cylinder printing-press,. 

Pneumatic tire,. 

Sewing machine. 

Printing telegraph, . 

Suez canal started, . 

Ether as an anaesthetic,... 

Electric cautery, . 

Artificial limbs,. 

Gun cotton. 

First pianoforte keyboard player,. 

Chloroform in surgery. 

Nitro-glycerine,. 

Time-lock,. 

Hoe’s lightning press, capable of printing 20,000 impressions 

per hour,. 

Match-making machinery,... 

Breech gun-lock, interrupted thread. 

Magazine gun, . 

Steam pressure gauge,.. 

Lenticular stereoscope,. . . 

Latch needle for knitting machine,. 

“ Corliss ” engine,. 

Printing-press, curved plates secured to a rotating cylinder, 

Mercerized cotton,. 

Collodion process in photography, .. 

American machine-made watches,. 

Electric locomotive,. 

Self-raker for harvesters,. 

Breech-loading rifle,. 

Icemaking machine,. 

Ophthalmoscope,. 

The Ruhmkorff coil. 

Fire-alarm telegraph. 

Reticulated screen for half-tone photographic printing, . . 

Soda process of making pulp from wood,. 

Laws of magneto-electric induction,. 

Laws of electro-statics,. 

Electrolysis,. 

Duplex telegraph,. 

Photographic roll films, . 

Diamond rock drill,. 

Four-motion feed for sewing machines,.! 

Magazine firearm,. 

Fat decomposed by water or steam at high temperature, 

since largely used in soap making,. 

Safety matches,. 

Iron-clad floating batteries first used in Crimean War, . . 

Cocaine,. 

Process of making steel, blowing air through molten pig 

iron,. 

Dryplate photography,. ' 

Bicycle. . . . . 

Sleeping car,. 

Aniline dyes,. 

Printing machine for the blind (contains elements of the 

present typewriting machine),. 

Regenerative furnace,. 

Refining engine in paper pulp making, ........ . 

Coal-oil first sold in the United States,. 

First sea-going iron-clad war vessel, the “Glorie,” .... 

Ground wood pulp,. 

Inclined elevator and platform in the reaper,. 

Cable car,.. 

Breech-loading ordnance,. ] 

Feed injector for boilers. .!.!!!.! 

First Atlantic cable,. . 

“Great Eastern” launched, .............. 

Storage or secondary battery,. . 

Singing telephone,. . 

Ammonia absorption ice machine, . . . 

Improved stereotyping process, 

Shoe-sewing machine,. ’ ] ' 

Driven well, a tube with a pointed perforated end driven 

into the ground,. 

Passenger elevator,. . 

Barbed-wire fence introduced. . 

Calcium carbide produced,. . 


Date 

Inventor 

Nativity 

1842 

M. Seytre,. 

France 

1842 

Selligne,. 

France 

1842 

James Nasmyth, . . . 

Scotland 

1843 

Charles Thurber, . . . 

United States 

1844 

Professor S. F. B. Morse, 

United States 

1844 

Dr. Horace Wells, . . . 

United States 

1844 

Ldon Foucault, .... 

F ranee 

1844 

Professor S. F. B. Morse, 

U mted States 

1845 

Thomas Wright,.... 

England 

1845 

R. Hoe & Co., .... 

United States 

1845 

R. W. Thompson, . . . 

England 

1846 

Elias Howe,. 

United States 

1846 

House, . 

United States 

1846 

De Lesseps,. 

France 

1846 

Dr. Morton,. 

United States 

1846 

Crusell. 

Russia 

1846 



1846 

Schonbein,. 

Germany 

1846 

Debain,. 

France 

1847 

Dr. Simpson. 

Scotland 

1847 

Sobrero. 


1847 

Savage,. 

United States 

1847 

Richard M. Hoe, . . . 

United States 

1848 

A. L. Dennison, .... 

United States 

1849 

Chambers,. 

United States 

1849 

Walter Hunt,. 

U nited States 

1849 

Bourdon, . 

France 

1849 

Sir David Brewster, . . 

England 

1849 

J. T. Hibbert. 

United States 

1849 

G. H. Corliss. 

United States 

1849 

Jacob Worms, .... 

F ranee 

1850 

John Mercer,. 

England 

1850 

Scott Archer,. 

England 

1850 


United States 

1851 

Dr. Page,. 

United States 

1851 

W. H. Seymour, . . . 

United States 

1851 

Maynard,. 

United States 

1851 

J. Gorrie,. 

United States 

1851 

Helmholtz,. 

Germany 

1851 

Ruhmkorff. 

Germany 

1852 

Channing & Farmer, . . 

United States 

1852 

Fox Talbot,. 

England 

1853 

Watt & Burgess, . . . 

United States 

1853 

Michael Faraday, . . . 

England 

1853 

Michael Faraday, . . . 

England 

1853 

Michael Faraday, ... 

England 

1853 

Gintl,. 

Austria 

1854 

Melhuish. 

England 

1854 

Herman. 

U nited States 

1854 

A. B. Wilson,. 

U nited States 

1854 

Smith & Wesson, . . . 

United States 

1854 

R. A. Tilghman,.... 

United States 

1855 

Lundstrom,. 

Sweden 

1855 



1855 

Gaedeke,. 

Germany 

1855 

Sir Henry Bessemer, . . 

England 

1855 

Dr. J. M. Taupenot. 


1855 

Ernst Michaux, .... 

France 

1856 

Woodruff. 

United States 

1856 

Perkins. 

England 

1856 

Alfred E. Beach, . . . 

United States 

1856 

Wm. Siemens, .... 

England 

1856 

T. Kingsland, .... 

United States 

1857 

Messrs. Stout & Hand, . 

United States 

1857. 


France 

1858 

Henry Voelter, .... 

Germany 

1858 

J. S. Marsh,. 

United States 

1858 

E. A. Gardner. 

United States 

1858 

Wright & Gould, . . . 

United States 

1858 

Giffard, . 

F ranee 

1858 

Cyrus Field,. 

United States 

1859 



1860 

Gaston Plants, .... 

France 

1860 

Philip Reis,. 

Germany 

1860 

F. P. E. Carr6, .... 

France 

1861 

Charles Craske, . 

United States 

1861 

George McKay, .... 

U nited States 

1861 

Col. N. W. Green, . 

United States 

1861 

E. G. Otis,. 

United States 

1861 


United States 

1862 

Frederich Woehler, . . 

Germany 





































































































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


671 


INVENTIONS SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY 

(CONTINUED) 


Inventions 


Date 


Inventor 


Nativity 


Revolving turret for floating battery,. 

First iron-clad steam battery, “ Monitor,”. 

Gatling gun, .. 

Smokeless gunpowder,. 

Pneumatic pianoforte player (regarded as first to strike 

keys by pneumatic pockets),. 

Explosive gelatine, . 

Rubber dental plate,. 

Automatic grain-binding device. 

Process of making fine steel,. 

Antiseptic surgery, . 

Web-feeding printing-press. 

Automatic shell ejector for revolver. 

Open-hearth steel process,. 

Compressed air rock drill, 

Torpedo,. 

Dynamo electric machine,. 

Sulphite process for making paper pulp from wood, . . . 

Dynamo electric machine,. 

Disappearing gun carriage,. 

First practical typewriting machine,. 

Dynamite,.. 

Oleomargarine,.. . 

Water heater for steam fire engine. 

Sulky plow,. 

Railway air-brake. 

Tunnel shield (operated by hydraulic power),. 

A curved spring tooth harrow,. 

Dynamo-electric machine,. 

Celluloid,. 

Rebounding gun-lock,. 

The Goodyear welt shoe-sewing machine,. 

Photographic gelatino-bromide emulsion (basis of present 

rapid photography),. 

Continuous web printing-press. 

Grain binder,. 

Compressed air rock drill, . 

Positive motion weaving loom,. 

Theory that light is an electric phenomenon. 

Automatic air brake,. 

Automatic car coupler,. 

The photographic platinotype process,. 

(Prints by this process are permanent.) 

Quadruplex telegraph,. 

Twine binder for harvesters. 

Gelatino-bromide photographic emulsion (sensitiveness to 
light greatly increased by the application of heat), . I . 

Self-binding reaper,. 

Barbed-wire machine,. 

Siphon recorder for submarine telegraphs,. 

Store cash carrier. 

Illuminating water gas. 

Roller flour mills. 

Middlings purifier for flour,.. 

Ice-making machine. 

Speaking telephone,. 

Electric candle,.. 

(The first step towards the division of the electric current 
for lighting.) 

Continuous machine for making tobacco cigarettes. 

Steam feed saw mills,.. 

The first Portland cement plant in United States, .... 

Phonograph,. -- . 

Gas engine. 

Carbon microphone,.. 

Telephone transmitter of variable resistance. 

Carbon filament for electric lamp,.. 

(Beginning of the incandescent vacuum electric light.) 

Rotary disk cultivator,.. 

Decided advance in the “ expression ” of self-playing piano¬ 
fortes, . .. 

Automatic grain binder,. 

Cathode rays discovered. 

Electric railway, . 

Steam plow. 

Magazine rifle, . 

“Blake” telephone transmitter,. 

Hammerless gun.. 

Storage battery or accumulator. 

Typhoid bacillus isolated, . 

Pneumonia bacillus isolated. 

Button-hole machine,.: • . 

Improvement in “expression” of self-playing pianofortes, . 

Hand photographic camera for plates,. 

Tuberculosis bacillus isolated,. 

Hydrophobia bacillus isolated. 


1862 

Theodore Timby, . . . 

United States 

1862 

John Ericsson, .... 

Sweden 

1862 

Dr. R. J. Gatling, . . . 

United States 

1863 

J. F. E. Schultze, . . . 

Prussia 

1863 

M. Fourneaux, .... 

France 

1864 

A. Nobel,. 

Sweden 

1864 

J. A. Cummings,. . . . 

United States 

1864 

Jacob Behel,. 

United States 

1865 

Martin,. 

United States 

1865 

Sir Joseph Lister, . . . 

England 

1865 

William Bullock, . . . 

United States 

1865 

W. C. Dodge,. 

United States 

1866 

Siemens-Martin, . . . 

England 

1866 

C. Burleigh,. 

United States 

1866 

Whitehead, . 

United States 

1866 

Wilde, . 

England 

1867 

Tilghman, 

United States 

1866 

Siemens,. 

Germany 

1868 

Moncrief, . 

England 

1868 

C. L. Sholes. 

United States 

1868 

A. Nobel,. 

France 

1868 

H. Mege,. 

France 

1868 

W. A. Brickell, .... 

United States 

1868 

B. Slusser,. 

United States 

1868 

George Westinghouse, . 

United States 

1869 

Alfred E. Beach, . . . 

United States 

1869 

David L. Garver, . . . 

United States 

1870 

Gramme, .. 

France 

1870 

J. W. & Isaac Hvatt,. . 

United States 

1870 

L. Hailer,. 

United States 

1871 

Goodyear,. 

United States 

1871 

R. L. Maddox, .... 

England 

1871 

Hoe & Tucker. 

United States 

1871 

S. D. Locke.. 

United States 

1871 

S. Ingersoll. 

United States 

1872 

J. Lyall,. 

United States 

1872 

Clerk Maxwell, , 

England 

1872 

George Westinghouse, . 

United States 

1873 

E. H. Janney, .... 

United States 

1873 

Willis,. 

England 

1873 

T. A. Edison, ..... 

United States 

1873 

M. L. Gorham, .... 

United States 

1873 

Charles Bennett, . . . 

England 

1873 

Locke & Wood, .... 

United States 

1874 

Glidden & Vaughan, . . 

United States 

1874 

Sir William Thompson,. 

England 

1875 

D. Brown. 

United States 

1875 

T. S. C. Lowe. 

United States 

1875 

F. Wegmann. 

United States 

1875 

Geo. T. Smith, .... 

United States 

1875 

R. P. Pictet,. 

Switzerland 

1876 

Alex. G. Bell,. 

United States 

1876 

Paul Jablochkoff, . . . 

Russia 

1876 

Russell,. 

United States 

1876 

D. C. Prescott, .... 

U nited States 

1876 


Coplay, Pa. 

1877 

T. A. Edison,. 

United States 

1877 

N. A. Otto. 

United States 

1877 

T. A. Edison,. 

United States 

1877 

Emil Berliner, .... 

United States 

1878 

T. A. Edison,. 

United States 

1878 

Mallon,. 

United States 

1878 

Gaily. 

United States 

1879 

J. F. Appleby, .... 

United States 

1879 

Sir Wm. Crookes, . . . 

England 

1879 

Siemens,. 

Germany 

1879 

W. Foy. 

United States 

1879 

Lee,. 

United States 

1880 

Blake,. 

United States 

1880 

Greener,. 

United States 

1880 

Camille A. Faure, . . . 

France 

1880 

Eberth & Koch, . . . 

Germany 

1880 

Sternberg,. 

United States 

1881 

Reece,. 

United States 

1882 

Schmaele,. 

United States 

1881 

Wm. Schmid,. 

United States 

1882 

Robert Koch, .... 

Germany 

1882 

Louis Pasteur, .... 

France 




















































































































672 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


INVENTIONS SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY 


(CONTINUED) 


Inventions 


Public electric cars for city streets, at Cleveland, O., . . . 

Cholera bacillus isolated,. 

Diphtheria bacillus isolated, . 

Lockjaw bacillus isolated, . 

Antipyrene. 

Linotype machine,. 

The rear-driven chain safety bicycle,. 

Chrome tanning of leather,. 

Process of reducing aluminum. 

Gas burner,. 

Hydraulic dredge,. 

Contact device for overhead electric trolley. 

Graphophone,. 

Electric welding,. 

Combined harvester and thresher. 

Band wood saw. 

Cyanide process of obtaining gold and silver,. 

System of polyphase electric currents,. 

Incandescent gas light, . . . .. 

First standard electric railway in U. S. at Richmond, Va., 

Process of annealing armor plate,. 

“Kodak” snap-shot film camera,. 

Process of making artificial silk, .. 

Hertzian w r aves or electric-wave radiation,. 

First rotary cement kilns in United States. 

Nickel steel, . 

Process for making aluminum,.. 

Electric plow,. 

Improved linotype machine,. .. 

Bicycles equipped with pneumatic tires. 

Krag-Jorgensen magazine rifle,. 

“Coherer” for receiving electric waves,. 

Rotary steam turbine,. 

Cement-lined paper-pulp digester. 

Round bale cotton press. 

Microphone. 

Power loom,. 

Commercial application of formic-aldehyde,. 

Shoe-last lathe, for different lengths,. 

Kinetoscope, .. 

Process for making carborundum,. 

Calcium carbide produced in electric furnace. 

Process for liquefying air, . 

Electric locomotive, B. & O. Bell Tunnel,. 

X-rays, . 

Acetylene gas from calcium carbide,. 

System of wireless telegraphy, .. 

Foundation laid of science of radio-activity, i. e., emana¬ 
tion of penetrating rays from luminescent bodies, . . . 

Use of ultra-violet rays in treating diseases,. 

Wireless control of submarine torpedoes,. 

Nernst electric light,. 

Mercury vapor electric light,. 

Air-ship. 

Automobile mower,. 

The first passenger steam turbine ship, “Edward VII.,” 
The first oil-burning steamship built inU. S., “Nevada,” . . 

Wireless transmission of electrical power,. 

Cable relay electrical transmitting and receiving apparatus, 

Flying machine,.. 

Color photography,. 

Wireless telephony,. 

Automatic phototelegraph,. 

Thermit mixtures for melting and welding metals, .... 

Silencer for firearms. 

Hydro-aeroplane; the flying boat,. 

Pulmoter for reviving victims of asphyxiation,. 

Waterproof cement and concrete,. 

Improved ocean cable ; believed to be the basis of subma¬ 
rine telephony,. 

Tungsten incandescent electric light,. 

Cerebrospinal meningitis antitoxin,. 

Kinetophone; the talking moving-picture machine, . . . 


Date 

Inventor 

Nativity 

1884 

Bentley & Knight,. . . 

United States 

1884 

Robert Koch, .... 

Germany 

1884 

Loeffler. 

Germany 

1884 

Nicolaier,. 

France 

1884 

Kuno,. 

United States 

1884 

Ottmar Mergenthaler, 

Germany 

1884 

George W. Marble,. . . 

United States 

1884 

Schultz,. 

United States 

1885 

Cowles,. 

England 

1885 

Carl A. von Welsbach, . 

Austria 

1885 

Bowers,. 

United States 

1885 

C. J. Van Depoele, . . 

United States 

1886 

Bell & Tainter. 

United States 

1886 

Elihu Thompson, . . . 

United States 

1886 

Matteson,. 

United States 

1887 

D. C. Prescott, .... 

United States 

1887 

McArthur & Forrest, 

United States 

1887 

Nikola Tesla,. 

Austria 

1887 

Carl A. von Welsbach, . 

Austria 

1888 

Frank J. Sprague, . . . 

United States 

1888 

Harvey,. 

United States 

1888 

Eastman & Walker, . . 

United States 

1888 

H. DeChardonnet, . . . 

France 

1888 

Heinrich Hertz. 

Germanv 

1889 

Coplay, Pa. 

1889 

Schneider,. 

United States 

1889 

Chas. M. Hall,. 

United States 

1890 

W. Stephens,. 

United States 

1890 

1890 

1890 

Ottmar Mergenthaler, . 

Germany 

Krag-Jorgensen, . . . 

United States 

1891 

Edouard Branly, . . . 

England 

1891 

C. A. Parsons, 

England 

1891 

G. F. Russell. 

United States 

1891 

Brown,. 

United States 

1891 

Emile Berliner, . 

United States 

1891 

Northrup,. 

United States 

1892 

J. J. A. Trillat. 

France 

1893 

Kimball. 

United States 

1893 

T. A. Edison,. 

United States 

1893 

E. G. Acheson, .... 

United States 

1893 

Thomas L. Willson, . . 

United States 

1895 

Carl Linde,. 

Germany 

1895 


United States 

1895 

Prof. W. C. Roentgen, . 

Germany 

1895 

Thomas L. Willson, . . 

United States 

1896 

G. Marconi,. 

Italy 

1896 

Henri Becquerel, 

France 

1896 

Niels R. Finsen, . . . 

Denmark 

1897 

Ernst Wilson, 

England 

1897 

Walter Nernst, . 

Germany 

1900 

Peter Cooper Hewitt, . 

United States 

1901 

M. Santos-Dumont, . . 

France 

1901 

Deering Harvester Co., . 

United States 

1901 

1902 

Denny & Brothers, . . 

England 

1905 

Nikola Tesla,. 

Austria 

1905 

Alexander Muirhead, 

England 

1906 

Orville & Wilbur Wright, 

United States 

1906 

Louis & L. Lumidre, . . 

France 

1906 

Archie F. Collins, . . . 

United States 

1908 

A. Korn,. 

Germany 

1908 

H. Goldschmidt, . . 

Germany 

1909 

Hiram P. Maxim, . . . 

United States 

1911 

Glenn H. Curtiss, . 

United States 

1911 

Alexander B. Drager, . 

Germany 

1911 

Logan W. Page. 

United States 

1911 

Johannes II. Cuntz, . . 


1911 

A. Just & F. Hanaman, 

Austria 

1912 

Dr. Simon Flexner, 

United States 

1912 

T. A. Edison. 

United States 


Iron. A metallic element very widely dif¬ 
fused in nature, and occurring in great abun¬ 
dance in many parts of the world. Its symbol is 
Fe, from the Latin word ferrum; atomic weight, 
55.84. In the perfectly pure state, iron is 
almost unknown. In the arts, it is met with in 
the forms of malleable iron, steel and cast iron, 
the first being iron as free from impurities as it 


is possible to get it, and the other two being iron 
containing carbon in proportions varying from 
0.65 to upwards of 5.0 per cent. Goodmalleable 
iron, known also as wrought iron, is of a grayish 
color. Its melting-point approaches that of 
platinum, although at temperature far below 
this it assumes a soft, pasty condition, and is 
capable of being welded together into one mass 











































































































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


673 


This property of iron is of the greatest value in 
manufacturing operations. Its hardness and 
toughness are scarcely altered by heating to red¬ 
ness and cooling suddenly, forming in this re¬ 
spect a striking contrast to steel and cast iron. 
It is very malleable and ductile, and at a red 
heat may be hammered and rolled into any 
desired form. By these operations, it acquires 
a fibrous texture, and increases greatly in tenac¬ 
ity. The presence of foreign substances modifies 
the working properties of wrought iron; thus, 
sulphur in quantities of upwards of 0.01 per 
cent, renders it what is technically called red 
short — that is, brittle and non-tenacious at a 
red heat. Phosphorus, if present in quantities 
of more than 0.5 per cent., renders the iron brittle 
at the ordinary temperature, or, as it is tech¬ 
nically called, cold short. In dry air malleable 
iron is unchanged, but air and moisture quickly 
oxidize it, forming a red rust, which in time 
would eat through the whole mass. When 
heated to whiteness in a current of air, malleable 
iron burns with vivid scintillations, producing 
magnetic oxide, and at a red heat decomposes 
aqueous vapor, forming magnetic oxide and 
evolving hydrogen. Cast iron, or pig iron, is 
iron containing the highest amount of carbon. 
There are two kinds, viz: gray cast iron, which 
is granular in texture and of a gray color; and 
white cast iron, which is much whiter, has a 
crystalline and somewhat conchoidal fracture, 
and is very hard and brittle. The chief differ¬ 
ence between these two kinds of cast iron appears 
to be due to the state in which the carbon is 
contained in them. The carbon may be re¬ 
moved from cast iron by heating it to the weld¬ 
ing point and stirring it about in the air or with 
oxide of iron ( Puddling process), or by blowing 
air through it in the melted state ( Bessemer pro¬ 
cess). In the latter operation the heat produced 
by the combustion of the carbon is sufficient to 
raise the temperature to such a degree that, 
when at last the carbon is all burnt off, the result¬ 
ing malleable iron is still in the liquid state. 
If these operations are stopped before all the 
carbon is burnt off, steel of various qualities is 
produced. Cast iron is the form in which the 


metal is almost invariably prepared from its ore, 
by processes whose description would occupy too 
much space, the reader being therefore referred 
to works on metallurgy for further details. The 
most important iron ores are magnetite, or mag¬ 
netic iron ore, which has a black metallic luster, 
sometimes forms mountainous masses, and con¬ 
tains 72.41 per cent, of iron; haematite red iron 
ore, or oligistic iron, which is ferric oxide, occurs 
either crystalline or massive, and contains 70 per 
cent, of iron; specular iron ore, or elba iron ore, 
which is also a ferric oxide, and is iron gray and 
crystalline; brown iron ore, which is a hydrated 
sesquioxide of iron, contains when pure 59.89 per 
cent, of iron, and is of a compact earthy appear¬ 
ance; spathic iron ore, or sparry iron ore, a 
native protocarbonate of iron, crystallizing in 
masses of a light yellowish color, and containing 
48.27 per cent, of iron; clay iron ore, which 
consists of haematite or spathic iron ore with clay. 

In 1910, the production of pig iron and steel 
in the principal producing countries of the world 
was as follows: 


Countries 

Pig Iron, 
Tons 

Steel, 

Tons 

Austria-Hungary, ..... 

2,010,000 

2,154,832 

Belgium,. 

Canada, . 

1,S03,500 

752,053 

4,032,459 

1,449,500 

France.. 

3,506,497 

Germany,. 

14,793,325 

13,698,638 

Italy,. 

215,1)00 

635,000 

Russia,. 

2,740,000 

2,350,000 

Spain,. 

367,000 

219,500 

Sweden,. 

604,300 

468,600 

United Kingdom,. 

10,380,212 

6,106,856 

United States,. 

27,636,687 

26,512,437 

All other countries, .... 

525,000 

315,000 


In the United States, Pennsylvania is still far 
in advance as a producer of pig iron. Ohio, 
Illinois, and Alabama follow in the order named. 
Pennsylvania produces one-half of the Bessemer 
pig iron, nearly three-fourths of the low phos- 
horus, nearly three-fourths of the basic, and 
igh percentages of the other grades, as well as 
fully 50 per cent of the cast steel and rolled iron 
and steel products of the country. Ohio ranks 
second, Illinois third, and New York fourth in 
mill products. 


MERCHANT MARINE OF THE WORLD 

From the latest Lloyd Register. 


Flag 

Steamships 

Sailing Ships 

Steamships and 
Sailing Vessels 

No. of 
Steamers 

Tonnage 

Gross 

No. of 
Ships 

Tonnage 

Net 

No. of 
Ships 

Tonnage 

f United Kingdom,. 

British | Colonies . 

[ Total. 

f Sea,. 

American Northern Lakes, . . 

<! Philippine Islands, . 

United States 

[ Total,. 

Argentine,. 

Austro-Hungarian. 

Belgian,. 

Brazilian,. 

Chilean,. 

Chinese,. 

8,292 

1,219 

15,930,368 

1,070,771 

1,225 

781 

1,069,300 

250,229 

9,517 

2,000 

16,999,668 

1,321,000 

9,511 

17,001,139 

2,006 

1,319,529 

11,517 

18,320,668R 

1,029 

465 

83 

1,503,059 

1,618,718 

39,118 

1,905 

47 

29 

1,225,652 

119,045 

6,336 

2,934 

512 

112 

2,728,711 

1,737,763 

45,454 

1,577 

169 

312 

131 

283 

87 

50 

51 

3,160,895 

105,916 

677,221 

191,597 

191,088 

107,727 

67,634 

60,645 

1,981 

74 

14 

2 

78 

63 

' ' 9 

1,351,033 

27,155 

11,398 

1,118 

19,597 

48,589 

3,558 

243 

326 

133 

361 

150 

50 

60 

4,511,928 

133,071 

688,619 

192,715 

210,685 

156,316 

67,634 

62,270 

Cuban,. 

1,625 





















































674 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


MERCHANT MARINE OF THE WORLD — Continued 


Flag 

Steamships 

Sailing-ships 

Steamships and 
Sailing Vessels 

No. of 
Steamers 

Tonnage 

Gross 

No. of 
Ships 

Tonnage 

Net 

No. of 
Ships 

Tonnage 

Danish,. 

501 

650,955 

358 

77,635 

859 

728,590 

Dutch,. 

455 

776,855 

92 

36,772 

547 

813,627 

French. 

809 

1,284,308 

674 

477,415 

1,483 

1,761,783 

German. 

1,713 

3,705,700 

381 

404,862 

2,094 

4,110,562 

Greek,. 

255 

421,743 

156 

44,789 

411 

466,532 

Haytian 

6 

3,956 

.. 


6 

3,956 

Honduras,. 

6 

13,256 


148 

7 

13,404 

Italian,. 

397 

823,325 

710 

396,084 

1,107 

1,219,409 

Japanese. 

829 

1,068,747 

6 

3,129 

835 

1,071,876 

Mexican,. 

44 

27,025 

18 

4,021 

62 

31,046 

Montenegrin,. 



25 

6,299 

25 

6,299 

Norwegian,. 

1,181 

1,264,002 

980 

654,529 

2,161 

1,918,531 

Peruvian,. 

12 

10,723 

38 

15,519 

50 

26,242 

Portuguese,. 

65 

62,675 

133 

38,363 

198 

101,038 

Rumanian,. 

23 

28,949 

2 

419 

25 

29,368 

Russian. 

687 

720,198 

672 

217,713 

1,359 

937,911 

Sarawak,. 

5 

3,717 



5 

3,717 

Siamese. 

6 

3,045 



6 

3,045 

Spanish. 

468 

673,301 

110 

35,448 

578 

708,749 

Swedish,. 

889 

686,517 

649 

191,031 

1,538 

877,548 

Turkish,. 

132 

106,929 

170 

58,092 

302 

165,021 

Uruguayan, . .. 

33 

38,146 

28 

19,301 

61 

57,447 

Venezuelan. 

10 

4,091 

9 

1,282 

19 

5,373 

Other countries. 

49 

27,726 

18 

6,211 

67 

33,937 

Total,. 

20,746 

33,969,811 

9,457 

5,469,106 

30,203 

39,438,917 


Radium. A newly discovered element of 
intense activity, casting off minute corpuscles at 
a velocity of 130,000 miles per second, and with¬ 
out appreciably diminishing in substance. Rad¬ 
ium is exceedingly rare and costly, enormous 
quantities of pitchblende yielding only a minute 
amount of the element. M. and Madame Curie, 
the discoverers of radium, are authority for the 
statement that a pound of radium, if it could be 
had, would have a value of nearly a million dol¬ 
lars, and that the thirtieth part of a grain costs 
five dollars. Many scientists affirm that radium 
can give light without heat or combustion. Sir 
William Ramsay has demonstrated that the 
emanations of radium, under certain conditions, 
have the power to transmute certain substances. 
The same claim was made by Prof. McCoy of 
the University of Chicago, early in 1908. 

Railroad. A road constructed of tracks 
of iron, called rails, on which roll the wheels of 
carriages drawn either by horses or by steam- 
engines, and to which they are confined by 
ledges or flanges raised on the tires of the wheels. 
Nearly two centuries before the introduction of 
the locomotive, wooden rails were used at the 
collieries, in the north of England; their upper 
surfaces being, at a later period, covered with a 
plate or bar of iron, to render them more dur¬ 
able; and about the year 1776, flanges being 
added to them to keep the wagons from running 
off. The imperfections of plate, or as they were 
also called tram rails, led, about the year 1801, 
to the adoption of edge rails, or those at present 
exclusively used; and, soon after, cast iron was 
supplanted by wrought iron, in their manufac¬ 
ture. The use of locomotives, instead of ani¬ 
mals, was suggested in 1794; but no locomotive 
seems to have been constructed until 1805. At 
first cogged wheels, and various kinds of pro¬ 
pellers, were employed with locomotives, from 
an erroneous supposition that there would not 
be sufficient friction between the driving-wheels 


and rails to prevent the former from turning 
round, without the production of progressive 
motions; but in 1814, plain wheels were tried 
and found perfectly efficient. The locomotive 
did not come into practical use until the opening 
of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway in 
1830; although the first railway Act received 
the sanction of the British legislature in 1801, 
by the incorporation of the Surrey Iron Rail¬ 
way Company. This was indeed a compara¬ 
tively trifling enterprise, for it extended only 
from Wandsworth to Croydon, and was merely 
applicable for the carriage of coals, lime, etc., 
the moving-power being derived from horses 
alone. In the United States a horse-railroad 
was completed in 1827, from the granite quar¬ 
ries of Quincy, Mass., a distance of three miles, 
to the Neponset River. A second road was laid 
out in January, 1827, from the coal-mines of 
Mauch Chunk, Penn., to the Lehigh River, a 
distance of nine miles, and with various ramifi¬ 
cations the whole length exceeded thirteen miles. 
The Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, in 
1828, constructed a railroad from their coal¬ 
mines to Honesdale, the terminus of their canal, 
and sent a commissioner to England for the pur¬ 
chase of rail, iron, and locomotives. In the 
spring of 1829, these locomotives arrived in this 
country. Of the succeeding great railway enter¬ 
prises, one of the principal was the Baltimore & 
Ohio line, commenced in 1828, and originally 
planned for horse-cars only, but, influenced by 
the success of steam locomotives in England, 
their employment was adopted on this road in¬ 
stead of horse-power. In August, 1830, the 
Hudson & Mohawk Railroad, from Albany to 
Schenectady, was commenced. Several similar 
enterprises were undertaken in the Pennsylvania 
coal region in 1830, and in the legislative session 
of 1830-31 no fewer than twelve railroad com¬ 
panies were incorporated. In 1831 the Balti- 
I more & Susquehanna Railroad commenced 



















































INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


675 


operations. Such were the beginnings of these 
vast undertakings which now permeate all por¬ 
tions of the United States. The following table, 
from “ Poor’s Manual,” shows the mileage, assets, 
liabilities, earnings, expenditures, and traffic 
of all surface steam railroads in the United 
States: 

MILEAGE 


Mileage of Railroads,. 239,991.28 

Second Tracks and Sidings,. 109,878.99 


Total Track,. 349,870.27 

Locomotives. 63,030 

Cars, Passenger. 37,985 

Cars, Baggage, Mail, etc.,. 13,173 

Cars, Freight,. 2,297,620 


Total Revenue Cars,. 2,348,778 


LIABILITIES 

Capital Stock,.$ 8,380,819,190 

Bonded Debt. 10,510,031,103 

Unfunded Debt,. 455,934,150 

Current Accounts,. 1,090,840,210 

Sinking and Other Funds,. 223,413,410 


Total Liabilities,.$20,661,038,063 


ASSETS 

Cost of Railroad and Equipment, . . . $15,586,829,836 

Other Investments,. 4,224,421,366 

Sundry Assets,. 681,496,773 

Current Accounts,. 1,203,990,029 


Total Assets,.$21,696,738,104 


Excess of Assets over Liabilities, . . $1,035,699,941 

Miles of Railroad Operated. 242,860.85 

Passengers Carried,. 998,735,432 

Passenger Mileage,. 32,388,870,444 

Tons of Freight Moved,. 1,826,217,468 

Freight Mileage,. 257,107,088,129 

TRAFFIC EARNINGS 

Passengers,. $640,949,990 

Freight,. 1,940,335,111 

Miscellaneous,. 223,295,838 


Total Traffic Revenue,.$2,804,580,939 

Net Earnings,. $919,060,312 

Receipts from Other Sources, .... 200,899,127 


Total Available Revenue,. $1,119,959,439 


PAYMENTS 

Interest on Bonds,. $332,144,147 

Other Interest,. 24,634,000 

Dividends on Stock. 275,289,173 

Miscellaneous,. 106,342,424 

Rentals — Interest, . 32,088,348 

Dividends,. 30,110,624 

Miscellaneous,. 39,778,489 

Taxes. 107,862,419 


Total Payments,. $948,249,624 


Surplus,. $171,709,815 


The capital invested in the railways of the world 
is approximately: Europe, $24,534,511,078; United 
States, $18,417,132,238; other parts of the world, 
$8,662,980,124 


Telegraph. The term is now usually re¬ 
stricted to the electric telegraph, which stands 
at the head of all mediums for rapid and elabo¬ 
rate communications. As a system, the electric 
telegraph involves the following apparatus: (1) 
a battery or other source of electric power; 


(2) a line-wire or conductor for conveying the 
electric current from one station to another; (3) 
the apparatus for transmitting, interrupting, 
and, if necessary, reversing the current at pleas¬ 
ure; and (4) the indicator or signaling instru¬ 
ment. The line-wires for overhead lines are 
usually of iron, protected from atmospheric in¬ 
fluence by galvanizing or by being varnished 
with boiled linseed-oil, a coating of tar, or other 
means, and are supported upon posts, to which 
they are attached by insulators. In under¬ 
ground lines the wires are insulated by a gutta¬ 
percha or other non-conducting covering, and 
inclosed in iron or lead pipes. The battery and 
line-wire are common to all telegraphic systems; 
it is in the method of producing the signals that 
the great variation exists; but in all of them 
advantage has been taken of one or other of 
the three following properties of the current: 
(1) its power of producing the deflection of a 
magnetic needle, as in the galvanometer (which 
see); (2) its power of temporarily magnetizing 
soft iron; and (3) its power of producing chemi¬ 
cal decomposition. 

The electro-magnetic instrument of Professor 
Morse, which, however, in its perfected form 
owed much to the genius of Morse’s associates, 
Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail, is an application 
of the second of the above properties. By means 
of an electro-magnet, an armature, which is at¬ 
tracted when the magnet is temporarily mag¬ 
netized, a lever moved by the armature, and a 
style which moves with the lever, this instru¬ 
ment impresses a message in dots and dashes on 
a ribbon of moving paper, and by it forty words 
may be sent in a minute. This “ dot and dash ” 
system which was invented by Morse, is now in 
extensive use. A modification of this instru¬ 
ment, called a sounder, in which the lever makes 
audible sounds by coming in contact with a brass 
rod, indicates the message by the length of the 
strokes produced. Frequently the Morse is 
simultaneously a recorder and sounder. It 
being necessary that this instrument should 
produce sharp and distinct impressions, and the 
current being weak for stages over fifty miles, 
a relay, or subsidiary electro-magnetic circuit, 
is added to it in the case of longer distances. 
The transmitting instrument is a lever, which, 
on being pressed, permits the current from the 
battery to flow into the line-wire during the 
time the contact is made. Both on account of 
its intrinsic merits and for the sake of uniformity 
the Morse is the most extensively used system, 
being that in use in America and on the conti¬ 
nent of Europe, and being also largely employed 
in Britain. Wheatstone’s “ universal telegraph ” 
is also one in extensive use. The currents em¬ 
ployed are magneto-electric, and are alternately 
positive and negative. They produce successive 
reversals of polarity in the delicate mirror or 
reflecting galvanometer, which Sir W. Thomson 
invented in connection with the Atlantic tele¬ 
graph. That distinguished electrician has in¬ 
vented a self-recording instrument, consisting of 
a light coil of wire, very delicately suspended in 
a magnetic field, the motions of which coil, when 
a current is passed through it, are the means by 
which messages are recorded. The coil is at¬ 
tached to a very light glass siphon in the shape 


















































676 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of an exceedingly fine capillary tube, through 
which ink from a reservoir is drawn by electric 
attraction, the reservoir and the moving paper 
ribbon upon which the ink falls being oppositely 
electrified. The extremity of the siphon is not 
in contact with, but only very near, the paper. 
When there is no current the ink traces a straight 
line; when the current is passing the marks or 
deviations constituting the letters are produced. 
The delicacy and rapidity of this instrument are 
even greater than those of the mirror galvanom¬ 
eter, and the siphon recorder accordingly is 
highly valued. About the year 1837 electric 
telegraphs were first established as commercial 
speculations in three different countries. Stein- 
heirs system was carried out at Munich, Morse’s 
in America, and Wheatstone and Cooke’s in Eng¬ 
land. The first telegraphs ever constructed for 
commercial use were laid down by Wheatstone 
and Cooke on the London and Birmingham and 
Great Western Railways. The wires, which were 
buried in the earth, were five in number, each 
acting on a separate needle, but the expensive¬ 
ness of this plan soon led to its being given up. 
The single-needle and double-needle telegraphs 
of the same inventors have been more exten¬ 
sively used. Among recent improvements in 
electric telegraphy the most important are those 
by which a wire can be used for more than one 
message at a time. In 1872, a workable method 
of sending simultaneously two messages in op¬ 
posite directions on the same line was intro¬ 
duced, and it was also discovered that two mes¬ 
sages could be sent in the same direction (duplex 
telegraphy). The two plans being combined 
formed quadruplex telegraphy, by which the 
message-carrying powers of the wires have been 
greatly multiplied. 

Wireless Telegraphy has made use of three dif¬ 
ferent methods, which may be classed as con¬ 
duction, induction, and wave methods. In the 
first method currents are sent through the earth 
from an electrode to another at the sending 
station. By induction, use is made of the prop¬ 
erty which alternating currents possess of ex¬ 
citing similar currents in neighboring conductors, 
the aim being to get as intense current as possible 
in the secondary circuit. Mr. W. H. Preece, 
England, by combining the two has signaled 
forty miles thus. The third method is by elec¬ 
tro-magnetic waves which are detected by a 
coherer — a glass tube filled with metallic filings, 
into the end of which the terminals of a relay 
circuit enter, sent thereto by a transmitter. 
The wave falls on other conductors, and, the 
spark gap being replaced by a coherer, the relay 
circuit is closed and a signal is made. Signor 
Marconi, an English naturalized Italian, intro¬ 
duced the latter method, by which he has sig¬ 
naled across the Atlantic. To Marconi is gen¬ 
erally ascribed the honor of inventing wireless 
telegraphy, or the sending of telegraphic mes¬ 
sages without the use of other medium than the 
atmosphere. The salvage of the steamship 
Republic, after her collision with the Florida 
early in 1909, and the rescue of the survivors 
of the Titanic in 1912, by drawing attention to 
the possibilities of wireless communication gave 
great impetus to its development. Practically 
all trans-Atlantic passenger steamships, most 


naval vessels, and many others, are now fitted 
out with wireless telegraph apparatus, the use of 
which at sea is rapidly becoming universal. 
Wireless is also a formidable rival of the ocean 
cable. The United States, the maritime prov¬ 
inces of Canada, the British Isles and conti¬ 
nental Europe are already thickly dotted with 
wireless stations, and aerial communication is 
being rapidly extended to all parts of the world. 
Service between the Eiffel Tower at Paris and 
American stations has been on a commercial 
basis since 1911, and communication from Italy 
to Nova Scotia, and from Ireland to South Amer¬ 
ica has been reported. Early in 1913 the first 
wireless message was transmitted from the 
Sayville (L. I.) station near New York to the 
Nauen station near Berlin, Germany, where a 
tower 917 feet high and having an effective 
radius of 6,000 miles has been erected. The 
Norwegian government has contracted with the 
Marconi company for a similar high power 
station in Norway for commercial service between 
New York and northern Europe. The British 
government has established an imperial aerial 
service with principal stations at London, Egypt, 
Aden, Bangalore, Singapore and Pretoria. The 
United States has projected_ a world girdling 
system of aerial communication with principal 
stations at Arlington, Va.; the Canal Zone; San 
Francisco; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; Tutuila 
Islands, Samoa; Guam; and the Philippine 
Island of Luzon: each station is to have a sending 
radius of three thousand miles. The Marconi 
commercial system already encircles the globe 
and maintains a profitable business in news matter 
and commercial messages. It is evident that we 
are entering the age of wireless communication. 

Telephone, an instrument used for the 
reproduction of sounds at a distance by means 
of electricity. To Charles G. Page, in 1837, is 
due the generic idea from which the invention 
of the telephone became a reality. Page dis¬ 
covered that the sudden magnetizing and de¬ 
magnetizing of a wire or rod of iron caused it 
to give out sound. By the use of a movable, 
vibrating disc, later inventors discovered the 
possibility of producing a discontinuous or pul¬ 
sating current which might be made to set a 
second membrane in motion and so to repro¬ 
duce sound. This “ make-and-break ” method 
of varying the electric current transmitted per¬ 
fectly the pitch and intensity of tones, but 
omitted the third and necessary characteristic 
of articulate speech, quality. The current must 
be varied continuously, not broken. This was 
accomplished by Alexander Graham Bell, in 
1876. Elisha Gray, also, invented a practical 
speaking telephone at about the same time, but 
the courts, after extended litigation, decided in 
Bell’s favor. 

In reality very simple in construction, the 
telephone is difficult to explain in words. To 
the ordinary user it seems as if the voice, recog¬ 
nizable in articulate words, and even clearly 
distinguishable from every other voice, were 
carried for miles over a wire. There is prob¬ 
ably no more common misconception. The 
listener does not hear any person talk. All that 
goes over the wire is thousands of continuously 
varying impulses of electricity. The secret of 



INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


677 


the apparent actual transmission of the human 
voice lies in electrical induction. 

It is a well-established, and generally known 
physical law that electricity produces magnet¬ 
ism. It is also true, however, that this process 
can be reversed, that magnetism produces elec¬ 
tricity, and it was of this fact that Bell took 
advantage in his original telephone, and upon 
this principle that the modern telephone, modi¬ 
fied only slightly in action, is constructed. An 
approach to, or a receding from, a wire carrying 
a current, produces an induced current. If one 
of the pieces be a magnet, and there is a rapid 
approach and receding by a piece of soft iron, 
an induced current is also produced. Bell’s 
system consisted of a transmitter, line wires, 
and a receiver, the two instruments being 
similar. In the transmitter a long, horseshoe 
magnet is placed, upon one end of which several 
layers of finely insulated wire are wound. The 
ends of these bobbins are attached to the line 
wires and thus they become part of the circuit. 
No current passes over this circuit ordinarily, 
but one can be induced, if a piece of iron is 
made to move quickly, to tremble near the bar 
magnet. Hence, a thin disc of sheet iron is 
fastened securely very near and crosswise to 
the end of the magnet. The voice impinging 
upon one of the discs causes it to vibrate, 
approaching and receding from the magnet in 
consonance with the sound waves. As the 
vibrations are very small, and the disc has little 
tendency to vibrate of itself, the vibrations fol¬ 
low the sound waves in every change of pitch 
and quality. Every time one of these vibra¬ 
tions occurs in the disc, a small impulse is sent 
from the magnet out over the circuit whose 
coil incloses it. These impulses, acting upon 
the receiving disc, cause it to vibrate in unison 
with the original vibrations in the transmitter, 
and a similar sound is produced. It is simply 
the reversal of the process; if sound waves will 
move a disc in a certain way, the moving of a 
disc in the same way by some other means will 
produce sound. 

The modern telephone, enabling communica¬ 
tion at a distance of hundreds of miles, has been 
rendered possible by the substitution of a bat¬ 
tery current and a carbon disc for the magnet 
and sheet-iron plates. It is now used through¬ 
out the civilized world, and, by the adaptation 
of various mechanical contrivances, though upon 
the same principle, each telephone is placed into 
a possible communication with every other 
one. 

The success of wireless telegraphy suggests 
wireless telephony, and already such a device is 
available for use to prevent collisions between 
vessels in harbors, and at close range at sea. 
Many experimenters are at work, and the early 
installation of wireless telephone systems for 
various purposes seems assured. 

Telescope, an optical instrument by which 
objects may be viewed as if they were nearer 
than they are. It consists essentially of a 
system of lenses or mirrors encased in a tube or 
tubes. The rays of light by which an object 
is seen radiate from it in straight lines; hence 
the longer they travel, the farther apart they 
become, and the fewer of them fall upon a given 


area. The unaided eye is so small that it does 
not receive from objects which are too far distant 
enough rays to make any sensible impression on 
the retina; and the visual images of objects 
which can be seen, vary in vividness according 
to the collective power of the light waves which 
produce them. The telescope affords the aid 
of a mechanical eye which collects a larger 
number of light rays in proportion to its size, 
and .focuses them by reflection from the surface 
of a concave mirror or by refraction through the 
medium of a lens; hence the two kinds of tele¬ 
scopes, reflectors and refractors. The first 
telescopes, made by the Dutch early in the 17th 
century, were refractors having small lenses of 
low power. Galileo imitated the invention from 
its description, and built a telescope which 
magnified one thousand times. With this he 
discovered the moons of Jupiter and the phases 
of Venus. Early attempts to use larger lenses, 
to increase their magnifying power, were frus¬ 
trated by color distortion or chromatic aberra¬ 
tion; i. e. the different colored rays of light could 
not be brought to an exact focus. This led 
Herschell in 1779 to 1789 to build and use the 
reflecting telescopes with which he discovered 
Uranus, and made his famous catalogue of stars. 
In reflectors there is no color distortion, because 
light rays of all colors are reflected from a 
polished surface at equal angles. Chromatic 
aberration in refractors is now overcome by 
achromatic lenses consisting of a lens of crown 
glass, convex on each side, in front of a concave 
lens of flint glass, one of which offsets the 
color distortion caused by the other. Very 
large instruments of both kinds are now in 
use. 


THE LARGE REFRACTORS OF 

THE 

WORLD 

Institution 

Aperture 
in Inches 

Focal 
Length in 
Feet 

Date of 
Erection 

Yerkes Observatory, Wisconsin, 



1897 

U. S. A.,. 

40.0 

62.0 

Lick Observatory, California, U.S.A., 

36.0 

57.8 

1888 

Lick Observatory, California, U.S.A., 

33.0 

49.2 

1891 

National Observatory, Meudon, . . 

32.5 

53.0 

Astrophysical Observatory, Potsdam, 

31.1 

39.4 

1889 

Bischoffsheim Observatory, Nice, . . 

30.3 

52.6 

Imperial Observatory, Poulkova, , . 

30.0 

42.0 

1882 

National Observatory, Paris, .... 

28.9 


1894 

Royal Observatory, Greenwich, . . . 

28.0 

28.6 

Imperial Observatory, Vienna, . . . 

27.0 

34.0 

1894 

Royal Observatory, Greenwich, . . . 

26.0 

26.0 

1897 

Naval Observatory, Washington, . . 
Leander McCormick Observatory, Vir- 

26.0 

32.5 

1871 

ginia, U. S. A.,. 

26.0 

32.5 

1874 

Cambridge University Observatory, . 

25.0 

52.2 

1868 

National University, Meudon, . . . 

24.0 

1891 

Harvard College, Cambridge, U. S. A. 
Royal Observatory, Cape of Good 

24.0 

11.3 

1894 

Hope,. 

24.0 

22.6 

1897 

Lowell Observatory, Mexico, .... 

24.0 

31.0 

1895 

National Observatory, Paris, .... 
Halstead Observatory, Princeton, 

23.6 

59.0 

1889 

U. S. A. 

23.0 

32.0 

1881 

Etna,. 

21.8 

. . . 

. . . 

Buckingham Observatory,. 

21.2 

. . . 

. . . 

M. Porro, Private Observatory, Italy, 
Chamberlin Observatory, Colorado, 

20.5 

28.0 

1891 

U. S. A. 

20.0 

Manila Observatory, Philippines, . . 

20.0 

41.2 

1892 

Astrophvsical Observatory, Potsdam, 

19.7 

1880 

Imperial Observatory, Strassburg, . 

19.1 

23.0 

Milan Observatory, Italy,. 

19.1 

23.0 

• • • 






















678 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


THE LARGE REFRACTORS OF THE WORLD 
(Continued) 


Institution 

Aperture 

in Inches 

Focal 

Length in 

Feet 

Date of 

Erection 

North-Western Observatory, Illinois, 
U. S. A. 

18.5 

27.0 

1863 

Dearborn Observatory,. 

18.5 



National Observatory, La Plata, . . 

18.1 

29.5 

1890 

Lowell Observatory, Mexico, .... 

18.0 

26.3 

1894 

Flower Observatory, Philadelphia, 
U. S. A.. 

18.0 


1896 

Vander Zee Observatory,. 

18.0 

• . • 

. . • 

Royal Observatory, Cape of Good 
Hope,.. 

18.0 

22.6 

1897 


Trades-unions. A trade society is de¬ 
fined in the report of the Social Science Commit¬ 
tee on the subject appointed at Bradford, in 
1859, “as a combination of workmen to enable 
each to secure the conditions most favorable 
for labor ”; and although trades-unions, as they 
are generally called, almost always have other 
objects in view in addition to that specified in 
the definition, that object is their distinguishing 
one. Combinations of this sort in Great Britain 
are considerably more than three centuries old, 
for there is a statute of the year 1548 expressly 
directed against them. Trades-unions generally 
endeavor to regulate the prices and the hours 
of labor, and in many cases the number of men 
engaged by an employer, the number of ap¬ 
prentices which may be bound in proportion to 
the journeymen employed by a master, and the 
like. As accessories, these unions may collect 
funds for benefit societies, and undertake the 
insurance of tools, libraries, and reading-rooms; 
but their fund, to which every member must 
regularly contribute a stated sum, is principally 
reserved for enabling the men to resist, by strikes 
and otherwise, such action on the part of the 
employers as would tend to lower the rate of 
wages or lengthen the hours of labor. That 
trades-unions enable the men to benefit by the 
state of trade more than they otherwise would 
have done would appear from the fact that the 
worst-paid trades are those without unions. 
Trades-unions are also said to have furthered 
the safety of the laborer by producing beneficial 
modifications of the conditions in which he 
works. Some hostility against trades-unions 
has been produced by the outrages of a more or 
less serious nature of which some of the unions, 
or members of them, have been guilty, such out¬ 
rages being directed against the property of 
employers, or against the persons and tools 
of non-union men. The trades-unions of the 
United States embrace over 27,000 local organ¬ 
izations, and about 2,000,000 affiliated members; 
in late years having increased rapidly. In 1905, 
there were 1,136 unions in Britain with a mem¬ 
bership of 1,887,000. 

Trusts. A corporation derives certain bene¬ 
fits from the state, and is in turn subject to cer¬ 
tain state control. To avoid this state control, 
and in order thus to enable the largest firms and 
corporations in any particular trade to com¬ 
bine, and by combined action to limit produc¬ 
tion and raise prices while killing off the com¬ 


petition any outsider may dare to offer, what 
are known as trusts have been devised. A 
trust is merely the combination for the above 
purposes of the large interests in any branch of 
trade. There is no incorporation. There is an 
agreement between the parties; the profits of all 
are divided into certain ascertained proportions, 
and the public cannot from any sensible sign 
know whether or not such a combination exists. 
Secrecy and irresponsibility are its objects. 

Turbine, either a horizontal or vertical 
water-wheel, made to revolve by the escape of 
water through orifices, under the influence of pres¬ 
sure derived from a fall. Turbines are now made 
after a vast variety of patterns. The oldest and 
simplest is the Scotch turbine, or Barker’s mill. 
In another common form the water passes verti¬ 
cally down through the wheel between the fixed 
screw blades, which give it a spiral motion, and 
then strike similar blades attached to a movable 
spindle, but placed in the opposite direction, so 
that the impact of the water communicates a 
rotatory motion to the blades and spindles. 
Or the water may be passed from the center 
horizontally outwards through fixed curved 
blades, so as to give it a tangential motion, and 
thereby cause it to act on the blades of the 
wheel which revolves outside. The steam tur¬ 
bine has been successfully applied to the pro¬ 
pulsion of vessels, notably in the great ocean 
liners, “ Lusitania ” and “ Mauretania,” and is 
steadily growing in favor. The number of vessels 
so fitted is not large, but the development is none 
the less remarkable when we remember that 
leasure, and cross-channel steamers, torpedo- 
oat destroyers, and yachts are now fitted with 
these engines, while' ten years ago not one tur¬ 
bine vessel was in service. The principal point 
in favor of a turbine is, that it has no reciprocat¬ 
ing motion, like that of the piston of a common 
engine, and therefore the hull of a vessel is not 
shaken so much as by reciprocating engines. 
Turbine engines weigh much less, and occupy less 
room, than ordinary engines of the same power, 
so that passenger accommodation can be in¬ 
creased. Usually three sets of engines are em¬ 
ployed, each driving a separate propeller shaft, 
which again conduces to steadiness of motion. 

Type. The name given to the stamps or 
dies which impress the letters on the paper in 
printing. Printers, in early times, made the 
letters which they used, but in process of time 
the necessity for a division of labor created the 
distinct business of type-founding. The type- 
metal is a compound of lead and antimony, 
with a large proportion of tin. The antimony 
gives hardness and sharpness of edge to the 
composition, while the tin gives toughness and 
tenacity, and removes the brittleness which 
antimony causes when used in a large proportion 
without tin. The proper proportions of these 
metals are regulated by the size of the type, a 
greater quantity of antimony being employed 
for small letters. A complete assortment of 
types is called a font, which may be regulated 
to any extent. Every type-founder has a scale 
showing the proportional quantity of each letter 
required for a font; and a peculiar scale is re¬ 
quired for every language. For the English lan¬ 
guage, the following is a type-founder’s scale for 















INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE 


679 


the small letters of a font of types of a particular 
size and weight: 


a 

8,500 

h 

6,400 

o 

8,000 

V 

1,200 

b 

1,600 

i 

8,000 

P 

1,700 

w 

2,000 

c 

3,000 

j 

400 

q 

500 

X 

400 

d 

4,400 

k 

800 

r 

6,200 

y 

2,000 

e 

12,000 

1 

4,000 

9 

8,000 

z 

200 

f 

2,500 

m 

3,000 

t 

9,000 



g 

1,700 

n 

8,000 

U 

3,400 




Beginning with the largest, the subjoined specimens 
show the various sizes of type commonly used on book- 
work. 

Eighteen Point. 

Fourteen Point. Twelve Point. 


Eleven Point. Ten Point. Nine Point. 
Eight Point. Seven Point. Six Point. 

Five and One-half Point. Five Point. Four and one-half Point. 

Three and one-half point. 

Emerald is a type now little used, and in size is 
between Seven Point and Six Point. 

Type-writer, a machine used as a sub¬ 
stitute for the pen, and by which the letters are 


produced by the impression of inked types. 
The essential elements in such machines are a 
movement to bring the type into position, an 
inking device, an impression movement, and 
means for letter and line spacing. A successful 
form of the machine has a series of letter keys 
arranged in rows, to be worked by the fingers of 
both hands, a letter being imprinted on the 
paper (which moves automatically) each time 
a key is struck. The best known, probably, are 
the Remington, Hammond, Bar-Lock, Smith 
Premier, Oliver, Underwood, Royal, American, 
etc. Many improvements have been made from 
time to time. One of the latest is the “ English ” 
typewriter, which has only two rows of keys, 
numbering twenty-nine in all. Each key works 
a lever to which is attached a capital letter, 
an ordinary Roman letter, and a figure. The 
capital letters and the figures are brought into 
play by means of two small shift stops, and the 
printing as it is performed is in full view of the 
operator. 


WORLD’S SUBMARINE CABLES 


Country 

No. OF 
Cables 
with One 
or More 
Cores 

Length in Nautical Miles 

Of 

Cables 

Of 

Conductors 

Argentine Republic,. 

13 

59.824 

138.544 

Austria,. 

47 

224.250 

235.339 

Bahamas,. 

1 

211.000 

211.000 

Belgium,. 

i 2 

54.514 

279.856 

Brazil,. 

23 

37.779 

66.414 

British Guiana,. 

5 

84.000 

95.000 

British India, Indo-European Telegraph Department Government 
Administration,. 

157 

2,168.013 

1,711.885 

Bulgaria,. 

1 

0.538 

0.538 

Canada,. 

26 

334.750 

334.750 

Ceylon and India (Joint),. 

2 

66.300 

66.300 

China,. 

1 

113.000 

113.000 

Denmark,. 

1 56 

171.100 

880.300 

Dutch Indies,. 

7 

891.490 

891.490 

France and Algeria. 

1 56 

4,913.824 

5,847.200 

France (West Africa),. 

3 

1,567.238 

1,567.238 

French Indo-China (Cochin China, Tonquin, and Amoy),. 

2 

1,697.326 

1,697.326 

Germany,. 

i 89 

2,796.695 

5,654.977 

Great Britain and Ireland,. 

i 177 

2,265.830 

7,551.994 

Greece. 

46 

54.931 

54.931 

Holland,. 

32 

241.543 

780.449 

Inter-Colonial System,. 

5 

7,837.770 

7,837.770 


36 

1,063.088 

1,112.458 


103 

2,154.883 

2,851.173 

Macao,. 

1 

1.930 

1.930 

New Caledonia,. 

1 

1.000 

1.000 

New South Wales,. 

147 

51.789 

108.459 

New Zealand. 

16 

285.682 

290.466 

Norway,. 

322 

291 489 

375.787 

Portugal. 

4 

115.050 

115.050 

Queensland,. 

19 

52.100 

67.520 

Russia in Europe, and the Caucasus,. 

12 

328.282 

408.387 

Russia in Asia,. 

1 

70.157 

70.157 

Senegal,.. 

1 

3.000 

3.000 

South Australia,. 

3 

49.360 

49.360 

Spain,. 

15 

1,771.346 

1,771.346 

Sweden. 

1 17 

208.488 

368.431 

Switzerland,. 

2 

9.827 

13.400 

Tasmania,. 

4 

4.750 

19.000 

Turkey in Europe and Asia,.. 

21 

346.558 

368.734 

Victoria,. 

1 

4.500 

4.500 

Western Australia,. 

1 

3.750 

3.750 

Total government-owned cables, .. 

1,378 

32,609.748 

44,006.813 

GENERAL SUMMARY 




Government administered,. 

1,378 

32,609.748 


Private Companies,. 

437 

188,682.693 


Grand total,. 

1,815 

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THE WORLD’S STAPLES AND THE COUNTRIES PRODUCING THEM 


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THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


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LELAND STANFORD, JR., UNIVERSITY 

















SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


Acetic Acid. An acid produced by the 
oxidation of common alcohol, and of many other 
organic substances. Pure acetic acid has a very 
sour taste and pungent smell, burns the skin, 
and is poisonous. From freezing at ordinary 
temperatures (58° or 59°) it is known as glacial 
acetic acid. Vinegar is simply dilute acetic acid, 
and is prepared by subjecting wine or weak 
spirit to the action of the air; also from malt 
which has undergone vinous fermentation. 
Acetic acid, both concentrated and dilute, is 
largely used in the arts, in medicine, and for 
domestic purposes. 

Acetylene. A gaseous hydro-carbon; it 
is a constituent of coal-gas, and burns with a 
bright, smoky flame. A method of preparing 
acetylene in large quantities has been recently 
devised, by the use of carbide of calcium, form¬ 
erly a rare and expensive product, but now 
manufactured cheaply and abundantly in the 
electric furnace. When this substance is thrown 
into water a rapid chemical transformation takes 
place, and acetylene is given off as one of its 
products. It has also been discovered that if 
this gas be passed through pipes and burned at 
a small aperture, like ordinary illuminating gas, 
it yields an intense white flame, surpassing in 
brilliancy any light known but the arc electric 
light. By compression, acetylene can be re¬ 
duced to the liquid state, and if permitted to 
escape slowly into pipes, can be burned for house 
illumination. 

Acid. A class of compounds whose general 
properties are: solubility in water; sour taste; 
power of reddening litmus; faculty of decom¬ 
posing carbonates with effervescence; and the 
power of neutralizing alkalies and bases, form¬ 
ing salts. The progress of modern chemistry is 
gradually rendering the term acids less definite; 
and it is not improbable that it will be dropped 
altogether in strictly scientific writing, although 
in ordinary language it will be retained as a 
convenient term for expressing a very wide class 
of substances. All the above characteristics are 
seldom possessed together, many acids having 
only one or two of these properties, and some 
substances which are not acids possessing all of 
them. Thus, silicic acid is not soluble in water, 
has no sour taste, and does not redden litmus. 

Acoustics ( a-kou'stiks ). The science of 
sound. It teaches the cause, nature, and phe¬ 
nomena of such vibrations of elastic bodies as 
affect the organ of hearing; the manner in which 
sound is produced, its transmission through air 
and other media, the doctrine of reflected sound 
or echoes, the properties and effects of different 
sounds, including musical sounds or notes, and 
the structure and action of the organ of hearing, 
etc. The propagation of sound is analogous to 
that of light, both being due to vibrations which 
produce successive waves, and Newton was the 
first to show that its propagation through any 
medium depended upon the elasticity of that 


medium. Regarding the intensity, reflection, 
and refraction of sound, much the same rules 
apply as in light. In ordinary cases of hearing 
the vibrating medium is air, but all substances 
capable of vibrating may be employed to propa¬ 
gate and convey sound. When a bell is struck 
its vibrations are communicated to the particles 
of air surrounding it, and from these to particles 
outside them, until they reach the ear of the 
listener. The intensity of sound varies inversely 
as the square of the distance of the body sound¬ 
ing from the ear. Sound travels through the 
air at the rate of about 1,090 feet per second; 
through water at the rate of about 4,700 feet. 
Sounds may be musical or non-musical. A mu¬ 
sical sound is caused by a regular series of ex¬ 
actly similar pulses succeeding each other at 
precisely equal intervals of time. If these con¬ 
ditions are not fulfilled the sound is a noise. 
Musical sounds are comparatively simple, and 
are combined to give pleasing sensations accord¬ 
ing to easy numerical relations. The loudness 
of a note depends on the degree to which it af¬ 
fects the ear; the 'pitch of a note depends on the 
number of vibrations to the second which pro¬ 
duce the note; the timbre, quality, or character 
of a note depends on the body or bodies whose 
vibrations produce the sound, and is due to the 
form of the paths of vibrating particles. The 
gamut is a series of eight notes, which are called 
by the names, Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Do 2 ; 
and the numbers of vibrations which produce 
these notes are respectively proportional to 24, 
27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45, 48. The numerical value 
of the interval between any two notes is given 
by dividing one of the above numbers corre¬ 
sponding to The higher note by the number cor¬ 
responding to the lower note. The intervals 
from Do to each of the others are called a second, 
a major third, a fourth, a fifth, a sixth, a seventh, 
and an octave, respectively. The interval from 
La to Do 2 is a minor third. An interval of f is a 
major tone; is a minor tone; yf is called a 
limma. The properties of sound were mathe¬ 
matically investigated by Bacon and Galileo, 
but it remained for Newton, Lagrange, Euler, 
Laplace, Helmholtz, etc., to bring the science to 
its present state. 

Aerolite. A stone falling from the air or 
atmospheric regions; a meteoric stone; some 
suppose them to be projected by lunar vol¬ 
canoes, by others they are thought to be formed 
in the air by the union of simpler forms of matter 
volatilized from the earth’s surface; but they 
are doubtless cosmical bodies of the same nature 
as shooting-stars, revolving round the earth, and 
falling when they come within its attraction. 
Analyzed, they are found to consist of twenty- 
two of the elements found in terrestrial minerals, 
the most prominent being malleable metallic 
iron and nickel. 

Agricultural Colleges. Educational 
institutions, chiefly under government patron- 




684 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


age, for the promotion of scientific farming. In 
1862, the United States Congress passed a so- 
called land grant act, by which land scrip, repre¬ 
senting 30,000 acres for every Senator and Rep¬ 
resentative, was issued to the States and Terri¬ 
tories, the object being to provide a special fund 
for the creation of State and Territorial agri¬ 
cultural colleges. The land granted to the 
States by the act of 1862 amounted to somewhat 
more than 10,000,000 acres, which by 1900 had 
produced a permanent fund of $10,262,944, with 
lands still unsold of the estimated value of 
$4,062,850, the entire proceeds being in round 
numbers somewhat over $14,250,000. To this 
have been added other land-grant funds amount¬ 
ing to $1,441,577; other permanent funds, $14,- 
442,194; farms and grounds, $5,543,108; build¬ 
ings, $16,274,000; apparatus, $1,955,859; ma¬ 
chinery, $1,373,696; libraries, $1,854,942; and 
miscellaneous equipment, $1,997,690, making a 
grand total of permanent plant of the value of 
$58,944,137. On this basis sixty-five of these 
institutions have been established. 

Three of the land-grant colleges in Southern 
States (Mississippi, North Carolina, and South 
Carolina) have recently established courses of 
study in textile industry, with special reference 
to the manufacture of cotton goods. These in¬ 
stitutions have provided buildings of regular 
cotton-mill design, equipped with machinery and 
apparatus for textile work. 

The Act of 1862 was supplemented by a 
second (August 30, 1890), so that under both 
acts, each State and Territory having an 
agricultural college receives an appropriation 
annually from the United States treasury for its 
support. The past few years have witnessed 
the establishment of short courses of study in 
agriculture, dairying, mechanic arts, household 
economy, etc., for persons who cannot take a 
regular course. 

Albumen or Albumin (L., from albus, 
white). A substance, or rather group of sub¬ 
stances, so named from the Latin for the white 
of an egg, which is one of its most abundant 
known forms. It may be taken as the type of 
the protein compounds or the nitrogenous class 
of food stuffs. One variety enters largely into 
the composition of the animal fluids and solids, 
is coagulable by heat at and above 160°, and is 
composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and 
oxygen, with a little sulphur. It abounds in 
the serum of the blood, the vitreous and crystal¬ 
line humors of the eye, the fluid of dropsy, the 
substance called coagulable lymph, in nutritive 
matters, the juice of flesh, etc. The blood con¬ 
tains about seven per cent, of albumen. Another 
variety called vegetable albumen exists in most 
vegetable juices and many seeds, and has nearly 
the same composition and properties as egg al¬ 
bumen. When albumen coagulates in any 
fluid it readily encloses any substances that may¬ 
be suspended in the fluid. Hence it is used to 
clarify syrupy liquors. In cookery white of 
eggs is employed for clarifying, but in large 
operations like sugar-refining the serum of blood 
is used. From its being coagulable by various 
salts, and especially by corrosive sublimate, 
with which it forms an insoluble compound, 
white of egg is a convenient antidote in cases 


of poisoning by that substance. With lime it 
forms a cement to mend broken ware. 

In botany the name albumen is given to the 
farinaceous matter which surrounds the embryo, 
the term in this case having no reference to 
chemical composition. It constitutes the meat 
of the cocoanut, the flour or meal of cereals, 
the roasted part of coffee, etc. 

Alchemy (from the Arabic article al and 
kimia, secret, hidden), a false science, founded 
on no true scientific principles, which existed in 
some form or other from the earliest ages, but 
which, in Europe at least, was made the subject 
of considerable study and research during the 
period extending from the Twelfth to the Seven¬ 
teenth Century. Although it was unproductive 
in itself, we are yet indebted to it, if not as the 
parent of modern chemistry, at any rate as the 
science out of which chemistry has been largely 
developed. The enthusiasts who devoted them¬ 
selves to this subject were styled Alchemists . 
and the task which they set themselves to per¬ 
form was threefold, viz: (1) to discover the 
philosopher’s stone, a mineral that would, by 
mere contact, transmute the baser metals into 
gold; (2) to prepare the elixir of life, a substance 
which would prolong life indefinitely; and (3) 
to discover the alcahest, or universal solvent. 
These three substances, and more especially 
the first, they firmly believed to be obtainable, 
and to need only a fortunate combination of 
materials for the production of each of them; 
and, accordingly, fortunes were expended, and 
lives wasted, in these futile endeavors. The 
history of Alchemy is somewhat obscure and 
unconnected, owing to the secrecy with which 
its operations were carried on; but among the 
most prominent characters connected with it 
may be mentioned the celebrated English monk, 
Roger Bacon, to whom the invention of gun¬ 
powder is popularly attributed, and who wrote. 
a work entitled “ The Mirror of Alchymy.” 

Alembic. The alembic is one of the old¬ 
est forms of vessels for distillation, and the 
type of all later kinds of apparatus for that 
purpose. It consists of a flask, composed of 
either glass or copper, with a wide neck, on 
which is fitted a head connected with a down¬ 
ward running tube, the whole so arranged that 
all vapors condensed against the inside of the 
head run through a surrounding gutter to the 
tube and so into a receiver. In some manu¬ 
facturing processes alembics are still advan¬ 
tageously employed, more so in France than 
elsewhere^ For the larger chemical processes, 
however, it is now largely superseded by the 
retort and worm-still. 

Alexandrian Library, the largest col¬ 
lection of books of the ancient world, founded 
by Ptolemy Soter in the city of Alexandria 
towards the beginning of the Third Century B. C. 
At one time it is said to have contained 700,000 
manuscripts, embracing the collected literature 
of Rome, Greece, India, and Egypt. It was 
partly destroyed by fire by a mob of fanatic 
Christians in A. D. 391, and was finally dispersed 
or destroyed during the siege of Alexandria by 
the Arabs under Amru (A. D. 638). 

Alimentary Canal. Another name for 
the digestive tract of an animal. It includes the 



685 


SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


whole passage traversed by the substances taken 
in as food, from their entrance into the mouth 
to the excretion of the indigestible residue from 
the rectum. In the mammalia it is made up of 
the following parts, viz: (1) the mouth; (2) the 
pharynx, a funnel-shaped cavity at the back of 
the mouth, which communicates with the nos¬ 
trils; (3) the cesophagus or gullet, a straight and 
narrow' tube which pierces through the dia¬ 
phragm or midriff; (4) the stomach, a bag-pipe 
shaped cavity, the wide expanded part of which 
is termed the cardiac pouch, and the narrow, 
tapering part the pylorus; (5) the small intestine, 
remarkable for its length and for the manner in 
which it is necessarily coiled, and divided, for 
the sake of convenience, into three parts, the 
duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum; (6) the 
large intestine, which is thick, and presents ex¬ 
ternally a peculiar, gathered-up appearance, also 
divided into three parts, the ascending, trans¬ 
verse, and descending colon; (7) the rectum, a 
short, wide, smooth tube, the terminal aperture 
of which is called the anus. A portion of the 
large intestine which projects beyond the point 
of its union with the small intestine is called the 
caecum , and a little worm-like appendage to this 
caecum, the function of which has not exactly 
been determined, is called the vermiform appen¬ 
dix. The commencement as well as the end of 
the small intestine, is guarded by valves — the 
pyloric valve, in the form of a sphincter muscle, 
separating the pylorus from the duodenum, and 
the ileo-ccecal valve, separating the ileum from 
the large intestine. 

Alkaloids. The name given to a series of 
bodies derived from the vegetable kingdom, 
which closely resemble in their chemical action 
the volatile alkali ammonia. They all contain 
nitrogen, and exert a powerful influence on the 
ray of polarized light. Like ammonia, they 
combine directly with acids to form salts. The 
alkaloids act most powerfully on the animal 
economy; some, such as strychnine and nico¬ 
tine, form the most violent poisons with which 
we are acquainted, while others, such as quinine 
and morphine, are valuable medicines. 

Aluminium ( al-u-min'e-um ). A metal of 
which the earth alumina, the chief constituent 
of clay, is an oxide. It is only of late years that 
chemists have succeeded in inventing a process 
for extracting it in sufficient quantities and suffi¬ 
ciently cheap to enable it to be used for manu¬ 
facturing purposes. It has a white color some¬ 
what resembling tin; its specific gravity is only 
2.6 (about that of common glass), and hence it 
is frequently used in the construction of articles 
where lightness is an object. The melting point 
is much below’ that of silver. When heated in 
oxygen it burns with brilliancy and produces 
alumina. It is not affected by sulphuretted 
hydrogen like silver. From its sonorousness it 
will probably be employed in the construction 
of musical instruments. With from 92^ to 95 
per cent, of copper it forms an alloy named 
aluminium-bronze, which is scarcely distinguish¬ 
able by the eye from gold, whilst it is nearly as 
hard as iron. This alloy is coming into use in 
the manufacture of ornamental articles. 

Amphibia. A class of vertebrate ani¬ 
mals, which in their early life breathe by gills 


or branchiae, and afterwards partly or entirely 
by lungs. The frog, breathing in its tadpole 
state by gills and afterwards throwing off these 
organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its 
adult state, is an example of the latter phase of 
amphibian existence. The Proteus of the under¬ 
ground caves of Central Europe exemplifies 
forms in which the gills of early life are retained 
throughout life, and in which lungs are developed 
in addition to the gills. A second character of 
this group consists in the presence of two occipital 
“ condyles,” or processes by means of which 
the skull articulates with the spine or vertebral 
column; Reptiles possessing one condyle only. 
The class is divided into four orders: the Ophio- 
morpha (or serpentiform), represented by the 
blindworms, in which limbs are wanting and 
the body is snake-like; the Urodela or “Tailed” 
Amphibians, including the newts, proteus, siren, 
etc.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia, repre¬ 
sented by the frogs and toads; and the Laby- 
rinthodontia, which includes the extinct forms 
known as Labyrinthodons. 

Aorta. In anatomy, the great artery or 
trunk of the arterial system, proceeding from 
the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin 
to all the arteries except the pulmonary. It 
first rises towards the top of the breast-bone, 
when it is called the ascending aorta; then makes 
a great curve, called the transverse or great arch 
of the aorta, whence it gives off branches to the 
head and upper extremities; thence proceeding 
towards the lower extremities, under the name 
of the descending aorta, it gives off branches to 
the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, 
which supply the pelvis and lower extremities. 

Apocrypha (from the Greek apokrupto, I 
conceal). The name given especially to those 
additional Jewish writings which are not con¬ 
tained in the Hebrew Bible, or the Old Testa¬ 
ment, but which were introduced into the Sep- 
tuagint, from whence they were transferred into 
the Vulgate, and into many subsequent trans¬ 
lations. By the Jews they are not held to be 
canonical. They are received by the Roman 
Catholic Church; but by the Church of Eng¬ 
land, and by other Protestant Churches, though 
they are held to be of value for historical pur¬ 
poses and for “instruction of manners,” they 
are not used for “establishment of doctrine.” 
Besides the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, 
which belong to the literature of the later Jews, 
there are certain apocryphal Christian writings, 
which are usually described as the Apocrypha 
of the New Testament. 

Apostle. One who is sent off or away 
from; one sent on some important mission; a 
messenger; a missionary. The name given, 
in the Christian Church, to the twelve men 
whom Jesus selected from His disciples as the 
best instructed in His doctrines, and the fittest 
instruments for the propagation of His religion. 
Their names were as follows: Simon Peter, 
Andrew, his brother ; James the greater, and 
John, his brother, who were sons of Zebedee; 
Philip of Bethsaida, Bartholomew, Thomas, 
Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus, commonly 
called James the less; Lebbeus, his brother, 
who was sumamed Thaddeus, and was called 
Judas, or Jude; Simon the Canaanite, and 



686 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Judas Iscariot. Of this number, Simon Peter, 
John, James the greater, and Andrew were 
fishermen; and Matthew, a publican or tax- 
gatherer. When the apostles were reduced to 
eleven, by the suicide of Judas, who had be¬ 
trayed Christ, they chose Matthias by lot, on 
the proposition of St. Peter. Soon after, their 
number became thirteen, by the miraculous 
vocation of Saul, who under the name of Paul 
became one of the most zealous propagators of 
the Christian faith. 

Arabian Numerals. The numeral char¬ 
acters now used in our arithmetic. They 
were introduced into Europe (Spain) about the 
close of the Tenth Century, by the Moors or 
Arabs; but they were known to the Hindus as 
early as the Sixth Century, and they might more 
properly therefore be called Hindu numerals. 
They were brought to England in the Fourteenth 
or Fifteenth Century, but their use was not gen¬ 
eral till the introduction of the art of printing. 
Up to the Sixteenth Century, accounts continued 
to be kept in the old Roman numerals. 

Arian. A follower of Arius, Presbyter of 
Alexandria in the Fourth Century A. D., or one 
holding the system of doctrine associated with 
his name. In the year 317, Alexander, Bishop 
of Alexandria, having publicly expressed his 
opinion that the Son of God is not only of the 
same dignity as the Father, but of the same 
essence (in Greek, ousia). Arius, one of the 
Presbyters, considered this view as leaning too 
much to Sabellianism, and, rushing to the other 
extreme, he declared that the Son of God was 
only the first and noblest of created beings, and 
though the universe had been brought into ex¬ 
istence through His instrumentality by the 
Eternal Father, yet to that Eternal Father He 
was inferior, not merely in dignity, but in es¬ 
sence. The views of Arius commended them¬ 
selves to multitudes, while they were abhorrent 
to still more; fierce controversy respecting 
them broke out, and the whole Christian world 
was soon compelled to take sides. The Arians 
greatly weakened themselves by splitting into 
sects, and the doctrines regarding the relation 
of the three Divine Personages authoritatively 
proclaimed at Nice were at last all but univer¬ 
sally adopted. They may be found detailed in 
what are popularly termed the Nicene and the 
Athanasian Creeds. They were held almost 
without a dissentient voice through the Middle 
Ages, and were cordially accepted by the leading 
reformers. 

Arteries. The blood-vessels by which the 
blood is carried out from the heart, and dis¬ 
tributed to the general system and to the lungs. 
The arteries which proceed to the general system 
all commence in one large vessel, the aorta, 
which divides and subdivides into a large num¬ 
ber of branches, which become, like those of a 
tree, more and more minute as they are farther 
removed from the trunk, until they ultimately 
terminate in what are called the capillaries. 
These arteries all contain pure, oxidized, scarlet 
blood, which is hence known as arterial blood. 
The arteries which proceed to the lungs, on the 
other hand,— the pulmonary arteries, as they 
are called,— are two vessels which have their 
origin in the right ventricle of the heart, and 


carry the blood to the right and left lung re¬ 
spectively. They contain unpurified, dark- 
colored blood, the same as that which is con* 
tained in the veins, and hence known as venous 
blood. The principal arteries are the two carotid 
arteries, which supply the head; the two sub¬ 
clavian arteries, which proceed to the arms or 
front limbs; the two iliac arteries, to the legs or 
hind limbs; the coeliac axis, which supplies the 
liver, spleen, stomach, and intestines; and the 
renal arteries, which supply the kidneys. The 
arteries and the veins may readily be distin¬ 
guished from each other in the dead body, the 
former being round or cylindrical, and having 
their walls comparatively stiff and thick, while 
the walls of the latter are collapsed and flaccid. 
It is owing to this fact that an artery when cut 
continues to bleed until death ensues, and the 
only way to arrest the bleeding is to tie the 
severed end nearest the heart; the flow of blood, 
too, from a cut artery is of a jet-like nature, 
owing to the force with which the blood is pro¬ 
pelled from the heart, while from a cut vein the 
blood merely trickles out. The inner lining of 
the arteries is perfectly smooth, and there are 
no valves as in the veins. The arteries derived 
their name from the fact of their having been 
supposed by the ancients to contain air, being 
generally found empty after death. 

Articles, The Thirty-nine, of the 
Church of England, a statement of the particular 
points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, main¬ 
tained by the English Church; first promulgated 
by a convocation held in London in 1562-1563, 
and confirmed by royal authority; founded on 
and superseding an older code issued in the 
reign of Edward VI. The five first articles con¬ 
tain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the 
incarnation of Jesus Christ, His descent to Hell 
and His resurrection; the. divinity of the Holy. 
Ghost. The three following relate to the canon 
of the Scripture. The eighth article declares a 
belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian 
creeds. The ninth and following articles con¬ 
tain the doctrine of original sin, of justification 
by faith alone, of predestination, etc. The nine¬ 
teenth, twentieth, and twenty-first declare the 
Church to be the assembly of the faithful; that 
it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. 
The twenty-second rejects the doctrine of pur¬ 
gatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, 
and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third 
decides that only those lawfully called shall 
preach or administer the sacraments. The 
twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in Eng¬ 
lish. The twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth declare 
the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though 
administered by evil men), by which God ex¬ 
cites and confirms our faith. They are two: 
baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism, ac¬ 
cording to the twenty-seventh article, is a sign 
of regeneration, the seal of our adoption, by 
which faith is confirmed and grace increased. 
In the Lord's Supper, according to article 
twenty-eighth, the bread is the communion of 
the body of Christ, the wine the communion of 
His blood, but only through faith (article 29); 
and the communion must be administered in 
both kinds (article 30). The twenty-eighth 
article condemns the doctrine of transubstantia- 




SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


687 


tion, and the elevation and adoration of the 
Host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of 
the mass as blasphemous; the thirty-second 
permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty- 
third maintains the efficacy of excommuni¬ 
cation. The remaining articles relate to the 
supremacy of the king, the condemnation of 
Anabaptists, etc. They were ratified anew in 
1604 and 1628. 

Asteroids, or Planetoids. A numerous 
group of very small planets revolving round the 
sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, 
remarkable for the eccentricity of their orbits 
and the large size of their angle of inclination to 
the ecliptic. The diameter of the largest is not 
supposed to exceed 450 miles, while most of the 
others are very much smaller. They number 
over 330, and new members are being constantly 
discovered. Ceres, the first of them, was dis¬ 
covered January 1, 1801, and within three years 
more Pallas, Juno, and Vesta were seen. The 
extraordinary smallness of these bodies, and 
their nearness to each other, gave rise to the 
opinion that they were but the fragments of a 
planet that had formerly existed and had been 
brought to an end by some catastrophe. For 
nearly forty years investigations were carried 
on, but no more planets were discovered till 
December 8, 1845, when a fifth planet in the 
same region was discovered. The rapid succes¬ 
sion of discoveries that followed was for a time 
taken as a corroboration of the disruptive theory, 
but the breadth of the zone occupied makes the 
hypothesis of a shattered planet more than 
doubtful. Their mean distances from the sun 
vary between 200,000,000 and 300,000,000 miles ; 
the periods of revolution between 1,191 days 
(Flora) and 2,868 (Hilda). Their eccentricities 
and inclinations are on the average greater than 
those of the earth, but their total mass does not 
exceed one-fourth that of the earth. 

Athanasian Creed. A formulary or 
confession of faith, said to have been drawn up 
by Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in the 
Fourth Century, to justify himself against the 
calumnies of his Arian enemies. That it was 
really composed by this father seems more than 
doubtful; and modern divines generally concur 
in the opinion of Dr. Waterland, that it was 
written by Hilary, Bishop of Arles, in the Fifth 
Century. It is certainly very ancient; for it 
had become so famous in the Sixth Century as to 
be commented upon, together with the Lord’s 
Prayer and Apostles’ Creed, by Venantius For- 
tunatus, Bishop of Poitiers. It was not, how¬ 
ever, then styled the Athanasian Creed, but 
simply the Catholic Faith. It is supposed to 
have received the name of Athanasius on ac¬ 
count of its agreeing with his doctrines, and 
being an excellent summary of the subjects of 
controversy between him and the Arians. The 
true key to the Athanasian Creed lies in the 
knowledge of the errors to which it was opposed. 
The Sabellians considered the Father, Son, and 
Holy Spirit as one in person; this was “con¬ 
founding the persons”: the Arians considered 
them as differing in essence; this was “dividing 
the substance”; and against these two errors 
was the creed originally framed. This creed 
was used in France about the year 850; was 


received in Spain about 100 years later, and in 
Germany about the same time. It was both 
said and sung in England in the Tenth Century; 
was commonly used in Italy at the expiration 
of that century, and at Rome a little later. 
This creed is appointed to be read in the Church 
of England. 

Atom. A part so small as not to be divis¬ 
ible. An ultimate particle of matter. Two 
opinions, directly opposed to each other, have 
long had currency with regard to the constitu¬ 
ent particles of material things; the one, that 
matter is composed of an assemblage of minute 
particles, or atoms, incapable of further division; 
the other, that there is no limit to its divisibility, 
the smallest conceivable particle still consisting 
of an infinity of parts. The first of these the¬ 
ories, which is commonly distinguished by the 
name of Atomic Philosophy, was originated in 
Greece by Leucippus; it was supported by 
Democritus, and subsequently improved by 
Epicurus and his disciples. The Epicureans 
professed to account for the origin and forma¬ 
tion of all things by supposing that these atoms 
were endued with, gravity and motion, and thus 
came together into the different organized bodies 
we now see. 

Atomic Theory. A theory as to the 
existence and properties of atoms (see Atom); 
especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting 
for the fact that in compound bodies the ele¬ 
ments combine in certain constant proportions, 
by assuming that all bodies are composed of 
ultimate atoms, the weight of which is different 
in different kinds of matter. It is associated 
with the name of Dalton, who systematized and 
extended the imperfect results of his predeces¬ 
sors. On its practical side the atomic theory 
asserts three Laws of Combining Proportions: 

(1) the Law of Constant or Definite Proportions, 
teaching that in every chemical compound the 
nature and proportion of the constituent ele¬ 
ments are definite and invariable; thus water 
invariably consists of eight parts by weight of 
oxygen to one part by weight of hydrogen; 

(2) the Law of Combination in Multiple Propor¬ 
tions, according to which the several proportions 
in which one element unites with another in¬ 
variably bear towards each other a simple rela¬ 
tion; thus one part by weight of hydrogen 
unites with eight parts by weight of oxygen to 
form water, and with sixteen parts (i. e., 8 X 2) 
of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) 
the Law of Combination in Reciprocal Propor¬ 
tions, that the proportions in which two elements 
combine with a third also represent the propor¬ 
tions in which, or in some simple multiple of 
which, they will themselves combine; thus in 
olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon in 
the proportion of one to six, and in carbonic 
oxide oxygen is present with carbon in the pro¬ 
portion of eight to six, one to eight being also 
the proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen 
combine with each other. The theory that these 
vroportional numbers are, in fact, nothing else 
out the relative weights of atoms so far accounts 
for the phenomena that the existence of these 
laws might have been predicted by the aid of 
the atomic hypothesis long before they were 
actually discovered by analysis. In themselves, 



688 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


however, the laws do not prove the theory of 
the existence of ultimate particles of matter of 
a certain relative weight; and, although many 
chemists, even without expressly adopting the 
atomic theory itself, have followed Dalton in 
the use of the terms atom and atomic weighty in 
preference to proportion, combining proportion, 
equivalent, and the like, yet in using the word 
atom it should be held in mind that it merely 
denotes the proportions in which elements unite. 
These will remain the same whether the atomic 
hypothesis which suggested the employment of 
the term be true or false. Dalton supposed that 
the atoms of bodies are spherical, and invented 
certain symbols to represent the mode in which 
he conceived they might combine together. 

Augsburg, Confession of. Name 
given to the celebrated declaration of faith, com¬ 
piled by Melanchthon, revised by Luther and 
other reformers, and read before the Diet of 
Augsburg, June 25, 1530. It consisted of 

twenty-eight articles, seven of which refuted 
Roman Catholic errors, and the remaining 
twenty-one set forth the Lutheran creed. Soon 
after its promulgation, the last hope of reform¬ 
ing the Roman Catholic Church was abandoned 
and complete severance followed. An answer 
by the Roman Catholics was read August 3, 
1530; when the Diet declared that it had been 
refuted. Melanchthon then drew up another 
confession. The first is called the unaltered, 
and the second, the altered form. 

Aurora Borealis, called variously North¬ 
ern Lights, Polar Lights, or Streamers, a phe¬ 
nomenon which generally appears in the north¬ 
ern parts of the sky, and presents an appearance 
somewhat resembling the dawn or break of day. 
It is a luminous meteor, and appears to proceed 
from a sort of haze or cloud in the northern part 
of the heavens. The upper edge of the cloud is 
whitish, the lower often dark or thick, and from 
the upper part streams of light shoot up in the 
form of a column, with, in general, a tremulous 
motion. This phenomenon generally commences 
two or three hours after sunset, and continues 
for a few hours, sometimes the whole night; it 
most frequently occurs in autumn and the early 
part of winter. Auroras are visible in most 
countries in high latitudes of the northern hemi¬ 
sphere, and it is asserted that similar appear¬ 
ances have been witnessed in high southern lati¬ 
tudes, but they are not known in tropical regions. 
No satisfactory answer has yet been furnished 
as to the cause of these polar lights; there is no 
doubt, however, that they are the result of elec¬ 
tricity in the upper regions of the atmosphere, 
but how produced we are at present unable to 
say. 

Bap'tists. A denomination of evangelical 
Christians, who differ from others in respect to 
baptism. They baptize all who repent and be¬ 
lieve the gospel, at whatever age, and reject the 
substitution of sprinkling for immersion, which 
they maintain was originally practiced in the 
administration of baptism, and (except in the 
case of the sick) universally observed through¬ 
out Christendom for 1,300 years. Open com¬ 
munion the Baptists of the United States gen¬ 
erally regard as an anomaly. They believe in 
the spiritual unity of the whole believing Church 


under Christ. Their government is congrega¬ 
tional, each church being complete in itself for 
the management of its internal affairs. They 
associate, invite councils for advice, and coop¬ 
erate in benevolent, educational, and missionary 
enterprises; but all such associations disclaim 
the slightest jurisdiction over the churches. 
Baptists make no distinction but that of office 
between clergymen and laymen. Elders, as 
evangelists and missionaries, are ordained and 
sent out to preach the gospel. In the United 
States the Baptist, with one exception, is now 
the largest denomination of evangelical Chris¬ 
tians. In 1845, the southern Baptists, by mutual 
consent, formed separate organizations for their 
benevolent enterprises. As early as 1764, the 
Baptists founded their first college in Rhode 
Island. They have publication societies at 
Philadelphia, Charleston, and Nashville, and 
maintain about fifty periodical organs, including 
a quarterly review. The Baptists of the United 
States also support the American and foreign 
Bible society, the American Baptist missionary 
union, the southern Baptist board of foreign 
and domestic missions, the Baptist home mis¬ 
sion society, and in part the “ American Bible 
Union.” Their missions are planted in Canada, 
Oregon, California, New Mexico, Hayti; in 
France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, 
Norway; in western and central Africa; in 
southern India, Assam, Burmah, Siam, and 
China. In doctrine the Baptists of this country 
are Calvinistic, but with much freedom and 
moderation. Besides the general body of Bap¬ 
tists, there afe in the United States nine smaller 
bodies agreeing with them in regard to baptism, 
but differing more or less on other points, viz: 
the Seventh-day, Free-will, Anti-mission, and 
General or Six-principle Baptists, Tunkers, 
Mennonites, Christians, Campbellites, and Wine- 
brennarians. Some Baptists trace their history 
in a succession of pure churches from the Third 
Century to the Reformation. Cyril of Alexan¬ 
dria and Innocent I. of Rome began the perse¬ 
cution which they suffered for centuries. In 
England, from the time of Henry VIII. to Wil¬ 
liam III., the Baptists struggled to gain their 
footing, and to secure liberty of conscience for 
all. In the time of Cromwell they first gained 
a fair hearing. Introduced into Rhode Island 
with Roger Williams and John Clark in 1638, 
their history for more than a century, in most 
of the colonies, is that of proscribed and banished 
men. Their prosperity dates from the Revolu¬ 
tionary War. 

Blood. The nutritive fluid of the tissues, 
consists of a transparent colorless fluid, the 
liquor sanguinis, and minute solid bodies, the 
“corpuscles,” which float in it. The liquor san- 
inis consists of water, in which are dissolved 
rine, albumen, chlorides of sodium and potas¬ 
sium, phosphates of soda, lime, and magnesia, 
together with fatty and extractive matters, 
the latter the product of the metamorphosis of 
the tissues. The corpuscles are of two kinds — 
white and red; the white are larger and less 
numerous than the red, being in healthy blood 
in the proportion of two or three to 1,000. In 
certain forms of disease the number of these 
white blood-corpuscles is increased. They pre- 





SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


689 


sent a granular appearance on the surface, have 
a nucleolus which is speedily brought into view 
by the action of dilute acetic acid, and are identi¬ 
cal with the lymph-corpuscle. Under the micro¬ 
scope they vary their forms in the same way as 
the amoeba; hence these movements are called 
amoeboid. The red corpuscles are peculiar to 
vertebrates, and seem to have their origin in the 
white corpuscles, are oval and nucleated in 
fishes, reptiles, and birds, but in man and the 
mammalia generally they are non-nucleated, 
and are biconcave, flattened disks, their edges 
being thicker than the center; hence the dark 
appearance of the latter when seen under the 
microscope. The color of the blood varies. In 
the arteries it is of a bright scarlet color, while 
in the veins it is of a dark purple color. The 
chief difference between arterial and venous 
blood is that the former contains more oxygen 
and less carbonic acid than the latter. The red 
blood corpuscles possess great powers of ab¬ 
sorbing oxygen. They receive oxygen in the 
lungs, where they become colored, and carry it 
all over the body to the tissues to form new 
combinations. After a time the corpuscles be¬ 
come dissolved in the liquor sanguinis, which 
fluid they serve to elaborate. The products of 
the metamorphosis of the tissues are poured 
into the blood, so that it is really a very complex 
fluid. 

Brahma ( bra'ma ). The religion of the 
Hindoos, that which is frequently styled Brah¬ 
manism, or Brahminism, inculcates a belief in 
a supreme deity under the name of Brahma, 
who is an impersonal divine substance, the ob¬ 
ject merely of devout contemplation, not of 
worship. There is also Brahma, the creator 
of the universe and the first of the Trimurti or 
triad of divinities; of whom Vishnu, the pre¬ 
server, and Siva, the destroyer, are the others. 
In sculpture, Brahma is represented as having 
four faces. It is said that there are not any 
temples exclusively dedicated to him in India; 
but prayers are addressed to him, and he is 
worshiped along with the other members of 
the triad. Vishnu and Siva, however, have a 
great number of worshipers, and the sects who 
acknowledge each as their chief object of devo¬ 
tion are not to be counted. The greatest con¬ 
fusion exists as to the names and attributes of 
these deities. Great changes in belief have 
taken place in the progress of time, and the 
most learned Brahman is unable to explain the 
great majority of the rites and articles of belief. 
Transmigration of souls is the leading tenet of 
Hindoo belief. 

Brah'mans, Brah'mins. (Followers 
of Brahma.) The highest of the Hindoo castes.- 
To its members belong the exclusive duty of 
expounding the Vedas, and they were formerly 
considered bound to abstain from all laborious 
occupations, and to confine themselves to serv¬ 
ing the gods and meditating on holy things. 
Though the members of this caste exact and 
receive respect from the other Hindoos, as their 
superiors, they are found following many occu¬ 
pations from which they are in strictness inter¬ 
dicted. The Gurus hold the first rank among 
them; they are the priests or spiritual advisers, 
having authority in matters of religion and edu¬ 


cation. To them we are indebted for our knowl¬ 
edge of the Sanskrit, or ancient language of the 
country, in which their sacred books are written. 

Buddhism ( bud'izm ). A system of religion 
founded by Buddha Gautama, also called 
Sakya Muni, who lived probably in the Sixth 
Century B. C. His father was King of Bahar, 
in Hindustan, and was early distinguished for 
his superior intellect. Becoming a religious 
teacher, he went through various provinces of 
India, propagating his doctrines, a kind of re¬ 
formed Brahmanism. He is said to have lived 
till his 80th year, and the date usually given for 
his death is 543 B. C. But his appearance is 
placed by some as early as the Fourteenth, and 
by others as late as the Fourth Century B. C. 
It is certain that his religion was triumphant in 
Hindustan in the middle of the Third Century 
B. C. Between the Fifth and Seventh Centuries 
of our era, Buddhism was expelled from India 
proper by the persecution of the Brahmins, and 
nearly every trace of it has now disappeared 
from there; but under several denominations it 
has become the prevailing creed of the Penin¬ 
sula of India beyond the Ganges, Thibet, Ceylon, 
China, and Japan. In China the name of 
Buddha has been corrupted into Fo-ta, or Fo. 
After the death of Buddha, and to fill his place, 
a succession of perfectly virtuous souls have 
descended upon earth, and assumed human 
forms, for the welfare of mankind; and it is be¬ 
lieved in Thibet that the Grand Lama of Thibet 
is his successor for the time being. The sacred 
writings of the Buddhists are very numerous; 
they were originally composed in Sanskrit, from 
which they were afterwards translated into 
other tongues. It would seem that there was 
a belief in a primeval deity named Adi-Buddha, 
or the First Buddha, and he was the first person 
of the trinity, the other two persons being Dhur- 
ma and Sunga, answering to Brahma, Siva, and 
Vishnu, of the Brahmins. The trident borne 
by the priests is emblematical of this trinity. 
The principal tenets of Buddhism are, that the 
world and all it contains are manifestations of 
the Deity, but of a transient and delusive char¬ 
acter; that the human soul is an emanation of 
the Deity, and, after death, will be bound to 
matter, and subjected to the miseries of life, 
unless the individual to whom it belongs, by 
the attainment of wisdom through prayer and 
contemplation, secures its reabsorption into 
the Deity. The authority of the Vedas, the 
sacred books of the Brahmins, is rejected, as 
well as the sacrifices, ceremonies, and other re¬ 
ligious observances of the Hindoos. There is 
no distinction of caste, and the priests, who are 
not forbidden the use of animal food, are de¬ 
rived from all classes. Monasteries and nun¬ 
neries abound wherever Buddhism flourishes. 
The ceremonies have so many resemblances to 
those of the Roman Catholic Church, as to strike 
spectators with surprise. 

Capillary Action, or Capillarity. In 
Physical Science, the name applied to certain 
phenomena which are exhibited when liquids 
are placed in contact with the surfaces of solids. 
Suppose a glass rod to be dipped for a portion 
of its length in water; then the liquid, as if not 
subject to the laws of gravity, is raised upwards 




690 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


against the sides of the solid, and its surface, in¬ 
stead of being horizontal, becomes slightly con¬ 
cave. If, instead of a solid rod, a hollow tube 
be immersed in the water, not merely is the 
liquid raised around the tube, but it rises in the 
inside to a height which is greater the narrower 
the tube, and the surface of the liquid inside 
the tube also assumes a concave form. If a 
glass tube, however, be immersed in mercury 
instead of water, the liquid in the tube is de¬ 
pressed instead of being raised, and the surface, 
which was previously concave, now becomes 
convex. The reason for this difference of action 
resides in the fact that mercury will not wet the 
tube as water does, for, if a metallic tube, such 
as one of copper, be substituted for the glass 
tube, the mercury in it will rise and have a con¬ 
cave surface, because it is able to wet the sides 
of the tube. Hence, whenever a liquid is able 
to adhere to a solid, it rises in contact with it. 
It is from capillarity that sap rises in plants, 
and that oil rises in the wicks of lamps. If the 
end of a towel be left in a basin of water, it is 
through capillarity that the basin is soon emp¬ 
tied of its contents. The phenomenon of capil¬ 
larity is intimately connected with what is 
known as the surface tension of liquids, and its 
amount varies with the chemical nature of the 
particular liquid. The word is derived from the 
Latin capillus, a hair, because these phenomena 
are best seen in narrow hair-like tubes. 

Carbon. One of the elements, existing un¬ 
combined in three forms, charcoal, graphite, or 
plumbago, and the diamond; chemical symbol 
C, atomic weight twelve. The diamond is the 
purest form of carbon; in the different varieties 
of charcoal, in coal, anthracite, etc., it is more 
or less mixed with other substances. Pure char¬ 
coal is a black, brittle, light, and inodorous 
substance. It is usually the remains of some 
vegetable body from which all the volatile matter 
has been expelled by heat; but it may be ob¬ 
tained from most organic matters, animal as 
well as vegetable, by ignition in close vessels. 
Carbon being one of those elements which exist 
in various distinct forms is an example of what 
is called allotropy. The compounds of this ele¬ 
ment are more numerous than those of all the 
other elements taken together. With hydrogen 
especially it forms a very large number of com¬ 
pounds, called hydrocarbons, which are pos¬ 
sessed of the most diverse properties, chemical 
and physical. With oxygen, again, carbon 
forms only two compounds, but union between 
the two elements is easily effected. It is one of 
the regular and most characteristic constituents 
of both animals and plants. 

Cardinal. An ecclesiastical prince in the 
Roman Catholic Church, who has a voice in the 
conclave at the election of a pope, the popes 
being taken from the cardinals. The cardinals 
are appointed by the pope, and are divided into 
three classes or orders, comprising six bishops, 
fifty priests, and fourteen deacons, making sev¬ 
enty at most. These constitute the Sacred Col¬ 
lege and compose the pope’s council. Originally 
they were subordinate in rank to bishops; but 
they now have the precedence. The chief sym¬ 
bol of the dignity of cardinal is a low-crowned, 
broad-brimmed red hat, with two cords depend¬ 


ing from it, one from either side, each having 
fifteen tassels at its extremity. Other insignia 
are a red biretta, a purple cassock, a sapphire 
ring, etc. 

Carnegie Institution. An educational 
body incorporated January 4, 1902, in Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., by John Hay, Secretary of 
State; Edwin D. White, Justice of the Supreme 
Court; Daniel C. Gilman, ex-president of Johns 
Hopkins University; Charles D. Walcott, su¬ 
perintendent of the United States Geological 
Survey; Dr. John S. Billings, director of the 
New York Public Library; and Carroll D. 
Wright, United States Commissioner of Labor. 
The aims of the institution, as expressed by the 
founder are: (1) To increase the efficiency. of 
the universities and other institutions of learning 
throughout the country by utilizing and adding 
to their existing facilities, and by aiding teachers 
in the various institutions for the experimental 
and other work in these institutions as far as 
may be advisable. (2) To discover the excep¬ 
tional man in every department of study, when¬ 
ever and wherever found to enable him by fi¬ 
nancial aid to make the work for which he seems 
especially designed his life work. (3) To pro¬ 
mote original research, paying great attention 
thereto as being one of the chief purposes of this 
institution. (4) To increase the facilities for 
higher education. (5) To enable such students 
as may find Washington the best point for their 
special studies to avail themselves of such ad¬ 
vantages as may be open to them in the muse¬ 
ums, libraries, laboratories, observatory, me¬ 
teorological, piscicultural, and forestry schools 
and kindred institutions of the several depart¬ 
ments of the government. (6) To insure the 
prompt publication and distribution of the re¬ 
sults of scientific investigation, a field considered 
to be highly important. 

On January 29, 1902, the institution received 
from Mr. Carnegie a deed of gift of $10,000,000. 
In 1907, the foundation was increased to $12,- 
000,000. 

Carnivora. In Zoology, the name applied 
to the order of mammals which feed mainly upon 
flesh, and the majority of which are commonly 
known as Beasts of Prey. They are distin¬ 
guished by the adaptation of their teeth to an 
animal diet. The incisors or front teeth are 
generally six in each jaw; the canines or eye¬ 
teeth are two in each jaw, and are always long 
and pointed; the grinders are mostly furnished 
with sharp cutting edges, adapted for dividing 
flesh, but one or more of _ the hinder ones are 
generally furnished with a simple crown, adapted 
for bruising rather than for cutting. The feet 
in the Carnivora are always furnished with 
strong curved claws, and the collar-bones are 
quite rudimentary, or are altogether wanting. 
The order Carnivora is divided into the following 
three sections:— (1) Digitigrades, in which the 
heel is raised from the ground, and the animal 
walks upon tiptoe: to this section belong the 
dogs, the hyaenas, and the cats. (2) Planti¬ 
grades, in which the whole or nearly the whole 
of the foot is applied to the ground, so that the 
animal walks upon the soles of the feet: to this 
section belong the bears. (3) Pinnigrades, in 
which the both fore and hind legs are short, and 



SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


691 


the feet form broad webbed swimming paddles: 
this section comprises the seals and the walruses. 

Carotid Arteries. The two great arteries 
which convey the blood from the aorta to the 
head and brain. The common carotids, one on 
either side of the neck, divide each into an ex¬ 
ternal and an internal branch. The external 
carotid passes up to the level of the angle of the 
lower jaw, where it ends in branches to the neck, 
face, and outer parts of the head. The internal 
carotid passes deeply into the neck, and through 
an opening in the skull behind the ear enters the 
brain, supplying it and the eye wuth blood. 
Wounds of the carotid trunks cause almost im¬ 
mediate death. 

Catholic Church, Roman. The com¬ 
munity of Christians throughout the world 
who recognize the spiritual supremacy of the 
Pope or Bishop of Rome, and are united to¬ 
gether by the profession of the same faith and 
the participation of the same sacraments. Al¬ 
though a few other points of doctrinal differences 
separate the Roman Church from the Greek, 
Russian, and Oriental communions, yet the 
most palpable ground of division lies in the claim 
of supremacy in spiritual jurisdiction on the 
part of the Roman bishop. The history of the 
Roman Church, therefore, in relation to the 
Oriental Churches, is, in fact, the history of this 
claim to supremacy. 

In the minds of Roman Catholics the claim 
of supremacy on the part of the Bishop of Rome 
rests on the belief that Christ conferred on Peter 
a “primacy of jurisdiction”; that Peter fixed 
his see and died at Rome; and thus, that the 
Bishops of Rome, as successsor of Peter, have 
succeeded to his perogatives of supremacy. 
The letters of Pope Leo the Great show beyond 
question that the Bishops of Rome, in the com¬ 
mencement of the Fifth Century, claimed to 
speak and act with supreme authority; and the 
first direct challenge to this claim was made by 
the Patriarch of Constantinople, Acacius; and 
although Constantinople, in the time of Gregory 
the Great, and again of Nicholas I., renewed the 
struggle for supremacy, or even equality, the 
superior position of Rome continued to be recog¬ 
nized. The separation of the Greek Church and 
her dependencies, under the patriarch Michael 
Cerularius, in the year 1054, was but a narrowing 
of the territorial jurisdiction of Rome; and even 
Protestants have recognized the Roman Church 
of the mediaeval period as absorbing in itself al¬ 
most the whole of European Christendom, and 
as the only public representative of the Church 
in the West. The modern political institutions 
which then began to break upon the world so 
modified the public relations of Church and State 
as by degrees to undo the condition of society 
in which the temporal power of the popes had 
its foundation. The great revolution of the Six¬ 
teenth Century completed the process. Nor was 
the revolution with which the popes thus found 
themselves face to face without its influence in 
the external history of the Roman Church. The 
latter half of the Sixteenth Century was a period 
of new life in the Roman Church. The celebra¬ 
tion of local synods, the establishment of episco¬ 
pal seminaries, the organization of schools, and 
other provisions for religious instruction — 


above all, the foundation of active religious or¬ 
ders of both sexes — had the effect of arresting 
the progress of Protestantism, which in many 
countries had been at first rapid and decisive. 
From the end of the Sixteenth Century, therefore, 
the position of the Roman Catholic Church, 
especially in her external relations, may be re¬ 
garded as settled. The local distribution of the 
rival churches in the world has hardly been 
altered, except by migration, since that time. 
But in her relations to the state the Roman 
Church has since passed through a long and 
critical struggle. The new theories to which the 
French Revolution gave currency have still 
further modified these relations; but in most 
of the European kingdoms they were readjusted 
after 1815 either by concordat or by some similar 
mutual agreement. The details of the doctrinal 
system of the Roman Catholic Church will be best 
collected and explained from the latest authentic 
creed, that commonly called “the creed of Pius 
V.,” drawn up as a summary of the authoritative 
teaching of that ecclesiastical body till the time 
at which it was written, and published together 
with certain later doctrinal pronouncements. 
It is only necessary to premise that, while in 
the view of Catholics all doctrine must be based 
on the word of God, written or unwritten, the 
Church is the only authoritative judge of that 
rule of faith. The creed of Pius V. is as follows: 

“I, N. N., with a firm faith believe and pro¬ 
fess all and every one of these things which are 
contained in that creed which the holy Roman 
Church maketh use of. To wit: I believe in one 
God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and 
earth, of all things visible and invisible, and in 
one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of 
God, born of the Father before all ages; God of 
God, Light of Light; true God of the true God; 
begotten, not made; consubstantial with the 
Father, by whom all things were made. Who 
for us men, and for our salvation, came down 
from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy 
Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man. 
He was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate, 
suffered and was buried. And the t^jrd day he 
rose again according to the Scriptures: he as¬ 
cended into heaven, sitteth at the right hand of 
the Father, and shall come again with glory to 
judge ,the living and the dead; of whose king¬ 
dom there shall be no end. I believe in the Holy 
Ghost, the Lord and life-giver, who proceedeth 
from the Father and the Son; who, together 
with the Father and the Son, is adored and glori¬ 
fied; who spake by the prophets; and in one 
holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I confess 
one baptism for the remission of sins; and I look 
for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of 
the world to come. Amen.” 

The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception 
of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and a still more com¬ 
prehensive body of articles in the memorable 
Syllabus issued by Pope Pius IX. and in the de¬ 
crees of the Vatican Council, celebrated under 
the presidency of the same pontiff, have been 
added to the former creeds. The doctrinal de¬ 
cisions of this latter council are divided into two 
sections, the first “on the Catholic Faith,” the 
second “on the Church of Christ.” Each section 
contains “a scheme of doctrine,” in which the 



692 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


heads of belief, and the grounds on which they 
rest, are explained. In the scheme “upon the 
Church of Christ” are contained, in “an addi¬ 
tional chapter,” the celebrated declaration re¬ 
garding the infallibility of the pope. 

Under the generic name Roman Catholics are 
comprised all those Christians who acknowledge 
the supremacy of the Roman pontiff, even 
though they be not of the Roman or Latin Rite. 
Not a few individuals and churches of other 
rites are included under this designation, Greeks, 
Slavonians, Ruthenians, Syrians (including 
Maronites), Copts, and Armenians; and these 
communities are permitted to retain their own 
national liturgy and language, and for the most 
part their established discipline and usages. 
As regards its organization for the purposes of 
ecclesiastical government the normal territorial 
distribution of the Roman Catholic Church of 
the several rites in the various countries where 
it exists is into provinces, which are subject to 
archbishops, and are subdivided into bishoprics, 
each governed by its own bishop. The following 
summary shows the statistics of the Church in 
the United States: 

Archbishops, 14; Bishops, 98; clergy, 17,084; 
churches, 13,461; seminaries, 82; students, 
6,969; colleges for boys, 225; academies for 
girls, 696; parishes, with schools, 4,972; parish 
school, population, 1,270,131; orphan asylums, 
285; children in institutions, 1,482,699; total 
Catholic population under United States flag, 
22,474,440. 

Celibacy. The state of being celibate or 
unmarried; specially applied to the voluntary 
life of abstinence from marriage followed by 
many religious devotees and by some orders of 
clergy, as those of the Roman Catholic Church. 
The ancient Egyptian priests preserved a rigid 
chastity; the priestesses of ancient Greece- and 
Rome were pledged to perpetual virginity; and 
celibacy is the rule with the Buddhist priests 
of the Eas't. Among Christians the earliest 
aspirants to the spiritual perfection supposed to 
be attainable through celibacy were not ecclesias¬ 
tics as such, but hermits and anchorites who 
aimed at "Superior sanctity. During the first 
three centuries the marriage of the clergy was 
freely permitted, but by the Council of Elvira 
(305) continence was enjoined on all who served 
at the altar. For centuries this subject led to 
many struggles in the Church, but was finally 
settled by Gregory VII. positively forbidding 
the marriage of the clergy. The Council of Trent 
(1545) confirmed this rule. In the Greek Church 
celibacy is not compulsory on the ordinary clergy. 
Protestants hold that there is no moral superi¬ 
ority in celibacy over marriage, and that the 
Church has no right to impose such an obligation 
on any class of her ministers. 

Chemistry. The science which is con¬ 
cerned with the study of the properties of the 
different forms of matter, and their mutual 
reactions, just as Physics is concerned with the 
study of force and energy. It has developed 
from the alchemy of the Middle Ages. The 
chemist finds by actual experiment that he is 
able to divide all substances into two great 
classes, viz., compounds, which can be split up 
into two or more different substances of a sim¬ 


pler nature, and elements, which he cannot split 
up into anything differing from themselves. All 
the varied forms of matter which we see around 
us are produced by the combinations of these 
elementary substances. Combination between 
different substances is due to the existence of 
chemical attraction, or, as it is often called, 
chemical affinity, between the atoms of which 
they are composed. The exact nature of this 
attraction is not understood. It differs from 
heat, electricity, and other forms of energy, in 
that it entirely changes the properties of the 
substances between which it acts, and, inore- 
over, acts only between bodies which are in the 
most intimate possible contact. Chemical action 
consequently takes place most rapidly between 
gases, somewhat less rapidly between liquids, 
and much less rapidly between solids. Chemical 
changes may conveniently be classed under 
three heads: (1) Combination or synthesis, in 
which two or more substances combine to form 
a new compound of more complex composition; 
(2) Decomposition or analysis, in which a com¬ 
pound is split up into its constituent elements, 
or into other compounds of simpler nature ; (3) 
Double decomposition or metathesis, in which a 
reaction takes place between two or more com¬ 
pounds, accompanied by a mutual interchange 
of elements, and ending in the formation of a 
new series of compounds. The occurrence of 
chemical change is generally rendered evident 
by an alteration in the physical properties of 
the bodies affected by the change. In many 
cases there is development of heat, sometimes, 
if the reaction is very energetic, accompanied 
by the production of light. There may also be 
production, destruction, or change of color, 
conversion of solids or liquids into gases, or 
condensation of gases into solids or liquids, 
production of solids from liquids, or vice versa. 
The occurrence or non-occurrence of chemical 
change depends in the first place on the nature 
of the substances brought into contact, and also 
on certain physical conditions. In many cases 
the reaction takes place at ordinary tempera¬ 
tures, in others the substances have to be 
heated before any change occurs. On the other 
hand, substances which react on one another at 
ordinary temperatures are without action at 
very low temperatures. Further, many com¬ 
pounds are decomposed or split up when heated, 
and, indeed, heat is one of the main agents 
which bring about decomposition. Generally 
speaking, a moderately high temperature is 
favorable to combination or double decompo¬ 
sition, while a higher temperature tends to 
produce decomposition. Oxygen and mercury, 
for example, combine together directly only at 
a temperature approaching the boiling point of 
the latter, but if the oxide of mercury thus 
formed is still more strongly heated, it splits up 
again into its constituent elements. If two or 
more substances are brought together in a state 
of solution, and by their mutual reaction can 
produce a new substance insoluble in the partic¬ 
ular liquid used, then, with very few exceptions, 
this compound will be produced and will be pre¬ 
cipitated, or thrown out of solution. The pro¬ 
duction or non-production of chemical action is 
affected also by the relative quantities or masses 



SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 693 


in which the different substances are present, by 
the relative volatility, etc., of the bodies which 
may be formed, and by various other conditions, 
for a discussion of which reference must be made 
to special treatises on chemistry. It is found 
that, as a general rule, those elements most 
readily combine together which exhibit the 
greatest differences in their properties. Chlo¬ 
rine, for example, readily combines with sodium 
or antimony, but has very little attraction for 
bromine, which it closely resembles in many of 
its properties. It is found, moreover, that 
combination always takes place in certain defi¬ 
nite proportions, and not in any haphazard 
quantities. For example, 16 parts by weight of 
oxygen always combine with 2 parts of hydro¬ 
gen to form 18 parts of water, and 35.5 parts 
of chlorine always combine with 1 part of hy¬ 
drogen to form 36.5 parts hydrochloric acid. 
Indeed, it is possible to find by experiment for 
each element a number which always represents 
the proportion by weight in which it combines 
with other elements. This is termed its com¬ 
bining or atomic weight. Further, it is found 
that if a piece of iron is placed in a solution of 
sulphate of copper, metallic copper is deposited 
on the iron, whilst a portion of the latter is dis¬ 
solved, and for every 63.4 parts of copper depos¬ 
ited, 56 parts of iron are always dissolved. Again, 
when iron is placed in dilute sulphuric acid, 
hydrogen gas is given off and the metal is dis¬ 
solved, and it is found that for every 1 part of 
hydrogen given off, 28 parts of iron are dissolved. 
It follows that 56 parts of iron are capable of 
replacing, or are chemically equivalent to, 63.4 
parts of copper or two parts of hydrogen. Many 
examples of a similar kind might be quoted. 
Briefly, it is found that a certain definite quan¬ 
tity of each element is capable of combining 
with, or of replacing in compounds, certain 
definite quantities of other elements, and these 
are termed their chemical equivalents. For the 
sake of comparison, one part of hydrogen is 
usually taken as the standard to which all other 
equivalents are referred, and from the example 
given above it is evident that the equivalent of 
iron is 28, and so on. In some cases, the num¬ 
ber representing the equivalent of an element is 
the same as that representing its atomic weight; 
but in many cases, for reasons which cannot be 
entered into here, the latter is some simple 
multiple of the former. The equivalent is a 
quantity determined by actual experiment, the 
atomic weight is to a certain extent a matter of 
theory. A similar series of facts is observed in 
the case of compounds. For example, 56.1 parts 
of potash will neutralize as much acid as 40 parts 
of soda or 17 parts of ammonia; 56.1 parts of 
potash, 40 parts of soda, and 17 parts of am¬ 
monia, are therefore chemically equivalent to 
each other. Chemistry was formerly divided 
into two branches: Inorganic chemistry , or the 
chemistry of the mineral kingdom, and Organic 
chemistry, or the chemistry of the vegetable and 
animal kingdoms, i. e., of those substances which 
are produced by vital action. It was believed 
that there was an essential difference between 
the two, and that it was impossible to prepare 
artificially in the laboratory those compounds 
formed in the bodies of plants and animals. 


In 1828, however, the substance urea, a body 
essentially characteristic of vital action, was 
prepared artificially, and even built up from its 
elements, by the German chemist, Wohler. Since 
that time a large number of the compounds 
found in plants and animals have been produced 
from inorganic substances, or built up from 
other organic bodies, and it is now known that 
there is no essential difference whatever between 
organic and inorganic chemistry. The same 
forces are at work in both, subject to the same 
laws. One element, however, is contained in 
all organic bodies, viz, carbon. Carbon has the 
peculiar property of combining as it were with 
itself, and by virtue of this property it gives 
rise to an enormous number of derivatives, 
some of very complex composition and consti¬ 
tution. Simply for the purposes of study, these 
are still classed together under the head of 
Organic chemistry, which is defined as the chem¬ 
istry of the carbon compounds. The greater num¬ 
ber of the carbon compounds now known are 
artificial products which do not occur in nature. 
The majority of them may be regarded as de¬ 
rived from the hydro-carbons by the replace¬ 
ment of one or more atoms of hydrogen by some 
other element or group of elements. Amongst 
the most important of the series thus derived are 
the haloid derivatives, alcohols, ethers, acids, alde¬ 
hydes, ketones, and amines. There are, however, 
important groups of substances, the relation¬ 
ships of which are not yet clearly made out. 
Amongst these are the carbo-hydrates and the 
alkeloids. The constitution and relationships 
of the prote'ids or albuminoid substances, and of 
some others found only in the bodies of plants 
or animals, are still less understood. Notwith¬ 
standing the differences already alluded to, 
chemical attraction is closely related to the 
various forms of energy, and, indeed, is itself 
a form of potential energy. Of late years, the 
study of the changes in the distribution of energy 
which accompany chemical change has become 
of great importance. Chemical combination is 
in the majority of cases accompanied by devel¬ 
opment of heat, and the quantity of heat thus 
developed by the formation of a given weight 
of a particular substance is always the same, 
and the decomposition of any compound re¬ 
quires the expenditure, in the form of heat or 
otherwise, of exactly the same amount of energy 
as was liberated by its formation. On the other 
hand, the formation of some compounds is at¬ 
tended by absorption of heat, and exactly the 
same amount of heat is liberated when the com¬ 
pound decomposes. That branch of the science 
which deals specially with the development or 
obsorption of heat which accompanies chemical 
reactions is termed thermo-chemistry. It is found 
that those compounds in the formation of which 
the greatest amount of heat is developed or set 
free are the most stable, i. e., the most difficult 
to decompose, and vice versa. Further, when 
several substances which theoretically can react 
in several different ways, producing several 
different compounds, are mixed together, it is 
always found that those bodies are produced in 
the formation of which the greatest amount of 
heat is developed. This important law is known 
as the principle of maximum work. 



694 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


TABLE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS 


Element 

Sym¬ 

bol 

Atomic 

Weight 

0=16 

Discoverer 

Year 

Specific 

Gravity* 

Fusing or 
Melting Point* 

Aluminium. .... 

A1 

27.1 

Wohler. 

1828 

2.58 

627° C., 1,160° F. 

Antimony (stibium),. 

Sb 

120.2 

Valentine,. 

1450 

6.70 

432° C., 808° F. 

Argon,. 

A 

39.88 

Rayleigh and Ramsay,. . . 

1894 

1.5f 

-128° C. 

Arsenic. 

As 

74.96 

Schroder. 

1694 

5.71 

About 500° C., 932° F. 

Barium,. 

Ba 

137.37 

Davy, Berzelius, Pontin, . . 

1808 

3.75 

Above redness. 

Bismuth,. 

Bi 

208. 

Valentine,. 

1450 

9.80 

268° C., 517" F. 

Boron,. 

B 

11. 

Davy, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, 

1808 

2.6 

Very high. 

Bromine. 

Br 

79.92 

Balard,. 

1826 

3.19 

-7.2° C., -20° F. 

Cadmium. 

Cd 

112.40 

Hermann and Stromeyer, . 

1817 

8.65 

321° C., 609° F. 

Caesium,. 

Cs 

132.81 

Bunsen and Kirchhoff, . . 

1860 

1.88 

26.5° C., 80° F. 

Calcium,. 

Ca 

40.07 

Davy, Berzelius, Pontin, . . 

1808 

1.6 to 1.8 

Bright redness. 

Carbon,. 

C 

12. 



3.52 J 

Infusible. 

Cerium,. 

Ce 

140.25 

Berzelius, Hisinger, Klaproth, 

1803 

6.7 

Below silver. 

Chlorine,. 

Cl 

35.46 

Davy,. 

1810 

1.33f 

-75.6° C., -103° F. 

Chromium,. 

Cr 

52. 

Vauquelin. 

1797 

7.3 

Above platinum. 

Cobalt,. 

Co 

58.97 

Brandt,. 

1733 

8.96 

1,500° C., 2,732° F. 

Columbium (niobium), 

Cb 

93.5 

Hatchett,. 

1801 

Above 7 

m. p.«| 1,950° F. 

Copper (cuprum), . . 

Cu 

63.57 



8.9 

1,054° C., 1,931° F. 

Dysprosium. 

Dy 

162.5 

Urbain,. 

1906 



Erbium,. 

Er 

167.7 

Mosander,. 

1843 

-4.8 


Europium,. 

Eu 

152. 

Demarcay,. 

1901 



Fluorine. 

F 

19. 

Ampere. 

1810 

1.1 

b. p.H 187° F. 

Gadolinium, .... 

Gd 

157.3 

Marignac,. 

1886 



Gallium,. 

Ga 

69.9 

Boisbaudran,. 

1875 

5.95 

30.1° C., 86° F. 

Germanium,. 

Ge 

72.5 

Winkler,. 

1886 

5.47 

900° C., 1,652° F. 

Glucinum (beryllium), 

G1 

9.1 



1.9 


Gold (aurum), . . . 

Au 

197.2 



19.3 

1,045° C., 1,913° F. 

Helium,. 

He 

3.99 




b. p. 268° F. 

Hydrogen. 

H 

1.008 

Cavendish, . 

1766 

0.025t 

-200° C„ -328° F. 

Indium. 

In 

114.8 

Reich and Richter. 

1863 

7.4 

176° C., 348° F. 

Iodine,. 

I 

126.92 

Courtois. 

1811 

4.95 

114° C., 238° F. 

Iridium,. 

Ir 

193.1 

Tennant, . 

1804 

22.4 

1,950° C., 3,542° F. 

Iron (ferrum), . . . 

Fe 

55.84 



8.0 

1,600° C., 2,912° F. 

Krypton,. 

Kr 

82.92 

Ramsay and Travers, . . . 

1898 

2.2 

b.p. 169°, m. p. 152°F 

Lanthanum. 

La 

139. 

Mosander. 

1839 

6.1 


Lead (plumbum), . . 

Pb 

207.1 



11.36 

326° C., 850° F. 

Lithium, . 

Li 

6.94 

Arfvedson,. 

1817 

0.585 

180° C., 356° F. 

Lutecium,. 

Lu 

174. 

Urbain,. 

1907 



Magnesium, .... 

Mg 

24.32 

Davy,. 

1808 

1.75 

About 430° C., 806° F. 

Manganese,. 

Mn 

54.93 

Gahn,. 

1774 

7.2 

Above iron. 

Mercu-ry (hydrargyrum 

Hg 

200.6 



13.596 

-38.8° C., -38° F. 

Molybdenum, . . . 

Mo 

96. 

Hjelm, . 

1782 

8.6 

Very high. 

Neodymium, .... 

Nd 

144.3 

Welsbach,. 

1885 

About 6.5 


Neon,. 

Ne 

20.2 

Ramsay and Travers, . . . 

1898 


b. p. 240° F. 

Nickel,. 

Ni 

58.68 

Cronstedt,. 

1751 

8.9 

1,450° C., 2,642° F. 

Niton,. 

Nt 

222.4 

Ramsay and Gray, .... 

1910 



Nitrogen,. 

N 

14.01 

Rutherford,. 

1772 

0.38" 


Osmium, . 

Os 

190.9 

Tennant, . 

1803 

22.48 

Nearly infusible. 

Oxygen,. 

O 

16. 

Priestley. 

1774 

1.118 


Palladium,. 

Pd 

106.7 

Wollaston,. 

1803 

12.1 

1,500° C., 2,732° F. 

Phosphorus, .... 

P 

31.04 

Brandt,. 

1669 

1.84 

44.2° C., 112° F. ' 

Platinum,. 

Pt 

195.2 

Wood,. 

1741 

21.5 

1,775° C., 3,225° F. 

Potassium (kalium), 

K 

39.10 

Davy,. 

1807 

0.86 

62.5° C., 144.5° F. 

Praseody'mium, . . . 

Pr 

140.6 

Welsbach,. 

1885 

About 6.5 


Radium. 

Ra 

226.4 

Curie (Mr. and Mrs.) ,Bemont, 

1898 


> 

Rhodium,. 

Rh 

102.9’ 

Wollaston,. 

1804 

12.1 

2,000° C., 3,632° F. 

Rubidium. 

Rb 

85.45 

Bunsen. 

1860 

1.52 

38.5° C., 101.5° F. 

Ruthenium. 

Ru 

101.7 

Claus,. 

1845 

12.26 

Nearly infusible. 

Samarium,. 

Sm 

150.4 

Boisbaudran,. 

1879 

7.8 


Scandium,. 

Sc 

44.1 

Nilson,. 

1879 



Selenium. 

Se 

79.2 

Berzelius,. 

1817 

4.5 

217° C., 425° F. 

Silicon,. 

Si 

28.3 

Berzelius,. 

1823 

2.48 

Above 800°C.,1,500°F. 

Silver (argentum), . 

Ag 

107.88 



10.5 

954° C., 1,750° F. 

Sodium (natrium), . 

Na 

23. 

Davy. 

1807 

0.97 

95.6° C., 204° F. 

Strontium,. 

Sr 

87.63 

Davy,. 

1808 

2.5 

Red heat. 

Sulphur,. 

S 

32.07 



2.07 

114.5° C., 235° F. 

Tantalum,. 

Ta 

181.5 

Hatchett and Ekeberg, . . 

1802 

Above 10 


Tellurium,. 

Te 

127.5 

Reichenstein,. 

1782 

6.23 

455° C., 851° F. 

Terbium,. 

Tb 

159.2 

Mosander,. 

1843 



Thallium,. 

T1 

204. 

Crookes and Lamy, .... 

1862 

11.19 

239.9° C., 561° F. 

Thorium,. 

Th 

232.4 

Berzelius. 

1828 

11.2 

Almost infusible. 

Thulium. 

Tu 

168.5 

Cleve. 

1879 



Tin (stannum), . . . 

Sn 

119. 



7.25 

233° C„ 551° F. 

Titanium,. 

Ti 

48.1 

Gregor. 

1789 

3.5 

Not fusible. 

Tungsten(wolfram’m) 

W 

184. 

d’Elhujar. 

1781 

19.26 

Very high. 

Uranium,. 

U 

238.5 

Klaproth,. 

1789 

18.69 

Very high. 

Vanadium,. 

V 

51. ' 

Sefstroem,. 

1830 

5.87 

In oxyhydric flame. 

Xenon,. 

Xe 

130.2 

Ramsay,. 

1898 

3.5 


Ytterbium,. 

Yb 

172. 

Marignac,. 

1878 



Yttrium,. 

Yt 

89. 

Wohler,. 

1828 

3.8 


Zinc (zincum), . . . 

Zn 

65.37 

Paracelsus, . 

1520 

7.12 

433° C., 811.5° F. 

Zirconium. 

Zr 

90.6 

Berzelius. 

1824 

4.15 

Above sulphur. 


* The factors in the columns of specific gravities and melting points naturally vary with the form which the 
element takes (e. g., in carbon the specific gravity varies as diamond, charcoal, or lampblack is taken), but as far 
as possible the factor of the most typical form is given. 

t Of the liquid element. t Diamond. " Of the liquid at 0° C. 

§ Of the liquid at - 181 ° C. t b. p.— boiling point; m. p. — melting point, Fahrenheit. 















































































































































SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


695 


Christ, Disciples of. A denomination 
of Christians in the United States commonly 
known as the Christian Church, or Church of 
Christ, and sometimes called Campbellites. In 
September, 1809, Thomas Campbell, a Scotch 
minister of the seceders’ branch of the Presby¬ 
terian Church, then living in Western Pennsyl¬ 
vania, issued a “Declaration and Address” de¬ 
ploring the divided state of the Church, and 
urging as the only remedy a complete restora¬ 
tion of apostolic Christianity and the rejection 
of all human creeds and confessions of faith. 
The Christian Association of Washington, Pa., 
was formed for the purpose of promoting the 
principles set forth in this “declaration.” It 
was not the intention of the Campbellites to 
form a distinct religious body, but to effect 
the proposed reforms in the Churches. The 
Disciples maintained that having accepted 
the Bible as their only rule of faith and 
practice, and the only divine basis for the 
union of all Christians, they were led to reject 
infant baptism and adopt believers’ immersion 
only. They observe the Lord’s Supper each 
first day of the week, and heartily and practi¬ 
cally accept and exalt the doctrine of the 
divinity of Christ. In 1911 the denomination 
had 8,545 ministers, 13,929 churches, and 1,- 
519,774 communicants, besides several universi¬ 
ties and colleges of high rank, and a number 
of religious publications. 

Christian Endeavor, Young Peo¬ 
ple’s Society of. A society distinctly re¬ 
ligious in all its features; organized February 2, 
1881, in Williston Church, Portland, Me., by the 
Rev. Francis E. Clark, D. D. From one small 
association it expanded, up to 1911, into over 
79,077 societies, in all parts of the world, with 
an aggregate membership of 3,953,850. In ad¬ 
dition to the main organizations in the United 
States it has been found necessary to form 
branches, among which are the Juniors, organ¬ 
ized March 27, 1884, at Tabor, la., by the Rev. 
J. W. Cowan and Miss Belle Smith; the Inter¬ 
mediate, organized by the Rev. A. Z. Conrad, 
of Worcester, Mass.; and the Mothers’, sug¬ 
gested by Mrs. Amanda B. Fellows, of Chicago, 
and organized in April, 1893, at Topeka, Kan., 
by F. C. Barton. The first Christian En¬ 
deavor Society in England was organized in 
1887, and was followed by similar ones in 
other countries; the constitution has been 
printed in over thirty different languages. The 
movement is not a denominational one. Any 
society belonging to an evangelical Church, 
which adopts the leading principles as set forth 
in the constitution, is admitted to all the priv¬ 
ileges of the organization. 

Christianity. The religion instituted by 
Jesus Christ. Though the great moral principles 
which it reveals and teaches, and the main doc¬ 
trines of the gospel, have been preserved without 
interruption, the genius of the different nations 
and ages have materially colored its character. 
The first community of the followers of Jesus 
was formed at Jerusalem soon after the death 
of their Master. Another at Antioch in Syria 
first assumed (about 65) the name of Christians; 
and the travels of the apostles spread Chris¬ 
tianity through the provinces of the Roman 


Empire. Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, 
the islands of the Mediterranean, Italy, and the 
northern coast of Africa, as early as the First 
Century, contained societies of Christians. At 
the end of the Third Century almost one-half of 
the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, and of 
several neighboring countries, professed this be¬ 
lief. While Christianity as a system was thus 
spreading, many heretical branches had sprung 
from the main trunk. From the Gnostics, who 
date from the days of the apostles, to the Nes- 
torians of the Fifth Century, the number of 
sects was large, and some of them exist to the 
present day. The most important events in the 
subsequent history of Christianity are the sepa¬ 
ration of the Eastern and Western Churches 
early in the Eighth Century; and the Western 
reformation, which may be said to have com¬ 
menced with the sectaries of the Thirteenth 
Century and ended with the establishment of 
Protestantism in the Sixteenth. The number of 
Christians now in the world is computed at 
477,000,000. Of these about 230,000,000 are 
Roman Catholics, 98,000,000 belong to the Greek 
Church, and 145,000,000 are Protestants. Of 
the various sects of Protestants in the English- 
speaking world the most numerous are the Epis¬ 
copalians, Methodists, Baptists, and Presby¬ 
terians. 

Christian Science, a religious and scien¬ 
tific system discovered in 1866 by Mrs. Mary 
Baker Eddy, Lynn, Mass., practiced by thou¬ 
sands of disciples in America and Europe. The 
members acknowledge and adore one Supreme 
God, taking the Scriptures for their guide. 
They confess God’s Son, and the Holy Ghost, 
and man as the Divine image and likeness. 
They hold that Christian Science is the expli¬ 
cation of Truth which is a power over all error, 
sin, sickness, and death. The curative system 
is spoken of as Christian Science Mind Healing, 
being based on the understanding of Spirit, 
divine Mind, as the only Cause. In her 
book, “Retrospection and Introspection,” Mrs. 
Eddy says: “ I claim for healing scientifically 
the following advantages: (1) It does away 
with all material medicines and recognizes the 
antidote for all sickness, as well as sin, in the 
immortal Mind; and mortal mind as the source 
of all the ills which befall mortals. (2) It is more 
effectual than drugs, and cures when they fail, 
or only relieve, thus proving the superiority of 
metaphysics over physics. (3) A person healed 
by Christian Science is not only healed of his 
disease, but he is advanced morally and spiritu¬ 
ally. The mortal body being but the object¬ 
ive state of the mortal mind, this mind must 
be renovated to improve the body.” The 
absence of creed and dogma in the Christian 
Science Church, its freedom from materialism, 
mysticism, and superstition, also the simplicity, 
uniformity, and impersonality of its form of 
worship and organization are among the dis¬ 
tinguishing features which characterize this 
modem religious movement. Hypnotism, mes¬ 
merism, spiritualism, theosophy, faith cure, and 
kindred systems are foreign to true Christian 
Science. Those practicing these beliefs are 
denied admission to the Christian Science 
Church. 



696 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


In June, 1906, the $2,000,000 extension of the 
Mother Church, the First Church of Christ Sci¬ 
entist, in Boston, was dedicated. At the annual 
meeting, June, 1907, an increase of 4,000 mem¬ 
bers over the previous year was reported. The 
total membership, resident and non-resident, 
was given at 43,876. It is estimated that at 
present. there are upward of 1,100 churches 
and societies of this denomination in the United 
States, with a membership of, approximately, 
86 , 000 . 

Chronology (Greek chronos, time, and 
logos, discourse). The science which treats 
of time, and has for its object the arrange¬ 
ment and exhibition of historical events in 
order of time and the ascertaining of the 
intervals between them. Its basis is necessarily 
the method of measuring or computing time 
by regular divisions or periods, according to 
the revolutions of the earth or moon. The 
motions of these bodies produce the natural 
division of time into years, months, and days. 
As there can be no exact computation of 
time or placing of events without a fixed point 
from which to start, dates are fixed from an 
arbitrary point or epoch, which forms the be¬ 
ginning of an era. The more important of 
these are the creation of the world among the 
Jews; the birth of Christ among Christians; 
the Olympiads among the Greeks; the building 
of Rome among the Romans; the Hejira or 
flight of Mohammed among the Mohammedans, 
etc. 


BEGINNING OF EPOCHS, ERAS, AND 
PERIODS 


Name 


Began 


Grecian Mundane Era,.B.C. 

Civil Era of Constantinople.“ 

Alexandrian Era,.“ 

Julian Period,.“ 

Mundane Era, . ..' 

Jewish Mundane Era. 

Era of Abraham.“ 

Era of the Olympiads.“ 

Roman Era (A. U. C.).“ 

Metonic Cycle.“ 

Grecian or Syro-Macedonian Era, . . 

Era of Maccabees,. 

Tyrian Era.“ 

Sidonian Era.“ 

Julian Year, ..“ 

Spanish Era,.“ 

Augustan Era,.“ 

Vulgar Christian Era,.A.D 

Destruction of Jerusalem,.“ 

Mohammedan Era.“ 


5598, Sept. 1 
5508, Sept. 1 
5502, Aug. 29 
4713, Jan. 1 
4008, Oct. 1 
3761, Oct. 1 
2015, Oct. 1 
776, July 1 
753, April 24 
432, July 15 
312, Sept. 1 
166, Nov. 24 
125, Oct. 19 
110, Oct. 1 
45, Jan. 1 
38, Jan. 1 
27, Feb. 14 
1, Jan. 1 
69, Sept. 1 
622, July 16 


Chrysalis ( kris'ah-lis ). A name strictly 
belonging to those pupce of butterflies which are 
adorned with golden spots, but extended to the 
pupae of lepidopterous insects generally. The 
chrysalis is inclosed in a somewhat horny mem¬ 
branous case; sometimes very angular, some¬ 
times nearly round; generally pointed at the 
abdominal end, sometimes at both ends; and 
before the caterpillar undergoes its transforma¬ 
tion into this state it often spins for itself a silken 
cocoon, with which earth and other foreign sub¬ 
stances are sometimes mixed, so as to increase 
its size, and within which the chrysalis is con¬ 
cealed. Chrysalis are often suspended by cords, 
and generally remain nearly at rest; some have 
the power of burying themselves in the earth; 
others are bound by a single silken thread which 


passes round their middle; some twirl them¬ 
selves round when touched, or when the stalk or 
leaf to which they are suspended is touched; 
and, in general, they give signs of life, when dis¬ 
turbed, by violent contortions of the abdominal 
part. 

Cinematograph. A continuous band of 
instantaneous photographs which are by means 
of an arrangement similar to that of a magic lan¬ 
tern projected on a screen in such rapid suc¬ 
cession that the image of one remains on the 
retina till it is succeeded by the next, and 
so the pictures are blended and suggest the 
moving object or objects originally photo¬ 
graphed— a horse race, a moving crowd, 
dancing, etc. 

Circulation. The natural motion of the 
blood in a living animal, by which it proceeds 
from the heart to all parts of the body by the 
arteries, and returns to the heart by the veins. 
The circulation of the blood is performed in the 
following manner: It is returned to the right 
auricle of the heart by the descending and ascend¬ 
ing vena cava, which, when distended, contracts 
and sends it into the right ventricle; from the 
right ventricle it is propelled through the pul¬ 
monary artery, to circulate through and undergo 
a change in the lungs, being prevented from re¬ 
turning into the right auricle by the closing of 
valves. Having undergone this change in the 
lungs, it is brought to the left auricle of the heart 
by the four pulmonary veins, and thence is 
evacuated into the left ventricle. The left 
ventricle, after having been distended, con¬ 
tracts, and throws the blood through the 
aorta to every part of the body, by the arteries, 
to be returned by the veins into the vena cava. 
It is prevented from passing back from the 
left ventricle into the auricle by a valvular 
apparatus; and the beginning of the pulmonary 
artery and aorta is also furnished with similar 
organs, which prevent its returning into the 
ventricles. 

Cloud. A collection of visible vapor or 
watery particles suspended in the atmosphere 
at some altitude. They differ from fogs 
only by their height and less degree of trans¬ 
parency. The average height of clouds is cal¬ 
culated to be two and one-half miles, thin 
and light clouds being much higher than the 
highest mountains, while thick heavy clouds 
often touch low mountains, steeples, and even 
trees. Clouds differ much in form and char¬ 
acter, but are generally classed into three 
simple or primary forms, viz., (1) The cirrus, 
so called from its resemblance to a lock of 
hair, and consisting of fibers which diverge 
in all directions. Clouds of this description 
float at a great height, usually from three to 
five miles above the earth’s surface. (2) The cu¬ 
mulus or heap, a cloud which assumes the form 
of dense convex or conical heaps, resting on a 
flattish base, called also summer cloud. Under 
ordinary circumstances these clouds accompany 
fine weather, especially in the heat of summer. 
They attain their greatest size early in the after¬ 
noon and gradually decrease towards sunset. 
(3) The stratus, so named from its spreading 
out. uniformly in a horizontal layer, which 
receives all its augmentations of volume from 























SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


697 


below. It belongs essentially to the night, and 
is frequently seen on calm summer evenings 
after sunset ascending from the lower to the 
higher grounds, and dispersing in the form of a 
cumulus at sunrise. These three primary forms 
of clouds are subdivided as follows: (1) The 
cirro-cumulus, composed of a collection of cirri, 
and spreading itself frequently over the sky in 
the form of beds of delicate snow-flakes. (2) 
The cirro-stratus or wane-cloud, so called from 
its being generally seen slowly sinking, and in a 
state of transformation; when seen in the dis¬ 
tance, a collection of these clouds suggests the 
resemblance of a shoal of fish, and the sky, when 
thickly mottled with them, is called in popular 
language a mackerel sky. (3) The cumulo-stratus 
or twain-cloud, one of the grandest and most 
beautiful of clouds, and consisting of a collection 


of large fleecy clouds overhanging a flat stratum 
or base. (4) The nimbus, cumulo-cirro-stratus, 
or rain-cloud, recognizable, according to Mr. 
Howard, by its fibrous border and uniformly 
gray aspect. It is a dense cloud spreading out 
into a crown of cirrus and passing beneath into 
a shower. It presents one of the least attractive 
appearances among clouds, but it is only when 
the dark surface of this cloud forms its back¬ 
ground that the splendid phenomenon of the 
rainbow is exhibited in perfection. 

College Fraternities. Societies existing 
in American colleges which are named from the 
letters of the Greek alphabet and therefore com¬ 
monly called “ Greek Letter Societies.” They 
are secret organizations only in their grips and 
passwords. They are organized chiefly for liter¬ 
ary and social purposes. 


GENERAL FRATERNITIES FOR MEN 


Fraternity 

Member¬ 

ship 

Active 

Chapters 

Inactive 

Chapters 

No. 

Houses 

Where and When Founded 

Alpha Chi Rho. 

882 

12 

0 

12 

Trinity, 1895. 

Alpha Delta Phi,. 

11,424 

25 

7 

23 

Hamilton, 1832. 

Alpha Sigma Phi,. 

878 

10 

0 

10 

Yale, 1846. 

Alpha Tau Omega,. 

10,128 

62 

24 

51 

Virginia Military Institute, 1865. 

Beta Theta Pi,. 

18,371 

72 

22 

69 

Miami, 1839. 

Chi Phi. 

5,762 

21 

14 

19 

Princeton, 1854. 

Chi Psi,. 

5,324 

18 

12 

18 

Union, 1841. 

Delta Kappa Epsilon, .... 

17,683 

42 

14 

38 

Yale, 1844. 

Delta Phi,. 

3,995 

12 

5 

11 

Union, 1827. 

Delta Psi,. 

3,755 

7 

12 

7 

Columbia, 1847. 

Delta Sigma Phi,. 

731 

9 

4 

6 

College, City of New York, 1901. 

Delta Tau Delta,. 

11,321 

56 

25 

52 

Bethany, 1859. 

Delta Upsilon,. 

11,656 

40 

4 

38 

Williams, 1834. 

Kappa Alpha (North). 

1,977 

7 

2 

7 

Union, 1825. 

Kappa Alpha (South), .... 

8,258 

47 

16 

30 

Washington and Lee, 1865. 

Kappa Sigma. 

11,298 

79 

20 

62 

University of Virginia, 1869. 

Phi Delta Theta. 

17,845 

74 

26 

69 

Miami, 1848. 

Phi Gamma Delta,. 

15,290 

59 

25 

54 

Washington and Jefferson, 1848. 

Phi Kappa Psi,. 

12,602 

43 

20 

43 

Washington and Jefferson, 1852. 

Phi Kappa Sigma,. 

4,693 

27 

17 

26 

University of Pennsylvania, 1850. 

Phi Sigma Kappa,. 

3,363 

27 

0 

20 

Mass. Agricultural College, 1873. 

Pi Kappa Alpha,. 

2,934 

33 

11 

20 

University of Virginia, 1868. 

Psi Upsilon,. 

12,093 

23 

1 

22 

Union, 1833. 

Sigma Alpha Epsilon, .... 

14,784 

72 

30 

52 

University of Alabama, 1856. 

Sigma Chu,. 

11,925 

64 

23 

42 

Miami, 1855. 

Sigma Nu,. 

9,227 

67 

12 

59 

Virginia Military Institute, 1869. 

Sigma Phi. 

2,744 

10 

2 

10 

Union, 1827. 

Sigma Phi Epsilon,. 

2,039 

29 

10 

21 

Richmond College, 1901. 

Sigma Pi. 

' 257 

6 

1 

0 

Vincennes University, 1897. 

Theta Chi,. 

930 

10 

0 

10 

Norwich University, 1856. 

Theta Delta Chi. 

6,389 

26 

15 

24 

Union, 1848. 

Theta Xi (Eng. Scien.),. . . . 

1,477 

14 

0 

14 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst., 1864. 

Zeta Beta Tau,. 

715 

19 

- 2 

2 

College, City of New York, 1898. 

Zeta Psi,. 

7,476 

24 

10 

19 

New York University, 1847. 

Total,. 

250,226 

1,146 

386 

960 



FRATERNITIES FOR WOMEN 


Fraternity 

Member¬ 

ship 

Active 

Chapters 

Inactive 

Chapters 

No. 

Houses 

Where and When Founded 

Alpha Chi Omega. 

2,020 

18 

1 

13 

De Pauw University, 1885. 

Alpha Gamma Delta, .... 

537 

9 

1 

5 

Syracuse University, 1904. 

Alpha Omicron Pi. 

881 

14 

0 

6 

Barnard College, 1897. 

Alpha Phi,. 

2,316 

17 

0 

10 

Syracuse University, 1872. 

Alpha Xi Delta,. 

1,082 

16 

0 

9 

Lombard College, 1893. 

Beta Sigma Omicron. 

713 

13 

6 

3 

Missouri State University, 1888. 

Chi Omega,. 

2,181 

24 

4 

13 

University of Arkansas, 1895. 

Delta Delta Delta. 

3,152 

38 

3 

16 

Boston University, 1888. 

Delta Gamma,. 

3,121 

22 

12 

14 

University of Mississippi, 1872. 

Gamma Phi Beta,. 

1,221 

14 

0 

11 

Syracuse University, 1874. 

Kappa Alpha Theta,. 

4,876 

33 

11 

18 

De Pauw University, 1870. 

Kappa Delta,. 

1,006 

15 

4 

2 

Virginia State Normal, 1897. 

Kappa Kappa Gamma. 

5,626 

36 

10 

18 

Monmouth College, 1870. 

Phi Mu. 

1,705 

9 

4 

2 

Wesleyan College, 1852. 

Pi Beta Phi,. 

6,253 

43 

7 

20 

Monmouth College, 1867. 

Sigma Kappa. 

884 

10 

1 

4 

Colby College, 1874. 

Sigma Sigma Sigma,. 

652 

6 

5 

0 

Virginia State Normal, 1898. 

Zeta Tau Alpha. 

655 

12 

5 

0 

Virginia State Normal, 1898. 

Total. 

38,881 

349 

74 

164 






















































































698 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES 

“ U. ” means “University”; “ P. I.” means “Polytechnic Institute.” 


TABLE I.—STATISTICS OF UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 


Founded 

Name of 
Institution 

Location 

Denominational 

Control 

No. of In¬ 

structors 

No. OF 

Students 

Value of 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

1896 

Adelphi. 

Brooklyn, N. Y., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

*30 

*458 

*$750,000 

1861 

Albion,. 

Albion, Mich., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal,. 

26 

501 

537,000 

1881 

Albright,. 

Myerstown, Penn., . 

Evangelical,. 

20 

214 

200,000 

1836 

Alfred U.,. 

Alfred, N. Y., ... 

Non-sectarian. ... 

34 

400 

550,000 

1815 

Allegheny. 

Meadville, Penn., . . 

Methodist Episcopal. 

20 

364 

1,500,000 

1880 

Allen. 

Columbia, S. C., . . 

African Methodist,. 

19 

684 

200,000 

1886 

Alma,. 

Alma, Mich., .... 

Presbyterian,. 

29 

302 

600,000 

1885 

Amer’n Internation’l, 

Springfield, Mass., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

15 

100 

125,000 

1893 

Am. U. of Har’man, 

Harriman, Tenn., . . 

Christian,. 

11 

285 

50,000 

1821 

Amherst,. 

Amherst, Mass., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

47 

480 

3,500,000 

1853 

Antioch,. 

Yellow Springs, O., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

16 

264 

300,000 

1891 

Ark. Cumberland, . 

Clarksville, Ark., . . 

Presbyterian. 

9 

218 

100,000 

1867 

Atlanta Baptist, . . 

Atlanta, Ga., .... 

Baptist. 

18 

265 

160,000 

1867 

Atlanta U., . . . . 

Atlanta, Ga. 

Non-sectarian,. 

23 

394 

361,000 

1869 

Augsburg Seminary, 

Minneapolis, Minn., . 

Lutheran. 

14 

150 

150,000 

1860 

Augustana C. & T. S., 

Rock Island, Ill., . . 

Lutheran,. 

40 

555 

746,000 

1849 

Austin. 

Sherman, Tex., . . . 

Presbyterian,. 

12 

216 

500,000 

1858 

Baker,. 

Baldwin, Kan., . . 

Methodist Episcopal. 

35 

497 

554,000 

1846 

Baldwin U., . . . . 

Berea, O. 

Methodist Episcopal. 

18 

370 

375,000 

1863 

Bates. 

Lewiston, Me., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

24 

485 

1,000,000 

1845 

Baylor U.,. 

Waco, Tex. 

Baptist,. 

90 

1,434 

690,000 

1853 

Beaver. 

Beaver, Penn., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal. 

17 

200 

150,000 

1880 

Bellevue. 

Bellevue, Neb., . . . 

Presbyterian. 

20 

170 

200,000 

1846 

Beloit,. 

Beloit, Wis. 

Non-sectarian. 

31 

391 

1,730,000 

1855 

Berea,. 

Berea, Ky., .... 

Non-sectarian. 

70 

1,426 

1,500,000 

1840 

Bethany. 

Bethany, W. Va., . . 

Disciples,. 

24 

348 

555,000 

1881 

Bethany. 

Lindsborg, Kan., . . 

Lutheran,. 

48 

886 

268,000 

1854 

Bethel,. 

Russellville, Ky., . . 

Baptist,. 

10 

135 

200,000 

1867 

Biddle U. 

Charlotte, N. C., . . 

Presbyterian,.. 

15 

212 

300,000 

1864 

Blackburn, .... 

Carlinville, Ill., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

12 

150 

210,000 

1863 

Boston. 

Boston, Mass., . . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

30 

865 

250,000 

1869 

Boston U., .... 

Boston, Mass., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal,. 

161 

1,274 

2,300,000 

1794 

Bowdoin. 

Brunswick, Me., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

64 

398 

3,237,000 

1856 

Bowdon. 

Bowdon, Ga. 

Non-sectarian. 

10 

205 

40,000 

1880 

Bridgewater, . . . 

Bridgewater, Va., . . 

Brethren,. 

19 

200 

125,000 

1877 

Brigham Young, . . 

Logan, Utah, . . . 

Latter Day Saints,. 

29 

600 

200,000 

1764 

Brown U.,. 

Providence, R. I., 

Non-sectarian,. 

85 

931 

5,000,000 

1870 

Buchtel,. 

Akron, O.,. 

Non-sectarian,. 

17 

282 

380,000 

1846 

Bucknell U. 

Lewisburg, Penn., 

Non-sectarian,. 

45 

686 

1,065,000 

1891 

Buena Vista, . . . 

Storm Lake, la., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

8 

200 

165,000 

1895 

Burleson,. 

Greenville, Tex., . . 

Baptist,. . 

13 

248 

35,000 

1850 

Butler. 

Indianapolis, Ind., . 

Non-sectarian. 

24 

540 

700,000 

1903 

Campbell,. 

Holton, Kan., . . . 

United Brethren. 

16 

406 

250,000 

1870 

Canisius,. 

Buffalo, N. Y., . . . 

Roman Catholic. 

24 

502 

535,000 

1830 

Capital U., .... 

Columbus, O., . . . 

Lutheran,. 

11 

124 

225,000 

1866 

Carleton. 

Northfield, Minn., 

Non-sectarian,. 

25 

341 

950,000 

1850 

Carson and Newman, 

Jefferson City, Tenn., 

Baptist,. 

15 

430 

250,000 

1870 

Carthage,. 

Carthage, Ill., . . . 

Lutheran,. 

18 

163 

334,000 

1889 

Catholic U. of Am.,. 

Washington, D. C., . 

Roman Catholic. 

54 

400 

2,250,000 

1894 

Cedarville,. 

Cedarville, O., . . . 

Reformed Presbyterian, .... 

12 

103 

120,000 

1825 

Centenary C. of La., 

Jackson, La.,. . . . 

Methodist South. 

7 

125 

150,000 

1857 

Central,. 

Fayette, Mo., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal,. 

12 

209 

450,000 

1889 

Central H. S. of Phil., 

Philadelphia, Penn.,. 

City. 

85 

1,932 

1,587,000 

1819 

Central U. of Ky., . 

Danville. Ky. . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

50 

400 

800,000 

1864 

Central Wesleyan, . 

Warrenton, Mo., . . 

Methodist Episcopal. 

21 

306 

240,000 

1891 

Charles City, .... 

Charles City, la., . . 

Methodist Episcopal,. 

17 

238 

238,000 

1785 

Charleston, .... 

Charleston, S. C., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

10 

75 

456,000 

1851 

Christian Brothers, . 

St. Louis, Mo., . . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

34 

450 

500;000 

1871 

Christian Brothers, . 

Memphis, Tenn., . . 

Roman Catholic. 

18 

310 

120,000 

1852 

Christian U., ... 

Canton, Mo., .... 

Christian,. 

14 

153 

175,000 

1869 

Claflin U.,. 

Orangeburg, S. C., . 

Methodist,. 

40 

700 

300,000 

1902 

Clark,. 

Worcester, Mass.,. . 

Non-sectarian,. 

24 

204 

See ClarkU 

1870 

Clark U. 

Atlanta, Ga., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal,. 

30 

405 

500,000 

1889 

Clark U. 

Worcester, Mass., . . 

Non-sectarian. 

25 

116 

4,000,000 

1881 

Coe,. 

Cedar Rapids, la., . 

Independent. 

30 

430 

980,000 

1818 

Colby,. 

Waterville, Me., . . 

Baptist,. 

25 

400 

750^000 

1819 

Colgate U., . . . . 

Hamilton, N. Y., . . 

Non-sectarian.. 

43 

450 

2,440^00 

1874 

Colorado. 

Col. Springs, Col.,. . 

Non-sectarian,. 

56 

676 

L810|000 

1754 

Columbia U. 

New York City, . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

657 

9,086 

38i 192^000 

1901 

Columbia U. 

Portland, Ore., . . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

22 

220 

300^000 

1839 

Concordia, .... 

Fort Wayne, Ind., . 

Lutheran,. 

12 

253 

200,000 

1881 

Concordia, .... 

Milwaukee, Wis., . . 

Lutheran,. 

8 

200 

125^000 

1886 

Cooper. 

Sterling, Kan., . . . 

United Presbyterian,. 

15 

189 

loojooo 

1853 

Cornell,. 

Mount Vernon, la., . 

Methodist Episcopal. 

42 

741 

96L000 

1865 

Cornell U. 

Ithaca, N. Y., . . . 

Non-sectarian, . . 

652 

5,624 

15.41L000 

1889 

Costner U.,. 

Bethany, Neb., . . . 

Christian. 

61 

341 

180^000 

1878 

Creighton U., . . . 

Omaha, Neb., . . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

113 

950 

6,000^000 

1842 

Cumberland U., . . 

Lebanon, Tenn., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

22 

350 

350,000 

1885 

Dakota Wesleyan U., 

Mitchell, S. D., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal. 

28 

713 

550,000 

1900 

Dallas. 

Dallas, Ore., .' . . . 

United Evangelical,. 

10 

125 

8o;ooo 


*As these figures are constantly changing, they are valuable only for approximation and comparison. 




























































































































































ft 

s 

ft 

z 

p 

o 

pH 

1769 

1837 

1903 

1833 

1831 

1837 

1865 

1877 

1783 

1881 

1873 

1859 

1836 

1837 

1882 

1839 

1855 

1871 

1867 

1895 

1887 

1882 

1866 

1841 

1881 

1825 

1834 

1787 

1892 

1851 

1854 

1864 

1849 

1829 

1789 

1821 

1873 

1821 

1887 

1895 

1892 

1892 

1876 

1837 

1862 

1812 

1854 

1783 

1828 

1636 

1882 

1833 

1850 

1889 

1884 

1894 

1853 

1855 

1850 

1825 

1843 

1878 

1866 

1843 

1867 

1889 

1883 

1829 

1850 

1847 

1880 

1820 

1847 

1844 

1831 

1887 

1876 

1876 

1882 

1895 

1799 

1868 

1824 


SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


699 


jLEGES and universities of the 


UNITED STATES —Con. 


Name of 
Institution 


Dartmouth, . . . . 

Davidson,. 

Davis and Elkins, . 

Delaware,. 

Denison U., . . . . 
De Pauw U., . . . 
Des Moines, .... 

Detroit,. 

Dickinson. 

Drake U.,. 

Drury. 

Earlham. 

Emory,. 

Emory and Heniy. . 
Emporia, ..... 

Erskine,. 

Eureka,. 

Evang. Proseminar, 

Ewing,. 

Fairmount, . . . . 

Fargo,. 

Findlay,. 

Fisk U.,. 

Fordham U., ... 

Fort Worth U., . . 

Franklin,. 

Franklin,. 

Franklin & Marshall, 
Fredericksburg, . . 
Furman U., .... 

Gale,. 

Gallaudet. 

Geneva,. 

Georgetown,.... 
Georgetown U., . . 
Geo. Washington U., 

German. 

Gonzaga,. 

Gonzaga,. 

Graceland. 

Grand Island, . . . 

Greenville. 

Grove City, .... 

Guilford. 

Gustavus Adolphus, 

Hamilton,. 

Hamline U. of Minn., 
Hampden-Sidney, . 

Hanover. 

Harvard U., . . . . 
Hastings, . . . * . 
Haverford, .... 
Heidelberg U., . . . 
Henderson, .... 

Hendrix. 

Henry Kendall, . . 

Highland U. 

Hillsdale,. 

Hiram,. 

Hobart,. 

Holy Cross, C. of the, 
Holy Ghost, C. of the, 

Hope,. 

Howard,. 

Howard U., . . . . 
Howard Payne, . . 

Huron,. 

Illinois,. 

Illinois Wesleyan U., 
Immaculate Concept. 

Indian U.,. 

Indiana U. 


Iowa. 

Iowa Wesleyan U., . 

Jefferson,. 

John B. Stetson U.,. 
Johns Hopkins U., . 

Juniata,. 

Kansas Christian, . 
Kansas City U., . . 
Kentucky U., . . . 
Kentucky Wesleyan, 
Kenyon,. 


Location 

Denominational 

Control 

No. of In¬ 

structors 

No. OF 

Students 

Value of 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

Hanover, N. H., . . 

Non-sectarian. 

87 

1,216 

$3,500,000 

Davidson, N. C., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

20 

330 

350,000 

Elkins, W. Va., . . . 

Presbyterian,. 

6 

40 

100,000 

Newark, Del., . . . 

State, . 

24 

165 

300,000 

Granville, O., . . . 

Baptist. 

44 

583 

l,250j000 

Greencastle, Ind., . . 

Methodist,. 

44 

1,001 

982,750 

Des Moines, la., . . 

Baptist,. 

18 

244 

225,000 

Detroit, Mich. 

Roman Catholic. 

16 

259 

175^000 

Carlisle, Pa., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

33 

550 

861,000 

Des Moines, la., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

120 

1,846 

836,165 

Springfield, Mo., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

25 

426 

780,000 

Richmond, Ind., . . 

Friends,. 

33 

525 

340,000 

Oxford, Ga., .... 

Methodist South,. 

14 

317 

400,000 

Emory, Va., .... 

Methodist South,. 

11 

230 

150^00 

Emporia, Kan., . . . 

Presbyterian,. 

21 

344 

134,378 

Due West, S. C., . . 

American Reformed Presbyterian, 

10 

184 

200,000 

Eureka, Ill., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

16 

200 

160,000 

Elmhurst, Ill. 

German Evangelical. 

8 

136 

80,000 

Ewing, Ill., .... 

Baptist,. 

19 

351 

100,000 

Wichita, Kan., . . . 

Congregational. 

20 

325 

300,000 

Fargo, N. D., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

21 

311 

305,000 

Findlay, O., . . . . 

Church of God,. #. . 

17 

400 

150,000 

Nashville, Tenn., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

42 

571 

• 500,000 

Fordham, N. Y., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

100 

735 

3,000,000 

Fort Worth, Tex., 

Methodist,. 

45 

711 

225,000 

New Athens, O., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

9 

100 

75,000 

Franklin, Ind. 

Non-sectarian,. 

11 

199 

454,000 

Lancaster, Penn., . . 

Reformed,. 

24 

394 

685,000 

Fredericksburg, Va., 

Non-sectarian. 

10 

204 

25,000 

Greenville, S. C., . . 

Baptist,.. . 

14 

253 

330,000 

Galesville, Wis., 

Lutheran,. 

5 

60 

35,000 

Kendall Green, D. C., 

Non-sectarian. 

16 

105 

725,000 

Beaver Falls, Penn., 

Reformed Presbyterian, .... 

17 

290 

400,000 

Georgetown, Ky., 

Baptist, ......... 

22 

264 

385,000 

Washington, D. C., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

149 

764 

1,440,000 

Washington, D. C., . 

Non-sectarian. 

215 

1,258 

1,500,000 

Mount Pleasant, la., 

Methodist,. 

25 

174 

60,000 

Washington, D. C., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

12 

156 

200,000 

Spokane, W T ash., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

34 

450 

500,000 

Lamoni, la., .... 

Latter Day Saints,. 

11 

139 

45,000 

Grand Island, Neb., . 

Baptist,. 

19 

247 

210,000 

Greenville, Ill., . . . 

Free Methodist, . 

18 

228 

75,000 

Grove City, Penn., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

25 

655 

400,000 

Guilford College, N.C., 

Friends. 

12 

250 

275,000 

St. Peter, Minn., . . 

Lutheran,. 

25 

400 

200,000 

Clinton, N. Y., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

19 

186 

1,100,000 

St. Paul, Minn., . . 

Methodist,. 

17 

365 

750,000 

Hampden-Sidney, Va., 

Presbyterian. 

8 

127 

363,000 

Hanover, Ind. 

Non-sectarian,. 

16 

200 

410,000 

Cambridge, Mass., 

Non-sectarian,. 

634 

4,900 

32,000,000 

Hastings, Neb.,. . . 

Presbyterian,. 

14 

175 

195,000 

Haverford, Penn.,. . 

Friends,. 

21 

160 

2,500,000 

Tiffin, O. 

Reformed,. 

22 

390 

425,000 

Arkadelphia, Ark., . 

Methodist South,. 

14 

333 

90,000 

Conway, Ark., . . . 

Methodist South,. 

12 

155 

250,000 

Tulsa, Okla. 

Presbyterian,. 

14 

200 

250,000 

Highland, Kan., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

8 

83 

72,000 

Hillsdale, Mich., . . 

Non-sectarian, .. 

24 

345 

340,000 

Hiram, O.,. 

Non-sectarian,. 

22 

325 

300,000 

Geneva, N. Y., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

22 

105 

1,165,078 

Worcester, Mass., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

30 

428 

500,000 

Pittsburg, Penn., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

29 

390 

500,000 

Holland, Mich., . . . 

Reformed, . .'. 

21 

311 

600,000 

Birmingham, Ala., . 

Baptist,. 

10 

200 

250,000 

Washington, D. C., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

100 

1,000 

# 827,361 

Brown wood, Tex., . 

Baptist. 

18 

418 

100,000 

Huron, S. D., . . . 

Presbyterian,. 

18 

415 

263,046 

Jacksonville, Ill., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

21 

341 

537,868 

Bloomington, Ill.,. . 

Methodist,. 

48 

722 

300,000 

New Orleans, La., 

Roman Catholic, . . .' . 

20 

340 

600,000 

Bacone, Okla., . . . 

Baptist,. 

11 

120 

100,000 

Bloomington, Ind., . 

State, . 

80 

2,051 

1,657,139 

Grinnell, la., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

55 

640 

1,033,537 

Mount Pleasant, la., 

Methodist,. 

22 

425 

221,000 

Convent, La., . . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

21 

190 

200,000 

De Land, Fla. 

Non-sectarian,. 

48 

521 

1,000,000 

Baltimore, Md., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

190 

699 

7,250,000 

Huntingdon, Penn., . 

German Baptist,. 

26 

408 

320,000 

Lincoln, Kan., . . . 

Christian,. 

5 

120 

30,000 

Kansas City, Kan., . 

Methodist Protestant, .... 

67 

454 

467,000 

Lexington, Ky., . . 

Christian,. 

65 

1,107 

1,000,000 

Winchester, Ky., . . 

Methodist South,. 

9 

200 

165,000 

Gambier, 0., . . . . 

Protestant Episcopal,. 

15 

114 

1,002,823 

































































































































































THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


700 


COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES —Con. 


Founded 

Name of 
Institution 

Location 

Denominational 

Control 

No. of In¬ 

structors 

No. OF 

Students 

Value of 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

1837 

Knox,. 

Galesburg, Ill., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

31 

700 

$ 584,152 

1875 

Knoxville. 

Knoxville, Tenn., . . 

United Presbyterian. 

16 

507 

160,000 

1832 

Lafayette,. 

Easton, Pa., .... 

Presbyterian,. 

37 

455 

1,514,721 

1883 

La Fayette, .... 

La Fayette, Ala., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

11 

295 

35,000 

1858 

La Grange, .... 

La Grange, Mo., . . 

Baptist,. 

10 

167 

75,000 

1857 

Lake Forest, .... 

Lake Forest, Ill., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

18 

190 

1,328,000 

1866 

La Salle,. 

Philadelphia. 

Roman Catholic. 

16 

150 

100,000 

1847 

Lawrence U. 

Appleton, Wis., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

36 

604 

1,052,180 

1856 

Leander Clark,. . . 

Toledo, la., .... 

United Brethren,. 

17 

312 

220,000 

1866 

Lebanon Valley, . . 

Annville, Penn., . . 

United Brethren,. 

22 

319 

320,000 

1866 

Lehigh U., .... 

South Bethlehem, Pa. 

Non-sectarian.. 

64 

664 

3,090,700 

1891 

Leland Stanf’d, Jr.,U. 

Palo Alto, Cal.,. . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

138 

1,751 

30,000,000 

1881 

Lenoir,. 

Hickory, N. C., . . . 

Lutheran, . 

14 

215 

100,000 

1856 

Lenox,. 

Hopkinton, la., . . 

Presbyterian, . . . . 

11 

185 

171,033 

1893 

Lima,. 

Lima, O.,. 


22 

400 

100,000 

1865 

Lincoln,. 

Lincoln, Ill., . . . . 

Presbyterian. 

15 

334 

180,189 

1854 

Lincoln U., .... 

Lincoln Univ., Ches- 







ter Co., Pa., . . . 

Presbyterian (colored). 

15 

198 

750,000 

1880 

Livingstone. 

Salisbury, N. C., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

16 

350 

160,000 

1851 

Lombard,. 

Galesburg, Ill., . . . 

Universalist,. 

16 

125 

450,000 

1860 

Louisiana State, . . 

Baton Rouge, La., . 

Non-sectarian. 

40 

549 

1,014,000 

1852 

Loyola,. 

Baltimore, Md., . . 

Roman Catholic. 

26 

230 

310,000 

1884 

Macal ester, .... 

St. Paul, Minn., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

25 

250 

312,000 

1863 

Manhattan. 

New York City, . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

12 

280 

849,971 

1835 

Marietta,. 

Marietta, O., . . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

29 

504 

600,000 

1879 

Maryville,. 

Maryville, Tenn., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

32 

622 

514,000 

1828 

McKendree, .... 

Lebanon, Ill., . . . 

Methodist,. 

11 

226 

270,000 

1857 

McMinnville, . . . 

McMinnville, Ore., 

Baptist,. 

15 

229 

120,000 

1838 

Mercer U., 

Macon, Ga., .... 

Baptist,. 

21 

297 

500,000 

1809 

Miami U., 

Oxford, O., .... 

Non-sectarian. 

40 

1,149 

625,000 

1807 

Middlebury. 

Middlebury, Vt., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

13 

220 

683,000 

1882 

Milligan,. 

Milligan, Tenn., . . 

Disciples of Christ,. 

12 

178 

50,000 

1867 

Milton, .... 

Milton, Wis., .... 

Seventh Day Baptist, .... 

14 

139 

200,000 

1859 

Mission House of the 







Reformed Church, 

Franklin, Wis., . . . 

Reformed,.. . 

18 

112 

100,000 

1826 

Mississippi, .... 

Clinton, Miss., . . . 

Baptist,. 

13 

460 

200,000 

1880 

Missouri Valley, . 

Marshall, Mo., . . . 

Presbyterian, * . 

14 

406 

406,000 

1887 

Missouri Wesleyan, . 

Cameron, Mo. 

Methodist, .. 

16 

338 

128,000 

1858 

Monmouth, . 

Monmouth, Ill., . . 

United Presbyterian,. 

25 

491 

415,000 

1854 

Moores Hill, .... 

Moores Hill, Ind., . . 

Methodist. 

15 

276 

120,000 

1894 

Morningside, . . 

Sioux City, la. 

Methodist,. 

30 

500 

600,000 

1882 

Morris Brown, . . . 

Atlanta, Ga., . . . 

African Methodist Episcopal, . 

24 

800 

100,000 

1888 

Morris Harvey, 

Barboursville, W.Va. 

Methodist South,. 

10 

163 

75,000 

1872 

Morrisville, .... 

Morrisville, Mo., . . 

Methodist South,. 

16 

200 

40,000 

.... 

Mount St. Joseph’s,. 

Baltimore, Md., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

20 

180 

100,000 

1808 

Mount St. Mary’s, . 

Emmitsburg, Md.. 

Roman Catholic,. 

25 

333 

300,000 

1858 

Mount Union, . 

Alliance, O., .... 

Methodist,. 

30 

554 

325,000 

1867 

Muhlenberg, .... 

Allentown, Penn.,. . 

Lutheran, . 

14 

124 

556,000 

1837 

Muskingum, .... 

New Concord, O., . . 

United Presbyterian. 

20 

400 

175^000 

1888 

Nebraska Wesleyan, 

University Place,Neb. 

Methodist. 

45 

904 

350,000 

1843 

New Windsor, . . . 

New Windsor, Md., . 

Presbyterian,. 

6 

50 

60,000 

1830 

New York U. 

New York, N. Y., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

338 

4,200 

4,000,000 

1847 

New York, Coll, of 







the City of, . . . 

New York, N. Y„ . . 

City,. 

170 

3,905 

5,155,000 

1856 

Niagara U., .... 

Niagara Falls, N. Y., 

Roman Catholic,. 

28 

275 

450,000 

1860 

Northern Illinois, 

Fulton, Ill., 

Non-sectarian,. 

6 

180 

70,000 

1861 

Northwestern, . . . 

Naperville, Ill., . . . 

Evangelical Association. 

22 

483 

450,000 

1851 

Northwestern U., 

Evanston, Ill., . 

Methodist,. 

358 

3,997 

9,000,000 

1865 

Northwestern U., 

Watertown, Wis., . . 

Lutheran, ........ 

12 

280 

200,000 

1892 

Northwest Missouri, 

Albany, Mo., . . . 

Methodist South,. 

88 

151 

50,000 

1861 

Norwegian Lutheran, 

Decorah, la., 

Lutheran, . 

14 

167 

145,000 

1819 

Norwich U., .... 

Northfield, Vt., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

12 

177 

269,800 

1833 

Oberlin,. 

Oberlin, O., . . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

144 

1,915 

3,234,895 

1888 

Occidental, .... 

Los Angeles, Cal., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

33 

400 

500,000 

1877 

Ogden,. 

Bowling Green, Ky., 

Non-sectarian,. 

5 

81 

150,000 

1870 

Ohio State U., . . . 

Columbus, O., . 

State, . 

194 

2,686 

4,117,000 

1804 

Ohio U.,. 

Athens, O., 

State, . 

53 

1,386 

1,000,000 

1844 

Ohio Wesleyan U., . 

Delaware, O., ... 

Methodist. 

124 

1,286 

1,700^000 

1844 

Olivet,. 

Olivet, Mich., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

30 

283 

'510,000 

1865 

Ottawa U., .... 

Ottawa, Kan., . 

Baptist,. 

22 

450 

250,000 

1847 

Otterbein U., . . . 

Westerville, O., 

United Brethren,. 

30 

551 

400,000 

1886 

Ouachita. 

Arkadelphia, Ark., . 

Baptist,. 

30 

400 

250,000 

1891 

Pacific,. 

Newberg, Ore., . 

Friends,. 

8 

138 

40,000 

1849 

Pacific U.,. 

Forest Grove, Ore., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

23 

230 

380'000 

1875 

Park,. 

Parkville, Mo., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

25 

420 

825,066 

1887 

Parker,. 

W innebagoCity.Minn. 

Free Baptist. 

9 

183 

65,000 

1875 

Parsons. 

Fairfield, la., .... 

Presbyterian,. 

20 

240 

373,300 

1874 

Peabody School for 







Teachers, .... 

Nashville, Tenn., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

32 

587 

300,000 

1873 

Penn,. 

Oskaloosa, la., . 

Friends,. 

18 

221 

221,300 

1832 

Pennsylvania, . . . 

Gettysburg, Penn., . 

Lutheran, . 

19 

300 

575,000 

1862 

Pennsylv’a Military, 

Chester, Penn., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

14 

142 


1855 

Pennsylvania State, 

State College, Penn., 

State, . 

120 

1,200 

2,135,661 






































































SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 701 


COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES—Con. 


Founded 

Name of 
Institution 

Location 

"W 

Denominational 

Control 

' 2 

is « 

i—i 0 

il 

No. OF 

Students 

Value qf 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

1877 

Philander Smith,. . 

Little Rock, Ark., . 

Methodist, ........ 

23 

677 

$ 55,000 

1865 

Philomath, 

Philomath, Ore., 

United Brethren,. 

15 

125 

50,000 

1881 

Pike, ..... 

Bowling Green, Mo., 

Non-sectarian,. 

7 

125 

15,000 

1890 

Polytechnic, . 

Fort Worth, Tex., . 

Methodist South,. 

9 

107 

150,000 

1854 

Poly. Inst, of B’klyn, 

Brooklyn, N. Y.,. 

Non-sectarian,. 

38 

815 

950,000 

1888 

Pomona, .... 

Claremont, Cal., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

40 

507 

903,123 

1887 

Pratt Institute, . 

Brooklyn, N. Y., 

Non-sectarian,.. 

134 

3,700 

1880 

Presbyterian of S.C., 

Clinton, S. C.,. . 

Presbyterian,. 

8 

117 

115,000 

1746 

Princeton U., 

Princeton, N. J., . . 

Non-sectarian. 

161 

1,312 


1868 

Pritchett, .... 

Glasgow, Mo.,. 

Non-sectarian,. 

7 

128 

150,000 

1869 

Purdue U., 
Randolph-Macon, . 

Lafayette, Ind., . 

State, . 

162 

2,066 

1830 

Ashland, Va., 

Methodist South,. 

18 

131 

397,299 

1887 

Redfield, .... 

Redfield, S. D., . 

Congregational. 

14 

168 

97,000 

1835 

Richmond, 

Richmond, O., 

Non-sectarian,. 

6 

50 

40,000 

1832 

Richmond, 

Richmond, Va., . 

Baptist,. 

23 

319 

1,210,000 

1876 

Rio Grande, . . . 

Rio Grande, O., . 

Free Baptist,. 

11 

169 

115,000 

1851 

Ripon,. 

Ripon, Wis., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

23 

204 

278,132 

1853 

Roanoke, 

Salem, Va., 

Lutheran,. 

16 

206 

250,000 

1850 

RochesterTheol.Sem. 

Rochester, N. Y., 

Baptist,. 

15 

145 

1856 

Rock Hill, .... 

Ellicott City, Md., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

IS 

175 

200,000 

1885 

Rollins, .... 

Winter Park, Fla., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

20 

200 

325,000 

1867 

Rust U., . . * 

Holly Springs, Miss., 

Methodist, ........ 

15 

458 

150,000 

1766 

Rutgers, .... 

New Brunswick, N.J., 

Non-sectarian,. 

40 

310 

1,000,000 

1888 

Sacred Heart, Col. of, 

Denver, Col., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

15 

190 

200,000 

1893 

St. Anselm’s, 

Manchester, N. H., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

22 

115 

150,000 

1891 

St. Bede’s, 

Peru, Ill., .... 

Roman Catholic,. 

14 

125 

347,000 

1858 

St. Benedict’s, 

Atchison, Kan., 

Roman Catholic,. 

21 

250 

250,000 

1868 

St. Benedict’s, 

Newark, N. J., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

14 

120 

100,000 

1892 

St. Bernard, . 

St. Bernard, Ala., 

Roman Catholic,. 

20 

150 

110,000 

1859 

St. Bonaventure’s, . 

Allegany, N. Y., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

20 

225 

350,000 

1848 

St. Charles, 

Ellicott City, Md., . 

Roman Catholic. 

18 

210 

150,000 

1860 

St. Francis Solanus, 

Quincy, Ill., . . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

17 

200 

253,400 

1886 

St. Ignatius, . 

St. John’s, . . 

Cleveland, 0.,. 

Roman Catholic,. 

24 

330 

224,482 

1784 

Annapolis, Md., . 

Non-sectarian, . . . ... 

14 

180 

300,000 

1866 

St. John’s, 

Washington, D. C., 

Roman Catholic,. 

12 

140 

150,000 

1841 

St. John’s, 

New York, N. Y., 

Roman Catholic,. 

37 

440 

1,000,000 

1868 

St. John’s, 

Brooklyn, N. Y., 

Roman Catholic,. 

23 

265 

1,175,000 

1893 

St. John’s Lutheran, 

Winfield, Kan., . 

Lutheran,. 

5 

52 

50,000 

1867 

St. John’s U., 

Collegeville, Minn., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

32 

334 

450,000 

1872 

St. Joseph’s, . . . 

Dubuque, la.,. 

Roman Catholic,. 

19 

277 

360,000 

1856 

St. Lawrence U.,. 

Canton, JN. Y., 

Non-sectarian. 

21 

600 

800,000 

1889 

St. Leo. 

St. Leo, Fla., . 

Roman Catholic, ...... 

7 

75 

35,000 

1829 

St. Louis U., 

St. Louis, Mo., 

Roman Catholic,. 

203 

1,022 

1,000,000 

1821 

St. Mary’s, . . . 

St. Mary, Ky., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

12 

140 

108,000 

1878 

St. Mary’s,' . . 

Belmont, N. C., v 

Roman Catholic,. 

21 

115 

100,000 

1848 

St. Mary’s, . . . 

St. Mary’s, Kan., 

St. Meinrad, Ind., 

Roman Catholic,. 

43 

426 

350,000 

1857 

St. Meinrad, . 

Roman Catholic,. 

23 

250 

1874 

St. Olaf, .... 

Northfield, Minn., 

Lutheran, . 

29 

532 

160,000 

1878 

St. Peter’s, . . . 

Jersey City, N. J., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

15 

243 

200,000 

1860 

St. Stephen’s, . . 
St. Vincent’s, . . 

Annandale, N. Y., . 

Protestant Episcopal. 

9 

47 

328,815 

1846 

Beatty, Penn., 

Roman Catholic,. 

35 

400 

210,000 

1865 

St. Vincent’s, 

Los Angles, Cal., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

28 

350 

700,000 

1831 

St. Xavier, 

Cincinnati, 0., 

Roman Catholic,. 

31 

417 

387,000 

1851 

Santa Clara, . 

Santa Clara, Cal., 

Roman Catholic,. 

35 

325 

341,000 

1878 

Scarritt Coll. Inst., . 

Neosho, Mo. 


14 

178 

45,000 

1857 

Scio,. 

Scio, 0., .... 

Methodist. 

16 

301 

55,000 

1856 

Seton Hall, 

South Orange, N. J., 

Roman Catholic,. 

18 

204 

500,000 

1865 

Shaw U.. 

Raleigh, N. C., 

Baptist, .. 

32 

516 

200,000 

1827 

Shurtleff, .... 

Upper Alton, Ill., 

Baptist, .. 

15 

180 

255,564 

1868 

Simpson, .... 

Indianola, la., 

Methodist,. 

25 

929 

213,000 

1842 

S. Carolina Mil. Ac., 

Charleston, S. C., 

State. 

9 

170 

125,000 

1856 

Southern U., . 

Greensboro, Ala., 

Methodist South,. 

11 

180 

310,000 

1875 

Southw’n Presb. U., 

Clarksville, Tenn., . 

Presbyterian,. 

12 

118 

450,000 

1830 

Spring Hill, . . 

Mobile, Ala., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

32 

250 

345,000 

1907 

Stanford Graded, 

Stanford, Ky., . . 

Non-sectarian,.. . 

14 

350 

50,000 

1891 

State Col. for Col’d S., 

Dover, Del., . 

State, . 

7 

118 

30,000 

1869 

Straight II. 

New Orleans, La., . 

Congregational. 

29 

716 

250,000 

1858 

Susquehanna U.,. 

Selinsgrove, Penn., . 

Lutheran,.. 

22 

267 

250,000 

1869 

Swarthmore, . . . 

Swarthmore, Penn., 

Non-sectarian. 

37 

331 

1,810,000 

1851 

Syracuse U., . 

Syracuse, N. Y., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

220 

3,300 

4,436,588 

1857 

Tabor. 

Tabor, la., 

Congregational,. 

13 

130 

212,280 

1883 

Tarkio, .... 

Tarkio, Mo., . . 

United Presbyterian,. 

25 

317 

225,415 

1890 

Taylor U. 

Upland, Ind. 

Methodist. 

17 

177 

70,000 

1884 

Temple U., 

Philadelphia, Penn., 

Non-sectarian,. 

212 

3,475 

599,972 

1873 

Texas Christian U., 

Ft. Worth, Tex., . . 

Disciples,. 

• 29 

362 

375,000 

1870 

Thiel,. 

Greenville, Penn., . 

Lutheran,. 

6 

59 

140,000 

1798 

Transylvania U., 

Lexington, Ky., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

46 

1,129 

400,000 

1823 

Trinity, .... 

Hartford, Conn., 

Non-sectarian,. 

23 

216 

2,243,344 

1852 

Trinity, .... 

Durham, N. C., . 

Methodist South,. 

36 

420 

1,211,066 

1869 

Trinity U., .... 

Waxahachie, Tex., . 

Presbyterian,. 

15 

240 

150,000 

1852 

Tufts,. 

Medford, Mass., . . 

Non-sectarian, , . . . 

209 

1,135 

2,846,000 

1834 

Tulane University of 
Louisiana,.... 

New Orleans, La., . 

State, . 

163 

1,782 

3,918,229 











































702 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES — Con 


A 

H 

A 

fc 

P 

O 

Name of 
Institution 

Location 

Denominational 

Control 

No. of In¬ 

structors 

No. OF 

Students 

Value of 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

1887 

Union,. 

Barbourville, Ky., . 

Methodist,. 

11 

104 

$ 408,000 

1891 

Union. 

College View, Neb., . 

Seventh Day Advent,. 

42 

432 

182,424 

1859 

Union Christian, . . 

Merom, Ind., . . . 

Christian,. 

13 

148 

200,000 

1795 

Union U.,. 

Schenectady and Al- 





# 


bany, N. Y., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

32 

329 

1,341,071 

1831 

U. of Alabama, . . 

Tuscaloosa, Ala., . . 

State, . 

44 

573 

1,500,000 

1891 

U. of Arizona, . . . 

Tucson, Ariz., . . . 

State. 

35 

237 

265,000 

1871 

U. of Arkansas, . . 

Fayetteville, Ark., . 

State, . 

75 

1,800 

500,000 

1846 

U. of Buffalo, . . . 

Buffalo, N. Y., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

166 

600 

305,000 

1860 

U. of California, . . 

Berkeley, Cal., . . . 

State. 

500 

2,805 

9,965,595 

1890 

U. of Chicago, . . . 

Chicago, Ill., . . . . 

Baptist,. 

303 

5,038 

25,587,531 

1819 

U. of Cincinnati, . . 

Cincinnati, O., . . . 

City,. 

135 

1,374 

3,300,000 

1876 

U. of Colorado, . . 

Boulder, Col., . . . 

State, . 

125 

1,025 

800,000 

1864 

U. of Denver, . . . 

Denver, Col., . . . 

Methodist,. 

170 

1,324 

755,000 

1884 

U. of Florida, . . . 

Gainesville, Fla., . . 

State, . 

16 

100 

400,000 

1785 

U. of Georgia, . , . 

Athens, Ga.. 

State, . 

199 

3,375 

1,500,000 

1889 

U.of Idaho, .... 

Moscow, Idaho,. . . 

State, . 

46 

500 

808,121 

1867 

U. of Illinois, . . . 

Urbana, Ill., .... 

State, . 

480 

4,763 

3,458,287 

1847 

U. of Iowa, .... 

Iowa City, la., . . . 

State, . 

150 

2,072 

2,574,000 

1864 

U. of Kansas, . . . 

Lawrence, Kan., . . 

State, . 

117 

2,063 

1,500,000 

1907 

U. of Louisville, . . 

Louisville, Ky.,. . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

147 

850 

250,000 

1865 

U. of Maine, .... 

Orono, Me.. 

State, . 

70 

874 

818,000 

1837 

U. of Michigan, . . 

Ann Arbor, Mich., 

State, . 

360 

5,013 

3,195,000 

1868 

U. of Minnesota, . . 

Minneapolis, Minn., . 

State, . 

229 

4,421 

6,033,181 

1848 

U. of Mississippi, . . 

University, Miss., . . 

State, . 

33 

344 

1,200,000 

1839 

U. of Missouri, . . . 

Columbia, Mo., . . . 

State, . 

202 

2,536 

2,000,000 

1895 

U. of Montana, . . 

Missoula, Mont., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

20 

200 

1,200,000 

1785 

U. of Nashville, . . 

Nashville, Tenn., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

66 

1,460 

500,000 

1869 

U. of Nebraska, . . 

Lincoln, Neb. 

State, .... . 

156 

3,237 

2,800,000 

1874 

U. of Nevada, . . . 

Reno, Nev., .... 

State, . 

30 

276 

508,000 

1889 

U. of New Mexico, . 

Albuquerque, N. M., 

State, . 

16 

158 

152,500 

1789 

U. of North Carolina, 

Chapel Hill, N. C., . 

State, . 

94 

790 

1,100,000 

1883 

U. of North Dakota, 

Grand Forks, N. D., 

State, . 

61 

861 

500,000 

1842 

U. of Notre Dame, . 

Notre Dame, Ind., . 

Roman Catholic,. 

75 

900 

2,000,000 

1892 

U. of Oklahoma, . . 

Norman, Okla., . . 

State, . 

50 

790 

4,350,000 

1872 

U. of Oregon, . . . 

Eugene, Ore., . . . 

State, . 

40 

512 

600,000 

1740 

U. of Pennsylvania,. 

Philadelphia, Penn.,. 

Non-sectarian,. 

435 

4,500 

8,872,500 

1787 

U. of Pittsburg, . . 

Pittsburg, Pa., . . . 

Non-sectarian, ....... 

159 

1,138 

1,100,000 

1850 

U. of Rochester, . . 

Rochester, N. Y., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

24 

380 

1,533,154 

1854 

U. of St. Mary,. . . 

Galveston, Tex., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

11 

105 

150,000 

1880 

U. of S- California, . 

Los Angeles, Cal., 

Methodist Episcopal,. 

199 

1,470 

700,000 

1801 

U. of South Carolina, 

Columbia, S- C., . . 

State, . 

24 

280 

500,000 

1882 

U. of South Dakota, 

Vermillion, S. D., . . 

State, . 

45 

424 

1,360,000 

1794 

U. of Tennessee, . . 

Knoxville, Tenn., . . 

State, . 

106 

755 

1,172,688 

1883 

U. of Texas, .... 

Austin, Tex., .... 

State, . 

83 

1,837 

3,030,000 

1851 

U. of the Pacific, . . 

San Josd, Cal., . . . 

Methodist. 

24 

375 

250,000 

1868 

U. of the South, . . 

Sewanee, Tenn., . . 

Protestant Episcopal. 

43 

456 

850,000 

1850 

U. of Utah, .... 

Salt Lake City, Utah, 

State, . 

67 

700 

757,515 

1791 

U. of Vermont,. . . 

Burlington, Vt., . . 

State, . 

80 

557 

1,738,529 

1819 

U. of Virginia, . . . 

Charlottesville, Va., . 

State, . 

98 

887 

5,801,420 

1861 

U. of Washington, . 

Seattle, Wash., . . . 

State, . . 

103 

1,703 

1,500,000 

1848 

U. of Wisconsin, . . 

Madison, Wis., . . . 

State, . 

395 

4,500 

4,570,000 

1868 

U. of Wooster, . . 

Wooster, O., .... 

Presbyterian. 

31 

628 

1,213,782 

1886 

U. of Wyoming, . . 

Laramie, Wyo.,. . . 

State, . 

40 

230 

381,711 

1857 

Upper Iowa U., . . 

Fayette, la., .... 

Methodist,. 

18 

504 

465,000 

1850 

Urbana U.. 

Urbana, O., .... 

New Church,. 

8 

54 

200,000 

1869 

Ursinus,. 

Collegeville, Penn., . 

Reformed,. 

20 

183 

400,000 

1872 

Vanderbilt U. 

Nashville, Tenn., . . 

Methodist South,. 

115 

902 

2,500,000 

1842 

Villanova, .... 

Villanova, Penn., . . 

Roman Catholic,. 

32 

357 

526,000 

1839 

Virginia Military Inst. 

Lexington, Va.,. . . 

State, . 

22 

340 

600,000 

1832 

Wabash,. 

Crawfords ville, Ind., 

Presbyterian. 

22 

301 

1,000,000 

1888 

Wake Forest, . . . 

Wake Forest, N. C., . 

Baptist,. 

32 

371 

481,000 

1866 

Walden University,. 

Nashville, Tenn., . . 

Methodist South,. 

70 

925 

160,000 

1868 

Wartburg, .... 

Clinton, la., .... 

Lutheran, . 

7 

85 

93,000 

1865 

Washburn, .... 

Topeka, Kan., . . . 

Congregational,. 

98 

711 

600,000 

1782 

Washington,. . . . 

Chestertown, Md., 

Non-sectarian,. 

11 

137 

125,000 

1795 

Washington,.... 

Wash’gton Coll., Tenn. 

Presbyterian,. 

9 

135 

115,000 

1802 

Wash’t’n & Jefferson, 

Washington, Penn., . 

Presbyterian,. 

30 

442 

1,014,500 

1749 

Washingt’n & Lee U., 

Lexington, Va.,. . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

40 

560 

1,250,000 

1853 

Washington U., . . 

St. Louis, Mo., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

269 

2,093 

9,600,000 

1831 

Wesleyan U., . . . 

Middletown, Conn., . 

Methodist,. 

34 

320 

2,589,923 

1867 

Western Maryland, . 

Westminster, Md., . 

Methodist,. 

23 

235 

350,000 

1826 

Western Reserve U., 

Cleveland, O., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

193 

914 

3,405,000 

1865 

Westfield. 

Westfield, Ill., . 

United Brethren,. 

10 

150 

100,000 

1853 

Westminster, . . . 

Fulton, Mo., .... 

Presbyterian. 

13 

183 

397,598 

1852 

Westminster, . . . 

N. Wilmington, Penn. 

United Presbyterian,. 

23 

291 

450,000 

1867 

West Virginia U. 

Morgantown, W. Va., 

State, . 

70 

1,208 

1,220,000 

1890 

W. Va. Wesleyan, . 

Buckhannon, W.Va., 

Methodist South,. 

23 

417 

300,000 

1860 

Wheaton,. 

Wheaton, Ill., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

20 

280 

280,000 

1859 

Whitman. 

Walla Walla, Wash., 

Non-sectarian, .. 

27 

370 

474,000 

1856 

Wilberforce U., . . 

Wilberforce, 0., . . 

African Methodist Episcopal, . 

31 

350 

294,000 

1873 

Wiley U.,. 

Marshall, Tex., . 

Methodist,. 

24 

654 

120.000 

1844 

Willamette U., 

Salem, Ore,, .... 

Methodist,. 

45 

420 

280,000 

























































































































SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 703 

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES — Con. 


Founded 

Name of 
Institution 

Location 

Denominational 

Control 

No. of In¬ 

structors 

No. OF 

Students 

Value of 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

1693 

William and Mary, . 

Williamsburg, Va., . 

State, . 

22 

224 

$ 275,000 

1849 

William Jewell, . . 

Liberty, Mo. 

Baptist,. 

35 

500 

600,000 

1793 

Williams. 

Williamstown, Mass., 

Non-sectarian,. 

57 

491 

2,733,485 

1875 

Wilmington,.... 

Wilmington, O., . . 

Friends,. 

13 

134 

150,000 

1845 

Wittenberg, .... 

Springfield, O., . . . 

Lutheran,. 

29 

404 

650,000 

1854 

Wofford. 

Spartanburg, S. C., . 

Methodist South,. 

12 

287 

332,656 

1701 

Yale U. 

New Haven, Conn., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

400 

3,450 

17,000,000 

1882 

Yankton,. 

Yankton, S. D., . . 

Congregational,. 

23 

382 

381,352 

1890 

York. 

York, Neb. 

United Brethren,. 

17 

504 

125,000 


TABLE II — STATISTICS OF COLLEGES FOR WOMEN 


1854 

Alabama Con. Fem., 

Tuskegee, Ala., . . 

Methodist,. 

12 

151 

$ 140,000 

1903 

Alabama Synodical, 

Talladega, Ala., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

9 

120 

20,000 

1882 

Albert Lea, .... 

Albert Lea, Minn., . 

Presbyterian,. 

15 

225 

225,000 

1867 

Allentown, .... 

Allentown, Penn.,. . 

Reformed,. 

14 

140 

30,000 

1854 

Andrew Female, . . 

Cuthbert, Ga., . . . 

Methodist South,. 

12 

155 

100,000 

1889 

Barnard,. 

New York, .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

70 

648 

3,000,000 

1845 

Baylor Female, . . 

Belton, Tex., . . . 

Baptist,. 

20 

402 

175,000 

1841 

Beaumont. 

Harrodsburg, Ky., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

10 

95 

50,000 

1853 

Beaver,. 

Beaver, Penn., . . . 

Methodist. 

18 

250 

200,000 

1894 

Belhaven(Y’g Lad’s), 

Jackson, Miss., . . . 

Non-seetarian,. 

14 

115 

45,000 

1907 

Bessie Tift, .... 

Forsyth, Ga.,. . . . 

Baptist,. 

30 

350 

200,000 

1854 

Bethel Female, . . 

Hopkinsville, Ky., . 

Baptist,. 

7 

100 

50,000 

1851 

Blairsville, .... 

Blairsville, Penn., 

Blue Mountain, Miss., 

Presbyterian,. 

10 

75 

75,000 

1873 

Blue Mountain Fem., 

Non-sectarian, . 

27 

555 

100,000 

1890 

Boscobel(Y’g Lad’s), 

Nashville, Tenn., . . 

Baptist, .. 

12 

125 

75,000 

1878 

Brenau,. 

Gainesville, Ga., . . 

Non-sectarian, . . . . 

35 

400 

150,000 

1880 

Bryn Mawr, .... 

Bryn Mawr, Penn., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

46 

456 

2,984,550 

1854 

Caldwell(Y’g Worn.), 

Danville, Ky., . . . 

Presbyterian,. 

18 

215 

87,000 

1892 

Central Baptist for 
Young Ladies, . . 

Conway, Ark., . . . 

Baptist,. 

10 

135 

60,000 

1869 

Central Female, . . 

Lexington, Mo., . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

18 

140 

195,000 

1851 

Chappell Hill Female, 

Chappell Hill, Tex., . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

7 

85 

20,000 

1852 

Chickasaw Female, . 

Pontotoc, Miss., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

8 

125 

50,000 

1851 

Christian,. 

Columbia, Mo., . . . 

Christian,. 

28 

250 

250,000 

1881 

Clifford Female, . . 

Union, S. C., . . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

11 

50 

25,000 

1854 

Columbia Female, . 

Columbia, S. C., . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

23 

315 

250,000 

1890 

Converse,. 

Spartanburg, S. C., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

23 

354 

331,100 

1884 

Cottey,. 

Nevada, Mo.,. . . . 
Cox Pk.(Atlanta),Ga., 

Non-sectarian,. 

20 

280 

80,000 

1843 

Cox,. 

Non-sectarian,. 

27 

200 

200,000 

1859 

Due West Female, . 

Due West, S. C., . . 

American Reformed Presbyterian, 

12 

130 

60,000 

1897 

Elizabeth,. 

Charlotte, N. C., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

17 

175 

250,000 

1855 

Elmira,. 

Elmira, N. Y., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

16 

280 

325,000 

1905 

Florida Female, . . 

Tallahassee, Fla., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

22 

250 

150,000 

1879 

Gaston. 

Dallas, N. C.,. . . . 

Lutheran,. 

7 

149 

10,000 

1854 

Glendale,. 

Glendale, O., . . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

13 

70 

40,000 

1838 

Greensboro Female, 

Greensboro, N. C., . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

18 

202 

250,000 

1873 

Hardin, . 

Mexico, Mo., .... 

Baptist. 

22 

214 

200,000 

1852 

Hillman(Y’g Lad’s), 

Clinton, Miss., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

15 

151 

15,000 

1842 

Hollins Institute,. . 

Hollins, Va., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

26 

260 

150,000 

1856 

Howard Female, . . 

Gallatin, Tenn., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

10 

110 

35,000 

1859 

Howard-Payne, . . 

Fayette, Mo., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

17 

200 

100,000 

1847 

Illinois Woman’s, . 

Jacksonville, Ill., . . 

Methodist,. 

32 

350 

300,000 

1856 

Irving,. 

Mechanicsburg, Penn. 

Lutheran,. 

17 

130 

95,000 

1852 

Isbell,. 

Talladega, Ala., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

6 

75 

10,000 

1854 

Jessamine Institute, 

Nicholasville, Ky., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

18 

140 

75,000 

1852 

Kee Mar,. 

Hagerstown, Md., 

Lutheran,. 

13 

100 

75,000 

1846 

La Grange Female, . 

La Grange, Ga., . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

20 

201 

185,000 

1859 

Lake Erie C. & S., . 

Painesville, O., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

26 

140 

485,000 

1872 

Lander, . 

Greenwood, S. C., . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

16 

170 

75,000 

1851 

Lasell S.,. 

Auburndale, Mass., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

34 

164 

200,000 

1855 

Lexington, .... 

Lexington, Mo., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

14 

140 

50,000 

1875 

Liberty,. 

Glasgow, Ky., . . . 

Baptist,. 

20 

225 

50,000 

1845 

Limestone, .... 

Gaffney, S. C., . . . 

Baptist. 

14 

203 

150,000 

1831 

Lindenwood, . . . 

St. Charles, Mo., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

16 

100 

178,500 

1858 

Logan Female,. . . 

Russellville, Ky., . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . . . 

8 

80 

40,000 

1857 

Louisburg, .... 

Louisburg, N. C., . . 

Methodist, ........ 

11 

135 

20,000 

1856 

Louisiana Female, . 

Keatchie, La., . . . 

Baptist,. 

7 

36 

30,000 

1858 

Lucy Cobb Institute, 

Athens, Ga., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

20 

250 

50,000 

1826 

Maine Wes. S., . . . 

Kent’s Hill, Me., . . 

Methodist,. 

14 

181 

480,000 

1854 

Mansfield,. 

Mansfield, La., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . . 

11 

106 

50,000 

1836 

Marion Female, . . 

Marion, Ala., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

9 

80 

25,000 

1874 

Marion Female, . . 

Marion, Va. 

Lutheran,. 

8 

70 

20,000 

1853 

Martha Washington, 

Abingdon, Va., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

24 

173 

80,000 

1870 

Martin. 

Pulaski, Tenn., . . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

14 

130 

96,000 

1853 

Maryland for Wom’n, 

Lutherville, Md., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

13 

100 

100,000 

1842 

Memphis Con.F.Ins., 

Jackson, Tenn.,. . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

22 

225 

5U,U00 

1850 

Millersburg Female, 

Millersburg, Ky., . . 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

11 

140 


1885 

Mills College, .... 

Mills College, Cal., 

Non-sectarian, . . . ’ . 

32 

118 

252,785 

1851 

Milwaukee-Downer, 

Milwaukee, Wis., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

36 

465 


































































































































704 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES —Con. 


Founded ! 

Name of 
Institution 

Location 

Denominational 

Control 

No. of In¬ 

structors 

No. of 

Students 

Value of 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

1884 

Miss.Ind.Inst.& Col., 

Columbus, Miss., . . 

State, . 

75 

750 

8 438,320 

1749 

Moravian Seminary, 

Bethlehem, Penn., . 

Moravian,. 

18 

100 

65,000 

1837 

Mount Holyoke, . 

South Hadley, Mass., 

Non-sectarian,. 

89 

760 

1,868,290 

1851 

Notre Dame, . . . 

San Jose, Cal. 

Roman Catholic, ...... 

30 

118 

240,000 

1850 

Ogontz Sch. for Girls, 
Owensboro Female,. 

Ogontz, Penn. 

Owensboro, Ky., . . 

. 

32 

135 


1891 

Non-sectarian,. 

14 

300 

30,000 

1849 

Oxford,. 

Oxford, O., .... 

Non-sectarian,. 

25 

150 

140,000 

1853 

Packer Coll. Inst., . 

Brooklyn, N. Y., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

53 

650 

400,000 

1869 

Penn’a for Women, . 

Pittsburg, Penn., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

16 

70 

500,000 

1889 

Potter,. 

Bowling Green, Ky., 

N on-sectarian,. 

20 

180 

100,000 

1879 

Radcliffe, 

Cambridge, Mass., . 
Lynchburg, Va., . . 

Non-sectarian, . 

113 

427 


1893 

Randolph-Macon, 

Methodist Episcopal South, . 

35 

408 

530,000 

1859 

Roanoke Female, 

Danville, Va., . . . 

Baptist,. 

11 

106 

20,000 

1849 

Rockford, .... 

Rockford, Ill., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

30 

211 

339,754 

1859 

St. Elizabeth, . . . 

Convent Station, N. J. 

Roman Catholic,. 

30 

350 

300,000 

1868 

St. Mary ’3 School, . 

Knoxville, Ill., . . . 

Protestant Episcopal,. 

16 

100 

125,000 

1802 

Salem Acad. & Coll., 

Winston-Salem, N.C., 

Moravian,. 

41 

433 

275,000 

1894 

San Antonio Female, 

San Antonio, Tex., . 

Methodist South,. 

18 

217 

125,000 

1845 

Sayre Female Inst.,. 

Lexington, Ky., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

11 

75 

200,000 

1877 

Shorter,. 

Rome, Ga., 

Baptist,. 

30 

250 

300,000 

1852 

Silliman College Inst., 

Clinton, La., .... 

Presbyterian,. 

9 

90 

100,000 

1899 

Simmons, . . 

Boston, Mass., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

61 

550 

2,796,565 

1860 

Sisters of Bethany, . 

Topeka, Kan., . . 

Episcopal,. 

15 

142 

340,000 

1875 

Smith,. 

Northampton, Mass., 

Non-sectarian,. 

117 

1,565 

2,500,000 

1852 

Soule,. 

Murfreesboro, Tenn., 

Non-sectarian. 

14 

130 

17,500 

1894 

Stanton,. 

Natchez, Miss., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

16 

175 

10,000 

1868 

Stonewall Jackson, . 

Abingdon, Va., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

10 

115 

60,000 

1843 

Stuart Hall, . . 

Staunton, Va., . 

Protestant Episcopal,. 

23 

140 

75,000 

1870 

Sullins,. 

Bristol, Va., .... 

Methodist South,. 

22 

275 

150,000 

1871 

Synodical Female, 

Fulton, Mo., .... 

Presbyterian,.. . 

12 

100 

60,000 

1856 

Tennessee Female, . 

Franklin, Tenn., 

Non-sectarian,. 

14 

160 

20,000 

1858 

Tuscaloosa Female, . 

Tuscaloosa, Ala., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

8 

100 

50,000 

1861 

Vassar,. 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 

Non-sectarian,. 

99 

1,014 

3,423,883 

1883 

Virginia Institute, . 

Bristol, Va., .... 

Baptist. 

16 

170 

250,000 

1865 

Ward Sem. (Young 
Ladies),. 

Nashville, Tenn., . 

Non-sectarian. 

35 

500 

150,000 

1875 

Wellesley. 

Wellesley, Mass., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

100 

1,273 

2,139,786 

1868 

Wells,. 

Aurora, N. Y., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

25 

179 

783,500 

1836 

Wesleyan Female, . 

Macon, Ga., .... 

Methodist South,. 

31 

400 

325,000 

1831 

Westbrook, Sem. and 
Female, 

Portland, Me., . . . 

Universalist,. 

11 

81 

250,000 

1855 

Western for Women, 

Oxford, O., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

25 

209 

429,726 

1859 

Whitworth Female,. 

Brookhaven, Miss., . 

Methodist South,. 

20 

260 

125,000 

1908 

William Smith, . . 

Geneva, N. Y., . . . 


22 

23 


1870 

Wilson,. 

Chambersburg, Penn., 

Presbyterian,. 

33 

345 

404,552 

1893 

Woman’s,. 

Frederick, Md., . . 

Non-sectariar^. 

18 

212 

120,000 

1888 

Woman’s of Balt., . 

Baltimore, Md., . . 

Methodist,. 

25 

345 

1,795,426 

1869 

Young’s Female, . . 

Thomasville, Ga., . . 

Presbyterian,. 

11 

60 

50,000 


TABLE III — SCHOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY 


1890 

Agricultural of Utah, 

Logan, Utah,. . . . 

State, . 

52 

882 

$443,778 

1893 

Ag.&Mech. (Color’d) 

Greensboro, N. C., 

State, . 

14 

113 

129,572 

1872 

Alabama Poly. Inst., 

Auburn, Ala., . . . 

State, . . 

60 

675 

700,000 

1871 

Alcorn 4g. & Mech., 

Alcorn, Miss., . . . 

State, . 

23 

542 

400,000 

1892 

Armour Inst.of Tech. 

Chicago, Ill., . . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

100 

1,800 

5,000,000 

1881 

Case Sch. of Ap. Sci., 

Cleveland, O., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

38 

427 

3,000,000 

1896 

Thos. S. Clarkson,M. 
S. ofT.. 

Potsdam, N. Y., . . 

Non-sectarian,.. 

9 

93 

465,857 

1889 

Clemson Agricultural, 

Clemson Coll., S. C., 

Non-sectarian,. 

47 

690 

1,143,915 

1879 

Colorado Agricultu’l, 

Fort Collins, Col., . . 

State, ... . 

43 

500 

500,000 

1874 

Colorado Sc.of Mines, 

Golden, Col., .... 

State, . 

21 

361 

610,000 

1881 

Connecticut Agricu’l, 

Storrs, Conn. 

State, . 

20 

152 

322,138 

1888 

Georgia Sch.of Tech., 

Atlanta, Ga. 

State, . 

42 

562 

600,000 

1869 

IowaS. of Ag. & M. A., 

Ames, la.,. 

State, . 

163 

2,383 

2,834,594 

1863 

Kansas State Agric’l, 

Manhattan, Kan.,. . 

State, . 

117 

2,192 

1,569,000 

1862 

Kentucky Ag. & M., 

Lexington, Ky., . . 

State, . 

60 

681 

468,485 

1856 

Maryland Agricult’l, 

College Park, Md., . 

State, . . 

42 

248 

118,000 

1863 

Massachusetts Agric’l 

Amherst, Mass., . . 

State, . 

40 

265 

785,000 

1861 

Mass. Inst, of Tech., 

Boston, Mass., . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

156 

1,475 

4,000,000 

1885 

Michigan C.of Mines, 

Houghton, Mich., . . 

State.. 

32 

266 

651,893 

1857 

Michigan State Agri., 

Lansing, Mich., . . . 

State, . 

95 

1,350 

2,034,127 


Miller Manual, . . . 

Crozet, Va., .... 

State, . 

28 

250 

1,800,000 

i880 

Miss. Ag. & Mech., . 

Starksville, Miss., . . 

City,. 

63 

750 

834,699 

1893 

Montana Agricultur’l, 

Bozeman, Mont., . . 

State, . 

35 

500 

1,189,483 

1900 

Montana S. of Mines, 

Butte, Mont., . . . 

State, . 

9 

84 

227,000 

1885 

Newark Tech. School, 

Newark, N. J., . . . 

16 

340 

100,000 

1893 

N. H. of A. & M. A., 

Durham, N. H., . . 

State, . 

34 

225 

500,000 

1889 

N. M. of A. & M. A., 

Mesilla Park, N. M., . 

State, . 

35 

321 

246,000 

1893 

N. M., Sch. of Mines, 

Socorra* N. M.,. . . 

State, . . . 

6 

40 

76,000 

1889 

N. C. of A. & M. A., 

West Raleigh, N. C., 

State, . 

42 

471 

544,517 











































































































































SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 705 

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES —Con. 


Founded 

Name of 
Institution 

Location 

Denominational 

Control 

No. of In¬ 

structors 

No OF 

Students 

Value of 
Property 
(including 
Endow¬ 
ment) 

1890 

North Dakota Agric., 

Fargo, N. D. 

State, . 

42 

889 

2,083,236 

1873 

North Ga. A. & M., . 

Dahlonega, Ga., 

State, . 

13 

250 

80,000 

1891 

Okla. Agri. & Mech., 

Stillwater, Okla., . . 

State, . 

34 

1,008 

1,700,000 

1868 

Oregon Agricultural, 

Corvallis, Ore., . 

State. 

80 

1,156 

500,000 

1874 

Purdue University, 

Lafayette, Ind., 

State, . 

142 

2,092 

1,173,000 

1824 

Rensselaer Poly. Ins., 

Troy, N. Y., . . . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

45 

648 

2,288,900 

1890 

R. I. of A. & M. A., 

Kingston, R. I., 

State, . 

24 

164 

300,000 

1874 

RosePoly technic Ins., 

Terre Haute, Ind., . 

Non-s6etarian,. 

21 

230 

900,000 

1881 

South Dakota Agric., 

Brookings, S. D., . 

State, . 

42 

525 

614,888 

1885 

S. D. S. of Mines, 

Rapid City, S. D.,. . 

State, . 

14 

115 

175,000 

1871 

Stevens Ins. of Tech., 

Hoboken, N. J., 

Non-sectarian,. 

35 

390 

1,500'000 

1876 

Texas Agr. & Mech., 

College Station, Tex., 

State, . 

46 

626 

769^000 

1891 

Throop Polytec. Ins., 

Pasadena, Cal., . 

Non-sectarian,. 

40 

336 

333,998 

1881 

Tuskegee Institute, 

Tuskegee, Ala. 

Non-sectarian,. 

166 

1,621 

2,589,363 

1802 

U. S. Military Acad., 

West Point, N. Y., , 

National,. 

90 

533 

20 ,000,000 

1845 

U.S.Naval Academy, 

Annapolis, Md., . . 

National,. 

89 

850 

11 ,000,000 

1873 

Virginia Polytechnic, 

Blacksburg, Va. ". 

State, . 

56 

533 

760,000 

1892 

Washington Agricul., 

Pullman, Wash., . . 

State, . 

85 

1,366 

5,000,000 

1805 

Worcester Poly .Inst., 

Worcester, Mass., . . 

Non-sectarian,. 

51 

487 


Color is the name given to distinguish the 
various sensations that lights of various rates 
of vibration give to the eye. As is the case 
with many of the words that denote our sensa¬ 
tions, the word color is also applied to the prop¬ 
erties of bodies that cause them to emit the 
light that thus affects our senses. The molecular 
constitution of a body determines the character 
and number of the light vibrations it returns to 
the eye, and so gives to each body its own charac¬ 
teristic color; hence the term color is used to 
denote that in respect of which bodies have a 
different appearance to the eye independently 
of their form. 

Ordinary white light (the light which comes 
from an incandescent solid or liquid) when trans¬ 
mitted through triangular prisms of glass or 
other media differing in dispersive power from 
the atmosphere, is shown to consist of a number 
of colored lights, which, meeting the eye, together 
produce the sensation of white light. The colors 
thus shown are usually said to be seven — red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet — al¬ 
though in reality there is an enormous, if not 
an infinite, number of perfectly distinct colors 
in light. The seven colors are frequently called 
the primary colors, and other tints and shades 
are producible by mixing them; but in a stricter 
sense the primary colors are three in number, 
namely, red, green, and violet (or blue). These 
three colors or kinds of light cannot be resolved 
into any other. In the scientific sense of the word 
white and black are not considered colors, a 
white body reflecting and a black body absorbing 
all the rays of light without separating them, 
whereas the colors proper are due to separation 
of the rays of light by partial absorption and 
reflection or by refraction. If a body absorbs 
every other kind of light and reflects or transmits 
red light only, it will appear of a red color; if 
it absorbs every kind except blue rays, it will 
appear blue; and so on. If more than one kind 
of light be transmitted or reflected the object 
will appear of a color compounded of these differ¬ 
ent rays of light. 

In art the term color is applied to that com¬ 
bination or modification of tints which produces 


a particular and desired effect in painting. The 
colors of the spectrum have to be distinguished 
from colors used in reference to pigments. The 
pigments red, blue, and yellow, regarded in the 
arts as the primary colors, produce effects, 
when mixed, very different from those produced 
by admixture of the corresponding spectrum 
colors. These three pigment colors form other 
colors thus: red and yellow make orange, yellow 
and blue make green, and red and blue make 
purple; but red, blue, and yellow cannot be 
produced by any combination of the other colors. 
— Local colors are those which are natural to a 
particular object in a picture, and by which it is 
distinguished from other objects.— Neutral 
colors, those in which the hue is broken by par¬ 
taking of the reflected colors of the objects which 
surround them.— Positive colors, those which are 
unbroken by such accidents as affect neutral 
objects.— Complementary colors, colors which 
together make white; thus any of the primary 
colors is complementary to the other two.— Sub¬ 
jective or accidental colors, the imaginary comple¬ 
mentary colors seen after fixing the eye for a 
short time on a bright-colored object, and then 
turning it to a white or light-colored surface. 

In the three-color process used in various 
mechanic arts a separate photographic negative 
of the object is made for each of the primary 
colors. For printing, separate plates are made 
from these negatives and impressions from each 
are superimposed in inks approximating to the 
primary shades. Color photographs may be 
exhibited by projecting light through the three 
primary negatives properly superimposed. By 
an improved process, however, in exhibiting 
colored motion pictures, distinct images in each 
of the three primary colors succeed one another 
so rapidly upon the screen as to coalesce upon the 
retina and thus produce a wonderfully exact 
impression of the natural colors. 

Combustion. The operation of fire on 
inflammable substances; or the union of an in¬ 
flammable substance with oxygen or some other 
supporter of combustion, attended with heat and 
in most instances with light. In consequence of 
the combination of the carbon in fuel with the 

















































706 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


oxygen of the air being the universal method of 
getting heat and light, and as when the action 
takes place the fuel is said to burn or undergo 
combustion, the latter term has been extended 
to those cases in which other bodies than carbon 
— for example, phosphorus, sulphur, metals, 
etc.— burn in the air or in other substances than 
air — for example, chlorine. Though the action 
between the gas and the more solid material, 
as coal, wood, charcoal, of whose combination 
combustion is the result, is mutual, the one 
having as much to do with the process as the 
other, yet the former, as oxygen, chlorine, iodine, 
and the compounds which they form with each 
other and with nitrogen, have received the name 
of supporters of combustion, while to the latter 
the term combustibles has been assigned. 

Spontaneous Combustion is the ignition of a 
body by the internal development of heat with¬ 
out the application of fire. It not unfrequently 
takes place among heaps of rags, wool, and cotton 
when lubricated with oil; hay and straw when 
damp or moistened with water; and coal in the 
bunkers of vessels. In the first case the oil 
rapidly combines with the oxygen of the air, 
this being accompanied with great heat; in the 
second case the heat is produced by a kind of 
fermentation; in the third by the pyrites of the 
coal rapidly absorbing and combining with the 
oxygen of the air. The term is also applied to 
the extraordinary alleged phenomenon of the 
human body being reduced to ashes without the 
direct application of fire. It is said to have 
occurred in the aged and persons that were fat 
and hard drinkers; but most chemists reject the 
theory and altogether discredit it. 

Comet. A celestial body presenting a 
nebulous aspect, and traveling under the sun’s 
attraction. Many of these bodies are distin¬ 
guished by a remarkable tail-like appendage. 
The greater number of those hitherto known have 
revolved round the sun on a path whose observed 
portion belonged to an exceedingly elongated 
ellipse, or was even parabolic or hyperbolic. A 
few,. however, travel in closed orbits around the 
sun in known periods. Among the most remark¬ 
able comets in recent times were those of 1780, 
1807, 1811, 1815, 1819, 1825, 1843, 1847, 1858, 
1861, 1874, and 1910 (Halley’s). We know so 
little respecting the physical conditions of comets 
that it would be hazardous to speculate at present 
concerning their real nature. A theory of great 
ingenuity, and (what is novel in this branch of 
speculation) founded on physical experiments 
which really seem to have some bearing on the 
subject, were put forward by Professor Tyndall, 
who is disposed to regard the tails of comets as 
resulting from the formation of a species of 
actinic cloud by the action of the solar rays, 
after their character has been altered during their 
passage through the comet’s head. At present, 
however, it is difficult to say whether such a 
theory is well or ill founded. 

Conchology. The science of shells, that 
department of zoology which treats of the nature, 
formation, and classification of the shells with 
which the bodies of many mollusca are pro¬ 
tected ; or the word may be used also to include 
a knowledge of the animals themselves, in which 
cas£ it is equivalent to malacology. In systems 


of conchology shells are usually divided into 
three orders: Univalves, Bivalves, and Multi¬ 
valves, according to the number of pieces of 
which they are composed. 

Conductor. A body capable of transmit¬ 
ting the electric fluid. It is called also a non¬ 
electric; for, unless insulated, it will not exhibit 
electrical excitement, the electricity being car¬ 
ried off along it as fast as it is communicated to 
or excited upon it. The metals are the best 
conductors; resinous substances are very bad 
ones. Bodies incapable of transmitting elec¬ 
tricity are called non-conductors; and, because 
electricity may be communicated to or excited 
upon them, without artificial insulation, they are 
termed electrics. There is no body a perfect 
conductor, or a perfect non-conductor. The 
non-conducting power depends very much on 
the extent of non-conducting surface. In fric¬ 
tional electricity, the best conductors are the 
metals, as before stated; after which come 
graphite, sea-, spring-, and rain-water. Ice is 
a worse conductor than fluid or water. Alcohol, 
ether, paper, dry wood, and straw, are also weak 
conductors. Shellac, wax, amber, and sulphur 
become conductors when fused; and glass at a 
red heat conducts readily. A conductor is said 
to be insulated when it rests upon non-conduct¬ 
ing supports. A lightning-conductor is a pointed 
metallic rod fixed to the upper parts of build¬ 
ings to secure them from the effects of lightning. 
It is connected with the earth, or, what is better, 
the nearest water, by a good conductor, which 
is sufficiently thick not to be melted in trans¬ 
mitting the electricity; and which, where at 
tached to the wall, is insulated by non-conduct 
ors, so that the electricity may not be diverted 
to the building, instead of passing harmlessly 
away. This useful instrument was invented by 
Franklin in 1755. 

Congregationalists. A large and in¬ 
fluential Christian sect, called also Independents 
in England, because they hold that every single 
congregation of Christians, when properly con¬ 
stituted with deacons and a pastor, forms an 
independent body, competent to its own direc¬ 
tion and government, without interference from 
any other church, or any presbyteries, bishops, 
etc. They therefore hold that each congrega¬ 
tion has inherent in itself power to fix its own 
tenets and form of religious worship, and to ex¬ 
ercise ecclesiastical government. They hold a 
Christian Church to be a congregation of true 
believers; i. e., persons who both openly pro¬ 
fess their faith in the essential doctrines of the 
Gospel, and evince the earnestness of their be¬ 
lief by a corresponding change of disposition 
and demeanor. The doctrines of the Congrega¬ 
tional Churches are almost identical with those 
embodied in the Articles of the Presbyterian 
Church, interpreted according to their Calvin- 
istic meaning. They disavow all subscription 
to creeds, confessions, or articles of faith; never¬ 
theless, they are distinguished by a singular 
degree of uniformity in faith and practice. As 
to the origin of Independency, it is probable 
that some conventicles were secretly established 
in England soon after the accession of Elizabeth; 
but the first prominent advocate of Congrega¬ 
tional principles appeared in 1580, in the person 



SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 707 


of Robert Brown. The Plymouth and Massa¬ 
chusetts Bay settlements in this country were 
founded by Congregational pilgrims in 1620 
and 1628; and others, a few years afterwards, 
in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Congrega¬ 
tionalism gave New England the distinctive 
character it bears in history, and, in return, the 
development of the New England Churches, 
and the teachings of their pastors, gave Congre¬ 
gationalism substantially its form. “From the 
earliest settlement of New England, there was a 
.definite but peculiar relation between the 
Churches and the State. It was neither that 
in which the State rules the Church, nor that in 
which the Church rules the State, but rather a 
peculiar blending of the two. Townships were 
incorporated with a view to ability to maintain 
a settled ministry, and to the convenience of the 
people in attending public worship. Provision 
was made by law for the support of pastors, 
and for all necessary expenses. The choice of 
a pastor belonged to the Church.” Throughout 
the whole of the early history of New England, 
the affairs and discussions of Church and State 
were blended in what would now seem an ex¬ 
tremely curious manner. Though the doctrine 
of Congregationalism is, that, according to 
Scripture, every Church is confined to the 
limits of a single congregation, “the fellow¬ 
ship of the Churches has always been main¬ 
tained, and all ‘ matters of common concern¬ 
ment ’ have been decided by the common 
consent of the whole body, and sometimes 
embodied in the pronounced opinions of 
general bodies convened for the special occasion. 
Denying the authority of any standing judica¬ 
tory, Congregationalists recognize the necessity 
and desirableness of occasional synods for de¬ 
liberation and advice on great public inter¬ 
ests.” Until within recent times the Congre¬ 
gational Churches had not made rapid growth 
west of the Hudson River; but, latterly, move¬ 
ments to spread the sect in all parts of the 
United States have been pushed with great 
energy, and the Churches have increased 
rapidly. 

Constellations are the groups into which 
astronomers have divided the fixed stars, and 
which have received names for the convenience 
of description and reference. It is plain that 
the union of several stars into a constellation, 
to which the name of some animal, person, or 
inanimate object is given, must be entirely arbi¬ 
trary, since the several points (the stars) may 
be united in a hundred different ways, just as 
imagination directs. The grouping adopted by 
the Egyptians was accordingly modified by the 
Greeks, though they retained the Ram, the Bull, 
the Dog, etc.; and the Greek constellations were 
again modified by the Romans, and again by the 
Arabians. At various times, also, Christianity 
has endeavored to supplant the pagan system, 
the Venerable Bede having given the names of 
the twelve apostles to the signs of the zodiac, 
and Judas Schillerius having, in 1627, applied 
Scripture names to all the constellations. Wei- 
gelius, a professor of Jena, even grouped the 
stars upon a heraldic basis, introducing the arms 
of all the princes of Europe among the constel¬ 
lations. The old constellations have, however, 


been for the most part retained. Ptolemy enu¬ 
merated, in the “Syntaxis,” forty-eight con¬ 
stellations, still called the Ptolemcean. They are 
the following: (1) The twelve signs of the 
zodiac. (2) Twenty-one constellations found 
in the northern hemisphere — the Great Bear 
(Ursa Major), the Little Bear ( Ursa Minor), 
Perseus, the Dragon, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, An¬ 
dromeda, Pegasus, Equuleus (Horse’s Head), the 
Triangle, the Charioteer {Auriga), Bootes, the 
Northern Crown {Corona Borealis), Ophiuchus, 
the Serpent {Serpentarius), Hercules, the Arrow 
{Sagitta), the Lyre, the Swan {Cygnus), the Dol¬ 
phin, the Eagle {Aquila). (3) Fifteen constella¬ 
tions in the southern hemisphere — Orion, the 
Whale {Cetus), Eridanus, the Hare {Lepus), the 
Great Dog {Canis Major), the Little Dog {Canis 
Minor), Hydra, the Cup {Crater), the Crow 
{Corvus), the Centaur, the Wolf {Lupus), the 
Altar {Ara), the Southern Fish {Piscis Australis), 
the Argo, the Southern Crown {Corona Austra¬ 
lis). Others were subsequently added, this be¬ 
ing especially rendered necessary by the in¬ 
creased navigation of the southern hemisphere, 
and now the different groups of stars have come 
to be associated with all sorts of animals and 
objects, including the Camelopard, the Fly, the 
Air-pump, the Compasses, etc. 

Continuity, Law of. The principle that 
nothing passes from one state to another without 
passing through all intermediate states. From 
this law, for instance, if it be known that at two 
instants of time a body had a temperature of 
20°, and at another a temperature of 40°, then 
there must have been an instant between these 
at which the temperature was 30°. If a body, at 
two different times, had velocities of twelve feet 
and twenty feet per second, respectively, we 
may conclude, from the law of continuity, that 
between these times it had all velocities between 
twelve feet and twenty feet. The principle is of 
considerable use in investigations on motion and 
physical change; it was distinctly laid down by 
Galileo, who ascribed it to Plato; but Leibnitz 
was the first to apply it extensively to test 
physical theories. He established its truth by 
the method of reductio ad absurdum. If a change 
were to happen without the lapse of time, the 
thing changed must be in two different condi¬ 
tions at the same instant, which is obviously 
impossible. 

Contractile Force or Contractility. 

That property or power inherent in certain elas¬ 
tic bodies, on account of which, after having 
been extended, they reduce themselves again to 
their former dimensions, if permitted to do so. 
It has been calculated from Joule’s data that the 
force exerted by heat in expanding a pound of 
iron between 0° and 100° during which it in¬ 
creases about air °f its bulk, is equal to 16,000 
foot pounds; that is, it could raise a weight of 
seven tons through a height of one foot. An 
application of this contractile force is seen in 
the mode of securing the tires on wheels. The 
tire being made red-hot, and thus considerably 
expanded, is placed on the circumference of the 
wheel and then cooled. The tire, when cold, 
embraces the wheel with such force as not only 
to secure itself on the rim, but also to press home 
the joints of the spokes into the felloes and nave. 



708 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Convection. When a liquid is heated 
from above, the temperature of the mass rises 
with extreme slowness, because liquids possess 
but little conducting power for heat; thus water 
may be boiled on ice, although separated from 
it by a very thin stratum of water. But if the 
liquid be heated from below, we notice at once 
that currents of liquid ascend from the bottom 
to the top of the vessel, and the liquid acquires 
a uniform temperature. This transport of heat 
by masses of matter is known as Convection. 
The layers of a liquid or gas which are nearest 
to the source of heat are expanded, and thus 
become specifically lighter than surrounding 
portions, consequently they rise; while colder, 
and consequently heavier, portions descend, are 
heated in their turn, and then ascend to make 
way for other colder portions. Thus, however 
badly a liquid or gas conducts heat, it can rap¬ 
idly acquire a uniform temperature by the con¬ 
vection of heat; and convection takes place in 
gases far more readily than in fluids, because 
for equal increments of heat they expand to a 
greater extent than liquids. 

Cooper Union or Cooper Institute. 
An institute founded in New York City in 1857, 
by Peter Cooper. Its object is to provide free 
schools of art and science, and free reading rooms 
and library for the working classes. There are 
lecture courses, a museum, an art gallery, and 
a library of 31,000 volumes, with a reading room 
containing current numbers of nearly 500 maga¬ 
zines and newspapers. The institute was built 
at a cost of $630,000 and was endowed by Mr. 
Cooper with $300,000. It has received addi¬ 
tional gifts from time to time from Edward 
Cooper and Abram S. Hewitt, and in 1899 An¬ 
drew Carnegie gave $300,000 for the founding 
of a day school of mechanical arts. 

Correlation of the Physical Forces. 
The principle that any one of the various forms 
of physical force may be converted into one or 
more of the other forms. Thus, heat may 
mediately or immediately produce electricity, 
electricity may produce heat, and so of the rest, 
each merging itself as the force it produces 
becomes developed; and that the same must 
hold good of other forces, it being an irresistible 
inference from observed phenomena that a force 
cannot originate otherwise than by devolution 
from pre-existing force or forces. This prin¬ 
ciple is also called Transmutation of Energy. 

Cosmogony. A theory of the origin or 
formation of the universe. Such theories may 
be comprehended under three classes: (1) The 
first represents the world as eternal, in form as 
well as substance. (2) The matter of the v;orld 
is eternal, but not its form. (3) The matter and 
form of the universe is ascribed to the direct 
agency of a spiritual cause; the world had a 
beginning, and shall have an end. Aristotle 
appears to have embraced the first theory; but 
the theory which considers the matter of the 
universe eternal, but not its form, was the pre¬ 
vailing one among the ancients, who, starting 
from the principle that nothing could be made 
out of nothing, could not admit the creation of 
matter, yet did not believe that the world had 
been always in its present state. The prior 
state of the world subject to a constant succes¬ 


sion of uncertain movements which chance 
afterwards made regular, they called chaos. 
The Phenicians, Babylonians, and also Egyp¬ 
tians, seem to have adhered to this theory. 
One form of this theory is the atomic theory, 
as taught by Leucippus, Epicurus, and Lucre¬ 
tius. According to it atoms or indivisible par¬ 
ticles existed from eternity, moving at hazard, 
and producing, by their constant meeting, a 
variety of substances. After having given rise 
to an immense variety of combinations they 
produced the present organization of bodies. 
The third theory of cosmogony makes God, or 
some deity, the Creator of the world out of 
nothing. This is an ancient and widely- 
spread theory, and is that taught in the book 
of Genesis. Anaxagoras was the first among 
the Greeks who taught that God created the 
universe from nothing. The Romans generally 
adopted this theory, notwithstanding the 
efforts of Lucretius to establish the doctrine of 
Epicurus. 

Councils of the Church. General 

councils, called also oecumenical or universal, 
are summoned by the Pope of Rome, and are 
designed to settle questions affecting the Uni¬ 
versal Church. The Roman Catholic Church 
recognizes twenty-one general councils; the 
Greek Church, the first seven of these, besides 
that of Jerusalem; and the Protestant Churches 
generally admit the full authority of none of 
them, and reckon as oecumenical only the first 
six. The following are the most notable of the 
councils of the Church of Rome: 

A. D. 

50. Of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 

314. Of the Western Bishops at Arles, in France, to 
suppress the Donatists; three fathers of the 
English Church went over to attend it. 

325. The first (Ecumenical or General Nicene, held at 
Nice, Constantine the Great presided; Arius and 
Eusebius condemned for heresy. This council 
composed the Nicene Creed. 

335. At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athanasius .was 
canvassed. 

337. The first held at Constantinople, when the Arian 
heresy gained ground. 

342. At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which lasted 
eighteen months. 

347. At Sardi; 370 bishops attended. 

359. Of Rimini; 400 bishops attended, and Constantine 
obliged them to sign a new confession of faith. 

381. The second General at Constantinople; 350 
bishops attended and Pope Damasius presided. 

431. The third at Ephesus, when Pope Celestine pre¬ 
sided. 

451. Fourth at Chalcedon; the Emperor Marcian and 
his Empress attended. 

553. The fifth at Constantinople, when Pope Vigilius 
presided. 

650. The sixth at Constantinople, when Pope Agatho 
presided. 

715. Authority of the six general councils reestablished 
by Theodosius. 

787. The second Nicene Council, seventh General; 350 
bishops attended. 

869. Of Constantinople, eighth General; the Emperor 
Basil attended. 

1122. The first Lateran, the ninth General; the right of 
investitures settled by treaty between Pope 
Calixius II. and the Emperor Henry V. 

1139. The second Lateran, tenth General, Innocent II. 

presided; the preservation of the temporal ties 
of ecclesiastics, the principal subject which occa¬ 
sioned the attendance of 1,000 fathers of the 
Church. 

1179. The third Lateran, eleventh General; held against 
schismatics. 

1215. Fourth Lateran, twelfth General; 400 bishops 
and 1,000 abbots attended; Innocent III. pre¬ 
sided. 



SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


709 


A. D. 

1245. Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under Pope 
Innocent IV. 

1274. Of^Lyons, the fourteenth General, under Gregory 

1311. Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth General; 
Clement V. presided and the kings of France and 
Arragon attended. The order of the Knights 
Templar suppressed. 

1409. Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gregory XII. and 
Benedict XIII. deposed, and Alexander elected. 
1414. Of Constance, the seventeenth General; Martin V. 
is elected pope; and John Huss and Jerome of 
Prague condemned to be burnt. 

1431. Of Basil, the eighteenth General. 

The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth General, begun 
by Julius II. 

1512. Continued under Leo X.,for the suppression of the 
Pragmatic sanction of France against the 
Council of Pisa, etc. 

1545. Of Trent, the twentieth (Ecumenical, as regarding 
the affairs of all the Christian world; it was held 
to condemn the doctrines of the reformers, 
Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. 

1870. Of Rome, the last (Ecumenical which adopted the 
dogma of Papal infallibility. 

Creed. A summary of belief, from the 
Latin credo (I believe), with which the Apostles’ 
and Nicene Creeds begin. These two creeds, 
together with the Athanasian Creed, are the 
most ancient authoritative Christian creeds, 
though numerous ancient formularies of faith 
are preserved in the writings of the early fathers. 
The Nicene Creed was set forth by the Council 
of Nicea in 325, and is closely similar in wording 
to ancient creeds of Oriental Churches, and 
specially founded upon the baptismal creed of 
the Church of Caesarea in Palestine. The 
Apostles’ Creed was originally a baptismal con¬ 
fession, and not a summary of apostolic teaching. 

Dew. The moisture which rises into the 
atmosphere during the day, and is afterwards 
deposited on the earth in gentle drops during the 
night. The air, when heated during the day, is 
capable of holding a larger quantity of water in 
solution as vapor, than when cooled during the 
night, the low temperature of which causes some 
of the water to separate. The separated parti¬ 
cles, uniting, form drops of dew. When the night 
is cloudy, the surfaces on which the dew would 
be deposited are not sufficiently cooled down for 
the purpose, since the clouds give back some of 
the heat which passed off by radiation. 

Digestion is that process in the animal body 
by which the aliments are so acted upon that the 
nutritive parts are prepared to enter the circula¬ 
tion, and separated from those which cannot 
afford nourishment to the body. The organs 
effecting this process are called the digestive 
organs, and consist of the stomach, the great and 
small intestines, etc., the liver, and pancreas. 
When the aliments, after being properly prepared 
and mixed with saliva by mastication, have 
reached the stomach, they are intimately united 
with a liquid substance called the gastric juice, 
by the motion of the stomach. By this motion 
the aliments are mechanically separated into 
their smallest parts, penetrated by the gastric 
juice, and transformed into a uniform pulpy or 
fluid mass. The gastric juice acts upon the 
albuminous parts of the food, converting them 
into peptones, which can pass through organic 
membranes and thus enters the blood. This 
action is aided by the warmth of the stomach. 
The pulpy mass called chyme proceeds from the 
stomach, through the pylorus, into that part 


of the intestinal canal called the small intestine, 
where it is mixed with the pancreatic juice, bile, 
and intestinal juice. The pancreatic juice con¬ 
verts starch into sugar, albumins into peptones, 
and emulsionizes fats, so that all these kinds of 
food are rendered capable of absorption. The 
recess is aided by the intestinal juice. The 
ile also acts upon fats, and thus the food is 
formed into the chyle, which is absorbed into 
the system by the capillary vessels called lacteals, 
while the non-nutritious matters pass down the 
intestinal canal and are carried off 

Dissenter. One who secedes from, or is 
opposed to, the service and worship prescribed 
by any established or state Church. In Eng¬ 
land, the term is applied (indifferently with that 
of Nonconformist ) to those who do not conform 
to the rites and services of the Church as estab¬ 
lished by law of the land. It must be under¬ 
stood that the term does in no case apply to 
either Jews or Roman Catholics. Thus the ap¬ 
parent paradox exists that in England the Pres¬ 
byterian body are Dissenters, while in Scotland 
they form the Established Church, leaving the 
Episcopalians as the chief dissenting body. In 
this country, there being no state Church, such 
differences in the ecclesiastical polity have, 
necessarily, no existence. 

Distillation. An operation by which a 
liquid is converted into vapor by heat, which 
vapor is condensed by cold in a separate vessel.. 
It may be employed for various purposes: thus 
simple distillation purifies liquids; it enables a 
more volatile to be separated from a less volatile 
substance; by its means a liquid possessing a 
definite boiling-point may be separated from 
other liquids possessing other boiling-points. 
This latter is known as fractional distillation, 
and is much used in the separation of hydro¬ 
carbons, the various products being collected 
at intervals of, say, ten degrees of temperature. 
The essential parts of a distilling apparatus are 
a vessel in which the substance is heated, called 
sometimes a still and sometimes a retort; a con¬ 
denser or refrigerator, in which the vapor is cooled, 
and a receiver, in which the condensed products 
are collected. Distillation was an important 
operation in the earliest alchemical processes of 
which we have any record; it does not, however, 
appear to have been known before the time of 
Pliny. 

Dominicans. An order of preaching 
friars, founded at Toulouse in 1215, by the Span¬ 
ish St. Dominic de Guzman, who was born in 
Old Castile, in 1170, became one of the instigators 
of the crusade against the Albigenses, and died 
in 1221. This order, confirmed by bull of Pope 
Honorius, 1216, rapidly multiplied in Christen¬ 
dom. In course of time, however, the Domini¬ 
cans were superseded in the schools by the Jes¬ 
uits, and were also eclipsed by the great rival 
order of the Franciscans. Among the lights of 
the Dominican order may be counted St. Thomas 
Aquinas and Albertus Magnus. In more modern 
times, the order has been resuscitated in France 
by the propaganda of Pere Lacordaire, and they 
are likewise to be found in Belgium, Hungary, 
Switzerland, and the United States. Their 
rule is very strict, including rigorous fasting 
and total abstinence from flesh. They wear a 



710 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


white robe, with a black gaberdine, and a 
pointed black cap. 

Drawing’. The art of representing on a 
flat surface the forms of objects, and their posi¬ 
tions and relations to each other, was prehistoric 
in origin. 

Drawings may be divided into five classes: 
sketches, finished drawings, studies, academic 
drawings, and cartoons. First sketches are the 
ideas put on paper by an artist, with the inten¬ 
tion of carrying them out with more complete¬ 
ness and detail in some more elaborate work. 
They are merely intended to fix and retain his 
first thoughts. Finished drawings are such as 
are carefully executed and made complete in 
all their parts. By studies are generally under¬ 
stood separate parts of objects carefully drawn 
either from life or from figures in relief ; for ex¬ 
ample, heads, hands, feet, arms; but sometimes 
the term is applied to drawings of entire figures. 
To this class also belong drawings of the skeleton 
and muscles, as well as of draperies, animals, 
trees, foregrounds, or other parts of landscapes. 
Academic drawings are those made in art acade¬ 
mies from a living model in lamplight which 
brings out the shadows more than daylight. 
The position of the model is carefully arranged 
at the commencement of each sitting, and in that 
position he is required to remain. In this way 
the learners practice the drawing of the figure in 
various attitudes. In studying drapery and 
dress, a lay figure, made of wood and with mov¬ 
able joints, is clothed in various styles, and 
drawings made from it. Cartoons are drawings 
made on stout paper of the size of the painting 
to be executed from them. They are mostly 
employed for pictures of large size, and are regu¬ 
larly used by fresco painters. The design is 
pricked through or traced from the cartoon on 
the surface that receives the finished picture. 

Dream. A series of mental impressions 
occurring to sleeping persons, and which, there¬ 
fore, are not under the command of reason. 
Dreams have been referred to various causes; 
among others, to direct impressions on the or¬ 
gans of sense during sleep; to the absence of a 
power to test the inaccurate conclusions drawn 
from one set of impressions by other impressions; 
to a disordered state of the digestive organs; to 
a less restrained action of the mental faculties; 
to the suspension of volition while the powers of 
sensation continue, etc. In health there is a less 
tendency to dream than in disease; in the earlier 
than in the later periods of life; and the very 
act of dreaming shows that the brain is not en¬ 
joying a complete state of rest. The phenomena 
of dreams are yet too little studied to enable us 
to attest much with certainty regarding them. 
The popular belief has frequently ascribed them 
to supernatural agency, especially where there 
has been any coincidence between a dream and 
an external event; and it may be said that if 
many of the instances of remarkable dreams 
may be explained by natural causes, there are 
others so well authenticated that we cannot al¬ 
together discredit them that are manifestly 
unexplained by any scientific theory. 

Dynamics. That branch of the science 
which treats of the action of force in producing 
motion. It treats of bodies not in equilibrium, 


as statics treats of bodies at rest. Dynamics is 
divided into two parts — kinematics, which in¬ 
vestigates the circumstances of mere motion 
without reference to the bodies moved, the forces 
producing the motion, or to the forces called into 
action by the motion; and kinetics, which in¬ 
vestigates the nature and relation of the forces 
which produce motion. Dynamics has to do 
with the primary conceptions of space, matter, 
time, and velocity, each of which admits of 
numerical estimation by comparison with units 
arbitarily chosen; hence dynamics is a science 
of numbers. It is usual to consider the subject 
in two parts: the dynamics of a particle, and the 
dynamics of a rigid body. The science owes its 
origin to Galileo, to whom is due the law of the 
acceleration of falling bodies. Huyghens added 
the theories of the pendulum and centrifugal 
force, and Newton developed the science, and 
applied it to the infinitesimal calculus. 

Electricity, from the Greek elektron 
(amber), the name applied originally to the un¬ 
known cause of the attractions, repulsions, spark- 
lings, etc., which attend the friction of amber 
and similar substances. The same cause is now 
recognized as giving rise, under various circum¬ 
stances, to many phenomena. Many attempts 
have been made to ascertain the true nature of 
electricity, but it cannot be said that we have 
yet any sure knowledge of what this subtle agent 
really is. Electricity behaves as if it were an 
incompressible fluid substance, but it differs 
from all known fluids in so many particulars 
that it may be asserted that whatever else it 
may be, it is not a fluid in the ordinary sense of 
the word. Neither is it a form of energy, though 
electrification as distinguished from electricity 
certainly is such. Many scientific men hold the 
view that electricity is the ether itself (the elastic, 
incompressible medium pervading all space and 
conveying luminous and other vibrations), and 
that the phenomena of positive and negative 
electrifications are due to displacement of the 
ether at the surfaces of bodies. The researches 
of Hertz, who, by direct experiment, verified 
James Clerk Maxwell’s brilliant theory that 
electrical action is propagated through space 
by wave motion in the ether, differing only in 
respect of wave length and period from the 
vibrations which constitute light, have been 
of the unmost value in helping to arrive at a 
solution of this question. Investigations into 
the phenomena of electric discharges in high 
vacua, followed by the discovery of Roentgen 
of the X-Rays, have also thrown great light on 
the subject. The applications of electricity are 
extremely varied. Its employment for teleg¬ 
raphy and electro-metallurgy, for chemical and 
for medical and physiological purposes, for the 
production of light to illuminate streets and 
buildings, for driving vehicles and machinery 
of various kinds, may be mentioned as examples. 

Motor. For practical purposes, to produce 
continuous power, it is most convenient to use 
a machine called a motor, which is so arranged 
that the electricity traverses a wire wound (in 
the form of one or more coils) many times around 
a suitably-shaped frame of iron called a field 
magnet or simply a field. The current so circu¬ 
lating round the field magnetizes, or as it is 




SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


711 


called, excites it, causing it to exert an attrac¬ 
tion or pull upon another part of the machine 
known as. the armature. The armature is also 
wound with. wire through which the current 
passes, and is placed between the extremities 
of the field magnet which are called poles. The 
electrical connections are so adjusted that the 
attraction or pull between the field and armature 
is up on one side of the armature and down on 
the other, thus causing the latter to rotate with 
any desired speed and power according to the 
size of the motor. The power may be brought 
in by wires through the window-casing, and the 
whole machinery started and stopped by turning 
a switch. Being entirely noiseless, perfectly 
clean, susceptible of being started, regulated, 
or stopped as stated by the mere pressure of a 
button, and cheap, both in constructing and 
operating, its utility for the lighter kinds of in¬ 
dustrial service is beyond question. There is no 
delay with electric motors similar to that in 
getting up steam in a steam-engine, and this 
quality is of the utmost importance in the fire- 
engine service, and is made use of in the electric 
fire-engine. Upon reaching a fire the connecting 
wires from the electric engine are hooked into 
the box on the electric light post, from which 
wires run up to the electric light wires above. 
The engine is then ready for instant operation 
at full power. The revival of interest in the 
electric motor causes it to seem like a new in¬ 
vention to those not familiar with the record 
of electrical science. As a matter of fact, the 
electrician Jacobi, under the patronage of the 
Czar of Russia, propelled a boat on the Neva 
by electricity more than half a century ago; 
and not many years later Professor Page, in this 
country, succeeded in driving a car by an electric 
locomotive between Washington and Bladens- 
burg at a speed of nineteen miles an hour. But 
nothing resulted from those early experiments 
on account of the rudimentary methods of 
generating electricity; and had not the dynamo 
machine been made commercially successful 
the motor would still be floating in the brain of 
scientists as a future but very indefinite possi¬ 
bility. Now, however, it has been caught and 
made objective. Thousands of electric motors 
are at work in various parts of the country, 
ranging in capacity from one-half to twenty 
horse-power, and they are transferring freight 
and passengers, running printing-presses, lifting 
elevators, driving ventilators, and making them¬ 
selves generally useful at domestic and industrial 
service. The adaptability of the motor for 
operating street railways is its chief recommen¬ 
dation to the American people. 

The Dynamo. This machine is very like 
the modern motor just described. In fact a 
dynamo may be used as a motor by supplying 
it with electricity from another dynamo or any 
other source of electricity, and if the armature 
of a motor be rotated by a steam-engine or other 
prime mover, it will give a current of electricity 
and become for the time being a dynamo. The 
only difference between the dynamo and motor 
is in the proportioning of parts, the modes of 
regulating speed power, etc. Only after the in¬ 
vention of the modern dynamo was this fact 
discovered, and in the early and partially suc¬ 


cessful attempts to make both, the experimenters 
did not appear to even guess that there was any 
particular connection between them. The de¬ 
signing of motors does not stop with the simple 
application of the revolving wheel principles 
explained above, but furnishes unlimited room 
for skill in making them in forms convenient 
for . use, and adapted for direct connection to 
various kinds of machinery. American inge¬ 
nuity has undoubtedly taken the lead in making 
motors of all kinds. 

The Trolley. An electric street car, such 
as may be seen in the majority of towns and 
cities throughout the Union, is known as a 
trolley car because the current is taken from 
the overhead wire through the trolley or wheel, 
whence it goes down the pole and through a 
wire to the motor which is situated under the 
floor, then into car wheels and so to the rails 
and ground and back to the generator or dynamo 
in the power station. 

Electric Light, is one of the many electric 
processes which depend upon the faculty of being 
easily converted into heat at any desired place 
and in any part of its conductor. In itself elec¬ 
tric lighting covers a range of sizes or powers 
more extensive than the candle, the gas-burner, 
and the calcium light combined. Heat is the 
vibratory motion of the atoms which compose 
substances, which kind of motion electricity 
always produces when moving through a con¬ 
ductor. The temperature increases with the 
current, and it becomes possible, therefore, to 
raise the temperature of a given conductor to a 
red or white heat. If such a current be sent 
through an iron, a copper, or a platinum wire it 
will glow very brightly and be in danger of fusing; 
but if a filament of carbon be used instead, in¬ 
closed in a vacuum, it cannot fuse, but gives out 
a bright light. It is also a great advantage to 
be able to produce intense heat at a particular 
spot by passing a current through a wire and 
thinning the wire at the desired place. The 
higher incandescent or luminous heat is obtained 
by making the section of the wire still thinner, 
which brings it to a heat of dazzling brilliancy. 
This is the whole principle of the incandescent 
electric light in a nutshell. Electric lights are of 
two classes, known as “arc” and “incandes¬ 
cent.” The latter, named from the incandescent 
heat of the thin wire, consists of a fine wire or 
filament of any substance which will stand 
enormous heat, inclosed in a glass, with the air 
removed to prevent its burning up at the high 
temperature. These lights, which are usually 
small, are very soft and pleasant to the eye, and 
are used for indoor illumination. The arc light 
is produced by the current passing from the end 
of one rod of carbon to the end of another rod 
through the vapor produced by the burning of the 
carbon and is named from the curved or arc¬ 
shaped path which the current takes in passing 
through this vapor. The passage of the current 
heats the particles of carbon in the vapor 
as well as the tips of the rods to an intense 
degree, and gives off a light of absolutely unap¬ 
proached brilliancy. They are used for street 
illumination, man-of-war search-lights, etc., and 
have been tried in the more important light¬ 
houses of the world. An ordinary gas-burner 



712 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


is of 16 candle-power. The bright electric lights 
in the street are 1,200 to 1,500 candle-power. 
The Statue of Liberty light is 48,000 candle- 
power. Going to the other extreme, we have 
very small lights of 1, and even £ candle-power 
for special purposes. They are used for house 
decorations, in the hair with ball costumes, in 
bouquets, etc., but the important uses are for 
illuminating for exploration places into which 
no burning light could be introduced, as in the 
method recently devised by medical electricians 
of illuminating the interior of the stomach for 
examination. 

Engineering, the branch of science deal¬ 
ing with the design, construction, and operation 
of various machines, structures, and engines used 
in the arts, trades, and everyday life. Engineer¬ 
ing is divided into many branches, the more 
important being civil, mechanical, electrical, 
mining, military, marine, and sanitary engineer¬ 
ing. Mechanical engineering has to do with 
the design, construction, and operation of ma¬ 
chinery, the design of manufacturing plants, and 
all branches of. industrial production. The 
mechanical engineer's education should be 
similar to that of the civil engineer, with the 
addition of a knowledge of the theory and prac¬ 
tice of machine construction. Electrical engi¬ 
neering is a branch of mechanical engineering 
and includes the application of electricity to 
mechanical and industrial pursuits, as derived 
from some other source of energy. Mining 
engineering is a combination of the three pre¬ 
ceding branches as applied to the discovery and 
operation of mines, the building of mineral 
working plants, and treatment of ores. Military 
engineering deals entirely with the arts of war, 
the design, construction and maintenance of 
fortifications, machines of defense and attack, 
ordnance, and the surveying of country in prepa¬ 
ration for military operations. Marine engi¬ 
neering is partly military and partly civil, 
embracing naval architecture, building and 
operating of ships and naval accessories. In 
the military sense, it comprises the construc¬ 
tion of war vessels and the construction and 
lacing of torpedoes, submarine mines, etc. 
anitary engineering consists of the construc¬ 
tion of sewers and drains, providing for the 
cleaning of city streets and the disposal of gar¬ 
bage and sewage, reclaiming of swamps, and 
overcoming of all conditions tending to interfere 
with public health. The education and training 
of the engineer in modern times have called for 
the establishment of technical schools and 
courses in engineering in the large colleges and 
universities. These schools provide the student 
with the theories of mathematics, mechanics, 
and engineering, and by means of extensive 
laboratory and outside work provide him with 
practice in the design, construction, and use of 
modern engineering appliances. 

Episcopal Church, Protestant, a 
denomination in the United States directly 
descended from the Church of England, which 
doctrinally claims to be based on the Holy 
Scriptures, as interpreted in the Apostles and 
other ancient creeds of the Church that have 
been universally received, and to have kept her¬ 
self aloof from all the modern systems of faith, 


whether of Calvin, or Luther, or Arminius, leav¬ 
ing its members free to enjoy their own opinions 
on all points not represented in the Scriptures as 
necessary to soul’s health, and refusing to be 
narrowed down to any other creed or creeds than 
those of the Apostles and the Primitive Church. 
It claims also to have retained all that is essen¬ 
tial to Church organization in its episcopate, and 
in its liturgy to have not only a wise and judi¬ 
cious compend of doctrine and devotion, but 
also one of the most effectual of all possible con¬ 
servative safeguards for the faith once delivered 
to the saints. Three clerical orders are recog¬ 
nized — bishops, priests, and deacons — the 
first deriving their office in direct succession from 
the apostles by episcopal consecration, and the 
others receiving ordination at the hands of a 
bishop. Those of the second order are entitled 
archdeacons, deans, rectors, yicars, or curates,' 
according to their functions. A reader is a lay¬ 
man licensed by the bishop to read in a church 
or chapel where there is no clergyman. Parson 
signifies a clergyman in possession of a parochial 
church. From the time of the first congrega¬ 
tions of the Church of England, in America, in 
1607, to the close of the Revolution, all the 
clergy in the colonies were regarded as under the 
supervision of the Bishop of London. The first 
American Bishop was Rev. Samuel Seabury, 
who, in 1783, was consecrated in Scotland as 
Bishop of Connecticut. All Protestant Episco¬ 
pal Churches in the United States are associated 
in one national body, called the General Conven¬ 
tion, which meets triennially. 

Fathers of the Church, the name given 
to certain writers, or apologists, of the early 
Christian Church. They are usually divided into 
three classes — the Apostolic Fathers, the Primi¬ 
tive Fathers, and (simply) the Fathers. The 
Apostolic Fathers, who were contemporary to 
some extent with the apostles, are Hermas, 
Barnabas, Clemens Romanus, Ignatius, and 
Poly carp. The Primitive Fathers, who lived in 
the Second and Third Centuries, include Justin 
Martyr, Irenseus, Athenagoras, Clemens Alex- 
andrinus, Hippolytus, and Origen (who wrote 
in Greek), and Tertullian, Minutius Felix, and 
Cyprian (who wrote in Latin). The Fathers, or 
those of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries, belonged 
either to the Greek or to the Latin Church. The 
principal Greek Fathers are Eusebius, Athanasius, 
Ephraem Syrus, Basil, Cyril of Jerusalem, 
Gregory Nazienzen, Macarius, Gregory Nyssen, 
Epiphanius, John Chrysostom, Cyril of Alex¬ 
andria, and Theodoret. The principal Latin 
Fathers are Hilary, Lactantius, Ambrose, 
Jerome, and Augustine. 

Friends, Society of, the organization 
commonly called Quakers, founded in the middle 
of the Seventeenth Century by George Fox. 
They are distinguished from other Christian 
bodies by the special stress they lay on the 
immediate teaching and guidance of the Holy 
Spirit, and their belief that no one should be 
paid or appointed by human authority for the 
exercise of the gift of the ministry. In obedi¬ 
ence to this belief they hold their meetings with¬ 
out any prearranged service or sermon, and 
sometimes in total silence. The Friends believe 
that the sacraments of Baptism and the Lord’s 



SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


713 


Supper are to be taken spiritually, and not in an 
outward form. Their protests against the use 
of oaths and against the exaction of tithes and 
church rates cost them much suffering and 
frequent imprisonment during the first fifty 
years of their existence. The simplified dress 
which Friends adopted from conviction 200 
years ago became stereotyped into a uniform. 
This dress has generally been given up, as have 
also the antipathy to music and singing in 
its rigid application, and the peculiarities of 
speech, such as the use of “thee” and “thou” 
instead of “you” (though many Friends still 
retain this custom among themselves), and the 
avoidance of all titles of courtesy. Of late years 
there has been a very decided evangelical move¬ 
ment among Friends, under the influence of 
which the old quietism is dying out. As a result 
of this change the influence of the Society 
beyond its own borders, through home and 
foreign missions and adult First Day (Sunday) 
Schools, has developed to a remarkable extent. 
There is in the United States a numerous body 
of Friends called Hicksites (from their founder, 
Elias Hicks), who separated from the orthodox 
community. They hold latitudinarian views. 
The Wilburite section are conspicuous in Penn¬ 
sylvania by their adherence to the livery and the 
“plain language.” Large numbers of persons 
who do not appear in the statistical returns 
attend the Mission meetings of the Society of 
Friends, and very large numbers come under 
their influence in the foreign mission field. 

Greek Church, The, taken in the widest 
sense, comprehends all those Christians following 
the Greek or Greco-Slavonic rite who receive the 
first seven general councils, but reject the author¬ 
ity of the Roman pontiff and the later councils 
of the Western Church. The Greek Church 
calls itself “the Holy Orthodox Catholic and 
Apostolic Church,” and it includes three distinct 
branches — the Church within the Ottoman 
Empire, subject directly to the patriarch of 
Constantinople; the Church in the kingdom of 
Greece; and the Russo-Greek Church in the 
dominions of the czar. The proper history of 
the Greek Church as a separate body dates from 
the commencement of the Greek schism, or 
rather from the commencement of the efforts 
on the part of the Church of Constantinople to 
establish for itself a distinct jurisdiction, and an 
independent headship in the eastern division of 
the empire. The ecclesiastical preeminence of 
Constantinople, it need hardly be said, followed 
upon the political distinction to which it rose as 
the seat of the imperial residence and the cen¬ 
ter of the imperial government. Originally 
Byzantium was but a simple episcopal see, sub¬ 
ject to the metropolitan of Heraclea; but the 
rank of the see rose with the fortunes of the city; 
and before the close of the Fourth Century a 
canon of the council of Constantinople, held 
in 381, assures to it, on the ground that “Con¬ 
stantinople is the new Rome,” the “precedence 
of honor” next after the ancient Rome. The 
United Greek Church comprehends those Chris¬ 
tians who, while they follow the Greek rite, 
observe the discipline of the Greek Church and 
make use of the Greek liturgy, are yet united 
with the Church of Rome, admitting the double 


procession of the spirit and the supremacy of the 
Roman pontiff, and accepting all the doctrinal 
decisions subsequent to the Greek schism which 
have force as articles of faith in the Roman 
Church. The United Greeks are found chiefly 
in southern Italy, in the Austrian dominions, in 
Poland, and the Russian Empire. In Italy they 
are computed at 80,000; in Austria at about 
4,000,000; and in Poland at about 250,000. In 
Russia it is difficult to ascertain their number; 
it has fallen off considerably in late years. In 
Austria they are divided into Roumanians and 
Ruthenians — the former being settled in 
Wallachia, Transylvania, and eastern Hungary; 
the latter, in Little Russia, Galicia, and north¬ 
eastern Hungary. The union of the Greek 
Christians of Wallachia and Transylvania dates 
from the end of the Twelfth Century; and 
although the Reformation made some progress 
among them, they still for the most part re¬ 
mained true to the union. The union of the 
Galician Greeks or Ruthenians is of much later 
date, about the close of the Seventeenth Century. 
It is only necessary to add that the usage of the 
United Greek Church as to the law of celibacy is, 
with the consent of the Roman pontiffs, the same 
as among the other Greeks. They are also per¬ 
mitted to administer communion under both 
kinds. 

Heart. A hollow muscular organ, the 
function of which is to maintain the circula¬ 
tion of the blood. The human heart is formed of 
a firm thick muscular tissue, composed of fibers 
interlacing with each other, and is supplied with 
nerves and vessels, which are termed coronary. 
Its coronary arteries branch off from the aorta, 
and the coronary veins return the blood in the 
right auricle. Its nerves are branches of the 
eighth and great intercostal pairs. It is divided 
in the middle by a strong partition, and on each 
side by two cavities, called ventricles; one the 
right or pulmonic , and the other the left or sys¬ 
temic. Attached to the base of the heart are two 
auricles, so-called from their resemblance to an 
ear. In the right auricle there are four aper¬ 
tures : two of the vence cavce, one of the coronary 
vein, and one an opening into the right ventricle. 
There are five apertures in the left auricle; one 
into the left ventricle, and those of the four 
pulmonary veins. Each ventricle has two 
orifices; one from the auricle, and another into 
the artery. The ventricles are supplied with 
valves; those at the arterial opening being, from 
their form, called semi-lunar; those at the orifice 
of the right auricle, tricuspid; and those at the 
orifice of the left auricle, mitral. The valve at 
the termination of the vena cava inferior, just 
within the auricle, is called the valve of Eusta- 
chius.. The dilatation of the heart is called 
diastole; its contraction, systole. The alternate 
contraction and dilatation of the heart are 
entirely involuntary, and dependent on the 
nervous system. It has been calculated that 
the daily work of an ordinary human heart, in 
propelling the blood, is equal to the lifting 124 
tons a foot high. 

Horse Power, the measure of a steam 
engine’s power, as originally settled by James 
Watt, being a lifting power equal to 33,000 
pounds raised one foot high per minute. Thus, 



714 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


an engine is said to be of 100 horse power (h. p.) 
when it has a lifting capacity equivalent to 
3,300,000 pounds one foot high per minute. To 
ascertain the horse power of an engine multiply 
together the pressure in pounds on a square inch 
of the piston, the area of the piston in inches, 
the length of the stroke in feet, and the number 
of strokes per minute, divide the result by 33,000 
and the quotient, less one-tenth, allowed for loss 
by friction, will give the horse power. Engines 
are frequently said to be of so many horse power 
nominal; the real or indicated horse power, how¬ 
ever, often exceeds the nominal by as much as 
three to one. 

Illiteracy. The following percentages in¬ 
dicate the relative illiteracy of the chief nations 
of the world. In Rumania, 61.2 per cent, of the 
population can neither read nor write; in Servia, 

78.9 per cent.; in Portugal, 73.4; in Spain, 58.7 
per cent.; in Russia, 70 per cent.; in Hungary, 

40.9 per cent.; in Austria, 26.2 per cent.; in 
Italy, 48.2 per cent.; in Greece, 57.2 per cent.; in 
Belgium, 18.6 per cent.; in Ireland, 17.4 per cent.; 
in France, 14.1 per cent.; in England, 1.8 per cent.; 
in Scotland, 1.6 per cent.; in The Netherlands, 
2.2 per cent.; in Finland, 1.5 per cent.; in Den¬ 
mark, .2 per cent.; in Switzerland, .5 per cent.; 
in Sweden and Norway, .3 per cent.; in The 
German Empire, .03 per cent.; and in Saxony, 
Bavaria, Wiirttemberg and some other German 
states only rarely a person can be found who can¬ 
not read and write. In the United States the ratio 
of illiteracy among native whites is 3.7 per cent. 

Libraries. Libraries existed in ancient 
Egypt and Assyria, and Pisistratus is credited 
with the honor of introducing a public library 
at Athens about B. C. 337. Cicero and various 
wealthy Romans made collections of books, and 
several Roman Emperors established libraries, 
partly with books obtained as spoils of war. 
By far the most celebrated library of antiquity 
was the Alexandrian. In the West, libraries of 
any note were founded in the second half of the 
Eighth Century by the encouragement of Charle¬ 
magne. In France one of the most celebrated 
was that in the Abbey of St. Germain des Pres, 
near Paris. In Germany the libraries of Fulda, 
Corvey, and in the Eleventh Century that of Hir- 
schau, were valuable. In Spain, in the Twelfth 
Century, the Moors had seventy public libraries, 
of which that of Cordova contained 250,000 vol¬ 
umes. In Britain and Italy libraries were also 
founded with great zeal. After the invention of 
printing this was done more easily and at less ex¬ 
pense. The principal libraries of modern times 
are as follows: 

Library City No. of Vols. 

Bibliotheque nationale, . , Paris. 3,000,000 

British Museum,.London, .... 2,000,000 

Imper. publicnaja biblioteka,St. Petersburg, . 2,000,000 
Library of Congress, .... Washington, . . 1,800,000 
Public Library — Astor, 

Lenox, and Tilden Foun¬ 
dation, .New York City, . 1,350,000 

Konigliche bibliothek, . . Berlin. 1,230,000 

Kon. Hof-u. Staatsbiblio- 

thek,.Munich, .... 1,100,000 

K.u.k. Hofbibliothek, . . . Vienna, .... 1,000,000 

Publicnyj i Rumjancovskij 

musej,.Moscow, .... 1,000,000 

Public Library,.Boston, .... 963,000 

Universitats- u. landesbib- 

liothek,.Strassburg, . . 922,000 

National Library.Rome,. 850,000 


Library City No. of Vols. 

Harvard University Library, Cambridge (U. S-L 804,000 
Bodleian Library,. . . . . Oxford, . . . 800,000 
K. k. Universitats-biblio- 

thek,.. . Vienna, .... 757,000 

Det store kongelige biblio¬ 
thek, . Copenhagen, . . 750,000 

Cambridge University Lib¬ 
rary, .Cambridge(Eng-) 700,000 

Biblioteca nacional, .... Madrid, .... 650,000 

Leipzig University, .... Leipzig. 600,000 

Bibliotheca Nazionale Cen- 

trale,.Florence,. . . . 572,000 

Universitats-bibliothek, . . Gottingen, . . . 552,000 

Yale University.New Haven, . . 550,000 

Universiteit bibliotheek, . . Amsterdam, . . 500,000 

Kon bibliotheek,.The Hague, . . 500,000 

Other large and valuable libraries are: the 
royal libraries at Stuttgart and Dresden; the 
university libraries of Genoa, Prague, Upsala, and 
Dublin; also the libraries of Venice, Milan, 
Bologna, Naples, and the Advocates’, Edinburgh. 
The Vatican library, Rome, and the Bodleian, 
Oxford, are particularly valuable in rare books 
and manuscripts. The spread of education has 
called into existence innumerable smaller libraries, 
ready of access, and providing such literature as 
the special class of readers demand. This public 
library system has naturally been most developed 
in highly-educated countries, such as Germany, 
France, Great Britain, and the United States. 

Light. That peculiar property of matter 
which affects the nerves of sight, and causes us 
to see. A ray of light is an exceedingly small 
portion of light as it comes from a luminous 
body. A beam of light is a collection of parallel 
rays. A medium is a body which affords a pas¬ 
sage for the rays of light. A pencil of rays is a 
mass of diverging or converging rays. Converg¬ 
ing rays are those which tend to a common point; 
diverging rays, those which come from one point, 
and continually separate as they proceed. The 
rays of light are parallel, where the lines which 
they describe are so. The radiant point is the 
point from which diverging rays proceed. The 
focus is the point to which the converging rays 
are directed. Light passes off from a luminous 
body in all directions; and its intensity decreases 
as the square of the distance increases: thus, if 
one object is twice as far from a luminous body 
as another of the same size, it will receive only 
one-fourth as much light as the latter. The 
velocity wdth which light travels is enormous; 
it was estimated, on astronomical data, at 183,- 
470 miles per second; but according to Leon 
Foucault’s recent experiments with the “turning 
mirror,” it is 185,170 English miles per second; 
and it requires little more than a quarter of an 
hour to pass through the diameter of the earth’s 
orbit. When light encounters an obstacle, some 
of it is reflected, some absorbed, and, if the inter¬ 
posed body is not opaque, some of it is trans¬ 
mitted. During transmission it is modified, 
being in some cases, as with doubly refracting 
crystals, decomposed into two white rays, pos¬ 
sessing different properties; and in others, as 
with glass prisms, decomposed into a number 
of colored rays, accompanied by rays which are 
colorless, and in fact invisible, but which have 
marked chemical and calorific properties. When 
luminous rays pass into a dark chamber through 
a small aperture, and are received upon a screen, 
they form images of external objects. These 






















SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 715 


images are inverted; their shape is always that 
of the external objects, and is independent of the 
shape of the aperture. The inversion of the 
images arises from the fact that the luminous 
rays proceeding from external objects, and pene¬ 
trating into the chamber, cross one another in 
passing the aperture. Continuing in a straight 
line, the rays from the higher parts meet the 
screen at the lower parts, and inversely, those 
which come from the lower parts meets the 
higher parts of the screen. Hence the inversion 
of the image. Light, heat, and the chemical 
principle seem to be modifications of the same 
element; but there are circumstances in which 
they differ. 

Liquid Air is based upon the cooling 
that air undergoes when it is subject to ex¬ 
pansion and passes from a given to a lower 
pressure. To obtain a liquefaction of the air 
at atmospheric pressure it is necessary to cool 
it to — 191°; that is, to compress it to 800 
atmospheres before expanding it. This is ac¬ 
complished by an electric motor actuating a 
pump which sucks air from the atmosphere. It 
is then dried by passing over chloride of calcium, 
thence into a liquid ammonia refrigerating ap¬ 
paratus. It is successfully employed in the pro¬ 
duction of oxygen. It is of little use as a 
motive power or refrigerant, partly on account 
of its cost. 

Lungs, the sole breathing organs of reptiles, 
birds, mammals, and in part of amphibians 
(frogs, newts, etc.), the latter forms breathing in 
early life by branchiae or gills, and afterwards 
partly or entirely by lungs. The essential idea 
of a lung is that of a sac communicating with the 
atmosphere by means of a tube, the trachea or 
windpipe, through which air is admitted to the 
organ, and through structural peculiarities to its 
intimate parts, the air serving to supply oxygen 
to the blood and to remove carbonic acid. In 
the Mammalia, including man, the lungs are con¬ 
fined to and freely suspended in the cavity of the 
thorax or chest, which is completely separated 
from the abdominal cavity by the muscular 
diaphragm or “ midriff.” In man the lungs are 
made up of honeycomb-like cfells which receive 
their supply of air through the bronchial tubes. 
If a bronchial tube is traced it is found to lead 
into a passage which divides and subdivides, 
leading off into air cells. The walls of these air- 
cells consist of thin, elastic, connective tissue, 
through which run small blood vessels in con¬ 
nection with the pulmonary artery and veins. 
By this arrangement the blood is brought into 
contact with, and becomes purified by means of, 
the air. The impure blood enters at the root of 
the lung through the pulmonary artery at the 
right side of the heart, and passes out purified 
through the pulmonary veins towards the left 
side of the heart. Both lungs are enclosed in a 
delicate membrane called the 'pleura , which 
forms a kind of double sac that on one side lines 
the ribs and part of the breast bone, and on the 
other side surrounds the lung. Pleurisy arises 
from inflammation of this membrane. The 
lungs are situated one on each side of the heart, 
the upper part of each fits into the upper corner 
of the chest, about an inch above the collar bone, 
while the base of each rests upon the diaphragm. 


The right lung is shorter and broader than the 
left, which extends downwards farther by the 
breadth of a rib. Each lung exhibits a broad 
division into an upper and lower portion or lobe , 
the division being marked by a deep cleft which 
runs downwards obliquely to the front of the 
organ; and in the case of the right lung there is 
a further division at right angles to the main 
cleft. Thus the left lung has two whilst the 
right lung has three lobes. These again are 
divided into lobules which measure from one- 
fourth to one-half inch in diameter, and consists 
of air cells, blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic ves¬ 
sels, and the tissue by which the lobules them¬ 
selves are bound together. The elasticity of the 
lungs by which they expand and expel the air is 
due to the contractile tissues found in the bron¬ 
chial tubes and air cells, this elasticity being 
aided by a delicate, elastic, surface tissue. The 
lungs are popularly termed “lights,” because 
they are the lightest organs in the body, and 
float when placed in water, except when they 
are diseased. 

Lutherans. A designation originally ap¬ 
plied by their adversaries to the Reformers of 
the Sixteenth Century, and afterward appro¬ 
priated among Protestants themselves to those 
who took part with Martin Luther against the 
Swiss Reformers, particularly in the contro¬ 
versies regarding the Lord's Supper. It is so 
employed to this day as the designation of one 
of the two great sections into which the Protes¬ 
tant Church was divided, the other being known 
as the Reformed Church. Lutheranism is the 
prevailing form of Protestantism in Germany; 
it is the national religion of Denmark, Sweden, 
and Norway; and there are Lutheran churches 
in the Baltic provinces of Russia, in Holland, 
France, Poland, and the United States. The 
growth in Continental Europe has been most 
marked. Among the Lutheran symbolical books 
the “Augsburg Confession,” Luther's “Shorter 
Catechism,” and the “Formula Concordise” 
(“Formula of Harmony”), hold the principal 
place. It is often alleged that the chief differ¬ 
ence between the Lutherans and the Reformed 
is that the Lutherans hold to the doctrine of 
consubstantiation and reject transubstantiation. 
This, however, is repudiated by the Church's 
theologians without a dissenting voice. In the 
“Wittenberg Concord,” prepared in 1536, and 
signed by Luther and tne other leaders in the 
Church, it is said: “We deny the doctrine of 
transubstantiation, as we do also deny that the 
body and blood of Christ are locally included in 
the bread.” The “Formula of Concord” says: 
“The presence of Christ in the supper is not of a 
physical nature, nor earthly, nor Capernaitish, 
and yet it is most true.” In its constitution the 
Lutheran Church is generally unepiscopal with¬ 
out being properly Presbyterian. It is consisto- 
rial, with the civil authorities so far in place of 
bishops. In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway 
there are bishops, and in Sweden an archbishop 
(of Upsala), but their powers are very limited. 
In the United States wider extremes in the mode 
of worship have existed than in other parts of 
the world. There are five general bodies of 
Lutherans in the United States, besides nineteen 
independent synods, with a total of 8,659 



716 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ministers, 13,802 churches, and over 2,000,000 
members. 

Methodist. A branch of the Christian 
Church which originated in England during the 
Eighteenth Century. In 1729 John Wesley, 
with his brother Charles and a few other asso¬ 
ciates at Oxford, organized a meeting for their 
mutual moral improvement. They were soon 
joined by others, among them Hervey and 
George Whitefield, till at the end of six years 
they numbered fourteen or fifteen. The term 
“Methodists” was applied to them on account 
of their methodical mode of life and work. 
After his return from Georgia, in 1738, Wesley 
began to preach with great fervor. In the early 
part of 1739, Whitefield set the first example of 
open-air preaching at Kingswood, near Bristol, 
addressing an immense crowd of colliers. John 
Wesley, as well as his brother Charles, followed 
this example. Being denied admission to the 
churches by the clergy, they preached in private 
houses, barns, market places, and the open fields. 
The converts made by their preaching were 
either despised or utterly neglected by the Church, 
and hence Wesley, at their own request, formed 
them into - societies for mutual edification and 
improvement, called “the United Societies.” 
For their government a few simple rules were 
proposed by the Wesleys, which, with slight 
exceptions, are still recognized as the “General 
Rules” by all branches of the Methodist Church. 
Methodism strove at first only to restore a 
purified and intensified spiritual life. The sub¬ 
stance of its doctrines is to be found in the writ¬ 
ings of John Wesley, John Fletcher, Richard 
Watson, and others, and in the generally uniform 
teachings of the Methodist pulpit. The articles 
which Wesley prepared for the Methodist Church 
in America were taken substantially from the 
thirty-nine articles of the Church of England. 
Methodism holds that the salvation or non¬ 
salvation of each human being depends solely 
on fiis own free action in respect to the enlighten¬ 
ing, renewing, and sanctifying inworkings of 
the Holy Spirit; hence it is Arminian in dis¬ 
tinction from Calvinistic. It emphasizes the 
doctrine of assurance, i. e., that the Holy Spirit 
bears witness of pardon and acceptance to the 
justified sinner. It also makes prominent the 
doctrine of Christian perfection, or perfect love. 
Methodist polity, like the Methodist confession, 
is to be understood only by regarding Methodism 
as a revival and missionary movement. Wesley 
thought as little of establishing a separate Church 
polity as of publishing a separate theology. 
But the neglect and frequent ridicule of the con¬ 
verts by the clergy of the establishment caused 
many to relapse; and this led him to consent 
reluctantly to the appointment of lay preachers. 
The first assembly that took the name of “con¬ 
ference” was held in the Foundery, London, 
June 25, 1744, and thereafter annually. Se¬ 
cession was discouraged, and they distinctly 
denied that they were dissenters. Previous to 
the conference of 1744, the greater portion of 
England had been divided into “circuits,” and 
provision had been made to supply these with 
preachers for such time as the need of the work 
seemed to indicate. Wesley's views of ecclesias¬ 
tical authority and polity underwent radical 


changes, and led him, at the recognition of the 
independence of the American colonies, to pro¬ 
vide a separate Church organization for the 
Methodists of America, and at his death to per¬ 
petuate his work by constituting the “United 
Societies ” a distinct ecclesiastical body in regu¬ 
lar legal form. Methodism holds to no inspired 
or divinely imposed Church polity. In Great 
Britain it recognizes but one order of clergy, 
while in America it has provided two. 

The Methodist Episcopal Church is the original 
and largest body of Methodists in the United 
States. Wesley and Whitefield, during their 
visits to America, had organized no Methodist 
societies. In 1766, a class was formed by Philip 
Embury, greatly assisted by Captain Thomas 
Webb, an officer of the British Army stationed 
in New York, one of Wesley's local preachers. 
Webb preached and formed classes during 1768, 
on Long Island, and in New Jersey, Delaware, 
and Philadelphia. In the same year the first 
chapel was dedicated in John Street, New York; 
and, in 1770, the first Methodist Church in Phila¬ 
delphia was erected. In 1769, Boardman and 
Pilmore, the first missionaries sent to America 
by Wesley, arrived in New York. In 1771, 
Francis Asbury arrived, and the next year he 
was appointed by Wesley superintendent of 
the American societies. He was soon super¬ 
seded by Thomas Rankin. The first American 
conference was held in 1773, and consisted of 
ten preachers, all of European birth. The so¬ 
cieties then aggregated 1,160 members. At the 
beginning of the revolutionary struggle nearly 
all the preachers of English descent, except As¬ 
bury, returned home. During the war the Eng¬ 
lish Church in America was nearly extinguished, 
and the dependence of the Methodists on the 
English clergy for the sacraments almost entirely 
failed them. Wesley in 1780, applied to the 
Bishop of London to ordain at least one presbyter 
to administer the sacraments among the American 
Methodists, but was refused. Therefore, in 1784, 
Wesley, assisted by the Rev. Thomas Creighton 
and Richard Whatcoat, presbyters, ordained 
the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL. D., as superintendent 
of the American Methodist Churches, with the 
instruction that Asbury should be assistant 
superintendent. On Coke's arrival a general 
conference of sixty ministers met in Baltimore, 
December 24, 1784, adopted the episcopal form 
of government, made the episcopal office elective, 
and held the superintendents amenable to the 
body of ministers and preachers. The “Sunday 
Service” and twenty-five “Articles of Religion” 
were adopted. In 1800, Richard Whatcoat was 
elected bishop, and, in 1808, William McKendree. 
In 1808, the plan of a delegated general con¬ 
ference was adopted. This body, composed of 
ninety members, held its first session in 1812. 
The doctrines of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
are expressed in the twenty-five “Articles of 
Religion,” which, with the exception of the 
twenty-third, which recognizes the civil author¬ 
ity of the United States, were prepared by 
Wesley from the thirty-nine articles of the 
Church of England. 

There are five judicatory bodies, termed re¬ 
spectively the “general conference,” the “judi¬ 
cial conference,” the “annual conference,” the 






SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION ?17 


“district conference,” and the “quarterly con¬ 
ference.Prior to 1872, the general conference 
was composed exclusively of preachers. It sub¬ 
sequently consisted of two laymen for each annual 
conference and one minister for every forty-five 
members. In 1900, the representation was made 
equal. The general conference meets quadren¬ 
nially, and is presided over by the bishops. It 
is the sole legislative body of the Church. It 
elects bishops, missionary and educational secre¬ 
taries, book agents, and editors of its periodicals, 
and is also the court of final appeal. The annual 
conference consists of traveling preachers. A 
bishop is the presiding officer, or in his absence 
the conference may appoint its president. Its 
powers are simply administrative. It holds 
its members responsible, passing their character 
under examination each year. The district con¬ 
ference is composed of the presiding elder of the 
district, pastors, local preachers, exhorters, and 
one steward and Sunday school superintendent 
from each pastoral charge. 

Mohammedanism, the name com¬ 
monly given in Christian countries to the creed 
established by Mohammed. His followers call 
their creed Islam. Their common formula of 
faith is, “There is no God but Allah, and Moham¬ 
med is his prophet.” The dogmatic or theoretical 
part of Mohammedanism embraces the following 
points: (1) Belief in God, who is without 
beginning or end, the sole Creator and Lord of 
the universe, having absolute power, knowledge, 
glory, and perfection. (2) Belief in his angels, 
who are impeccable beings, created of light. 
(3) Belief in good and evil Jinn (genii), who are 
created of smokeless fire, and are subject to 
death. (4) Belief in the Holy Scriptures, which 
are his uncreated word revealed to the prophets. 
Of these there now exist, but in a greatly cor¬ 
rupted form, the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and 
the Gospels; and in an uncorrupted and incor¬ 
ruptible state the Koran, which abrogates and 
surpasses all preceding revelations. (5) Belief 
in God’s prophets and apostles, the most distin¬ 
guished of whom are Adam, Noah, Abraham, 
Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed. Mohammed 
is the greatest of them all, the last of the prophets 
and the most excellent of the creatures of God. 
(6) Belief in a general resurrection and final 
judgment, and in future rewards and punish¬ 
ments, chiefly of a physical nature. (7) The 
belief, even to the extent of fatalism, of God’s 
absolute foreknowledge and predestination of all 
events both good and evil. The practical part 
of Mohammedanism inculcates certain observ¬ 
ances or duties, of which four are most important. 
The first is prayer, including preparatory purifi¬ 
cations. Prayer must be engaged in at five 
stated periods each day. On each of these occa¬ 
sions the Moslem has to offer up certain prayers 
held to be ordained by God, and others ordained 
by his prophet. During prayer it is necessary 
that the face of the worshiper be turned towards 
the kebla, that is, in the direction of Mecca. 
Prayers may be said in any clean place, but on 
Friday they must be said in the mosque. Second 
in importance to prayer stands the duty of giving 
alms. Next comes the duty of fasting. The 
Moslem must abstain from eating and drink¬ 
ing, and from every indulgence of the senses, 


every day during the month of Ramadhan, 
from the first appearance of daybreak until 
sunset, unless physically incapacitated. The 
fourth paramount religious duty of the Moslem 
is the performance at least once in his life, if pos¬ 
sible, of the pilgrimage to Mecca, after which he 
becomes a Hadji. Circumcision is general 
among Mohammedans, but is not absolutely 
obligatory. The distinctions of clean and un¬ 
clean meats are nearly the same as in the Mosaic 
code. Wine and all intoxicating liquors are 
strictly forbidden. Music, games of chance, and 
usury are condemned. Images and pictures of 
living creatures are contrary to law. Charity, 
probity in all transactions, veracity (except in a 
few cases), and modesty, are indispensable 
virtues. After Mohammed’s death Abu Bekr, 
his father-in-law, became his successor, but dis¬ 
putes immediately arose, a party holding that 
Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, was by right 
entitled to be his immediate successor. This 
led to the division of the Mohammedans into the 
two sects known as Shiites and Sunnites. The 
former, the believers in the right of Ali to be con¬ 
sidered the first successor, constitute at present 
the majority of the Mussulmans of Persia and 
India; the latter, considered as the orthodox 
Mohammedans, are dominant in the Ottoman 
Empire, Arabia, Turkestan, and Africa. The 
total Mohammedan population of the world is 
estimated at fully 215,000,000. 

Moon. The orb which revolves round the 
earth; a secondary planet or satellite of the 
earth, whose borrowed light is reflected to the 
earth and serves to dispel the darkness of night. 
Its mean distance from the earth is about 237,000 
miles; its diameter is 2,160 miles and its magni¬ 
tude about one-forty-ninth of that of the earth. 
It completes its revolution round the earth, in a 
mean or average period of twenty-seven days, 
seven hours, forty-three minutes, eleven and 
one-half seconds, which constitutes the sidereal 
month. The satellite of any planet. 

Moravians. A religious sect, called at 
first Bohemians, and constituting a branch of 
the Hussites, who, when the Calixtines came to 
terms with the council of Basel, in 1433, refused 
to subscribe the articles of agreement, and con¬ 
stituted themselves into a distinct body. 
Their tenets were evangelical. In 1522, they 
made advances to Luther, who partially recog¬ 
nized them, but they ultimately adopted Cal- 
vinistic views as to the Lord’s Supper. Driven 
by persecution, they scattered abroad, and for 
a time their chief settlement was at Fulnek in 
Moravia, whence they were called Moravian 
Brethren, or Moravians. On May 26, 1700, 
was born Nicolaus Ludwig, Count von Zinzen- 
dorf, son of the chamberlain and state minister 
of Augustus II., Elector of Saxony and King of 
Poland. Having met with a Moravian refugee, 
who told him of the persecutions to which his 
sect was exposed in Austria, Count Zinzendorf 
offered him and his coreligionists an asylum on 
his estate. The man, whose name was David, 
accepted the offer, and in 1722, settled with three 
other men, at a place called by Zinzendorf 
“Herrnhut” (the Lord’s guard). Under his 
fostering care, the sect greatly increased in 
strength. Till his death, on May 9, 1760, he 



718 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


traveled, largely spreading their views. Though 
they have never been numerous, yet in the 
latter part of the Eighteenth Century and the 
beginning of the Nineteenth they acquired 
great reputation from having a larger proportion 
of their membership engaged in foreign missions 
than any Christian denomination since apostolic 
times. Statistics of the denomination in the 
United States show about 136 ministers, 136 
churches, and 18,711 members. 

Mormons, a sect founded in 1830, by 
Joseph Smith, a native of the United States. 
The • distinguishing peculiarities of the sect are 
— the belief in a continual divine revelation 
through the inspired medium of the prophet at 
the head of their Church, the practice of polyg¬ 
amy, and a complete hierarchical organization. 
The supreme power, spiritual and temporal, rests 
with the president or prophet (elected by the 
whole body of the Church), who alone works 
miracles and receives revelations. The Mor¬ 
mons accept both the Bible and the Book of 
Mormon as divine revelations, but hold them 
equally subject to the explanation and correction 
of the prophet. The latter mentioned book (in 
large part a kind of historical romance written 
by one Solomon Spaulding, in 1812), pretends to 
be a history of America from the first settlement 
of the continent after the destruction of the 
tower of Babel up to the end of the Fourth Cen¬ 
tury of our era, at which time flourished the 
legendary prophet Mormon, its reputed author. 
It was said to have been written on gold plates, and 
concealed until its hiding place was revealed to 
Smith by an angel. The name given to it was 
evidently owing to the important part which 
Spaulding had assigned to Mormon and his son 
Moroni in his novel; but Smith and his coadju¬ 
tors, instead of confining themselves to the 
original manuscript, had clumsily engrafted upon 
it a number of maxims, prophecies, etc., evident¬ 
ly garbled from the sacred volume, and interpo¬ 
lated in such a manner as to involve anachron¬ 
isms and contradictions. The doctrine of the 
Mormons is a mixture of materialism and 
millenarianism, and their most distinctive fea¬ 
ture, polygamy, which, though originally con¬ 
demned in the Book of Mormon, was introduced 
under a theory of “spiritual wives,” and a mys¬ 
terious system of unrestricted marriage called 
“sealing.” The Mormons first appeared at 
Manchester, New York, whence they were com¬ 
pelled by the persevering hostility of their 
neighbors to flee, first to Kirtland in Ohio (1831), 
then to Nauvoo, the “City of Beauty,” in Illinois 
(1838), and finally to Salt Lake in Utah (1848). 
In 1844, the founder, Joseph Smith, was shot 
by a mob in Carthage prison, where his lawless 
behavior had brought him. The advance made 
by Mormonism seems to have been due far 
more to the abilities of Brigham Young, the 
successor of Smith, than to the founder himself, 
who was little better than a dissipated and 
immoral scamp. Under Young’s direction large 
tracts of land at Salt Lake were brought under 
cultivation, an emigration fund was established, 
and a skillful system of propagandism set on foot’ 
by which large numbers of converts were brought 
from Europe, especially from Great Britain. 
A State was organized under the name of Deseret. 


Congress refused to recognize it, but erected 
Utah into a Territory, and Brigham Young was 
appointed governor of it. He was soon removed 
by the United States authorities, but after a 
time the Mormons were left pretty much to 
themselves. In 1870, Congress passed a bill to 
compel them to renounce polygamy, or quit the 
United States. A prosecution was instituted 
against Brigham Young, who was sentenced to 
fine and imprisonment. In 1877, Young died 
and was succeeded by John Taylor, an English¬ 
man, during whose presidency the United States 
Government has passed several bills for the 
abolition of polygamy. The Reorganized 
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 
sometimes called non-polygamous Mormons, 
claim to be true to the doctrines proclaimed by 
Joseph Smith, insisting that Brigham Young’s 
followers were led by him from the truth, and 
deny that Young’s revelation in 1852 concerning 
polygamy was genuine. 

Mosque (mosk), a Mohammedan temple or 
house of worship. The first mosque, square 
and capacious, erected by Mohammed at Me¬ 
dina, partly with his own hands, became in its 
plan the model for all others, which was, how¬ 
ever, subsequently modified by the addition of 
the cupola and minaret. This mosque, that at 
Mecca, and the mosque of Omar at Jerusalem 
are considered peculiarly holy by the Moslems. 
The jumma musjid or great mosque at Delhi, 
built by Shah Jehan in 1631-37, is generally con¬ 
sidered the noblest building ever erected for 
Mohammedan worship. The chief officer of a 
mosque is the Nazir, under whom are two 
Imams, a kind of religious official, in no way to 
be compared with what we understand by a 
clergyman of a creed, but who performs a cer¬ 
tain number of religious rites as long as the 
Nazir allows him to do so, and who, being very 
badly remunerated, generally has to find some 
other occupation besides. With many of the 
larger mosques there are schools, academies, and 
hospitals connected, and public kitchens, in 
which food is prepared for the poor. 

Music. The origin of music is involved in 
obscurity, and it has been said that speech and 
song are coeval. . From several passages in the 
Old Testament it is evident that music was 
made use of at an early period, but probablv 
without any regard to rhythm. The Greeks, 
who inherited the art from the Egyptians, were 
the first to reduce music to a system; but it was 
not until the introduction of Christianity into 
Western Europe that marked signs of improve¬ 
ment took place, and not until the Fifteenth 
Century that any rapid progress was made. 
The great distinction between the music of the 
ancients and that of modern times lies in the 
peculiarity of the scales in which it is written. 
The scales or modes of the ancients varied from 
four to fourteen, and were distinguished by the 
position of the semitones, as in our modern 
major and minor scales. Many of our national 
melodies are written in these ancient scales, 
their, peculiar character being derived from the 
position of the semitones. Melody was probably 
the sole characteristic of the music of the an¬ 
cients, and it was not until the Seventh Century 
that composition in harmony, either vocal or 




SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 719 


instrumental, came into use. In the Eleventh 
Century we also find an innovation by the intro¬ 
duction of notes of unequal length, giving variety 
to melody; and the question of time and rhythm 
came into consideration. It is supposed that 
the art of composition was first cultivated in 
Flanders. The earliest example is of the Tenth 
Century, and consists simply of a succession 
of fourths and fifths. Harmony probably be¬ 
longs exclusively to the music of the most civil¬ 
ized nations of modern times. In the Sixteenth 
and Seventeenth Centuries we have Palestrina 
and his contemporaries, Boyd, Gibbons, etc., 
who enriched the art by their compositions, 
simplifying the harmonies, and giving more 
flowing and natural melodies. In the Seven¬ 
teenth and Eighteenth Centuries we have Handel, 
Bach, Haydn, Mozart; and in the Eighteenth 
and Nineteenth Centuries, perfection of the art 
has almost been attained in Beethoven, Spohr, 
Weber, Cherubini, Mendelssohn, Chopin, and 
Schumann, etc. The science of music is treated 
in works on acoustics, and has reference to the 
nature of musical sounds and their relation to 
each other. Under this branch of the science 
are classed musical sounds, the vibrations re¬ 
quired to produce them, pitch, harmonies, etc. 
The theory of music has reference to the symbols 
and the language in which music is expressed, 
and to the rules generally laid down in order to 
produce correct and effective musical composi¬ 
tion. The symbols used in music are scales, 
clefs, forms of notes and equivalent rests, tune 
divisions, and others, respecting which informa¬ 
tion may be obtained from any catechism of 
music. These symbols and signs were not coim 
pleted in their present form until very recent 
times. Having obtained the necessary materials, 
the laws of composition may be studied, the 
simplest form being that of melody, produced by 
a single voice or instrument. The higher branches 
of the art are harmony, composition, modula¬ 
tion, and counterpoint, the rules for which are 
laid down in textbooks on the subject. 

Ozone. A substance discovered by Schon- 
bein, occasionally existing in the atmosphere, 
and having a peculiar odor resembling that pro¬ 
duced when repeated electric sparks, or electric 
discharges, from a point are transmitted through 
the air. It is supposed to be an allotropic form 
of oxygen. It is also formed in certain cases of 
the slow action of air upon phosphorus. The 
ozone existing from time to time in the atmos¬ 
phere has been supposed to have an influence on 
the health of the community, and observations 
with regard to it are frequently made by means 
of an apparatus called an ozonometer, the es¬ 
sential parts of which consist of strips of paper 
steeped in a mixture of starch and iodide of 
potassium. Ozone turns the paper brown, the 
tint varying with the quantity of ozone. 

Paganism. The religion of the heathen 
world, in which the deity is represented under 
various forms, and by all kinds of images or 
idols; it is therefore called idolatry or image 
worship. The theology of the pagans was of 
three sorts — fabulous, natural, and political or 
civil. The fabulous treats of the genealogy, 
worship, and attributes of their deities,who were 
for the most part the offspring of the imagination 


of poets, painters, and statuaries. The natural 
theology of the pagans was studied and taught 
by the philosophers, who rejected the multi¬ 
plicity of gods introduced by the poets, and 
brought their ideas to a more rational form. 
The 'political or civil theology of the pagans was 
instituted by legislators, statesmen, and poli¬ 
ticians, to keep the people in subjection to the 
civil power. This chiefly related to their tem¬ 
ples, altars, sacrifices, and rites of worship. 
The word pagan was originally applied to the 
inhabitants of the rural districts, who, on the 
first propagation of the Christian religion, ad¬ 
hered to the worship of false gods, or who refused 
to receive Christianity after it had been adopted 
by the inhabitants of the cities. In the Middle 
Ages, this name was given to all who were not 
Jews or Christians, they only being considered 
to belong to a true religion; but in more modern 
times, Mohammedans, who worship the one su¬ 
preme God of the Jews and Christians, are not 
called pagans. 

Pagoda. A Hindoo place of worship, con¬ 
taining an idol. It consists of three portions: 
an apartment surmounted by a dome, resting on 
columns, and accessible to all; a chamber into 
which only Brahmins are allowed to enter; and, 
lastly, a d&ll containing the statue of the deity, 
closed by massive gates. The most remarkable 
pagodas are those of Benares, Siam, Pegu, and 
particularly that of Juggernaut, in Orissa. 

Parsees. The name given in India to the 
fire-worshiping followers of Zoroaster, chiefly 
settled in Bombay, Surat, etc., where they are 
amongst the most successful merchants. They 
have a great reverence for fire in all its forms, 
since they find in it the symbol of the good deity 
Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd). To this divinity they 
have dedicated “fire temples,” on whose altar 
the sacred flame is kept continually burning. 
Benevolence is the chief practical precept of 
their religion, and their practice of this finds its 
evidence in their many charitable institutions. 
One of the most curious of their customs is in 
the disposal of their dead. For this they erect 
what are called “towers of silence,” built of 
stone, about twenty-five feet high, and with a 
small door to admit the corpse. Inside is a large 
pit with a raised circular platform round it on 
which the body is exposed that it may be de¬ 
nuded of flesh by vultures, after which the bones 
drop through an iron grating into the pit below. 

Perfectionists, or Bible Commun¬ 
ists, popularly named free lovers, an Ameri¬ 
can sect founded in 1838 by John Humphrey 
Noyes. Noyes was employed as a law clerk at 
Putney, in Vermont, when the fierce religious 
revival of 1830 spread over the New England 
States; but he abandoned law for religion, and 
took upon himself the.restoration of the primi¬ 
tive Christian ideal. His distinctive doctrines 
were: (1) reconciliation to God and salvation 
from sin — purely matters of faith; (2) recog¬ 
nition of the brotherhood and the equality of 
man and woman; and (3) community of labor 
and its fruits. In 1838 he succeeded in organiz¬ 
ing a society giving expression to his views at 
Putney. Besides himself this included his wife, 
his mother, and his sister and brother, who were 
joined by several other families. All property 



720 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


was thrown into a common stock; all debts, all 
duties fell upon the society, which ate in one 
room, slept under one roof, and lived upon one 
common store. All prayer and religious service 
were stopped, Sunday was unobserved, family 
ties were broken up, and a complex marriage 
system was established, by which each man be¬ 
came the husband and brother of every woman; 
every woman the wife and sister of every man. 
They held that true believers are free to follow 
the indications of the Holy Spirit in all things, 
nothing being good or bad in itself. Conse¬ 
quently, they rejected all laws and rules of con¬ 
duct, except those which each believer formu¬ 
lated for himself; but to prevent the inconveni¬ 
ences arising from an ignorant exercise of indi¬ 
vidual liberty, they introduced the “principle of 
sympathy,” or free public opinion, which, in fact, 
constituted the supreme government of the sect. 
Presbyterian Church. A name ap- 
lied to those Christian denominations which 
old that there is no order in the Church as es¬ 
tablished by Christ and His apostles superior 
to that of presbyters, and who vest Church gov¬ 
ernment in presbyteries, constituted of ministers 
and elders, possessed of equal powers, thus with¬ 
out superiority among themselves. Presby¬ 
terianism does not recognize the term bishop 
as the superior of the presbytery, because these 
two names or titles in the New Testament, are 
used interchangeably of the same persons. 
Presbyterians hold that the authority of their 
ministers is derived from the Holy Spirit, which 
is symbolized by the imposition of the hands of 
presbytery collectively. They affirm that all 
Christian ministers, being ambassadors of Christ, 
are equal by their commission. The congrega¬ 
tion elects its own minister and elders, and also 
its deacons and trustees — the former of the 
last two, takes charge of the charities of the 
Church, and the latter of its temporal or financial 
affairs. The session, consisting of the minister 
and elders, has the spiritual oversight of the 
church members. The Presbytery is consti¬ 
tuted by ministers and elders in equal numbers. 
A congregation for the time without a pastor 
can be represented in the presbytery by an 
elder. An appeal may be made to the presby¬ 
tery from congregations or sessions. A synod 
consists of a number of presbyteries within de¬ 
fined boundaries. The general assembly is the 
highest court of the Church, and consists of 
representatives from all the presbyteries, each 
minister is accompanied by an elder from the 
same presbytery. The first Presbyterian Church 
in modern times was founded in Geneva by John 
Calvin, about 1541; and the constitution and 
doctrines were thence introduced, with some 
modifications, into Scotland by John Knox, 
about 1560, though the Presbyterian was not 
legally recognized as the national form of Church 
government till 1592. The first Presbyterians 
in America were emigrants from the British 
Isles, and the first Presbyterian Church in Amer¬ 
ica was founded in the colony of Massachusetts 
in 1629. It was the outgrowth of a Presby¬ 
terian congregation that landed there in 1625. 
This movement was projected by Presbyterian 
leaders in the south of England and also in Lon¬ 
don. It was designed to be a colonization on 


a higher principle than the desire for gain. The 
Church now has five theological seminaries. A 
revision of the confession was commenced in 
1891, and is now in progress. It is also proposed 
to formulate a creed which shall express the 
doctrine of all the branches of the Church. There 
are several branches which virtually hold the 
polity of the Presbyterian Church in the United 
States, each having its own theological semi¬ 
naries and colleges, such as the Presbyterian 
churches northern and southern, the Cumber¬ 
land, Reformed, the United Presbyterian, the 
Reformed Dutch and German, etc. The Pres¬ 
byterian Church in Canada is strong and pros¬ 
perous, with six theological colleges. Recent 
statistics show the total number of Presbyterians 
in Canada to be about 850,000. In the Aus¬ 
tralasia colonies, Presbyterianism is also vigorous. 
In the Cape Colony and minor colonies, Presby¬ 
terianism is also represented. 

Reformed Church. In general, com¬ 
prehends those Churches which were formed at 
the Reformation; but the term is specifically 
applied to those Protestant Churches which did 
not embrace the doctrines and discipline of 
Luther. The title was first assumed by the 
French Protestants, but afterwards became the 
common denomination of all the Calvinistic 
churches on the European continent. The Re¬ 
formed Church of America is a body known up 
to 1867 as the Reformed Protestant Dutch 
Church, being founded by settlers from Holland 
and. holding Calvinistic doctrines. The first 
minister was the Rev. George Michael Weiss, 
who emigrated with about 400 people of the 
Palatinate in 1727. These and most of the 
immigrants who followed settled in Pennsyl¬ 
vania, east of the Susquehanna. In 1746, the 
Rev. Michael Schlatter was commissioned by 
the synods of North and South Holland to visit 
their German missions in America, and to regu¬ 
late their ecclesiastical relations. He assembled 
in Philadelphia the first synod (or, as it was 
then called, coetus ) of the German Reformed 
Church, September 29, 1747. The German Re¬ 
formed coetus continued under the jurisdiction 
of the Church of Holland till 1793, when an 
independent synod was formed. It increased 
rapidly in membership and congregations. The 
spread of the English language led to a closer 
connection with other Protestant Churches of the 
United States; and many ministers and con¬ 
gregations showed a tendency to drop certain 
customs of the Church, as confirmation and 
church holidays. The first triennial general 
synod, with jurisdiction over the whole Church, 
met in Pittsburgh in November, 1863. The 
general synod of 1869, resolved to drop the word 
German from the name of the Church. The 
Heidelberg catechism is the only standard of 
doctrine. As this book was intended to harmo¬ 
nize . the Melanchthonian and Calvinistic ten¬ 
dencies, it has been construed by theologians 
of these two schools in different ways. In the 
German Reformed Church the Melanchthonian 
element has been predominant, so that many 
representative theologians have incurred the 
charge of Romanizing tendencies. The worship 
of the Church is liturgical; its government is 
presbyterian. 



SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 

RELIGIOUS STATISTICS 

DIVISIONS OF EUROPE 


721 


COUNTRIES 


Catholic 

Church 


Protestant Orthodox 
Churches Churches 


Jews 


Moham- Unclas- 
medans sified 


Austria-Hungary, 
Belgium, . . . . 
Bulgaria, . . . . 
Denmark, . . . . 

France,. 

Germany, . . . . 
Gibraltar, . . . . 

Greece,. 

Italy,. 

Luxemburg, . . 

Malta,. 

Montenegro,. . . 
Netherlands, . . 
Norway, . . . . 
Ottoman Empire, 
Portugal, . . . . 
Roumania, . . . 
Roumelia, . . . 

Russia,. 

Servia,. 

Spain, . . . . . 
Sweden, . . . . 
Switzerland,. . . 
United Kingdom, 


30,000,000 

6,000,000 

29,000 

3,000 

30,000,000 

22,000,000 

16,000 

10,000 

31,500,000 

200,000 

160,000 

5,000 

1,545,000 

1,000 

320,000 

4,300,000 

100,000 

30,000 

11,500,000 

6,000 

16,850,000 

1,000 

1,172,000 

6 , 000,000 


5,200,000 

28,000 


2,089,000 

650,000 

37,750,000 


10,000 

65,000 


2,756,000 

1,958,000 

11,000 


15,000 


7,000,000 

1,000 

7,000 

4,698,000 

1,710,000 

38,000,000 


5,000,000 


1,393,000 


200,000 


1,930,000 

2,500 


290,000 


1,700,000 


4,800,000 

700,000 

87,000,000 

1,973,000 


2 , 200,000 

13,200 


4,000 

50,000 

600,000 


5,000 

35,000 


83,000 


60,000 


400,000 

4,000 

5,215,000 

5,000 

4,000 

2,000 

8,000 

100,000 


571,000 


45,000 


2,708,000 


30,000 

240,000 

14,000,000 

15,000 


100,000 

3,000 


4,000 

7,000,000 

30,000 


800,000 


1,000 

16,000 

1,000 

70,000 

1,000 

55,000 

2,000 

700,000 


20,000 

1,000 

10,000 

500,000 


Total followers, 


161,748,000 


101,948,000 


104,988,500 


8,788,200 


17,609,000 


9,314,000 


The distinction between followers and actual communicants should be observed. 


DENOMINATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES* 


Denominations 


Adventists,. 

Baptists,. 

Brethren (Plymouth). 

Brethren (River), . 

Buddhist (Chinese) . 

Buddhist (Japanese). 

Catholics, Eastern and Western,. 

Catholic Apostolic,. 

Christadelphians,. 

Christians, .. 

Christian Catholic (Dowie),. 

Christian Scientists,. 

Christian Union,. 

Church of God (Winebrennarian),. 

Church of the New Jerusalem,.. 

Communistic Societies,. 

Congregationalisms,. 

Disciples of Christ,. 

Dunkards, . . .. 

Evangelical Bodies,. 

Friends,. 

Friends of the Temple, . 

German Evangelical Protestant, . 

German Evangelical Synod . 

Jews, . . . .. 

Latter-Day Saints,. 

Lutherans, . .. 

Mennonites, . 

Methodists . 

Moravians . 

Presbyterians, . 

Protestant Episcopal, . . 

Reformed,. 

Salvation Army,. . . 

Schwenkfeldians.. 

Social Brethren. 

Society for Ethical Culture,. 

Spiritualists,. 

Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant (Waldenstromians), 

Theosophical Society,. 

United Brethren. 

Unitarians,. 

Universalists,. 

Independent Congregations. 


Ministers 

Churches 

Communicants 

1,153 

2,488 

95,646 

40,011 

55,810 

5,774,066 


403 

10,566 

220 

102 

4,847 

1 

62 


14 

12 

3,165 

17,371 

13,955 

12,706,746 

33 

24 

4,927 


70 

1,412 

993 

1,329 

87,478 

35 

17 

5,865 

2,208 

1,104 

85,096 

295 

237 

13,905 

509 

595 

41,475 

132 

152 

9,314 


22 

2,272 

6,045 

6,050 

741,400 

8,545 

13,929 

1,519.774 

3,429 

1,188 

122,847 

1,489 

2,654 

182,065 

1,456 

1,097 

123,718 

3 

3 

376 

59 

66 

34,704 

1,024 

1,314 

236,615 

1,084 

1,769 

143,000 

2,483 

1,350 

400,650 

8,659 

13,802 

2,243,486 

1,008 

606 

55,007 

42,199 

61,191 

6,596,168 

136 

136 

18,711 

13,342 

16,456 

1,920,765 

5,380 

7,652 

938,390 

2,li0 

2,619 

448,190 

3,196 

916 

26,275 

6 

8 

850 

15 

17 

1,262 

7 

6 

2,450“ 


1,000 

150,000 

528 

423 

58,000 


114 

3,100 

2,193 

4,266 

303,319 

558 

482 

70,542 

730 

881 

52,150 

267 

• 

879 

48,673 


♦These statistics necessarily change with the growth of the denominations. Their value is chiefly comparative. 






















































































































































722 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Respirati<fcn. A function proper to ani¬ 
mals, the object of which is, to place the ma¬ 
terials of the blood — the mixture of the venous 
blood with lymph and chyle — in contact with 
atmospheric air, in order that it may acquire 
the vivifying qualities which belong to arterial 
blood. The organs for executing this function 
are, in the mammalia, birds, and reptiles, the 
lungs. In man, the respiration consists of me¬ 
chanical and chemical phenomena. The me¬ 
chanical are inspiration and expiration. The 
evident chemical phenomena consist in the for¬ 
mation of a certain quantity of carbonic acid, 
the absorption of a part of the oxygen of the air, 
and the disengagement of a quantity of water 
in the state of vapor. In the healthy condition 
the respiration is easy, gentle, regular, and with¬ 
out noise. In man, the respirations are gen¬ 
erally about thirty-five per minute in the first 
year of life; twenty-five during the second; 
twenty at puberty; and eighteen in the adult 
age — during which time he inhales about eigh¬ 
teen pints of air. The air drawn in and expelled 
by the lungs in respiration is called breath. 

Salvation Army, The. The Salvation 
Army is a missionary organization set on foot 
in England by William Booth, who was called 
the “General” of the army. The plan of opera¬ 
tion is for a company to march about cities, 
towns, and villages, singing popular sacred 
songs and speaking between whiles for about 
five minutes. The army has also a large num¬ 
ber of religious periodicals and small books. 
Mr. Booth was a minister of the Methodist New 
Connexion, which he left in 1861, to begin “re- 
vivalistic services” in a tent in Whitechapel. 
In 1865, his little band of followers called them¬ 
selves “The East London Christian Revival 
Society,” afterwards changed to “The Christian 
Mission.” In 1869, the Mission made expedi¬ 
tions to provincial towns. Lastly in 1873, the 
name was changed to “The Salvation Army.” 
Its literary organ, called “The Christian Mis¬ 
sion,” first appeared monthly in 1874. In 1879, 
it was called “The Salvationist,” and in the 
same year its title was changed into “The War 
Cry.” Its flag now flies in fifty-six countries 
and colonies, under the charge of 22,513 officers 
and employees, with 56,867 local officers and 
21,681 bandsmen. The army publishes in 
twenty-four languages seventy-three periodicals, 
with a weekly and monthly circulation of 
1,083,966. 

Sciences. The name for such portions of 
human knowledge as have been more or less 
generalized, systematized, and verified. The 
term “Philosophy” is to a certain extent, but 
not altogether, coincident with science, being 
applied to the early efforts and strainings after 
the explanation of the universe, that preceded 
exact science in any department. Both names 
denote the pursuit of knowledge as knowledge, 
or for intellectual _ satisfaction, in contrast to 
the search that is limited to immediate practice 
or utility. 

The sciences have been variously classified, 
and the principles of their classification have 
been a subject of discussion. We shall here de¬ 
scribe the mode of classifying them in accord¬ 
ance with present usage, and with the principles 


most generally agreed upon. It is convenient 
to prepare the way by distinguishing between 
Theoretical Sciences, which are the sciences 
properly so called, and Practical Science. A 
Theoretical Science embraces a distinct depart¬ 
ment of nature, and is so arranged as to give, 
in the most compact form, the entire body of 
ascertained (scientific) knowledge in that de¬ 
partment : such are mathematics,. chemistry, 
physiology, zoology. A practical science is the 
application of scientifically obtained facts and 
laws in one or more departments to some prac¬ 
tical end, which end rules the selection and 
arrangement of the whole; as, for example, 
navigation, engineering, mining, medicine. Nav¬ 
igation selects from the theoretical sciences — 
mathematics, astronomy, optics, meteorology, 
etc.— whatever is available for guiding a ship 
on the seas, and converts the knowledge into 
rules or prescriptions for that purpose. The 
arts that can thus draw upon the exact sciences 
are by so much the more certain in their opera¬ 
tions; they are the scientific arts. 

Another distinction must be made before 
laying down the systematic order of the theo¬ 
retical sciences. A certain number of these 
sciences have for their subject matter each a 
separate department of natural forces or powers; 
thus, biology deals with the department of 
organized beings, psychology with mind. Others 
deal with the application of powers elsewhere 
recognized to some region of concrete facts or 
phenomena. Thus, geology does not discuss 
any natural powers not found in other sciences, 
but seeks to apply the laws of physics, chem¬ 
istry, and biology to account for the appear¬ 
ances of the earth’s crust. The sciences that 
embrace peculiar natural powers are called 
abstract, general, or fundamental sciences; 
those that apply the powers treated of under 
these to regions of concrete phenomena are 
called concrete, derived, or applied sciences. 

The abstract or theoretical sciences, as most 
commonly recognized, are these six: mathe¬ 
matics, physics, chemistry, biology (vegetable 
and animal physiology), psychology (mind), 
sociology (society). The concrete sciences are 
the natural history group — meteorology, min¬ 
eralogy, botany, zoology, geology, also geog¬ 
raphy, and we might, with some explanations, 
add astronomy. The abstract or fundamental 
sciences have a definite sequence, determining 
the proper order for the learner, and also the 
order of their arriving at perfection. We pro¬ 
ceed from the simple to the complex, from the 
independent to the dependent. Thus, mathe¬ 
matics relates to quantity, the most pervading, 
simple, fundamental, and independent attribute 
of the universe. The consideration of this at¬ 
tribute has therefore a natural priority; its 
laws underlie all other laws. As mathematics 
is at present understood, it has an abstract de¬ 
partment, which treats of quantity in its most 
general form, or as applied to nothing in particu¬ 
lar — including arithmetic, algebra, and the 
calculus — and a concrete or applied depart¬ 
ment — viz., geometry, or quantity in space or 
extension. It has been suggested that general 
mechanics, or the estimation of quantity in 
force, should be considered a second concrete 




SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 


723 


department. But usually mechanics ranks 
with the next fundamental science in order, 
called physics. 

Natural philosophy has long been considered 
the name of a distinct department of science: 
the designation physics is now more common. 
This science succeeds mathematics, and precedes 
chemistry. Of all the fundamental sciences, it 
has the least unity, being an aggregate of sub- 

i 'ects with more or less connection. Mechanics, 
lydrostatics, hydraulics, pneumatics, acoustics, 
astronomy, are all closely related; they repre¬ 
sent the phenomenon of movement in mass, as 
applied to all the three states of matter, solid, 
liquid, and gas. The remaining subjects — 
heat, light, and electricity — together with the 
attractions and repulsions that determine cohe¬ 
sion, crystallization, etc., are described as relat¬ 
ing to movement in the molecule. We have thus 
molar physics and molecular physics; and the 
tendency is now to treat the two separately. 

Chemistry lies between physics and biology, 
reposing upon the one and supporting the other. 
It assumes all the physical laws, both molar and 
molecular, as known, and proceeds to consider 
the special phenomenon of the composition and 
decomposition of bodies considered as taking 
place in definite proportions, and leading to 
change of properties. The composition of a cup 
of tea from water, sugar, milk, and infusion of 
tea-leaf, is physical; the composition of marble 
from oxygen, carbon, and calcium, is chemical. 
In the one case, the properties of the separate 
ingredients are still discernible; in the other, 
these are merged and untraceable. 

Biology, or the science of living organization, 
involves mathematical, physical, and chemical 
laws, in company with certain others, called 
vital. It is most usually expounded under the 
designations vegetable and animal physiology; 
and in the concrete departments, botany, zool¬ 
ogy, and anthropology. 

Psychology, or the science of mind, makes a 
wide transition, the widest that can be taken 
within the whole circle of the sciences, from the 
so-called material world, to the world of feeling, 
volition, and intellect. The main source of our 
knowledge of mind is self-consciousness; and it 
is only from the intimate connection of mind 
with a living organism, that the subject is a 
proper sequel to biology. Not until lately has 
any insight into mind been obtained through 
the consideration of the physical organ — the 
brain; so that psychology might have been 
placed anywhere, but for another consideration 
that helps to determine the order of the sciences 
— viz: that the discipline, or method, of the 
simpler sciences is a preparation for the more 
abstruse. Mathematics and physics especially 
are an admirable training of the intellect for the 
studies connected with mind proper, although 
the laws of physics may not of themselves 
throw any direct light on the successions of 
thought and feeling. 

These five sciences embrace all the funda¬ 
mental laws of the world, and, if perfect, their 
application would suffice to account for the 
whole course of nature. To a person fully versed 
in them, no phenomenon of the explained uni¬ 
verse can appear strange; the concrete sciences 


and the practical sciences contain nothing 
fundamentally new. They constitute a liberal 
scientific education. It is not uncommon, how¬ 
ever, to rank sociology, or the laws of man in 
society, as a sixth primary science following on 
psychology, of which it is a special development. 

The practical sciences do not admit of any 
regular classification. They are as numerous 
as the separate ends of human life that can re¬ 
ceive aid from science, or from knowledge scien¬ 
tifically constituted. Connected with mind and 
society, we have ethics, logic, rhetoric, gram¬ 
mar, philology, education, law, jurisprudence, 
politics, political economy, etc. In the manual 
and mechanical arts, there are navigation, prac¬ 
tical mechanics, engineering, civil and military, 
mining and metallurgy, chemistry applied to 
dyeing,, bleaching, etc. 

The medical department contains medicine, 
surgery, midwifery, materia medica, medical 
jurisprudence. A science of living, or of the pro¬ 
duction of happiness by a skilled application of 
all existing resources, would be the crowning 
practical science. 

Septuagint ( sep'tu-a-jint ). A Greek ver¬ 
sion of the books of the Old Testament; so 
called because the translation is supposed to 
have been made by seventy-two Jews, who, for 
the sake of round numbers, are usually called 
the seventy interpreters. It is said to have been 
made at the request of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
King of Egypt, about 280 years B. C. It is that 
out of which all the citations in the New Testa¬ 
ment and the Old are taken. It was also the 
ordinary and canonical translation made use of 
by the Christian Church in the earliest ages; and 
is still retained in the Churches both of the East 
and West. According to the chronology of the 
Septuagint, there were fifteen hundred years 
more from the creation to Abraham than 
according to the present Hebrew copies of the 
Bible. 

Shorthand. An art by which writing is 
abbreviated, so as to keep pace with speaking. 
Its great and general utility has been recognized 
in every age, and numberless systems have been 
devised to facilitate its acquirement. It was 
practiced by the ancients for its secrecy as well 
as for its brevity, and a work is extant on the 
art, which is ascribed to Tiro, the freedman of 
Cicero. The first English treatise on stenog¬ 
raphy, in which marks represent words, was 
published in 1588, by Timothy Bright, M. D., 
under the title, “ Characterie: an Art of Short, 
Swift, and Secret Writing by Character.” In 
1837, appeared Pitman’s “Phonography”—the 
first really popular system. Melville Bell, fol¬ 
lowing in the path marked out by Pitman, 
founded his system on the sounds of the lan¬ 
guage. The first sketch appeared in 1849; in 
1852, the first complete edition, under the title 
“Semi-Phonography.” Shorthand is now largely 
practiced in both the United States and England, 
and has extended its benefits to many classes 
besides that of the professional reporter. This 
is due chiefly to the excellence of Pitman’s 
system and to his activity in disseminating its 
principles. The existence of two styles of pho¬ 
nography, one adapted for letter writing and the 
othei^for reporting — the second, however, being 



724 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


only an extension of the first, and not a new 
system in itself — has been the chief basis of the 
popularity of phonetic shorthand. Popular 
modifications of Pitman’s system have been 
made in the United States by Graham, Burnz, 
and Munson. 

Skeleton. A term which is popularly used 
to denote the system of hard parts forming the 
bony framework of the body. The skeleton of 
mammalia consists of an axial portion which 
comprises the skull, the vertebral column, the 
sternum and ribs, and an appendicular portion 
consisting of the limbs. The skull consists 
mainly of the cranium, which is the strong bony 
case or frame whicn encloses the brain, and af¬ 
fords support and protection to the organs of 
smell, taste, sight, and hearing. To the inferior 
surface of the cranium are suspended the man¬ 
dible, or lower jaw, and also a group of skeletal 
structures termed the hyoidean apparatus, which 
supports the tongue, etc. The vertebral or spinal 
column consists of a series of bones called verte¬ 
brae, arranged in close connection with each 
other on the dorsal side of the neck and trunk. 
It generally extends posteriorly beyond the 
trunk to form the tail, and anteriorly it articu¬ 
lates with the skull. The number of distinct 
bones of which the vertebral column consists 
varies in different animals, the variation being 
mainly due to the development of the tail. The 
vertebrae differ in form in the different regions 
of the column, but they are nevertheless con¬ 
structed on a common plan. The sternum con¬ 
sists of a series of bones placed longitudinally 
in the middle line of the ventral side of the thorax 
or chest, and connected on each side with the 
vertebral column by a series of long, narrow, 
and more or less flattened bones termed the 
ribs. The anterior limbs consist of the follow¬ 
ing bones: the humerus, or arm-bone; the radius 
and ulna, which together constitute the fore¬ 
arm; the carpal, or wrist bones; and the meta- 
carpals and phalanges, or bones of the hand. 
The posterior limbs consist of the femur, or 
thigh bone; the tibia and fibula, or leg bones; 
the tarsal bones, forming the ankle; and the 
meta-tarsals and phalanges, constituting the 
bones of the foot. 

Skin. The integument which invests and 
surrounds the exterior of the body. The skin 
of man consists of two fundamental layers, viz: 
the cuticle, or epidermis, and the cutis, dermis, 
or true skin. The cuticle, or epidermis, is a 
layer of epithelial cells; it differs in thickness 
in different parts of the body, is without blood¬ 
vessels and nerves, and is, therefore, quite de¬ 
void of sensibility. It may be divided into two 
groups of strata, a superficial and a deep stra¬ 
tum. The superficial one is what is usually 
termed the epidermis, in the more precise mean¬ 
ing of the word. The inner or deep layer is 
molded on to the true skin, and consists of 
softer, moister, and more rounded cells than 
the outer layer. It is sometimes called the 
Malphigian layer, or rete mucosum; and it is 
the seat of the coloring material or pigment of 
colored races, such as the negro. The cutis or 
dermis, or true skin, forms the more complex 
lower layer of the skin. It consists of densely- 
interwoven tissues, and is well supplied with 


blood-vessels and nerves. This layer contains 
the sudoriparous or sweat-glands, which ex¬ 
crete the perspiration, and also the sebaceous 
glands, which secrete oily matter, and the func¬ 
tion of which it is to keep the skin soft and flex¬ 
ible. The papillae of the skin consist of small 
conical processes on the surface of the cutis. 
The central portion of each papilla contains a 
group of blood-vessels and a nerve, and on the 
more sensitive parts of the skin touch-corpuscles 
are also present. Hair, nails, etc., are developed 
from skin. The skin is the organ of the sense 
of touch; it protects the superficial parts of the 
body; is an organ of respiration, excretion, and 
absorption; and regulates the temperature of 
the body. 

Smithsonian Institution. A scien¬ 
tific institute in Washington, organized by Act 
of Congress in 1846, to carry into effect the pro¬ 
visions of the will of James Smithson, the 
founder. Smithson was a natural son of the 
Duke of Northumberland; was educated at 
Oxford, and was, in 1790, elected a Fellow of the 
Royal Society. He died at Genoa in 1829, 
leaving his property (worth $600,000) to his 
nephew, with the condition that if the latter 
died without issue the property was to go to 
the United States to found an establishment 
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge. 
In 1835, the nephew died childless, and in 1838, 
the sum of $515,169 was paid to the treasury 
of the United States. In 1846, the interest on 
this sum (the principal itself must remain un¬ 
touched) was applied to the erection of a suitable 
building, with apartments for the reception 
and arrangement of objects of natural history, 
including a geological and mineralogical cabinet, 
a chemical laboratory, a library, a gallery of art, 
and the necessary lecture-rooms. The building 
is one of the finest in Washington. A portion of 
the funds of the institution is devoted to scien¬ 
tific researches and the publication of works 
too expensive for private enterprise. Three 
series of publications are issued: “Contribu¬ 
tions to Knowledge,” “Miscellaneous Collec¬ 
tions,” and “Annual Reports.” The institu¬ 
tion contains the National Museum, which is, 
however, wholly maintained by the government. 
The institution is administered by regents, com¬ 
posed of the chief-justice of the United States, 
three members of the Senate, and three of the 
House of Representatives, with six other per¬ 
sons, not members of Congress. The president 
vice-president, and members of the cabinet for 
the time being have the position of governors 
or visitors of the institution, the president being 
ex officio at the head. 

Stars, The, are mostly suns, but being, 
the nearest of them, at a distance from us more 
than 500,000 times our distance from the sun, 
are of a size we cannot estimate, but are believed 
to be 300 times larger than the earth; they are 
of unequal brightness, and are, according to this 
standard, classified as of the first, second, down 
to the sixteenth magnitude; those visible to the 
naked eye include stars from the first to the 
sixth magnitude, and number 3,000, while 20,- 
000,000 are visible by the telescope; of these in 
the Milky Way alone there are 18,000,000; 
they are distinguished by their colors as well 



SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 725 


as their brightness, being white, orange, red, 
green, and blue, according to their temperature 
and composition; they have from ancient date 
been grouped into constellations of the northern 
and the southern hemispheres and of the zodiac, 
the stars in each of which being noted by the 
Greek letters, according to their brightness. 

Stomach. In comparative anatomy, a 
membranous sac, formed by a dilation of the 
alimentary canal, in which food is received and 
subjected to the processes of digestion. The 
human stomach is an elongated, curved pouch, 
from ten to twelve inches long, and four or five 
inches in diameter at its widest part, lying al¬ 
most immediately below the diaphragm, nearly 
transversely across the upper and left portion 
of the abdominal cavity, and having the form 
of a bagpipe. It is very dilatable and contrac¬ 
tile, and its average capacity is about five pints. 
The food enters the stomach through the oesoph¬ 
agus by the cardia or cardiac orifice, and after 
having been acted on by the gastric juice, is 
passed on in a semi-fluid or pulpy state through 
the pylorus into the small intestines. Owing to 
the recent improvements in electrical apparatus, 
the physiology and pathology of the human 
stomach in life is becoming much better known. 
Medical electricians have recently devised a 
plan by which the interior of the human stom¬ 
ach may be illuminated for examination. The 
patient is laid on the operating table and a 
slender tube, carrying a glass bead on its end, 
is introduced into the stomach. A small light 
inside the bead is supplied by fine wires running 
out through the tube and connected to a small 
battery. The interior of the stomach is plainly 
lighted and all its parts are brought into view 
by a small movable mirror at the end of the 
tube. 

Sun. The central orb of the solar system, 
that around which revolve the earth and the 
other planets. The sun appears to be a perfect 
sphere, with a diameter of 866,900 miles; its 
mean density is about one-fourth, taking that 
of the earth as one; its mean distance from the 
earth is taken as 93,000,000 miles. It rotates 
on its own axis; this axis of rotation being in¬ 
clined to the ecliptic at an angle of 82° 40'; and 
its rotation period is variously estimated at 
from twenty-five to twenty-eight days. The 
mass of the sun is about 750 times that of all the 
other members of the solar system combined, 
and the center of gravity of the solar system lies 
somewhere in the sun, whatever may be the 
relative positions of the planets in their orbits. 
The dark spots on the sun discovered bjr Galileo 
have been shown to be hollows, and their depth 
has been estimated at from 3,000 to 10,000 
miles. The spots are very changeable in their 
figure and dimensions, and vary in size from 
mere points to spaces of 50,000 miles or more 
in diameter. It is from observations of these 
spots that the sun's rotation on its axis has been 
calculated. The frequency of sun spots attains 
a maximum every ten and a half years, the 
number of spots falling off during the interval 
to a minimum, from which it recovers gradually 
to the next maximum. This periodicity has 
been thought to be intimately connected with 
the meteorological phenomena observed on the 


earth, especially with the rainfall. Spots are 
called maculae, brighter portions of the sun are 
called faculce, and the lesser markings are called 
mottlings. The sun is now generally believed 
to be of gaseous constitution, covered with a 
sort of luminous shell of cloud formed by the 
precipitation of the vapors which are cooled 
by external radiation. This dazzling shell is 
termed the photosphere. The spots are sup- 
osed to be cavities in this cloud-layer, caused 
y the unequal velocities of neighboring por¬ 
tions of the solar atmosphere. Zollner, who 
considers the body of the sun to be liquid, sees 
therein slags or scoriae floating on a molten 
surface, and surrounded by clouds. It is esti¬ 
mated that the sun's radiation would melt a 
shell of ice covering its own surface to a depth 
of between thirty-nine and forty feet in one 
minute, but the temperature of the surface has 
not yet been ascertained. It is evident, how¬ 
ever, that the temperature and radiation have 
remained constant for a long period. The photo¬ 
sphere is overlaid by an atmosphere which is 
shown by the spectroscope to contain nearly 
all the materials which enter into the composi¬ 
tion of the sun. The region outside the photo¬ 
sphere in which these colored prominences are 
observed ha£ been called the chromosphere, 
which has an average depth of from 3,000 to 
8,000 miles. The incandescent hydrogen clouds 
stretch out beyond this to altitudes of 20,000 
to 100,000 miles, and jets of chromospheric 
hydrogen have been observed to reach a height 
of 200,000 miles in twenty minutes, and disap¬ 
pear altogether within half an hour. Outside 
the chromosphere, extending very far out from 
the sun, is the corona, an aurora of light observed 
during total eclipses. The amount of light sent 
forth by the sun is not exactly measurable, but 
the amount of heat has been pretty accurately 
computed, and it is equivalent in mechanical 
effect to the action of 7,000 horse-power on 
every square foot of the solar surface, or to the 
combustion on every square foot of upwards 
of thirteen and one-half hundred pounds of coal 
per hour. 

Theology is the science which treats of the 
existence of God, his attributes, and the Divine 
will regarding our actions, present condition, and 
ultimate destiny. In reference to the sources 
whence it is derived theology is distinguished 
into natural or philosophical theology, which re¬ 
lates to the knowledge of God from His works by 
the light of nature and reason; and supernatural, 
positive, or revealed theology, which sets forth and 
systematizes the doctrines of the Scriptures. 
With regard to the contents of theology it is 
classified into theoretical theology or dogmatics, 
and practical theology or ethics. As compre¬ 
hending the whole extent of religious science, 
theology is divided into four principal classes, 
historical, exegetical, systematic, and practiced 
theology. Historical theology treats of the his¬ 
tory of Christian doctrines. Exegetical theology 
embraces the interpretation of the Scriptures 
and Biblical criticism. Systematic theology ar¬ 
ranges methodically the great truths of religion. 
Practical theology consists of an exhibition, first, 
of precepts and directions; and, secondly, of the 
motives from which we should be expected to 



726 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


comply with these. Apologetic and polemic 
theology belong to several of the above-men¬ 
tioned four classes at once. The Scholastic theol¬ 
ogy attempted to clear and discuss all questions 
by the aid of human reason alone, laying aside 
the study of the Scriptures, and adopting instead 
the arts of the dialectician. 

Theosophy* according to its etymology 
the science of divine things. But the name of 
theosophists has generally been applied to persons 
who in their inquiries respecting God have run 
into mysticism, as Jacob Bohme, Swedenborg, 
St. Martin, and others. At the present day the 
term is applied to the tenets of the Theosophical 
Society, founded in New York in 1875 by a Col. 
Olcott, the objects of which are: to form the 
nucleus of a universal brotherhood of humanity, 
to promote the study of Eastern literature and 
science, and chiefly to investigate unexplained 
laws of nature, and the physical powers of man, 
and generally the search after divine knowledge 
— divine applying to the divine nature of the 
abstract principle, not to the quality of a per¬ 
sonal God. The theosophists assert that human¬ 
ity is possessed of certain powers over nature, 
which the narrower study of nature from the 
merely materialistic standpoint , has failed to 
develop. 

Unitarian Church. A communion com¬ 
prising all who maintain that God exists in one 
person only. The name Unitarian is applied 
specially to a small Christian sect whose dis¬ 
tinguishing tenet is the unity as opposed to the 
trinity of the Godhead. In the more general 
sense the name of course includes the Jews and 
the Mohammedans. From the middle of the 
Second Century to the end of the Third Century 
there was a succession of eminent Christian 
teachers — Monarchians — who maintained, 
against the ecclesiastical doctrine of the Logos, 
the undivided unity of God. There are said 
to have been two classes of them — those who 
taught that Christ was God in such a sense 
that it was the Father who became man and 
those who held that Christ was in nature a mere 
man, but exalted above all other prophets by 
the superior measure of Divine wisdom with 
which he was endowed. The latter class was 
represented by Theodotus, Artemon, and espec¬ 
ially Paul of Samosata. The grand theological 
struggle which followed in the Fourth Century 
between the Arians and the Athanasians may 
be regarded as a phase of the Unitarian con¬ 
troversy. Unitarians of all shades of opinion 
are agreed in rejecting the entire orthodox 
scheme — including the doctrines of the 
Trinity, the vicarious atonement, the deity 
of Christ, original sin, and everlasting pun¬ 
ishment — as both unscriptural and irra¬ 
tional. They celebrate the Lord’s Supper in 
their churches, not as a sacrament, but as a 
service commemorative of Christ’s death, and 
expressive of spiritual communion with Him. 
They also adhere generally to the rite of infant 
baptism, though there are a few Unitarian 
Baptist churches. 

United Brethren in Christ. A de¬ 
nomination of evangelical Christians, founded 
through the labors of Rev. William Otterbein, 
a minister of the German Reformed Church. 


His meeting with Rev. Martin Boehm, a minister 
of the Mennonite Society, about 1766, marked 
the beginning of a wide-spread revival, in which 
he and Boehm were the recognized leaders. 
Preachers were licensed, the Church was to a 
certain extent brought under system, confer¬ 
ences were held in 1789 and 1791, but the re¬ 
ligious movement did not take the form of a 
Church till 1800, in which year an important 
conference was held at Peter Kemp’s in Fred¬ 
erick County, Maryland. At this time the name 
of the denomination was definitely fixed, and 
Otterbein and Boehm were chosen bishops. 
Thereafter conferences were held yearly. The 
Church is Arminian in doctrine, very aggressive 
in work, and has been characterized by a strong 
reform spirit, standing from the first opposed 
to slavery, intemperance, and connection with 
secret societies. 

Universalists. A religious sect who 
maintain as a fundamental article of their belief 
that saving grace is given to all men, without 
reserve, and that its operation is universal — 
whence their denomination. Universalists, it 
may be observed, generally differ from the pre¬ 
valent bodies of Christians in other important 
doctrines, though it is not because of such dif¬ 
ferences that they have received their name, 
nor is it necessary to merit the name that one 
should share these differences. Most of them 
agree with Unitarians — but there are eminent 
examples to the contrary — in rejecting the 
doctrine of the Trinity; they are also Pelagian 
in the matter of original sin, and reject the 
notion that the new birth is something super¬ 
natural. Universalism, as a mode of belief, is 
of very ancient origin; but it was in 1770, that 
the Rev. John Murray became a propagator 
of Univeralist views, and some years later Uni¬ 
versalism, as a sect, was founded in the United 
States by Hosea Ballou (commonly called 
“Father Ballou”), a learned divine and indefat¬ 
igable preacher. 

X-Rays. Invisible rays producing fluores¬ 
cence upon striking certain substances and acting 
upon a photographic plate. Obtained by dis¬ 
charging a high-pressure electric current through 
a vacuum glass tube. They differ from cathode 
rays in not being deflected by a magnet. Their 
practical use in photographing the skeleton and 
interior organs of the human body is of great 
service in locating foreign bodies in surgical 
operations, and facilitating the setting of broken 
bones, etc. 

Young Men’s Christian Associa¬ 
tions. Among the first of these was that 
founded in London, in 1844, by George Williams. 
Its object was the holding of religious meetings 
in business houses in the center of London. 
The movement extended, and became one not 
only for the religious but for the general 
culture and social well-being of young men 
engaged in business. In 1911, the Young Men’s 
Christian Associations, all of which are self-gov¬ 
erning while forming an organized union, were 
8,472 in number. Of these, 2,121 associations, 
with 536,037 members, were in the United States 
and Canada. In the United States, in 1910, 
current expenses about $10,000,000, value of 
property about $60,000,000. 





















* • 



































































































■ 


















































/ 































BEAVER 


FLYING SQUIRREL 


PRAIRIE DOG S 


PORCUPI NE 


RACCOON 


SQUIRREL 


OPOSSUM 


AMERICAN BADGER 


MANATEE 



NATURAL HISTORY 


Alligator. A genus of saurian reptiles, 
natives of America and China. They differ 
from the true crocodiles in having a broader 
head, blunter nose, and cavities or pits in the 
upper jaw, into which the long canine teeth 
of the under jaw fit. The largest grow to the 
length of sixteen feet. The female lays from 
thirty to forty eggs in a low mound of sand, 
muck, or vegetable mould, where they are 
hatched by the heat of the sun or by the fermen¬ 
tation of the vegetable mass. The female 
watches the eggs until the young are hatched. 
(See Crocodile.) 

American Badger. See Badger. 
American Magpie. See Magpie. 

Ant. An insect belonging to the same 
order as the bees and wasps. Like bees, the 
ants form communities, consisting of males, 
females, and workers. The males and females 
are at first winged, and are produced in great 
numbers at certain times of the year. They 
then leave the nest and take flight, in swarms, 
into the air where the fertilization of the females 
takes place. In a few hours they return to 
earth where the males soon die, and the females 
tear off their own wings and become the mothers 
of new colonies. The workers perform all the 
labor of the colony, feed the young, defend the 
nest and carry on war with other ant societies. 
Many singular habits and instincts of ants have 
been observed. Two of the most interesting 
are the instinct of making slaves, and that of 
m ilkin g, so to speak, the little plant lice. As 
regards the former, it is found that certain ants 
capture the pupae of other species of ants (i. e., 
when they are in the quiescent or pupa stage), 
and bring them up as slaves. 

Antelope. In zoology, a genus of rumi¬ 
nating mammals, belonging to the hollow-horned 
family, and distinguished by the round, annu- 
lated form of their horns, which are unbranched, 
and by the grace and symmetry of their pro¬ 
portions. Externally, they very much resemble 
deer, from which, however, they are to be distin¬ 
guished by various points of structure, such as the 
horns, which in the deer are solid and branched. 
Generally speaking, antelopes are gregarious, 
and unite in large flocks or herds. Africa may 
be considered the headquarters of the antelope. 
The species are numerous, and include the 
spring bok, hartebeest, gnu, eland, and gazelle, 
among others. The prong-horned antelope is 
found only in North America, and, although 
there is but a single species, the zoologists have 
separated it into a separate family, Antiloca- 
pridce. Two characteristics which distinguish 
it from other antelopes are the absence of dew 
claws, and the horns which are pronged and 
are shed every year. 

Anura, Ecaudata, or Salientia. An 
order of amphibians characterized by the absence 
of a tail, and including the frogs and toads. In 
the anura, the adult is destitute of gills and tail, 


and two pairs of limbs are always present; there 
are no ribs, and the skin is soft; the mouth is 
sometimes without teeth, but the upper jaw is 
usually provided with teeth, and, more rarely, 
both jaws; the hind limbs usually have the toes 
webbed for swimming, and are much larger than 
the fore limbs. In the adult anura the breath¬ 
ing is carried on by means of lungs; but, as there 
are no movable ribs, the process of breathing 
is somewhat peculiar—in fact, it is one of swal¬ 
lowing, and it is possible to suffocate a frog 
simply by holding its mouth open. The moist 
and delicate skin, however, also performs an 
important part in respiration. The young, or 
larvae, of frogs and toads are familiarly known 
as “tadpoles.” The eggs are deposited in masses 
in water, and the young, when hatched, are 
fish-like in form, with a broad, rounded head 
and a compressed tail. There are at first two 
sets of gills, one external and the other internal; 
but the outer ones disappear very shortly after 
birth, and the inner ones are subsequently 
replaced by lungs. The hind limbs first make 
their appearance, and are followed by the fore 
limbs; as the limbs become fully developed 
the tail gradually disappears. In both the 
common frog and the toad the tongue is fixed 
to the front of the mouth, while it is free behind, 
so that it can be protruded for some distance 
from the mouth. The tree frogs have the toes 
of all the feet furnished with terminal suckers, 
by the help of which they climb with ease; they 
are mostly found in America, but one species 
is European. 

Ape. A name somewhat loosely employed, 
in common language, as a synonym for monkey, 
but, in its more restricted sense, applicable only 
to the anthropoid apes, the highest section of 
the order Quadrumana, or four-handed mam¬ 
mals; those which make a nearer approach, in 
anatomical structure, to the human species than 
do any other animals. The group of apes 
includes the gibbons, orang-utans, Chimpan¬ 
zees, and gorillas. They are all devoid of tails 
and cheek pouches; the arms are remarkable 
for their extreme length, and the hind limbs 
for their remarkable shortness. On the ground 
these animals are awkward and waddling. They 
tread rather on the outer edge of the sole than 
on the sole itself, which imparts to their hind 
limbs a bowed appearance, while their long 
fore limbs are employed somewhat after the 
manner of crutches, on the half-closed fists of 
which, planted firmly on the ground, they rest 
their bodies. The great length of their arms, 
on the other hand, gives these animals peculiar 
advantages in their native forests, and they 
climb to the topmost branches, or pass from 
tree to tree, with surprising facility. The apes in 
general appear to be more grave, and less petu¬ 
lant and mischievous, than the ordinary monkey. 

Apple. The name applied to a tree belong¬ 
ing to the rose family of plants, as well as to its 






730 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


fruit. There are two real types, the common 
apple, Pyrus malus, and the crab apple, Pyrus 
baccata, from which all the cultivated apples 
of the world have developed. The fruit of the 
apple is a pome, consisting of a thickened fleshy 
calyx, inclosing the horny cells forming the core, 
and covering the true seeds. The apple has 
been known since prehistoric times. The genus 
extends around the world in the north temperate 
zone. The crab apple is of value for making 
jelly, but chiefly because it transmits its hardi¬ 
ness to its crosses with the common apple, 
producing a fruit of good quality that can endure 
northern climates. America is the chief apple 
growing country, producing, in 1899, 175,397,626 
bushels, worth over $83,000,000. The export trade 
to Europe is constantly increasing. The apple 
is used principally for eating out of hand, for cook¬ 
ing, and for making cider, vinegar, and brandy. 

Baboon. The name applied in popular 
language to members of the family Cercopithe- 
ddce of the four-handed mammals. The 
baboons rank next to the anthropoid apes in the 
ascending series of animals, and are distin¬ 
guished externally by a short tail, large callosities 
on the buttocks, limbs of nearly equal length, 
and by the large head, which has a muzzle 
resembling that of a dog, the nostrils being 
situated at its extremity. They are large, strong 
animals, extremely unattractive in outward 
appearance, and of great ferocity. More than 
any other of the monkeys, they employ the 
fore limbs in terrestrial progression, running 
upon all fours with the greatest ease. They 
live upon the ground, travel in troops of ten or 
more, and steal grain and fruit with great bold¬ 
ness. The baboons are all inhabitants of Africa. 
They attain a height of about two feet, and an 
average specimen weighs about forty-five pounds. 
The mandrill has a brilliant blue and scarlet 
muzzle and a yellow beard on its chin. The 
common baboon, a native of South Africa, is 
very often brought to Europe, and is that most 
usually seen in menageries and museums. It is 
of a uniform reddish-brown color, with black 
face and white eyelids. 

Bacteria. (Gr. bakterion, a rod). A class 
of very minute microscopic organisms, often of 
a rod-like form, which are regarded as of vege¬ 
table nature, and as being the cause of putre¬ 
faction; they are also called microbes or micro¬ 
phytes. The genus Bacterium , in a restricted 
sense, comprises microscopic unicellular vege¬ 
table organisms without chlorophyll which mul¬ 
tiply by transverse division of the cells. Species 
are found in all decomposing animal and vege¬ 
table liquids. Bacteria are of various shapes. 
The bacillus forms rods which divide into two; 
these increase in length and divide again. Micro¬ 
coccus consists of single rounded cells. Strepto¬ 
coccus forms chains of rounded cells. Sarcince 
form irregular cubes. Spirillum is spiral in 
form. While many forms of bacteria are harm¬ 
less or even beneficial to man, others are known 
to be the cause of diseases which are contagious 
or infectious, such as scarlet fever, typhoid fever, 
tuberculosis, and many others. 

Badger. A plantigrade, carnivorous mam¬ 
mal, allied both to the bears and to the weasels, 


of a clumsy make, with short, thick legs, and 
long claws on the fore feet. The common badger 
(Meles vulgaris ) is as large as a middling-sized 
dog, but much lower on the legs, with a flatter 
and broader body, very thick, tough hide, and 
long, coarse, grizzly-gray hair. It inhabits the 
north of Europe and Asia. Badger baiting, or 
drawing the badger, is a barbarous sport formerly, 
and still to some extent, practiced in Europe 
generally as an attraction to public houses of 
the lowest sort. A badger is put in a barrel, 
and one or more dogs are put in to drag him out. 
When this is effected he is returned to his barrel, 
to be similarly assailed by a fresh set. The 
badger usually makes most determined and 
savage resistance. The American badger belongs 
to the genus Tazidea. It is intermediate in 
size between the skunk and the wolverine. It 
is of a sullen disposition, fives in burrows, and 
feeds on small ground mammals. Its home is 
the western part of the United States. 

Balata. A reddish-brown gum yielded by 
Mimusops balata, a tree growing abundantly in 
British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Honduras, 
and Brazil. It is obtained in a milky state by 
tapping the tree, and hardening to a substance 
resembling gutta-percha, and used for similar 
purposes. 

Balm of Gilead. The exudation of a tree, 
Balsamodendron gileadense, a native of Arabia 
Felix, and also obtained from the closely allied 
species Balsamodendron opobalsamum. The leaves 
of the former tree yield when bruised a strong 
aromatic scent; and the balm of Gilead of the 
shops, or balsam of Mecca or of Syria, is obtained 
from it by making an incision in its trunk. It 
has a yellowish or greenish color, a warm, 
bitterish, aromatic taste, and an acidulous, 
fragrant smell. It is valued as an odoriferous 
unguent and cosmetic. In the United States 
the populus balsamifera is called balm of Gilead 
tree. 

Balsam. An aromatic, resinous substance, 
flowing spontaneously or by incision from certain 
plants. A great variety of substances pass under 
this name. But in chemistry the term is properly 
applied only to resins and oleoresins which 
contain cinnamic or benzoic acid or both. 
Balsam is soluble in alcohol and ether. The 
balsams are either liquid or more or less solid; 
as, for example, the balm of Gilead, and the 
balsams of copaiba, Peru, and Tolu. Benzoin, 
dragon’s blood, and storax are not true balsams, 
though sometimes called so. The balsams are 
used in perfumery, medicine, and the arts. 

Bamboo. The common name of the arbo¬ 
rescent grasses belonging to the genus Bambusa 
or of allied genera. There are many, species, 
belonging to the warmer parts of Asia, Africa, 
and America, and growing from a few feet to 
as much as one hundred feet in height and 
reaching a foot in diameter. The best known 
species is Bambusa arundinacea, common in 
tropical and sub-tropical regions. From the 
creeping underground rhizome, which is long, 
thick, and jointed, spring several round jointed 
stalks, which are generally straight and erect. 
The stems grow to their full height unbranched, 
but afterward throw out horizontal branches. 




NATURAL HISTORY 


731 


Some of the plants are armed with spines. The 
oval leaves, eight or nine inches long, are placed 
on short footstalks. The flowers grow in large 
panicles from the joints of the stalk. Some 
stems grow to eight or ten inches in diameter, 
and are so hard and durable as to be used for 
walking sticks, flutes, etc.; the plant is used for 
innumerable purposes in the East Indies, China, 
and other Eastern countries. Cottages are 
almost wholly made of it, also bridges, boxes, 
water pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, 
spears, baskets, mats, paper, masts for boats, 

1 etc. The young shoots are pickled and eaten, 
or otherwise used as food; the seeds of some 
species are also eaten. The substance called 
tabasheer is a siliceous deposit that gathers at 
the internodes of the stems. The bamboo is 
imported into Europe and America as a paper 
material as well as for other purposes. One 
species of arundinaria forms the canebrakes of 
southern United States. 

Banana. A plant of the genus Musa , 
natural order Musacece, being Musa sapientum, 
while the plantain is Musa paradisiaca. It is 
originally indigenous to the East Indies, and an 
herbaceous plant with an underground stem. 
The apparent stem, which is sometimes as high 
as thirty feet, is formed of the closely compacted 
sheaths of the leaves. The leaves are six to 
ten feet long and one or more broad, with a 
strong midrib, from which the veins are given 
off at right angles; they are used for thatch, 
basket making, etc., besides yielding a useful 
fiber. The spikes of the flowers may grow 
nearly four feet long, in bunches, covered with 
purpie-colored bracts. The fruit is four to ten 
or twelve inches long, and one inch or more in 
diameter; it grows in large bunches, weighing 
often from forty to eighty pounds. The pulp 
is soft and of a luscious taste; when ripe it is 
eaten either raw or cooked. The banana is 
cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries, 
and is an important article of food. Manilla 
hemp is the product of a species of banana. 

Banyan, or Banian, Ficus bengal- 
ensis. A tree of India, of the fig genus. The 
most peculiar feature of this tree is its method 
of throwing out from the horizontal branches 
supports which take root as soon as they reach 
the ground, enlarge into trunks, which extend 
branches in their turn, soon covering a prodi¬ 
gious extent of ground. A celebrated banyan 
tree has been known to shelter seven thousand 
men beneath its shade. The wood is soft and 
porous, and from its white, glutinous juice bird¬ 
lime is sometimes prepared. Both juice and 
bark are regarded by the Hindoos as valuable 
medicines. 

Baobab, or Monkey-bread Tree. A 

tree belonging to the natural order (or sub-order) 
Bombacece, and the only known species of its 
genus, which was named after the naturalist 
Adanson. It is one of the largest of trees, its 
trunk sometimes attaining a diameter of thirty 
feet; as the profusion of leaves and drooping 
boughs sometimes almost hides the stem, the 
whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 
fifteen to sixty feet in diameter and sixty to 
seventy feet high. It is a native of western 


Africa, and is found also in Abyssinia; it is 
cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the 
world. The roots are of extraordinary length, 
a tree seventy-seven feet in girth having a tap¬ 
root one hundred ten feet in length. The leaves 
are deep green, divided into five unequal parts, 
lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common 
center. The flowers resemble the white poppy, 
having snowy petals and violet-colored stamens; 
the fruit, which is large and of an oblong shape, 
is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant 
acid flavor. The wood is pale-colored, light and 
soft. The tree is liable to be attacked by a 
fungus, which, vegetating in the woody part, 
renders it soft and pith-like. By the negroes 
of the west coast these trunks are hollowed into 
chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in 
them. There they become perfectly dry and 
well preserved, without further preparation or 
embalming. The baobab is emollient and muci¬ 
laginous; the pulverized leaves constitute lalo, 
which the natives mix with their daily food to 
diminish excessive perspiration, and which is 
even used by Europeans in fevers and diarrhoeas. 
The expressed juice of the fruit is used as a 
cooling drink in putrid fevers, and also as a 
seasoning for various foods. 

Barbary Ape. A terrestrial species of 
ape, or tailless monkey, of the size of a large cat, 
remarkable for docility. It is grouped with the 
macaques. In color it is light yellowish-brown 
below with the naked parts of the face flesh 
colored. It inhabits Morocco, Algeria, and the 
Rock of Gibraltar, being the only European 
monkey, though probably not indigenous. It 
has been the “showman’s ape” from time imme¬ 
morial. 

Barberry. A genus of shrubs, the com¬ 
mon barberry having bunches of small, beautiful 
red berries, somewhat oval; serrated and pointed 
leaves; thorns, three to seven together, upon the 
branches, and hanging clusters of yellow flowers. 
The berries nearly approach the tamarind in 
respect of acidity, and when boiled with sugar 
make an agreeable preserve, rob, or jelly. They 
are also used as a dry sweetmeat, and in sugar¬ 
plums or comfits; they are pickled with vinegar, 
and are used for the garnishing of dishes. The 
bark is said to have medicinal properties, and 
the inner bark and roots with alum yield a fine 
yellow dye. The shrub was originally a native 
of eastern countries, but is now generally dif¬ 
fused in Europe, as also in North America. In 
England it has been almost universally banished 
from hedgerows, from the belief that it causes 
rust on grain—a supposition supported by the 
fact that it carries on its leaves a yellow fungus, 
the “aecidium stage” of the common grain rust. 
Numerous other species belong to Asia and 
America. 

Bark. The exterior covering of the stems 
of exogenous plants. It is composed of cellular 
and vascular tissue, is separable from the wood, 
and is often regarded as consisting of four layers: 

(1) The epidermis or cuticle , which, however, 
is scarcely regarded as a part of the true bark; 

(2) the epiphlceum or outer brown corky cellular 
layer of the true bark or cortex; (3) the meso- 
phlceum or green middle layer, also cellular; 



732 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


(4) an inner vascular layer, the liber or endophlceum, 
commonly called bast. Endogenous plants have 
no true bark. Bark contains many valuable 
products, as gum, tannin, etc.; cork is a highly 
useful substance obtained from the epiphloeum; 
and the strength and flexibility of bast makes 
it of considerable value. Bark used for tanning 
is obtained from oak, hemlock, species of acacia 
growing in Australia, etc. Angostura bark, 
Peruvian or cinchona bark, cinnamon, casca- 
rilla, etc., are useful barks. 

Bark, Peruvian. The bark of various 
species of trees of the genus Cinchona, found in 
many parts of South America, but more particu¬ 
larly in Peru, and having medicinal properties. 
It was formerly called Jesuit's bark, from its 
having been introduced into Europe by Jesuits. 
Its medicinal properties depend upon the pres¬ 
ence of quinine , which is now extracted from the 
bark, imported, and prescribed in place of nau¬ 
seous mouthfuls of bark. 

Barley. One or more species of cereal plants 
yielding a grain used as food and also for making 
malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and 
whisky. Barley has been known and cultivated 
from remote antiquity, and beer was made from 
it among the Egyptians. Excellent barley is 
produced in Britain. The species principally 
cultivated are Hordeum distichon, two-rowed 
barley; Hordeum vulgare, four-rowed barley; and 
Hordeum hexastichon, six-rowed, of which the 
small variety is the sacred barley of the ancients. 
The varieties of the four and six-rowed species 
are generally coarser than those of the two- 
rowed and adapted for a poorer soil and more 
exposed situation. . Some of these are called 
6 ere or bigg. In Britain barley occupies about 
the same area as wheat, but in North America 
the extent of it as a crop is comparatively small, 
being in Canada, however, relatively greater 
than in the United States. Canadian barley is 
of very high quality. Barley is better adapted 
for cold climates than any other grain, and some 
of the coarser varieties are cultivated where no 
other cereal can be grown. Some species of the 
genus, three of which are natives of Britain, 
are mere grasses. Pot or Scotch barley is the 
grain deprived of the husk in a mill. Pearl 
barley is the grain polished and rounded and 
deprived of husk and pellicle. Patent barley 
is the farina obtained by grinding pearl barley. 
Barley water, a decoction of pearl barley, is 
used in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, 
and expectorant qualities. 

Barnacle. The name of a family of marine 
crustaceous animals always found attached to 
some object such as a ship’s bottom, piles, or 
floating timbers. They have a partially seg¬ 
mented body surrounded by a mantle which is 
generally calcified and forms more or less of a 
shell. They have no heart, gills, or other organs 
of respiration. They feed on small marine 
animals, brought within their reach by the 
water and secured by their tentacula. Some 
of the larger species are edible. According to an 
old fable, these animals produced barnacle geese. 

Barnacle Goose. A summer visitant of 
the northern seas, in size rather smaller than the 
common wild goose, and having the forehead 


and cheeks white, the upper body, bill, and 
neck black. A fable asserts that the crusta¬ 
ceans called barnacles (see preceding article) 
changed into geese, and various theories have 
been framed to account for its origin. Max 
Muller supposes the geese were originally called 
Hiberniculce or Irish geese, and that barnacle 
is a corruption of this; but the resemblance of a 
barnacle to a goose hanging by the head may 
account for it. The Brent goose is also some¬ 
times called the Barnacle goose, but the two 
should be discriminated. 

Basalt. A well-known igneous rock occur¬ 
ring in the ancient trap and the recent volcanic 
series of rocks, but most abundantly in the 
former. It is a fine-grained, heavy crystalline 
rock, consisting of felspar, augite, and magnetic 
iron, and sometimes contains a little olivine. 
Basalt is amorphous, columnar, tabular, or glob¬ 
ular. The columnar form is straight or curved, 
perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly hori¬ 
zontal; the diameter of the columns from three 
to eighteen inches, sometimes with transverse 
semispherical joints, in which the convex part 
of one is inserted in the concavity of another; 
and the height from five feet to one hundred 
fifty. The forms of the columns generally are 
pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal. When 
decomposed it is found also in round masses, 
either spherical or compressed and lenticular. 
These rounded masses are sometimes composed 
of concentric layers, with a nucleus, and some¬ 
times of prisms radiating from a center. Fingal’s 
Cave, in the island of Staffa, furnishes a remark¬ 
able instance of basaltic columns. The pillars 
of the Giant’s Causeway, Ireland, composed of 
this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for 
ages, have their angles as perfect as those at a 
distance from the waves. Basalt often assumes 
curious and fantastic forms, as for example, 
those masses popularly known as ‘ ‘Sampson’s 
Ribs” at Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh, and “Lot” 
and “Lot’s Wife” near the southern coast of 
St. Helena. 

Bass. The name of a number of fishes of 
several genera, but originally belonging to the 
perch family, and found in both salt and fresh 
waters. Morone labrax, a typical European 
species, called also sea dace and, from its vorac¬ 
ity, sea wolf, resembles somewhat the salmon 
in shape; it is much esteemed for the table, 
weighing about fifteen pounds. Morone lineata, 
or striped bass, an American species, weighing 
from thirty to ninety pounds, is much used for 
food ? and is also known as rockfish. Both 
species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts 
have been made to cultivate British bass in 
fresh-water ponds with success. Two species 
of black bass, American fresh-water fishes, are 
excellent as food and give fine sport to the angler. 
One of these is called the large-mouthed black 
bass, from the size of its mouth, the other the 
small-mouthed bass. Both make nests and take 
great care of their eggs and yoimg. The great 
Jewfish or black sea bass of the California-coast 
is one of the largest of the spiny-finned fishes. 
Specimens weighing over four hundred pounds 
have been caught at Santa Catalina, California, 
with rod and lme. 




NATURAL HISTORY 


733 


Bat* One of the group of wing-handed, 
flying mammals, having the fore limb peculiarly 
modified so as to serve for flight, and constitut¬ 
ing the order Chiroptera. Bats are animals of 
the twilight and darkness, and are common in 
temperate and warm regions, but are most 
numerous and largest in the tropics. The family 
Vespertilionidce includes most of the common, 
small, naked-faced bats found in Europe and 
America. A common species found in the 
United States is the little red bat, Lasiurus 
borealis, which may be seen flitting about in the 
streets and among the trees at twilight. During 
the day it remains in caverns, in the crevices 
of ruins, hollow trees, and such-like lurking 
places, and flits out at evening in search of food, 
which consists of insects. Many bats are 
remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous 
appendage, bearing in some cases a fancied 
resemblance to a horseshoe. Two of these 
horseshoe bats occur in Britain. Bats may be 
conveniently divided into two sections: the 
insectivorous or carnivorous, comprising most 
of the European, African, and American species; 
and the fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia 
and Australia, with several African forms. An 
Australian fruit-eating bat, commonly known 
as the kalong or flying fox, is the largest of all 
the bats, some specimens measuring forty inches 
from wing tip to wing tip; it does much mischief 
in orchards. At least five species of South 
American bats are known to suck the blood of 
other mammals, and thence are called “vampire- 
bats” (though this name has also been given to 
a species not guilty of this habit). The best 
known is the javelin bat of the Amazon region. 
As winter approaches in cold climates bats seek 
shelter in caverns, vaults, ruinous and deserted 
buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling 
together in large clusters, hanging head down¬ 
ward by the feet, and remain in a torpid condi¬ 
tion until the returning spring recalls them to 
active exertions. Bats bring forth one or two 
young, which, while suckling, remain closely 
attached to the mother’s teats, which are two, 
situated upon the chest. The parent shows a 
strong degree of attachment for her offspring, 
and, when they are captured, will follow them, 
and even submit to captivity herself rather than 
forsake her charge. 

Batrachia. See Anura. 

Bean. A name given to several kinds of 
leguminous seeds and the plants producing them, 
robably originally belonging to Asia. They 
elong to several genera, particularly to Vida, 
garden and field bean; Phaseolus, French or 
kidney bean; and Dolichos, Egyptian or black 
bean. The common bean of England, Vida 
vulgaris, is cultivated both in fields and gardens 
as food for man and beast. There are many 
varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the 
long-pod, etc., in gardens, and the horse or tick 
bean in fields. The seed of the Windsor is 
fully an inch in diameter; the horse bean is much 
less, often not much more than half an inch in 
length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. 
Beans are very nutritious, the dry seeds con¬ 
taining 59.6 per cent, of carbohydrates, and 
22.5 per cent, of nitrogenous matter called 


legumin, analogous to the casein in cheese. The 
bean is an annual, from two to four feet high. 
The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The 
kidney bean, French bean, or haricot, is the 
Phaseolus vulgaris, a well-known culinary vege¬ 
table. There are two principal varieties, annual 
dwarfs and runners. The beans cultivated in 
America and largely used as articles of food 
belong to the genus Phaseolus . The scarlet- 
runner bean ( Phaseolus multiflorus), a native of 
Mexico, is cultivated on account of its long, 
rough pods and its scarlet flowers. St. Ignatius’ 
bean is not really a bean, but the seed of a large 
climbing shrub, of the order Loganiacece, nearly 
allied to the species of Strychnos which produces 
nux vomica. 

Bear. The name of several large planti¬ 
grade carnivorous mammals of the family 
TJrsidce. The teeth are forty-two in number, 
as in the dog, but there is no carnassial or sec¬ 
torial tooth, and the molars have a more tuber¬ 
cular character than in other carnivora. The 
head is broad and massive, the nose prominent 
and mobile, and the tail very short. In tem¬ 
perate regions bears are unable to procure food 
in winter, and therefore hibernate or pass that 
season in a dormant condition. The European 
brown bear is a native of almost all the northern 
parts of Europe and Asia, and was at one time 
common in the British islands. It feeds on 
fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of need, 
on mammals. It sometimes reaches the length 
of seven feet, the largest specimens being found 
farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. In 
North America seventeen species of bear are 
known. The American black bear is the Ursus 
americanus, with black shining hair, and rarely 
above five feet in length. It is a great climber, 
is less dangerous than the brown bear, and is 
hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very amusing 
in captivity. The grizzly bear ( Ursus horribilis) 
is an inhabitant of the Rocky mountains; it is 
a ferocious animal, sometimes nine feet in length, 
and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is 
nevertheless capable of great rapidity of motion. 
The extinct cave bear of ancient Europe ( Ursus 
spelceus) seems to have been closely akin to the 
grizzly. The polar or white bear ( Thalarctos 
maritimus ) is characterized by its flat head and 
comparatively long neck. It inhabits the shores 
and ice packs of the Arctic ocean. See Polar 
Bear. 

Beaver. A quadruped of the order Roden- 
tia, or gnawers, the only species of its genus. It 
is very widely distributed, being found in the 
northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, 
nowadays most abundantly in the northern and 
thinly peopled parts of North America, dwelling 
in communities on the banks of rivers and ponds 
in forested regions. At one time immense num¬ 
bers of these animals were killed for their fur, 
which was largely used in making hats, but 
in more recent times they have suffered less 
ersecution on this account, their fur now not 
eing held in high estimation. The beaver is 
about two feet in length from the nose to the 
root of the tail; its body is thick and heavy, 
large specimens weighing over forty pounds; the 
head compressed, and somewhat arched at the 





734 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


front, the upper part rather narrow; the snout 
obtuse. The eyes are placed rather high in the 
head, and the pupils are rounded; the ears are 
short, elliptical, and almost concealed by the 
fur. The skin is covered by two sorts of hair, 
of which one is long, rather stiff, elastic, and of 
a gray color for two-thirds of its length next the 
base, and terminated by shining, reddish-brown 
points; the other is short, thick, tufted, and 
soft, being of different shades of silver-gray or 
light lead color. The hair is shortest on the 
head and feet. The hind legs are longer than 
the fore, and are completely webbed. The tail 
is ten or eleven inches long, flattened horizon¬ 
tally, and, except the part nearest the body, is 
covered with hexagonal scales. 

Bee. A well-known family of insects, be¬ 
longing to the order Hymenoptera, an order 
which also includes the wasps, ants, and gall¬ 
flies. This family includes several genera of 
solitary bees among which are the mining bees 
that make their nests in the ground and car¬ 
penter bees that bore tunnels in the pith of 
plants or in solid wood. The social bees include 
our native bumblebees and the domestic honey 
bee which was originally a European species. 
The queen bumblebee lays her eggs on a little 
ball of pollen which she has deposited in a 
deserted mouse nest. From these eggs the 
young bees hatch and form a colony. In the 
autumn all the bees except the young queens 
perish. These pass the winter in some sheltered 
spot and found new colonies in the following 
spring. The honey bees produce the honey of 
commerce. During the greater part of the 
year the population of our hives is composed 
exclusively of two sorts of individuals, namely, 
the female or mother bee, called also the queen 
bee, and the workers, which are, properly speak¬ 
ing, females imperfectly developed. A third 
kind of individuals, the males, called also drones, 
are generally not met with except from May to 
July. The working bees constitute essentially 
the bee community; they are recognized by 
their small size, dull black color, and, above 
all, by the palettes and brushes with which the 
hind legs are furnished. The three pairs of legs, 
which are inserted in the thorax, or chest, of 
the bee, are its tools. The two hind legs are 
longer than the other pairs, and present on the 
exterior a triangular depression, resembling a 
palette, which is surrounded by stiff hairs, form¬ 
ing the borders of a sort of basket in which the 
insect deposits the pollen of flowers. To each 
of these hind legs is jointed a square expanded 
piece, which might be termed the ankle, smooth 
on the exterior, but having hairs on its interior 
surface, which has caused it to be named the 
brush, and which is employed in collecting the 
pollen. The lower lip of the worker is elongated 
into a highly specialized organ for procuring 
nectar from deep flowers. From this organ the 
nectar passes to the honey stomach of the bee 
when it is changed into honey and then regur¬ 
gitated into the honey cells of the comb. The 
males, or drones, are broader and blunter than 
the working bees; they emit a buzzing sound, 
have no palettes, and no sting. The female, 
or queen, has a longer body than the workers, 


and the wings are shorter in proportion. The 
only part she has to play is that of laying eggs, 
and so she has no palettes or brushes. Only 
one queen lives in each hive, of which she is 
perfect sovereign, all the workers submissively 
obeying her. The number of males is scarcely 
one-tenth that of the working bees, and they 
live only about three months. The wax of 
which the cells of the honeycomb are constructed 
is secreted in little pockets situated in the 
abdomen, or belly, of the bee; but, in addition 
to wax, another substance, much resembling 
it, but not identical, called propolis, is elaborated 
from the resin which the bees collect from the 
buds of poplar and other trees, and use to cement 
crevices in the hive. Bee bread is made from 
the pollen of flowers and is brought in on the 
legs of the bees. The cells of the comb are 
hexagonal in shape, that is, having six equal 
sides—the most economical form as regards 
space—and are of two kinds, namely, store- 
cells, which are filled with honey, as a reserve 
store of food, and cradle-cells, in which the eggs 
are deposited. At a certain time of the year 
the queen leaves the hive, accompanied by the 
drones, and takes what is called her “nuptial 
flight” through the air. About forty-eight 
hours after her return to the hive she begins 
laying her eggs, at the rate of about two to four 
thousand a day. The eggs which are destined 
to develop into workers are first laid, then those 
which are to produce males. The eggs are not 
long in being hatched, and the larvae, or cater¬ 
pillars, which emerge from them are tended 
and fed by the workers. In five or six days the 
larvae pass into the condition of pupa, or chrys¬ 
alis, and in about seven or eight days after this 
the perfect insect is hatched. When a queen 
is desired, the workers break away the partitions 
between three neighboring cells containing 
worker eggs, and destroy two of the eggs. The 
larva which hatches from the remaining egg 
is fed upon a special food known as “royal 
jelly,” and eventually becomes a queen. 

Beet. A genus of biennial, fleshy-rooted 
plants of the natural family Chenopodiacece. 
About fifteen species of this genus are known, 
only one of which, Beta vulgaris , has much 
economic importance. This, the common beet 
of the garden, includes all the fleshy-rooted 
varieties, such as red beet (with a fleshy large 
carrot-shaped root), yellow beet, sugar beet, 
mangel-wurzel, etc. The beet requires a rich 
light soil, and being a native of the Mediter¬ 
ranean region is impatient of severe cold, requir¬ 
ing to be taken up in the beginning of winter 
and packed in dry sand, or in pits like potatoes, 
the succulent leaves having been first removed. 
Red beet is principally used at table, but if 
eaten in great quantity is said to be injurious. 
The beet may be taken out of the ground for 
use about the end of August, but it does not 
attain its full size and perfection until the month 
of October. A good beer may be brewed from 
the beet, and it yields a spirit of good quality. 
From the white beet the French, during the 
wars with Napoleon I., succeeded in preparing 
sugar. Since that time, with the increase of 
chemical and technical knowledge, the making 



NATURAL HISTORY 


735 


of beet sugar has become an important industry- 
in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Belgium, 
Holland, and some parts of the United States. 
A variety of Beta vulgaris known as Swiss Chard 
is grown as a leaf vegetable. The whole leaf 
is eaten for “greens” like spinach, or the petiole 
and broad fleshy midrib is cooked and eaten 
like asparagus. 

Beetle. An insect of the order Coleoptera 
characterized by having a pair of horny wing 
covers called elytra which meet in a straight 
line on the back. Beneath the covers is a single 
pair of membraneous wings, the tips of which 
are often folded transversely. The mouth parts 
are formed for biting. The beetles form a 
numerous. group, more than eleven thousand 
species being known in North America, exclusive 
of Mexico and Central America. 

Begonia. An extensive genus of succulent¬ 
stemmed herbaceous plants, order Begoniacecz, 
with fleshy oblique leaves of various colors, and 
showy monoecious flowers, the whole perianth 
colored. They readily hybridize, and many fine 
varieties have been raised from the tuberous- 
rooted kinds. From the shape of their leaves 
they have been called elephant’s ear. Almost 
all the plants of the order are tropical, and they 
have mostly pink or red flowers. 

Belladonna. A European plant ( Atropa 
belladonna), or deadly nightshade. It is a 
native of Britain. All parts of the plant are 
oisonous, and the incautious eating of the 
erries has often produced death. The inspis¬ 
sated juice is commonly known as the extract 
of belladonna. It is narcotic and poisonous, but 
is of great value in medicine, especially in ner¬ 
vous ailments. It has the property of causing 
the pupil of the eye to dilate. The fruit of 
the plant is a dark brownish-black shining berry. 
The name signifies “beautiful lady,” and is said 
to have been given from the use of the plant 
as a cosmetic. 

Betel. ( Betle ). A species of pepper, Cha- 
vica betel, a creeping or climbing plant of the 
East Indies, native order Piperacece. The 
leaves are employed to inclose a piece of the 
areca or betel nut and a little lime into a pellet, 
which is extensively chewed in the East. The 
pellet is hot and acrid, but has aromatic and 
astringent properties. It tinges the saliva, gums, 
and lips a brick red, and blackens the teeth. 
The word betel is also applied to other species 
of Chavica which are used for the same purpose. 

Bighorn. See Sheep. 

Birch. ( Betula ). A genus of trees, order 
Betulacece, comprising only the birches and 
alders, which inhabit Europe, northern Asia, 
and North America. The common birch is 
indigenous throughout the north, and on high 
situations in the south of Europe. It is extremely 
hardy, and only one or two other species of trees 
approach so near to the north pole. Betula alba 
is a European variety, the oil of which is used 
in dressing Russia leather and imparts a pleasant 
odor to it. The wood of the birch, which is 
light in color, and firm and tough in texture, 
is used for chairs, tables, bedsteads, and the 
woodwork of furniture generally, also for fish 
cases and hoops, and for smoking hams and 


herrings, as well as for many small articles. In 
France wooden shoes are made of it. The bark 
is whitish, yellowish, or brown in color, smooth 
and shining, separable in thin sheets or layers. 
Fishing nets and sails are steeped with it to 
preserve them. In some countries it is made 
into hats, shoes, boxes, etc. In Lapland bread 
has been made from it. The dwaif birch, Betula 
nana, a low shrub, two or three feet high at most, 
is a native of all the most northerly regions. 
Betula lenta, the cherry birch of America, and 
the black birch, Betula nigra, of the same country, 
produce valuable timber, as do other American 
species. The largest of these is the yellow birch, 
Betula lutea, which attains the height of eighty 
feet. It is named from its bark being of a rich 
yellow color. The paper birch of America, 
Betula papyracea, has a bark that may be readily 
divided into thin sheets almost like paper. 
From it the Indian bark canoes are made. 

Bird of Paradise. The name for mem¬ 
bers of a family of birds ( Paradiseidce ) of splen¬ 
did plumage, allied to the crows, inhabiting New 
Guinea and the adjacent islands. The family 
includes eleven or twelve genera and a number 
of species, some of them remarkably beautiful. 
The largest species, Paradisea apoda, has thick¬ 
set feathers like velvet pile, straw colored above 
and emerald green below. From under the 
shoulders spring tufts of orange plumes about 
two feet in length which the bird can elevate 
over the back at will. In the tail of most species 
are two narrow wire-like feathers sometimes 
elongated to the length of thirty inches. The 
feathers of the Paradisea apoda and Paradisea 
minor are those chiefly worn in plumes. These 
splendid ornaments are confined to the male 
bird. 

Birds. A class of animals comprising all 
oviparous vertebrates which are clothed with 
feathers, furnished with a bill, and organized 
for flight. They have warm blood, and a com¬ 
plete double circulation. They are all bipeds; 
the body is inclined before their feet, the thighs 
are directed forward, and the toes elongated, 
forming a broad supporting base. The head 
and the neck are more or less prolonged, the 
latter very flexible, and generally containing 
twelve or more vertebrae. At present birds 
are divided into nineteen orders, only a few of 
which can be considered here. In the first 
order the foot has three toes before and one 
behind, all armed with long, strong, crooked, 
and more or less retractile talons, adapted to 
seize and lacerate living prey (except in vul¬ 
tures) . This structure is associated with a strong, 
curved, sharp-edged and sharp-pointed beak, 
often armed with a lateral tooth; a very muscular 
body, and capability of rapid and long-continued 
flight. This order is termed Raptores. The 
second type of foot presents three toes before 
and one behind, and placed on the same level; 
slender, flexible, of moderate length, and pro¬ 
vided with long, pointed, and slightly curved 
claws. A foot so constructed is especially 
adapted for the delicate operations of nest 
building, and for grasping and perching among 
the slender branches of trees; hence the order 
so characterized has been termed Insessores, 



736 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


and, from including the smaller tribes of birds, 
Passeres. In the third type of foot the hinder 
toe is raised above the level of the three anterior 
ones; this lessens the power of perching. The 
other toes are strong, straight, and terminated 
by robust obtuse claws, adapted for scratching 
up the soil, and for running along the ground; 
the legs are for this purpose very strong and 
muscular. In this group are found the Gallince 
or scratching fowls like the hen and the grouse, 
and the Columbce or pigeons. The modification 
by which birds are enabled to wade and seek 
their food in water along the margins of rivers, 
lakes, and estuaries is gained simply by elongat¬ 
ing the bones of the leg (tibia and metatarsus) 
which are covered with a naked scaly skin. The 
three anterior toes are very long and slender, 
with the fourth toe either on a level with the 
others or raised slightly with them. This group 
includes the Paludicoloe, the cranes and rails; 
the Herodiones or herons; and the Limicolce or 
shore birds. Swimming birds or Natatores com¬ 
prise several groups generally with webbed or 
flattened toes. These birds have the body pro¬ 
tected by a dense covering of feathers, and a 
thick down next to the skin. The whole organi¬ 
zation is especially adapted for aquatic fife. 

Bison. The name applied to two species of 
ruminants closely related to the true ox. One 
of these, the European bison, Bison europoeus, 
is now found only in the forests of southern 
Russia and the Caucasus. The other, or Ameri¬ 
can bison, improperly termed buffalo ( Bison 
americanus) is now nearly extinct. In 1903 a 
herd of about six hundred inhabited the region 
southwest of Great Slave lake, and there were 
also thirty-four wild specimens in the Yellow¬ 
stone park. In addition to these, about eleven 
hundred individuals were held in captivity in 
zoological collections in Europe, Canada, and 
the United States. These are all that are left 
of the millions which, as late as 1870, roamed 
the region between the Mississippi river and the 
Rocky mountains. The two species closely 
resemble each other, the American bison, how¬ 
ever, being for the most part smaller, and with 
shorter and weaker hind quarters. The bison 
is remarkable for the great hump or projection 
over its fore shoulders, at which point the adult 
male is almost six feet in height, and for the long, 
shaggy, rust colored hair over the head, neck, 
and fore part of the body. In summer, from 
the shoulders backwards, the surface is covered 
with a very short fine hair, smooth and soft as 
velvet. The tail is short and tufted at the end. 
The flesh of the American bison can not be dis¬ 
tinguished from beef, either in appearance or 
flavor. The American bison has been found to 
breed readily with common cattle, but the strain 
of buffalo blood thus introduced has not been 
permanent where the experiment has been made. 

Bittern. The name of several wading birds, 
family Ardeidoe or herons, genus Botaurus. There 
are two British species, the common bittern, 
Botaurus stellaris, and the little bittern, Botaurus 
minutus, a native of the South, and only a sum¬ 
mer visitor to Britain. Both, however, are 
becoming rare from the reclamation of the 
marshy grounds that form their favorite haunt. 


The American bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus , is 
about twenty-six inches in length, about forty- 
five in expanse of wing; general color, yellowish- 
brown, with spots and bars of black or dark 
brown; feathers on the breast long and loose; 
tail short; bill about three inches long. It is 
remarkable for its curious booming or bellowing 
cry, from which come the provincial names of 
“stake-driver” and “thunder-pumper.” The eggs, 
greenish-brown in color, are four or five in num¬ 
ber. The little bittern, Ardetta exilis, is about 
a foot in length and more highly colored than 
its larger relative. 

Blackbird ( Turdus merula), called also the 
merle, a well-known species of thrush, com¬ 
mon in Britain and throughout Europe. It is 
larger than the common thrush, its length being 
about eleven inches. The color of the male 
is a uniform deep black, the bill being an orange 
ellow; the female is of a brown color, with 
lackish-brown bill. The American blackbirds 
belong to the family Icteridce and include several 
well-known species. The largest of these is the 
grackle or crow blackbird, a purple-black, or 
bronze-black colored bird a little larger than a 
robin. It nests by preference in evergreen trees, 
or in cities on lofty buildings. The red-winged 
blackbird is smaller than the grackle and has a 
tuft of scarlet and white feathers on each shoulder. 
It frequents marshes, nesting on low bushes or 
in tufts of high grass. The cowbird or cow 
blackbird is about the size of the redwing. 
It is deep black with a brown head and neck. 
It associates with cattle which, in grazing, stir up 
insects upon which the bird feeds. It lays its eggs 
in the nests of other birds who hatch and rear 
its young, often to the detriment of their own. 

Bloodhound. A variety of hound or 
hunting dog with long, smooth, pendulous ears, 
remarkable for its keenness of scent which has 
been developed by long and careful breeding. 
Through this abnormally developed sense it is 
able to follow the track of a man or other animal, 
even though the trace is old, obscure, or partly 
effaced by the tracks of other creatures. Blood¬ 
hounds were formerly used in southern United 
States to track fugitive slaves, and are still used 
by police authorities to trace fugitives and miss¬ 
ing people. 

Bluebird. A small bird of the thrush family 
Sialia sialis, very common in the United States. 
The upper part of the body is blue, and the 
throat and breast of a dirty red. It makes its 
nest in the hole of a tree or in the box that is so 
commonly provided for its use by the friendly 
farmer. The bluebird is the harbinger of spring 
to the Americans; its song is cheerful, continuing 
with little interruption from March to October, 
but is most frequently heard in the serene days 
of the spring. It is also called blue robin or 
blue redbreast, and is regarded with the same 
sort of sentiments as the robin of Europe. 

Bluefish ( Pomatomus saltatrix). A fish 
common on the eastern coasts of America, 
allied to the mackerel, but larger, specimens 
often reaching a weight of ten to fifteen pounds, 
and much esteemed for the table. It is very 
destructive to other fishes. It is also called 
horse mackerel, greenfish, skip-jack, etc. 





NATURAL HISTORY 


737 


Boa. A non-venomous snake of the family 
Boidce, which also includes pythons and ana¬ 
condas. The boa constrictor of South America 
is a typical individual of this group. A full- 
grown specimen is about twelve feet long. It 
has a prehensile tail by which it suspends itself, 
head downward, from a tree while waiting for 
its prey. It feeds mostly upon birds and small 
mammals. When one of these comes within 
reach, the boa seizes it with its jaws by a quick 
darting movement of the head, and instantly 
throws about its victim a fold of the upper part 
of the body, enveloping and crushing it. After 
the prey is dead, the boa coats it with saliva 
and swallows it, a process which sometimes 
takes several hours. While digestion is going 
on, a process which may require one or more 
weeks, the snake is sluggish and torpid. Boas 
are reputed to have swallowed deer, young 
cattle, and even horses, but such stories lack 
verification. By reason of the structure and 
loose articulation of the jaws, common to other 
snakes, the boa is able to swallow creatures 
larger than its own head, but it is extremely 
unlikely that it could swallow a horned mammal 
or a man. 

Boneset, or Thoroughwort. (Eupa- 
torium perfoliatum) . A useful perennial plant, 
indigenous to America, and easily recognized by 
its tall stem, four or five feet in height, passing 
through the middle of a large double hairy leaf, 
and surmounted by a broad, flat corymb of 
white flowers. It is much used as a domestic 
medicine in the form for an infusion, having 
tonic and diaphoretic properties. 

Bony Pike, or Garfish. A remarkable 
order of fishes inhabiting North American lakes 
and rivers, and one of the few living forms that 
now represent the order of ganoid fishes so 
largely developed in previous geological epochs. 
The body is covered with diagonal whorls of 
smooth enameled scales, so hard that it is 
impossible to pierce them with a spear. The 
common long-nosed garfish attains the length 
of five feet, and is easily distinguished by the 
great length of its jaws. The short-nosed gar¬ 
fish resembles the common garfish, but has 
shorter jaws. The alligator gar of southern 
United States attains a length of six feet and 
has a head resembling an alligator. 

Borax. Biborate of sodium. Native borax 
has long been obtained under the name of tincal, 
from India, the main source being not India 
but a series of lakes in Tibet. As imported it 
is in small pieces of a dirty yellowish color, and 
is covered with a fatty or soapy matter. It is 
purified by washing with a solution of caustic 
soda, dissolving in water, washing again with 
the caustic, evaporating and crystallizing the 
residue. Tincal, which contains various impuri¬ 
ties, was formerly the chief source of borax; but 
other sources of borax are now more available 
in America. North America yields large quan¬ 
tities,. there being rich deposits of borax and 
boracic minerals at Clear Lake and other locali¬ 
ties on the Pacific slope. Pure borax forms 
large, transparent, six-sided prisms, which dis¬ 
solve readily in water, effloresce in dry air, and 
when heated melt in their water of crystalliza¬ 


tion, swell up, and finally fuse to a transparent 
glass. Borax has a variety of uses. 

Bower Bird. A name given to certain 
Australian birds, members of the bird of paradise 
family, from a remarkable habit they have of 
building bowers to serve as places of resort. 
The bowers are constructed on the ground, vand 
usually under overhanging branches in the most 
retired parts of the forest. They are decorated 
with variegated feathers, shells, small pebbles, 
bones, etc. At each end there is an entrance 
left open. These bowers do not serve as nests 
at all, but seem to be places of amusement and 
resort, especially during the breeding season. 
The Satin bower bird is so called from its beau¬ 
tiful glossy plumage, which is of a black color. 
Another common species is the Spotted bower 
bird, which has pink collar-like markings on the 
necks of the males, and is the most lavish of all 
in decorating its bowers. 

Box Tree. A shrubby evergreen tree, twelve 
or fifteen feet high, order Euphorbiacece, a native 
of England, southern Europe, and parts of Asia, 
With small oval and opposite leaves, and green¬ 
ish, inconspicuous flowers, male and female on 
the same tree. It was formerly so common in 
England as to have given its name to several 
places—Boxhill, in Surrey, for instance, and 
Boxley, in Kent. The wood is of a yellowish 
color, close grained, very hard and heavy, and 
admits of a beautiful polish. On these accounts 
it is much used by turners, wood carvers, en¬ 
gravers on wood (no wood surpassing it in this 
respect), and mathematical-instrument makers. 
Flutes and other wind instruments are formed 
of it. The box of commerce comes mostly from 
the regions adjoining the Black sea and Caspian, 
and from Spain and Portugal. Boxwood is 
also obtained from Minorca, but it is of inferior 
quality. In gardens and shrubberies box trees 
may often be seen clipped into various formal 
shapes. There is also a dwarf variety reared 
as an edging for garden walks and the 
like. 

Bramble. The name commonly applied in 
science to the genus Rubus of the order Rosacece 
and including the blackberries, raspberries, mul¬ 
berries, and dewberries. In England and Scot¬ 
land the word is used to designate the native 
blackberry, Rubus fruticosus, which is there a 
wild plant of little economic importance. The 
fruit of this species ripens in the autumn. 

Brazilwood. A kind of wood yielding a 
red dye, obtained from several trees of the genus 
Ccesalpinia, natives of the West Indies and 
South America. The best kind is Ccesalpinia 
echinata ; other varieties are Ccesalpinia bra- 
siliensis, Ccesalpinia crista, and Ccesalpinia 
sappan —the last being a native of the East 
Indies. The wood is hard and heavy, and as it 
takes on a fine-polish it is used by cabinet makers 
for various purposes, but its principle use is in 
dyeing red. The heart wood is used for this 
purpose. The dye is obtained by reducing the 
wood to powder and boiling it in either alcohol 
or water, when the fluid receives the red coloring 
principle, which is a crystallizable substance 
called brazilin. The color is not permanent 
unless fixed by suitable mordants. 



738 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Breadfruit. A large globular fruit, about I 
the size of a child’s head, marked on the surface 
with irregular six-sided depressions, and con¬ 
taining a white and somewhat fibrous pulp. 
When ripe the fruit becomes juicy and yellow. 
The tree that produces it grows wild in Otaheite 
and other islands of the South Seas, whence it 
was introduced into the West Indies and South 
America. It is about forty feet high, with 
spreading branches growing from the top of a 
slender stem, and large, bright green leaves 
deeply divided into seven or nine spear-shaped 
lobes. The fruit is generally eaten immedi¬ 
ately after being gathered, but is also often 

repared so as to keep for some time either by 

aking it whole in close underground pits or by 
beating it into paste and storing it underground, 
when a slight fermentation takes place. The 
eatable part lies between the skin and the core, 
and is somewhat of the consistency of new bread. 
Mixed with cocoanut milk it makes an excellent 
pudding. The inner bark of the tree is made 
into a kind of cloth. The wood is used for the 
building of boats and furniture. The Jack , 
much used in India and Ceylon, is another 
member of this genus. 

Bread nuts. The seeds of the Brosimum 
alicastrum, a tree of the same order as the 
breadfruit. The breadnut tree is a native of 
Jamaica. Its wood, which resembles mahogany, 
is useful to cabinet makers, and its nuts make a 
pleasant food, in taste not unlike hazelnuts. 

Brussels Sprouts. One of the cultivated 
varieties of cabbage, having an elongated stem 
two to five feet high, with small, clustering, 
green heads like miniature cabbages. They are 
cultivated in great quantities near Brussels, as 
well as in other parts of the world. 

Buckwheat, or Brank. A plant with 
branched herbaceous stem, somewhat arrow- 
shaped leaves, and purplish-white flowers, grow¬ 
ing to the height of about thirty inches, and 
bearing a small triangular grain of a brownish- 
black without and white within. The shape of 
its seeds gives it its German name Buchweizen 
“beech wheat”, whence the English name. The 
plant is said to have been first brought to Europe 
from Asia by the crusaders, and hence in France 
is often called Saracen com. It grows on the 
poorest soils. It is cultivated in China and 
other eastern countries as a bread corn. In 
Europe buckwheat has been principally cultivated 
as food for oxen, swine, and poultry; but in 
Germany it serves as an ingredient in pottage, 
puddings, and other food, and in America buck¬ 
wheat cakes are common. 

Buffalo. See Bison. 

Bulldog. A variety of the common dog, 
remarkable for its short, broad muzzle, and the 
projection of its lower jaw, which causes the 
lower front teeth to protrude beyond the upper. 
The head is massive and broad; the lips are 
thick and pendulous; the ears pendent at the 
extremity; the neck robust and short; the body 
long and stout; the shoulders wide, and the legs 
short and thick. The bulldog is a slow-motioned 
courageous animal, better suited for savage com¬ 
bat than for any purpose requiring activity and 
intelligence. For this reason it is often em¬ 


ployed as a watchdog. It was formerly used— 
as its name implies—for the barbarous sport of 
bull baiting. The bull terrier was originally 
from a cross between the bulldog and the terrier. 
It is smaller than the bulldog, lively, docile, and 
very courageous. 

Bullfrog. The largest species of frog found 
in North America, seven to eight inches long, 
of a greenish-brown color, usually spotted with 
black. These frogs five in stagnant water, and 
utter a low croaking sound resembling the low¬ 
ing of cattle, whence the name. 

Bullhead. The popular name of certain 
fishes of the families Siluridce and Cottidce. In 
America this name is given to certain members 
of the catfish order, particularly to the “bull- 
pout”, Amiurus nebidosus. They live by prefer¬ 
ence in still, muddy water, feed on worms, 
crustaceans, and insects, and are easily taken 
with a hook. The flesh is palatable and remark¬ 
ably free from bones. 

Bustard. *4. bird of the old world belong¬ 
ing to the family Otidce, a group intermediate 
between plovers and cranes. The great bustard 
is the largest European bird, the male often 
weighing thirty pounds, with a breadth of wing 
of six or seven feet. The bustard is now extinct 
in Britain, but abounds in the south and east 
of Europe and the steppes of Russia, feeding on 
green corn and other vegetables, and on earth¬ 
worms. Its flesh is esteemed for food. All the 
species run fast, and take flight with difficulty. 
The little bustard occasionally visits Britain. 
The Australian species is a magnificent bird 
highly prized as food. 

Butterfly. The butterflies belong to the 
order Lepidoptera or scaly-winged insects. The 
antennae terminate in club-shaped knobs. They 
fly only by day, and when at rest they hold their 
wings erect above the back. One of the most 
remarkable and interesting circumstances con¬ 
nected with these beautiful insects is their series 
of transformations before reaching a perfect 
state. The female butterfly lays a great quan¬ 
tity of eggs, which produce larvae, commonly 
called caterpillars. After a short life these 
assume a new form, and become chrysalids or 
pupae. These chrysalids are attached to other 
objects in various ways, and are of various 
forms; they often have brilliant golden or argen¬ 
tine spots. Within its covering the insect 
develops, to emerge as the active and brilliant 
butterfly. These insects in their perfect form 
suck the nectar of plants, but take little food, 
and are all believed to be short lived, their work 
in the perfect state being almost entirely con¬ 
fined to the propagation of the species. 

Buzzard. Properly large raptorial birds of 
the genus Buteo, including both American and 
European species. In America Buteo borealis, 
the red tailed hawk, is the largest, reaching a 
length of twenty to, twenty-three inches, and 
measuring nearly four feet from tip to tip of 
wing. The red shouldered hawk, Buteo linearis, 
is nearly as large and has similar habits. Both 
are called “hen hawks”. Buteo latissimus is 
another species found in the Adirondack moun¬ 
tains. The food of hawks consists chiefly of 
frogs, toads, mice, and other small mammals 





NATURAL HISTORY 


739 


and insects. Hawks also invade the poultry 
yard, and for that reason are considered harm¬ 
ful; but on the whole they are more beneficial 
than harmful. For Turkey Buzzard, see 
Turkey Vulture. 

Cabbage. The popular name of various 
species of cruciferous plants of the genus Bras - 
sica, and especially applied to the plain-leaved, 
heading, garden varieties of Brassica oleracea, 
cultivated for food. The wild cabbage is a 
native of the coasts of Britain, but is also com¬ 
mon on other European shores. The kinds 
most cultivated are the common smooth-leaved 
cabbage, of which there are green and red vari¬ 
eties and the wrinkled-leaved or Savoy. The 
common cabbage forms its leaves into heads or 
bolls, the inner leaves being blanched. The tree 
or cow cabbage is grown for cattle, branching 
and growing when in flower to the height of ten 
feet. The garden sorts form valuable culinary 
vegetables, and are used at table in various ways. 

Cabbage Rose. A species of rose ( Rosa 
centifolia) oi many varieties, supposed to have 
been cultivated from ancient times, and from 
its fragrance eminently fitted for the manufac¬ 
ture of rosewater and attar. It has a large, 
rounded, and compact flower. Called also Pro¬ 
vens rose. 

Cacao, or Cocoa. The seeds of a plant 
known as Theobroma cacao (or “Food of the 
Gods,” as Linnaeus named the tree), a native 
of the West Indies and of tropical America, and 
cultivated in Asia and Africa. It is a small 
tree, seldom more than sixteen or eighteen feet 
high, with large oblong leaves, and clusters of 
flowers which have rose-colored sepals and 
yellowish petals. Its fruits vary from six to 
ten inches in length, and are shaped like a 
banana or cucumber. Each fruit contains num¬ 
erous seeds which are the cocoa beans of com¬ 
merce. The seeds are oval, and about as large 
as an olive. When gathered, the fruit is first 
fermented to remove ■ the pulp. To prepare 
them for use they are roasted, and then bruised 
to loosen their skins which are removed by fan¬ 
ning. A part of the fat is removed and sold as 
cocoa butter. The seed lobes, commonly called 
“cocoa nibs,” are next crushed and ground 
between rollers, which reduces them to a uniform 
pasty consistence. This paste, when sweetened, 
flavored with vanilla or cinnamon, and dried, 
constitutes chocolate. Cocoa contains an active 
principle called theobromine, resembling caffeine, 
the alkaloid in tea and coffee. Cocoa must 
not be confounded with cuca, or coca, a plant 
chewed by the Indians of South America. 

Cactus. A Linnaean genus of plants, now 
used as a name for any of the Cactacece, a natural 
order of dicotyledons, otherwise called the 
Indian fig order. The species are succulent 
shrubs, with minute scale-like leaves (except in 
the genus Pereskia, tree cactus, with large leaves), 
or with bristles and spines on the stems instead 
of leaves. They have fleshy stems, with sweet¬ 
ish watery or milky juice, and they assume many 
peculiar forms. The juice in some species 
affords a refreshing beverage where water is 
not to be secured All the plants of this order, 
except a few African species, are natives of 


America. They are generally found in very 
dry localities. Several have been introduced 
into the old world, and in many cases they have 
become naturalized. The fruits of some species 
are edible. The flowers are usually large and 
beautifully colored, and many members of the 
order are cultivated in hothouses. 

Camel. A name applied to the camel family, 
including hornless ruminant animals distin¬ 
guished by the presence of two incisors in the 
upper jaw. The genus Camelus embraces two 
species, which are known only in the domesti¬ 
cated state. The dromedary, or Arabian camel, 
has one hump on the back; the common, or 
Bactrian camel, has two humps. The camel, 
by its power of sustaining abstinence from drink 
for many days, from the peculiar formation of 
its stomach, and of subsisting on a few coarse 
shrubs, is peculiarly fitted for the parched and 
barren lands of Asia and Africa. The flesh and 
milk furnish food, and from their hair cloth and 
ropes are made. Without them the Arabs 
could neither carry on trade nor travel over 
their sandy deserts. 

Camellia. A genus of plants, order 
Camelliacece (the tea order), with showy flowers 
and elegant dark green, shining, laurel-like 
leaves, nearly allied to the plants which yield 
tea, and named from George Joseph Kamel, a 
Moravian Jesuit. The Camellia japonica, in 
Japan and China, is a lofty tree of beautiful 
proportions. It is the origin of many double 
varieties of our gardens. Besides this species, 
the Camellia sasanqua, with small white scentless 
flowers, and the Camellia reticulata (net-veined), 
with its large peony-like flowers, are cultivated 
in the United States. 

Camelopard. The camelopard or giraffe, 
a genus of ruminant animals, family Cervidce. 
The only known species, Camelopardalis girafa, 
is a native of several parts of Africa, living in 
forests, and feeding on the leaves of trees. It 
has two straight horns, without branches, about 
eight inches long, covered with hair, truncated 
at the end, and tufted. The shoulders are of 
such a length as to render the fore part of the 
animal much higher than the hind part. The 
neck is very long, the head slender and elegant, 
and the color of the body of a dusky white, with 
large rusty spots. It is mild and inoffensive, 
and in case of danger has recourse to flight for 
safety, but when obliged to stand on self-defense 
it kicks its adversary. 

Canada Lynx. See Lynx. 

Canary. A popular song bird of the finch 
family, a native of the Canary islands. It has 
been domesticated for over three hundred years. 
There are many varieties, and in Great Britain 
an intense interest' is displayed in the frequent 
canary shows. The bird usually possesses 
remarkable qualities as a songster. Practically 
all the caged varieties are of a yellow plumage, 
though in the native state they are of a dull 
greenish color. It is generally used as a house 
bird in the United States. Fine songsters fre¬ 
quently command a price of upward of one 
hundred dollars. 

Candleberry, Candleberry Myrtle, 
Wax Myrtle, etc. A shrub, growing from 





740 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


four to eighteen feet high, and common in North 
America, where candles are made from its drupes 
or berries, which are about the size of pepper¬ 
corns, and covered with a greenish-white wax 
popularly known as Bayberry tallow. The wax 
is collected by boiling the drupes in water 
and skimming off the surface. A bushel of 
berries yields from four to five pounds of wax. 
Another plant belonging to the same genus 
is the sweetgale, which grows abundantly in 
bogs and marshes in Scotland—a small shrub, 
with leaves somewhat like the myrtle or willow, 
of a fragrant odor and bitter taste, and yielding 
an essential oil by distillation. 

Canvasback Duck. A bird peculiar to 
North America, and considered the finest of the 
waterfowl for the table. They arrive in the 
United States from the North about the first 
of November, sometimes assembling in immense 
numbers. The plumage is black, white, chestnut 
brown, and slate color; length about twenty 
inches. 

Caper. The unopened flower bud of a low 
trailing shrub, which grows from the crevices of 
rocks and walls, and among rubbish, in the 
countries bordering the Mediterranean. Picked 
and pickled in vinegar and salt they are much 
used as a condiment (caper sauce being especi¬ 
ally the accompaniment of boiled mutton). The 
plant was introduced into Britain as early as 
1596, but has never been grown on a large scale. 
The flower buds of the marsh marigold and the 
seeds of nasturtium ( Tropceolum ) are frequently 
pickled and eaten as a substitute for capers. 

Caraway. An umbelliferous perennial plant 
with a tapering fleshy root, a striated furrowed 
stem, and white flowers. It produces a well- 
known seed used in confectionery, and from 
which both a carminative oil is extracted and 
the liqueur called hummel prepared. 

Cardinal Bird, or Cardinal Gros¬ 
beak. A North American bird of the finch 
family, with a fine red plumage, a crest on the 
head, and a large conspicuous white beak. In size 
it is about equal to the oriole. It has a rich sweet 
song which makes the cardinal very popular in 
southern United States, where it is common. 

Caribou. A flat-horned member of the deer 
family closely related to the European reindeer, 
and resembling it in appearance and habits. 
The full-grown animal stands about four feet 
high and weighs about 475 pounds. Its winter 
coat consists of a thick felt-like covering of 
fine hair through which grows the coarser hair 
of the outer or rain-shedding portion. The legs 
are thick and muscular, terminating in broad 
flat hoofs which permit it to walk safely over 
snow fields or quaking bogs. Its food is moss 
and lichens for which it ranges the infertile 
wastes of arctic and sub-arctic America. 
Although nine species have been described, they 
can all be divided into two groups: the wood¬ 
land caribou and the barren-ground caribou. 
The woodland caribou inhabits the forests and 
open country of British America from Manitoba 
eastward to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, 
and the northern part of Maine. The antlers 
of this group are liberally palmated, and have 
an arborescent appearance. The barren-ground 


caribou inhabits the treeless and inhospitable 
region known as the barren ground of British 
America, with a range extending from western 
Alaska to eastern Greenland. Their most con¬ 
spicuous habit is that of migration. At stated 
intervals they gather in great herds and migrate, 
the general movement being northward in spring 
and southward in autumn. These herds often 
consist of thousands of individuals. The antlers 
of the barren-ground caribou are longer than 
those of the woodland group, are more scantily 
branched and have fewer points. The arrange¬ 
ment of points suggests an arm chair. Caribou 
afford the principal source of food of the Indians 
inhabiting these regions, and the skins furnish 
materials for wigwams, harness for dogs, and 
other purposes. 

Carrot. A biennial umbelliferous plant. 
The leaves are tripinnate, of a handsome feath¬ 
ery appearance. The plants rise to the height 
of two feet, and produce white flowers. The 
root, in its wild state, is small, tapering, of a 
white color, and strong-flavored; but that of the 
cultivated variety is large, succulent, and of a 
red, yellow, or pale straw color, and shows 
remarkably the improvement which may be 
effected by cultivation. It is cultivated for 
the table and as a food for cattle. Carrots 
contain a large proportion of saccharine matter, 
and attempts have been made to extract sugar 
from them. They have also been employed in 
distillation. 

Cat. A well-known domesticated quad¬ 
ruped, order Carnivora, the same name being 
also given to allied forms of the same order. It 
is believed that the cat was originally domesti¬ 
cated in Egypt and India, and the gloved cat 
of Egypt and Nubia has by some been consid¬ 
ered the original stock of the domestic cat. It 
was seldom, if at all, kept by the Greeks and 
Romans, and until long after the Christian era 
was rare in many parts of Europe. The domes¬ 
tic cat belongs to a genus—that which contains 
the lion and the tiger—better armed than any 
other quadrupeds for the destruction of animal 
life. The short and powerful jaws, trenchant 
teeth, cunning disposition, combined with noc¬ 
turnal habits (for which their eyesight is natur¬ 
ally adapted) and much patience in pursuit, 
give these animals great advantages over their 
prey. The cat, in a degree, partakes of all the 
attributes of its race. Its food, in a state of 
domestication, is necessarily various, but always 
of flesh or fish if it can be obtained. Instances 
of its catching the latter are known, though 
usually the cat is extremely averse to wetting 
itself. It is a very cleanly animal, avoiding 
any sort of filth, and preserving its fur in a very 
neat condition. Its fur is very easily injured 
by water on account of the want of oil in it; 
it can be rendered highly electric by friction. 
The cat goes with young for sixty-three days, 
and brings forth usually from three to six at a 
litter, which remain blind for nine days. It is 
usually regarded as less intelligent than the dog, 
but- this is by no means certain. It has a 
singular power of finding its way home when 
taken to a distance and covered up by the way. 
Among the various breeds or races of cat may 






NATURAL HISTORY 


741 


be mentioned the tailless or Manx cat of the 
Isle of Man; the Tortoise-shell , with its color a 
mixture of black, white, and brownish or fawn 
color; the large Angora and Persian cats with 
their long silky fur; and the Blue Tabby, with 
long, soft, grayish-blue fur. 

Catbird. A well-known species of Amer¬ 
ican song-bird, related to the wrens and mocking 
birds. Its home is in copses and thickets, often 
near dwellings. It is about nine inches in 
length. The plumage is a deep slate-color above 
and lighter below, with a black cap and tail. 
In habit it is lively, familiar, and unsuspicious. 
Its call note is a taunting, long-drawn “Kee,” a 
most unpleasant cry; its song is rich, melodious, 
and often imitative of other birds. During the 
winter it inhabits the extreme south of the 
United States, and is found also in Mexico and 
Central America. 

Cedar. A name applied to several species 
of coniferous trees, but particularly to the genus 
Cedrus. It is an evergreen, grows to a great 
size, and is remarkable for its durability. Of 
the famous cedars of Lebanon comparatively 
few now remain, and the tree does not grow in 
any other part of Palestine. The most cele¬ 
brated group is situated not far from the village 
of Tripoli, at an elevation of about 6,000 feet 
above the sea. The circumference of the twelve 
largest trees here varies from about eighteen to 
forty-seven feet. Cedar timber was formerly 
much prized, but in modern times is not regarded 
as of much value, perhaps from the trees not 
being of sufficient age. The tree is hardy, in 
England and in southern United States. The 
deodar, Cedrus deodara, of India, and the Cedrus 
atlantica of North Africa are by some botanists 
regarded as varieties of the cedars of Lebanon, 
and are used for similar purposes. 

Chameleon. A genus of reptiles belong¬ 
ing to the order Lacertilia and native of Africa. 
The best-known species has a naked body six 
or seven inches long, with a prehensile tail of 
about five inches, and feet suitable for grasping 
branches. The skin is cold to the touch, and 
contains small grains or eminences of a bluish- 
gray color in the shade, but in the light of the 
sun all parts of the body become a grayish- 
brown or tawny color. It possesses the curious 
faculty, however, of changing its color, either 
in accordance with its environment, or with its 
temper when disturbed, the change being due 
to the presence of clear or pigment-bearing 
contractile cells placed at various depths in 
the skin, their contractions and dilatations being 
under the influence of the nervous system. 
Their power of fasting and habit of inflating 
themselves gave rise to the fable that they lived 
on air; but they are in reality insectivorous, 
taking their prey by rapid movements of a long 
viscid tongue. In general habit they are dull 
and torpid. The American chameleon, Anolis 
principalis , is a small iguanid lizard of southern 
United States and tropical America. 

Chamois. A genus of hoofed mammals 
intermediate between the goats and the ante¬ 
lopes, and containing but one species, Rupicapra 
tragus. Its home is in the high mountains of 
southern Europe. Its horns, which are about 


six or seven inches long, are round, almost 
smooth, perpendicular and straight until near 
the tip, where they suddenly terminate in a 
hook directed backward and downward. Its 
hair is brown in winter, brown fawn color in 
summer, and grayish in spring. The head is of 
a pale yellow color with a black band from the 
nose to the ears and surrounding the eyes. The 
tail is black. Its agility, the nature of its 
haunts, and its powers of smell render its pur¬ 
suit an exceedingly difficult and hazardous 
occupation. 

Chimpanzee. The native Guinea name 
of a large ape of equatorial Africa, belonging to 
the anthropoid or man-like monkeys, and to 
the same family as the gorilla. When full 
grown it is sometimes about five feet high, with 
black hair, and is not so large and powerful as 
the gorilla. Like the orang-utan, it has the hair 
on its forearm turned backward, but differs from 
it in having an additional dorsal vertebra and a 
thirteenth pair of ribs. It walks erect better 
than most of the apes. It feeds on fruits, often 
robs the gardens of the natives, and constructs 
a sort of nest among the branches. It is com¬ 
mon in menageries, where it shows much intelli¬ 
gence and docility. 

Cloves. A very pungent aromatic spice, the 
dried flower buds of Caryophyllus aromaticus, a 
native of the Molucca islands, belonging to the 
myrtle tribe, now cultivated in Sumatra, Mau¬ 
ritius, Malacca, Jamaica, etc. The tree is a 
handsome evergreen from fifteen to thirty feet 
high, with large elliptic smooth leaves and nu« 
merous purplish flowers on jointed stalks. Every 
part of the plant abounds in the volatile oil for 
which the flower buds are prized. The spice 
yields a very fragrant odor, and has a bitterish, 
pungent, and warm taste. It is sometimes 
employed as a hot and stimulating medicine, but 
is more frequently used in culinary preparations. 

Cocoanut, or Coconut. A woody fruit 
of an oval shape, from three or four to six or 
eight inches in length, covered with a fibrous 
husk, and fined internally with a white, firm, 
and fleshy kernel. The tree which produces the 
cocoanut is a palm, from 60 to 100 feet high. 
The trunk is straight and naked, and surmounted 
by a crown of feather-like leaves. The nuts 
hang from the summit of the tree in clusters of 
a dozen or more together. The external rind 
of the nuts has a smooth surface. This incloses 
an extremely fibrous substance, of considerable 
thickness, which immediately surrounds the nut. 
The fibrous coat of the nut is made into the 
well-known cocoanut matting; the coarse yarn 
obtained from it is called coir, which is also 
used for cordage. The hard shell of the nut is 
polished and made into a cup or other domestic 
utensil. The fronds are wrought into baskets, 
brooms, mats, sacks, and many other useful 
articles; the trunks are made into boats or 
furnish timber for the construction of houses. 
The sweet sap of the flower spathes is made 
into toddy and palm wine, and when fermented 
and distilled yields an intoxicating liquor known 
as arrack. 

Coffee. The seed of an evergreen shrub 
which is cultivated in hot climates, and is a 



742 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


native of Abyssinia and of Arabia. This shrub 
is from fifteen to twenty feet in height; the 
leaves are green, glossy on the upper surface, 
and the flowers are white and sweet-scented. 
The fruit is of an oval shape, about the size of a 
cherry, and of a dark red color when ripe. Each 
of these contains two cells, and each cell 
a single seed, which is the coffee as we see it 
before it undergoes the process of roasting. 
Great attention is paid to the culture of coffee 
in Arabia. The trees are raised from seed sown 
in nurseries and afterward planted out in moist 
and shady situations, on sloping grounds or at 
the foot of mountains. Care is taken to con¬ 
duct little rills of water to their roots, which at 
certain seasons require to be constantly sur¬ 
rounded by moisture. When the fruit has 
attained its maturity, cloths are placed under 
the trees, and upon these the laborers shake it 
down. They afterward spread the berries on 
mats, and expose them to the sun to dry. The 
husk is then broken off by large and heavy 
rollers of wood or iron. When the coffee has 
been thus cleared of its husk it is again dried 
in the sun, and, lastly, winnowed with a large 
fan, for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces 
of husks with which it is intermingled. A pound 
of coffee is generally more than the produce 
of one tree ; but a tree in great vigor will produce 
about two pounds. The best coffee is imported 
from Mocha, on the Red sea. It is packed in 
large bales, each containing a number of smaller 
bales, and when good appears fresh and of a 
greenish-olive color. Next in quality to the 
Mocha coffee may perhaps be ranked that of 
southern India and that of Ceylon, which is 
strong and well flavored. Java and Central 
America also produce large quantities of excel¬ 
lent coffee. Brazilian coffee, though produced 
more abundantly than any other, stands at 
the bottom of the list as regards quality. Of 
late years, however, the quality of Brazilian 
coffee has greatly improved through greater 
care in the selection of seed and harvesting, and 
much of the coffee now sold on the market as 
Mocha and Java is said to be of Brazilian growth. 
At present Brazil produces more coffee than all 
other countries combined. 

Collared Peccary. See Peccary. 

Condor. A South American bird, the largest 
of the vulturine birds. In its essential features 
it resembles the common vultures. The male 
attains a length of forty-eight inches, with an 
expanse of wing eight and one-half to nine and 
one-half feet. The plumage is blackish with a 
white ruff around the neck and white bars across 
the wings. It is found in greatest numbers in 
the Andes chain, frequenting regions from 9,000 
to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea where 
they breed, depositing their two white eggs on 
the bare rock. They are generally to be seen 
in groups of three or four, and descend to the 
plains only under stress of hunger, when they 
will successfully attack sheep, goats, deer, and 
bullocks. They prefer carrion, however, and, 
when they have opportunity, gorge themselves 
until they become incapable of rising from 
the ground, and so become a prey to the 
Indians. 


Crab. The popular name for a considerable 
group of invertebrate animals belonging to the 
class Crustacea, of which there are numerous 
species, exceedingly various in size, color, and 
modes of living. Like other crustaceans, their 
bodies are covered by an external skeleton or 
calcareous crust; they have ten jointed limbs, 
adapted for walking; the breathing is performed 
by means of gills. The head and the breast 
are united, constituting the cephalothorax, and 
the whole covered by a strong carapace. The 
tail, or abdomen, is very short, and is tucked up 
beneath the cephalothorax out of view; it is 
employed by the females to carry eggs. In the 
main features of their anatomy the crabs do not 
differ essentially from the lobster and the craw¬ 
fish. The sense of sight is peculiarly acute, 
and enables them to distinguish the approach of 
objects at a considerable distance. The mouth 
is furnished with strong jaws, in addition to 
which the stomach has its internal surface 
studded with hard projections, or teeth, for 
the purpose of grinding the food. The liver is 
of great size, and constitutes that soft, rich, 
yellow substance, found immediately beneath 
the shell, and called the fat of the crab. The 
crabs, like the lobsters, molt, or throw off their 
entire calcareous covering, periodically, when 
they are soft and helpless, and usually conceal 
themselves until a new crust is formed. Most 
of them are littoral in their habits, dwelling 
upon the shores of the sea or those of creeks and 
rivers, but some five inland, and are known as 
land crabs. 

Crane. A genus of birds belonging to the 
order Paludicolce. They are chiefly remarkable 
for their long migrations. In these journeys 
they usually fly in large flocks led by a single 
leader, the whole assemblage assuming a 
wedge-like form; the leadership is continually 
changed, so that it is occupied in succession by 
every crane in the flock. The European crane 
breeds in the north of Europe and in Siberia, 
and migrates southward at the approach of 
winter. It is a fine bird, attaining nearly five 
feet in height; with the exception of the neck, 
which is black, the body is of a uniform ashy 
gray; it has a noble and graceful carriage, and 
the feathers on its tail, which rise in undulat¬ 
ing clusters, add much to its elegance. It fre¬ 
quents large plains and marshes, and feeds miscel¬ 
laneously on fish, reptiles, frogs, molluscs, worms, 
insects, and even small mammals. The whoop¬ 
ing crane, Grus americana, of North America 
is now extremely scarce. It is nearly pure 
white, with the exception of the bill and the 
face which are dull red. A full grown specimen 
stands over four feet high. The sand hill crane 
is smaller than the preceding, and is of a dull 
slate color, with a head similar to the whooping 
crane. It inhabits the prairies of western 
United States.. The games and dances in which 
cranes are said to indulge are not mere idle 
stories; it is certainly true that these birds form 
groups in various fashions, advance toward one 
another, make a kind of salutation, and adopt 
the strangest postures. 

Crocodile. A family and genus of the 
order Crocodilia, comprising the largest living 




NATURAL HISTORY 


743 


saurian reptiles. The characteristics of the order 
are as follows: The skin of the back and the 
neck is thick and tough and covered with 
lozenge-shaped plates of bone, arranged in rows; 
on the throat, abdomen, and tail is a covering 
of tough scales. The jaws are long and their 
gape of enormous width; they are large and 
strong, and are armed with rows of sharp, coni¬ 
cal teeth that are shed when worn out and 
replaced with others. The nostrils are at the 
extremity of the snout, and are capable of being 
closed to prevent the ingress of water. The 
heart is four-chambered. The tail is long and 
compressed laterally. The four feet are short, 
and there are five toes on each of the two fore 
feet, and four on each of the two hind feet, the 
latter more or less webbed; the limbs are short 
and thick. The families now existing are the 
Gavialidce and Crocodilidce. The gavials are 
found in northern India, Borneo, and Sumatra, 
and attain a maximum length of 17 feet. The 
snout is long and narrow and shaped like the 
handle of a frying pan. The crocodile family 
includes four genera: Osteolcemus, natives of 
equatorial Africa; Caiman , mostly of equatorial 
South America; Crocodilus and Alligator. The 
crocodile and alligator closely resemble each 
other, but may be distinguished by the following 
points of difference: The head of the crocodile 
is triangular, long, and ends in a rounded point. 
The head of the alligator is broad, with almost 
parallel sides and a wide, blunt snout. The 
canine tooth in the lower jaw of the crocodile 
fits, when the mouth is closed, into a notch in 
the outside of the upper jaw, the tip showing 
as a white spot just behind the nostril; in the 
alligator this same tooth fits into a pit in the 
upper jaw. The crocodile sometimes attains 
a length of 14 feet. Although the crocodile of 
Africa is the best-known member of this order, 
at least four American species are known, one 
living in southern Florida. They are also found 
in India and Maylayana. A single species of 
alligator is found in China, and one, Alligator 
mississippiensis, in southern United States. 
The alligator sometimes attains a length of 16 
feet. Crocodiles are formidable from their great 
size and strength, but on shore their shortness 
of limb, great length of body, and difficulty of 
turning enable men and animals readily to escape 
pursuit. In the water they are generally active 
and formidable. They apparently live to a 
great age. 

Crow. The crows are very omnivorous, 
and remarkable for their intelligence. The 
family, widely diffused over the world, includes 
the common crow, the raven, the fish crow, the 
rook, the jay, and the magpie. The common 
crow of North America is remarkable for its 
gregarious and predatory habits. They pair in 
March. The nest is built of sticks and is usually 
located in a low tree, preferably an evergreen, 
about 20 feet from the ground. Since the 
forests have been decreasing in area, crows have 
become bolder and now nest in orchards and 
solitary trees in open fields. They feed chiefly 
on worms and the larvae of insects. They also 
eat grain and seeds, whence they have some¬ 
times been regarded as injurious to the farmer; 


but they amply repay him for what they take 
by destroying the vermin in his fields. 

Cypress. A genus of coniferous trees. The 
common European cypress is a dark colored 
evergreen with extremely small leaves entirely 
covering the branches. It has a quadrangular, 
or, where the top branches diminish in length, 
pyramidal shape. Cypress trees, though of a 
somewhat somber and gloomy appearance, may 
be used with great effect in shrubberies and 
gardens. They are much valued also on account 
of their wood, which is hard, compact, and very 
durable, of a reddish color and a pleasant smell. 
It was used at funerals and as an emblem of 
mourning by the ancients. Among other mem¬ 
bers of the genus are the Indian cypress; the 
Cupressus funebris, a native of China and Japan; 
and the evergreen American cypress or white 
cedar. The deciduous cypress of the United 
States and Mexico is frequently called the bald 
cypress. Its timber is valuable, and under 
water is almost imperishable. In the southern 
part of the United States this cypress constitutes 
forests hundreds of miles in extent. 

Deer. A genus of ruminant quadrupeds now 
constituting the family Cervidcz, which some 
naturalists have divided into a number of genera, 
while others still regard it as forming only one. 
Deer are animals of graceful form, combining 
much compactness and strength with slenderness 
of limb and fleetness. They use their powerful 
horns for weapons of defense; but in general 
they trust to flight for safety. They have a 
long neck, a small head, which they carry high, 
large ears, and large full eyes. In most of them 
there is, below each eye, a sac or fold of the skin, 
sometimes very small, sometimes of considerable 
size, called the suborbital sinus, lachrymal sinus, 
or tearpit, the use of which is not well known. 
Deer have no cutting teeth in the upper but 
eight in the lower jaw; the males have usually 
two short canines in the upper but neither sex 
has any in the lower jaw. They are distin¬ 
guished from all other ruminants by their solid 
branching horns (antlers), which in most of the 
species exist in the male sex only; the horns are 
deciduous, i. e., fall off annually, and are renewed 
with ing-ease of size, and of breadth of palma- 
tion, and number of branches, according to the 
kind, until the animal has reached mature age. 
Deer are found in almost all parts of the globe 
except Australia and the south of Africa, their 
place in the latter region being supplied by 
antelopes in extraordinary number and variety. 
Some of them live amidst the snows of very 
northerly regions, and some in tropical forests. 
The greater number inhabit the warmer tem¬ 
perate countries; they are chiefly found in 
wide plains and hills of moderate height, none 
dwelling on these lofty mountain summits which 
are the chosen abode of some animals of the 
kindred families of Antilopidce, Capridce, and 
Moschidce, as the chamois and the bouquetin. 
The flesh (venison) of most kinds of deer is 
highly esteemed for the table. Deer have 
long been regarded as among the noblest objects 
of the chase. Only one species, the reindeer, 
can be said to have been fully domesticated and 
reduced to the service of man, although 




744 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


individuals of many species have been rendered 
very tame. 

Dog. An animal well known for its attach¬ 
ment to mankind, and remarkable for the almost 
infinite varieties, as to size, form, color, and 
quality of the hair, which the influence of domes¬ 
tication has brought about in the species. It 
belongs to the order of carnivorous mammals, 
and to that section of quadrupeds which is dis¬ 
tinguished as digitigrade. The zoological genus 
is termed Cards , and includes, besides the dog, 
the jackal and the wolf. It is a question of con¬ 
siderable interest what was the parent stock of 
the dog. Some zoologists are of opinion that the 
breed is derived from the wolf; others that it is 
a familiarized jackal; all agree that no trace of 
it is to be found in a primitive state of nature. 
That there are wild dogs, we know. The dhole 
of India and the dingo of Australia are remark¬ 
able examples which exist in a state of complete 
independence, and without any indication of a 
wish to approach the dwellings of man. These 
dogs, however, throw very little light upon the 
question. They may have escaped from the 
dominion or half-dominion of man, and have 
betaken themselves to a vagabond life. The 
food of the dog is various. It will five on cooked 
vegetable matter, but prefers animal food. In 
drinking, it laps with the tongue. It never 
perspires, but the nose is naked and moist, and, 
when hot, the tongue hangs out of the mouth, 
and a considerable quantity of water drops 
from it. The female goes with young sixty- 
three days, and usually has about six or eight at 
a litter, though sometimes more. The young 
are blind at birth, and do not acquire their sight 
until the tenth day. The dog attains its full 
growth at the expiration of the second year; 
it is old at fifteen years, and seldom fives beyond 
twenty years. 

Eagle. A genus of birds belonging to the 
order Raptores, and to the same family as the 
falcons and the hawks. They are found in all 
parts of the globe. The size varies according 
to the species, but all attain imposing dimen¬ 
sions. The golden eagle measures about three 
feet in length, and the spread of its wings is 
seven to eight feet, while in the imperial eagle 
the spread of the wings is only six feet. The 
eagle soars at prodigious heights, and its sense 
of vision is very highly developed. It builds 
its nests in the clefts of the most inaccessible 
rocks, and lays generally two or three eggs; the 
period of incubation is thirty days. If captured 
young, the eagles are susceptible of a certain 
amount of education; when taken old they are 
quite untamable. Besides the golden eagle and 
the imperial eagle, there are other species, such 
as the American eagle, white-tailed eagle, 
Bonelli’s eagle, the tawny eagle, and the booted 
eagle; numerous smaller species are to be met 
with in tropical regions. 

Elephant. A genus of mammals, the only 
living representatives of the sub-order Prohos- 
cidea , or animals with a trunk or proboscis. 
They are exclusively confined to the tropical 
regions of the old world, in the forests of which 
they five in herds. Only two existing species 
are known, the Asiatic elephant and the African 


elephant. In both species the two upper incisors, 
or front teeth, are enormously developed, con¬ 
stituting long tusks. The lower incisors are 
absent, and there are no other teeth in the jaw 
except the large molars, or grinders, which are 
usually two in number on each side of each jaw. 
The molar teeth are of very large size, and are 
composed of a number of vertical plates of bone, 
each covered with enamel, and all cemented 
together. In the Indian elephant the trans¬ 
verse ridges of enamel are narrow and undulat¬ 
ing, while in the African elephant they inclose 
lozenge-shaped intervals. The nose is pro¬ 
longed into a cylindrical trunk, movable in every 
direction, highly sensitive, and terminating in a 
finger-like, prehensile lobe. The feet are fur¬ 
nished with five toes, but these are only indicated 
externally by the divisions of the hoof; the sole 
of the foot is formed of a thick pad of integument. 
The Indian elephant is the only species which 
is now caught and domesticated; and, as it will 
scarcely ever breed in captivity, the demand 
for it is supplied entirely by the capture of 
adult wild individuals, which are taken chiefly 
by the assistance of those which have been 
already tamed. The Indian elephant is dis¬ 
tinguished by its concave forehead and its small 
ears; the African elephant, on the other hand, 
has a strongly convex forehead, and great 
flapping ears. The African elephant is chiefly 
hunted for the sake of its ivory, and there is 
too much reason to believe that the pursuit will 
ultimately end in the complete extinction of 
these fine animals. The elephants are all vege¬ 
table feeders, living almost entirely on the 
foliage of shrubs and trees, which they strip 
off by means of the prehensile trunk. As the 
tusks prevent the animal from drinking in the 
ordinary manner, the water is sucked up by the 
trunk, which is then inserted in the mouth,, 
into, which it empties its contents. Many 
species of fossil elephants are known, the most 
familiar of which is the Mammoth. 

Falcon. A name of various birds of prey, 
members of the family Falconidce . The falcons 
proper, for strength, symmetry, and powers of 
flight, are the most perfectly developed of the 
feathered race. They are distinguished by hav¬ 
ing the beak curved from the base, hooked at 
the point, the upper mandible with a notch or 
tooth on its cutting edge on either side, wings 
long and powerful, the second feather rather the 
longest, legs short and strong. The largest 
European falcons are the jerfalcon or gyrfalcon 
proper, a native of the Scandinavian peninsula, 
and the Iceland falcon, to which may also be 
added the Greenland falcon. Between these 
three species much confusion at one time pre¬ 
vailed, but they are now distinctly defined and 
described. In the Greenland falcon the prevail¬ 
ing, color at all ages is white, in the Iceland 
falcon, dark. The latter more nearly resembles 
the true gyrfalcon of Norway, which, however, 
is generally darker, rather smaller, but with a 
longer tail. Its food consists chiefly of ptarmi¬ 
gans, hares, and waterfowl. It is found over a 
wide range of northern territory. The peregrine 
falcon is not so large as the jerfalcon, but is 
more elegant in shape. It chiefly inhabits wild 




NATURAL HISTORY 


745 


districts, and nests among rocks. It preys on 
grouse, partridges, ptarmigans, pigeons, rabbits, 
etc. Its flight is exceedingly swift, instances of 
150 miles an hour being reported. 

Ferns. A natural order of cryptogamous 
or flowerless plants, forming the highest group 
of the acrogens or summit growers. They are 
leafy plants, the leaves, or more properly fronds, 
arising from a rhizome or root stock, or from a 
hollow arborescent trunk; they are circinate in 
vernation, a term descriptive of the manner 
in which the fronds are rolled up before they are 
developed in spring, having then the appear¬ 
ance of a bishop’s crosier. Ferns have a wide 
geographical range, but are most abundant in 
humid, temperate, and tropical regions. In the 
tropical forests the tree ferns rival the palms, 
rising sometimes to a height of thirty-five to 
forty-five feet. Ferns are very abundant as 
fossil plants. The earliest known forms occur 
in Devonian rocks. Various systems of classi¬ 
fication for ferns have been proposed. At pres¬ 
ent the order is usually divided into six or eight 
families distinguished by differences in the position 
and structure of the sporangium. The generic 
characters are founded on the position and direc¬ 
tion of the sori and on the venation. The largest 
division is that of the Polypodiacece, to which 
belong most of the herbaceous ferns of the tem¬ 
perate regions. A few of the ferns are used medi¬ 
cinally, mostly as demulcents and astringents. 

Fishes. The lowest class of vertebrate 
animals, cold-blooded, and breathing by means 
of gills through life. They are wholly adapted 
for living in the water. The shape of the body 
is such as to give rise to the least possible friction 
in swimming, and thus to admit of rapid loco¬ 
motion in water. To this end also, as well as 
for purposes of defense, the body is usually 
covered with a coating of scales. The limbs, 
when present, are always in the form of fins, 
but one or both pairs may be wanting; the 
anterior or fore limbs are known as the pectoral 
fins, and the posterior or hind limbs as the 
ventral fins. Besides the fins which represent 
the limbs, fishes possess other fins placed in the 
middle line of the body; one or two of these run 
along the back, and are known as the dorsal 
fins, one or two he on the belly, near the vent, 
known as the anal fins, and a broad fin at the 
extremity of the spinal column is called the 
caudal or tail fin. The tail fin is always set 
vertically in fishes, so as to work from side to 
side, and is the chief organ of progression; it 
differs altogether from the horizontal expansion 
which constitutes the tail of whales, dolphins, 
dugongs, and manatees—animals which belong 
to the class of mammals. In the form of the 
tail, fishes exhibit two very distinct types of 
structure, termed respectively the homocercal 
and the heterocercal type of tail. The homo¬ 
cercal tail is the one which most commonly 
occurs in existing fishes; it is characterized by 
the fact that the two lobes of the tail are equal, 
and the spinal column stops short at its base. 
In the heterocercal tail, on the other hand, 
found in many fossil specimens of the fish class, 
the spinal column is prolonged into the upper 
lobe of the tail, so that the tail becomes unequally 


lobed. All the fins are supported by bony spines, 
or rays, which are of two kinds, termed respec¬ 
tively spinous rays and soft rays. Further, to 
aid in supporting themselves at varying depths 
in the water, most fishes are provided with a sac 
containing gas, situated above the alimentary 
tube, and known as the air or swimming bladder, 
by the filling or emptying of which the fish is 
rendered heavier or lighter in comparison with 
the surrounding water. 

Flamingo. A genus of web-footed birds 
which may be regarded as in some respects 
intermediate between the storks and the ducks, 
their long legs and necks giving them a resem¬ 
blance to the former, while their webbed feet 
connect them with the latter. There are eight 
species of true flamingoes. Their food appears 
to be mollusca, spawn, grass, water plants, 
insects, etc., which they fish up by means of 
their long neck. They breed in companies in 
mud flats or inundated marshes, raising the 
mud into a small hillock, which is concave at 
the top so as to form a nest. In this hollow the 
female lays her eggs, and hatches them by sitting 
on them with her legs doubled up beside her. 
The eggs are two in number. The young do 
not fly until they have nearly attained their 
full growth, though they can run very swiftly 
and swim with ease almost immediately after 
their exclusion from the shell. The common 
^American species is of a deep red color, with 
black quills. It is peculiar to tropical America, 
migrating in summer to the southern and rarely 
to the middle states. 

Flax. A fiber obtained from a plant belong¬ 
ing to the order Linacece. Common flax ( Linum 
usitatissimum) is an annual plant, with a slender 
erect stem, two or three feet high, which is 
grown in large quantities in Italy, Russia, Sax¬ 
ony, Belgium, Holland, and northern France, 
but is not cultivated to any great extent in this 
country. After being cut, and allowed to dry, 
the flax undergoes a process called retting , in 
order to remove resinous and glutinous sub¬ 
stances, and disintegrate the woody portions 
of the stem. The flax is steeped in water, and 
after a time a process of fermentation sets in, 
by which the resinous and glutinous substances 
are decomposed. After drying, the flax is passed 
through corrugated rollers which break the 
wooden core or boon. The boon is removed 
from the fiber by scutching or beating the broken 
mass. The fiber is then drawn through a many 
toothed steel comb or heckle which removes the 
short fiber or tow , and straightens the longer 
fiber, which is used for making linen thread and 
fabrics. The tow is used for making ropes. 
The seeds of the flax plant are a valuable article 
of commerce. 

Flea. An insect of the order Siphonaptera , 
characterized by the absence of true wings, in 
place of which are minute scales believed to be 
aborted wings. The mouth parts are adapted 
for biting and sucking. All the species of the 
genus are very similar to the common flea. It 
has two single eyes or ocelli and six feet; the 
feelers are like threads. The flea is remarkable 
for its agility, leaping to a surprising distance, 
and its bite is very troublesome. 




746 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Flounder. One of the flat fishes, family 
Pleuronectidce, characterized by a flattened oval 
or elliptical body which is whitish beneath and 
dark colored above. In the very young the 
eyes grow one on each side of the head and the 
body is vertical in the water like a sunfish. As 
it develops, the head becomes twisted so that 
both eyes are on the upper side of the head, 
while the body now becomes horizontal instead 
of vertical. Many of the flounders are important 
food fishes. They are found in cold, temperate, 
and tropical seas. 

Flower. That part of a plant in which the 
organs of reproduction {stamens and pistils) are 
situated. The parts are arranged in whorls. In 
a complete flower the outer one consists of the 
calyx , formed of one or more leaves termed sepals ; 
the next is the corolla , composed of one or more 
petals; the third whorl is formed by the stamens, 
and the innermost of the pistils. Sometimes there 
is only one whorl of floral leaves, and then the 
flower is said to be monochlamydeous', if neither 
whorl is present, it is termed achlamydeous. If 
both calyx and corolla are present, but so blended 
together that they are not easily distinguished, 
the floral envelope is called a perianth. Double 
or semi-double flowers are those in which, through 
the effect of cultivation, what should be stamens 
are changed into petals, as in roses, camel¬ 
lias, carnations, etc. The colors and odors of 
flowers are subjects in the investigation of which 
physiologists have not yet been able to go far. 
The chemical products on which they immedi¬ 
ately depend are partially known; but how the 
chemical changes are wrought, and what various 
purposes they all serve as to the plant itself, can 
scarcely be said to have even begun to be ascer¬ 
tained. Both colors and odors are more or less 
owing to the action of the sun’s rays. They 
are also sometimes modified by soil; diversities 
of color have been obtained in cultivated flowers 
by changing the soil in which they grow. 

Fly. The word fly is generally used to desig¬ 
nate an insect of the order Diptera. Members 
of this order have two membranous wings with¬ 
out wing covers. In place of the hind pair are 
two knobbed threads called balancers, which are 
supposed to assist the insect in maintaining 
equilibrium while in flight. The common house 
fly, Musca domestica, is found wherever man is, 
and in hot weather causes a great deal of annoy¬ 
ance. It is furnished with a suctorial proboscis, 
from which, when feeding on dry substances, it 
exudes a liquid, which, by moistening them, fits 
them to be sucked. From its feet being beset 
with hairs, each terminating in a disc which is 
supposed to act as a sucker, it can walk on smooth 
surfaces, as a ceiling, even with its back down. 
The female lays from 120 to 160 eggs in horse 
manure. From the eggs come little maggots 
which molt twice and become full grown in 
from five to seven days. They then pass into 
the pupa stage from which the perfect fly emerges 
about a week later. Flies act as scavengers, 
consuming much filth that would otherwise 
decay and become offensive. They also carry 
germs from sores or human excreta to articles 
of food or to healthy people and thus dissemi¬ 
nate disease. Typhoid fever, diphtheria, and 


tuberculosis are among the diseases so trans¬ 
ferred. 

Flying Fish. A name common to various 
fishes which have the power of sustaining them¬ 
selves for a time in the air by means of their 
large pectoral fins. In American waters there 
are about 20 species, the most common belong¬ 
ing to the genera Exoccetus , Cypsilurus , and 
Parexoccetus. The pectoral fins, which are very 
large, are the principal instruments in their 
flight, serving to sustain the fish temporarily 
in the air after it has acquired an initial velocity 
in its rush through the water. It can pass 
through the air to a considerable distance, 
sometimes as much as 200 yards, which it does 
to escape from the attacks of other fishes, or 
when disturbed by passing vessels. It is most 
common between the tropics. The best-known 
species are Exoccetus volitans, abundant in the 
warmer parts of the Atlantic, Cypsilurus cali- 
fornicus , on the coast of California, and Parexo¬ 
ccetus mesogaster. Some species of flying fish 
are used for food. 

Flying Squirrel. A genus of rodent ani¬ 
mals, family Sciuridce (squirrels), to which the 
skin of the flank, extending between the fore 
and hind legs, imparts the faculty of supporting 
themselves for a moment in the air, as with 
a parachute, and of making very great leaps. 
The European flying squirrel is a native of the 
forests in the colder parts of Europe. The 
American flying squirrel is common from the 
gulf of Mexico to the southern part of Canada. 

Fox. A carnivorous animal, of which there 
are several species, closely related to the dog. 
It is chiefly characterized by its sharp muzzle, 
and its long bushy tail, as well as by its cunning, 
which has passed into a proverb. The pupil 
of the eye is elongated, and not circular as in 
the dog; the ears are triangular in shape and 
pointed. A very powerful scent is emitted from 
the fox, in consequence of some glands which 
are placed near the root of the tail, and which 
furnish the odorous secretion; this odor is so 
fetid that even other animals avoid its locality. 
The fox is an inhabitant of most parts of Europe 
and America, and extends also into Asia. Its 
senses are extremely acute, so as alike to inform 
it of the location of its prey and to warn it of 
the approach of danger. It usually remains 
concealed during the day in a burrow, which it 
has either dug for itself or usurped, and ventures 
abroad chiefly at night, with stealthy move¬ 
ments, in search of food. Birds, mice, rabbits, 
or hares constitute its usual prey, but, when 
pressed by necessity, it will have recourse to 
other food, as it has a predilection for certain 
kinds of fruit, such as grapes. To domestic 
poultry it is terribly destructive. Though 
slightly made, the fox has great muscular vigor, 
and bites with much severity. Even when taken 
at a very early age, it is never properly domesti¬ 
cated; adults, when placed in confinement, 
show great ferocity, and soon die. It is to its 
power of endurance and its great speed, as well 
as to the cunning which dictates various expedi¬ 
ents for escape, that the chase of this animal 
owes its exciting character. Among the most 
common of its expedients for escape is that of 




■ 


■ 









































































■ 


















Aj? 



WALRUS 


POLAR BEAR 


MUSK OX 


AMERICAN BISON 


MOUNTAIN SHEEP 


MOUNTAIN GOAT 


CANADA LYNX 


COLLARED PECCARY 




NATURAL HISTORY 


747 


feigning death, which is done also by several 
other animals. Numerous species of fox exist 
in the old and new worlds, of which the most 
important are the Arctic, or blue fox, and the 
American, or red fox. The Arctic fox abounds 
in the Arctic regions, and is remarkable for 
changing its color with the season, being brown 
or bluish in summer, and white in winter. The 
soles of its feet are hairy. The red fox is found 
throughout North America; it is quite variable 
in color and marking, and varieties of it are 
known by different names. The skins of all 
the species of fox are valuable, and make warm 
and soft furs, used for muffs, linings, etc. 

Frog 1 . One of the Ranidce, or frogs, a 
family of tailless amphibians common to widely 
distributed parts of the world. They have 
smooth skins, and teeth on the upper jaw, but 
have no ribs. In North America there is but 
one genus Rana, of which there are 17 known 
species. In temperate regions frogs hibernate 
in the mud of pools or preferably of running 
water. The eggs are laid in early spring in 
masses five or six inches in diameter, which are 
deposited in roadside ditches or still, shallow 
water. Each female lays from 600 to 1200 
eggs. (For development see All lira, also 
Bullfrog.) 

Gazelle. An animal belonging to the 
antelope family; of very graceful shape, and 
rather smaller in size than the chamois. The 
color of the gazelle is fawn or dun on the back, 
which is separated from the white belly by a 
brown or blackish band. The horns, which 
are stronger in the male than in the female, are 
twice bent, in the shape of a lyre, and without 
sharp edges. The eyes of this animal are 
beautiful and soft in expression, and its move¬ 
ments are elegant and light. It inhabits the 
large plains and the Saharan region of northern 
Africa, as well as Arabia and Syria, living in 
numerous herds. When taken young, the gazelle, 
though naturally wild and timid, is readily 
domesticated, and becomes quite tame. 

Geranium. A genus of plants embrac¬ 
ing a large number of species unequally dis¬ 
tributed throughout the world. The well-known 
herb, Robert (I Geranium Robertianum ), is* a low, 
spreading weed, a rank-odored plant, common 
on rocks, where its soft, compound, fern-like 
leaves, and little pink flowers are very attractive. 
The plants usually known as geraniums belong 
to the genus Pelargonium , of the same order as 
the geranium. These plants are prized on 
account of the colors of the flowers, and the 
shape and marking of the leaves. Many hy¬ 
brids have been produced and there is hardly 
a better known window plant. They are easily 
propagated by cuttings in light, rich soil and 
with good drainage. 

Giraffe. See Camelopard. 

Gnu, or Wildebeest. A singular African 
antelope now nearly extinct. Its height is about 
four feet and it attains a length of nine feet. 
Both sexes are horned, the horns nearly meeting 
on the forehead, then bending downward and 
outward with a sharp upward turn. The muz¬ 
zle is broad like that of an ox; the neck short 
and surmounted by a mane of bristly hair; the 


withers are high, and the tail is long and hairy 
like that of a horse. Between the fore legs is a 
pendulous hairy extension of the dewlap like 
that on the buffalo. The feet and the head 
resemble those of the buffalo, while the mane, 
tail, and general form are horse-like, probably 
suggesting the name “horned horse” by which 
it is also known. 

Goat. A genus of ruminant quadrupeds 
so closely allied to the sheep that it is not easy 
exactly to define the distinction, although the 
common domestic goat and sheep are of widely 
different appearance. It is frequently men¬ 
tioned in the books of Moses, and formed a large 
portion of the flocks of the patriarchs. The 
uses of the goat are numerous. The flesh is 
good; that of the kid, or young goat, is, in most 
countries, esteemed a delicacy. The milk is 
very rich and nutritious, more easy of digestion 
than that of the cow, and is often useful to 
consumptive patients. Some goats yield as 
much as four quarts of milk daily, although the 
average quantity is more nearly two. The skin 
of the goat was early used for clothing, and is 
now dressed as leather for many uses, particu¬ 
larly for making gloves and the finer kinds of 
shoes. The hair, which may be advantageously 
clipped annually, is used for making ropes 
which are indestructible in water. The horns 
are used for making knife handles, etc., and the 
fat is said to be superior to that of the ox for 
candles. Goats are found wild only in moun¬ 
tainous countries; they all exhibit a great apti¬ 
tude for scrambling among rocks and bushes, 
are extremely sure-footed on narrow ledges and 
pinnacles, and display great strength and agility 
in leaping. The Rocky Mountain goat is the 
only American wild goat, although Kennedy’s 
mountain goat of Alaska is by some regarded 
as a distinct species. Its size is about that of 
an ordinary sheep, and its general appearance 
is not unlike that of a sheep of the Merino breed, 
its long, straight hair hanging down in an abun¬ 
dant white fleece. 

Gold. On account of its beautiful color 
and since it does not become tarnished or cor¬ 
roded in use, gold is considered the most precious 
of metals and is used as the principal basis of 
value throughout the civilized world. It has 
been known from time immemorial, and is found 
in many parts of the world. It is usually found 
in the metallic or native state in the form of 
nuggets or smaller particles, in sand or gravel, 
or distributed through rocks or veins. Nuggets 
weighing as much as 1,000 ounces have been 
found. Native gold usually contains some silver. 
The metal is also found in combination with 
tellurium as “telluride ore,” and it frequently 
accompanies copper ores and iron pyrites. The 
extraction of gold from sands or gravels, called 
alluvial or placer mining, is accomplished by 
washing with water in various ways. The heavy- 
gold sinks to the bottom when the material is 
stirred up with water, and mercury (quicksilver) 
is usually used to amalgamate the gold and hold 
it. Solid ores have to be powdered by stamp 
mills or other devices before the gold can be 
extracted, and sometimes they must be heated 
to redness (roasted) to drive off tellurium or 



748 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


other things. One of the modern methods of 
extracting gold from ores consists in dissolving 
out the metal with water containing potassium 
cyanide. This is known as the “cyanide proc¬ 
ess.” Gold is the heaviest of all the familiar 
precious metals except platinum. It is more 
than nineteen times as heavy as water. In 
malleability it stands first among the metals, 
being capable of being beaten to a thickness of 
1-250000 of an inch and ductile enough to be 
drawn into a wire 500 feet long and weighing 
only one grain. It may be alloyed with other 
metals to change the color for designs. The best 
known alloy of gold is that with copper, which 
is used for gold coins. The chief gold discov¬ 
eries have been in California, 1848; Australia, 
1851; British Columbia, 1858; New Zealand and 
Nova Scotia, 1861; South Africa, 1868; West 
Australia, 1870; South Australia, 1886; Alaska 
and Klondike. Important discoveries of gold 
were made in Porcupine, Canada, in 1910. 

Goose. A genus of web-footed birds, larger 
than the ducks, having the bill not longer than 
the head, more high than broad at the base, the 
upper mandible slightly hooked at the tip; the 
legs placed farther forward than in ducks, and so 
better adapted for walking; the neck of moderate 
length, with sixteen vertebrae, a character which 
widely distinguishes them from swans. In gen¬ 
eral, geese spend more of their time on land than 
any other of the Anatidce, feeding on grass and 
other herbage, berries, seeds, and other vegetable 
food. About forty species of geese are known 
in various parts of the world. 

Gorilla. The largest and fiercest of the 
anthropoid apes, and the one most resembling 
man in structure and size. The hands and feet 
are strong and adapted for either arboreal or 
terrestrial life; it is able to walk erect with¬ 
out being taught, an act which no other ape per¬ 
forms. The skull, however, is of a low type 
and the long canine teeth indicate a savage 
nature. The gorilla is as tall as an average man, 
and the body thick and muscular. A specimen 
has been killed whose weight was estimated at 
500 lbs. The skin is black and covered with 
black or grizzly hair. Its home is in West 
Africa near the equator. It is of a sullen dispo¬ 
sition and does not thrive in captivity, invariably 
dying after a few months of confinement. 

Guinea Pig, or Cavy. A small animal 
belonging to the family of rodents. It is indig¬ 
enous to South America, and has been intro¬ 
duced into many parts of Europe and America, 
where it is domesticated as a pet. It possesses 
a very low degree of intelligence; in its natural 
home it is gregarious, and is usually found living 
on dry lands covered with low brushwood. The 
color of the guinea pig is variegated, and its tail 
is quite rudimentary. It is an extremely pro¬ 
lific animal, and begins to breed at the age of 
ten months, producing many broods a year; each 
litter usually consists of about eight. The origin 
of the popular name of this animal is quite un¬ 
known; it appears to be very inappropriate, for 
the animal does not come from Guinea, nor yet 
is it a pig. 

Hartbeest, or Hartebeest. A South 
African antelope at one time very numerous in 


the region between Natal and Mashonaland, but 
now very scarce. It is about five feet high at 
the shoulder with a slender neck and a bushy tail. 
The head is long and narrow, and tapers to a 
slender muzzle; the horns are ringed, close to¬ 
gether at their origin, and rise from the tip of 
the head in lyrate form. Some species are 
grayish brown, others reddish with characteristic 
markings on the buttocks and face. It is the 
swiftest of African antelopes, easily outrunning 
greyhounds. The flesh is highly esteemed as 
food. 

Hippopotamus, or River Horse. A 

genus of animals nearly allied to the pigs, hogs, and 
peccaries, and belonging to the class Ungulata. 
The group is represented by only two living 
species, the Hippopotamus amphibius and Hip¬ 
popotamus liberiensis, both of Africa. Of these 
the Hippopotamus amphibius is the larger. It is 
enormously bulky and unwieldy, attaining a 
height of five feet, a length of as much as twelve 
feet, and a weight of four tons. The feet are 
massive, and are terminated by four hoofed toes; 
the skin is very thick and strong. The hippo¬ 
potamus feeds entirely upon vegetable sub¬ 
stances, such as grasses and shrubs; it dives and 
swims with great facility. 

Horse. A one-toed ungulate mammal of 
the family Equidce. The horse proper is charac¬ 
terized by the tail being furnished with long 
hairs from its base; by the long and flowing mane; 
by the possession of a bare callosity on the inner 
surface of the hind as well as of the fore legs; and 
by the head and ears being smaller and the 
limbs longer than in the ass and other species 
related to the horse. The native country of the 
horse seems to have been central Asia. It be¬ 
came early domesticated in Egypt. It is men¬ 
tioned throughout the Bible. The people of 
Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and prob¬ 
ably first among the Greeks who broke horses 
in for service in war, whence probably arose the 
fable that Thessaly was originally inhabited by 
centaurs. “Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses 
for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen,” 1014 
B. C. The Greeks and Romans had some cov¬ 
ering to secure their horses’ hoofs from injury. 
In the ninth century horses were shod only in 
time of frost. Shoeing was introduced into 
England by William I. in 1066. It is believed 
that the original breed of horses is extinct, and 
that the half-wild herds existing in many places 
have descended from animals once in captivity. 
Thus when the horse was first introduced by 
the Spaniards in 1537, at Buenos Ayres, there 
were no wild horses in America. But individ¬ 
uals escaping ran wild, and by 1580 their de¬ 
scendants had spread over the continent as far 
as the straits of Magellan. Their favorite abode 
is on the Pampas, where they now exist in untold 
numbers. There was found in La Plata a now 
extinct species of horse. More Equidce have 
been found in the new than in the old world. 
The horse may have descended from a striped 
ancestor, stripes still sometimes remaining, 
especially in duns and mouse-duns. His present 
colors are brown, gray, or black, sometimes with 
roundish pale spots. His age is ascertained 
by examining first which teeth are developed, 




NATURAL HISTORY 


749 


and then to what extent they have been worn 
away by use. They are best tamed by kindness. 
Like other domestic animals the horse has run 
into various breeds. The most celebrated is the 
Arab horse. Great attention is given in America 
to the breeding of horses, and American horses 
have won races both in England and on the 
Continent. The fear that the horse would go 
out of fashion on account of bicycles and auto¬ 
mobiles seems unfounded. A similar fear was 
expressed when the railway took the place of 
the stagecoach. 

Hyena. A genus of carnivorous animals, 
containing three species. Two of these, the 
spotted hyena and the brown hyena, are entirely 
confined to the African continent, while the 
third species, the striped hyena, is found in 
northern Africa, and ranges over all the open 
country of India to the foot of the Himalayas, 
and through Persia and Asia Minor. These 
animals have a villainous appearance, and are 
covered with coarse bristly hair, short over the 
greater portion of the body, but produced into 
a mane along the ridge of the neck. The hind 
legs are shorter than the fore, giving the body 
a slope from the withers to the haunches. In 
size they are somewhat larger than a shepherd’s 
dog. The cheek muscles are greatly developed, 
and the large carnivorous teeth have great coni¬ 
cal crowns, giving to them the power of crushing 
the thigh bones of animals, and enabling them to 
procure their favorite morsel, the marrow. As 
carrion feeders they are useful scavengers. All 
the species are nocturnal in their habits. 

Insects. A class of air-breathing inverte¬ 
brate animals, in which the body is divided into 
a variable number of segments, which usually 
become modified to form three distinct regions, 
known as the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. 
The total number of segments never exceeds 
twenty. Of these, five, and probably six, be¬ 
come completely united to form the head. On 
the front of the head between the eyes, or in 
front of them, is a pair of jointed organs called 
antenna. The mouth parts consist of an upper 
lip or labrum, an under lip or labium , and be¬ 
tween them two pairs of jaws opening sidewise. 
The upper jaws are called mandibles, the lower 
curved pair are called the maxilla. There may 
be also inside the mouth an organ resembling a 
tongue. There is generally a pair of compound 
eyes on the sides of the head, and sometimes 
simple eyes, or ocelli, also. The thorax always 
consists of three segments, which are termed 
respectively the pro-thorax, the meso-thorax, and 
the meta-thorax. Each of these carries a pair of 
jointed legs, and the possession of these six legs 
is characteristic of the whole class of insects. In 
the adult state there are two (sometimes one) 
pairs of wings which are attached to the meta¬ 
thorax or meso-thorax or to both. The remaining 
segments constitute the abdomen; they have no 
appendages except in the final segment, which in 
the female is sometimes prolonged to form an ovi¬ 
positor. The organs of the mouth in insects 
are of two principal types, viz., masticatory 
(beetles, dragon flies, ants, etc.), and suctorial 
(butterflies, moths, fleas, gnats, etc.). The di¬ 
gestive apparatus, or alimentary canal, usually 


consists of an esophagus, a crop, a gizzard, a 
stomach, a small intestine, a large intestine, and 
a rectum, together with organs playing the part 
of salivary glands, liver, and kidneys. There is 
no definite and regular course of circulation in 
insects. The heart is represented by a contrac¬ 
tile tube, situated on the back, and termed the 
dorsal vessel. Respiration is effected by means 
of branching air tubes, or trachea, which ramify 
through the entire body, and open on the exterior 
by lateral apertures, known as stigmata, or 
spiracles. The nervous system consists of a 
ganglion above the mouth known as the brain, 
and a chain of ganglia placed on the ventral 
interior, and connected by a series of double 
cords. The sexes of insects are in different indi¬ 
viduals, and most are oviparous. Most insects 
in the course of their lives pass through a series 
of changes, which constitute the metamorphosis, 
before attaining maturity. 

Jaguar. A carnivorous mammal, belong¬ 
ing to the cat family. In size it ranks next to 
the tiger among the cats of like color. The body 
is massive, the head large and strong, the tail 
relatively short. The ground color is golden 
yellow. On the back and sides are hollow 
patches of black inclosing spots of the ground 
color. On the head, legs, and belly the spots 
are of solid black. This animal is one of the 
most formidable beasts of prey found in America, 
being of an extremely fierce nature. It inhabits 
North and South America, extending from the 
southern regions of the United States, through 
Mexico, Central America, and Brazil, as far 
south as Paraguay. Wooded banks of rivers are 
its favorite haunts, and it is said to frequent the 
reedy margins of lakes, seeming to have a great pre¬ 
dilection for water. It preys chiefly upon weaker 
mammals, and is said to catch fish; occasionally 
it kills horses and cattle, and even men. The 
jaguar is a noisy animal, roaring much at night, 
especially on the approach of bad weather. 

Kangaroo. A family of pouch-bearing 
animals. They are the most highly developed 
members of the order, and are peculiarly suited 
for the conditions of life in Australia, Tasmania, 
New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands. 
The family comprises no fewer than forty species 
and of these Macropus giganteus may be taken 
as a type. This species was formerly plentiful, 
and roamed over all the plains; but it is now fast 
retiring before the colonist. The fore limbs are 
small; the hind limbs very large and thick; the 
head small, with rather long ears, and a long, 
dusky-brown muzzle; the body long, with the 
fur short but thick, and of a gray-brown tint. 
Full grown specimens are about four feet high 
and attain a weight of 200 pounds. The female 
carries her young in a pouch on the under side 
of the belly. When moving quickly the hind 
limbs alone are brought into action, and by 
means of these the animal bounds along in great 
leaps of from fifteen to twenty feet, the body 
being carried in a nearly horizontal position, and 
the tail extended to balance it. The fore limbs 
are chiefly used in handling, and with these the 
female lifts her young, and places them in the 
pouch. The kangaroos are vegetable feeders, 
delighting in grasses, leaves, and herbs. 



750 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Lark. The common name of birds com¬ 
prising the family Alaudidcs. The skylark, or 
laverock, of Europe, the most harmonious of this 
musical tribe, commences its song early in the 
spring, continues it during the whole summer, 
and is one of those few birds that chant while 
on the wing. When it first rises from the earth, 
its notes are feeble and interrupted; as it ascends, 
however, they gradually swell to their full tone, 
and long after it is lost to the sight it still con¬ 
tinues to charm the ear with its melody. It 
mounts almost perpendicularly, but descends in 
an oblique direction, unless threatened with 
danger, when it drops like a stone. In America 
the lark family is represented by twelve species, 
of which the horned lark, or shore lark, is best 
known. It is a shore bird somewhat resembling 
the plover both in appearance and habits. The 
meadow lark of North America is not a true 
lark, but belongs to the same family as the 
blackbirds. (See Meadow Lark.) 

Lemon. A tree of the genus Citrus , which 
also includes the orange, lime, citron, etc. The 
lemon is a native of northern India, and is exten¬ 
sively cultivated for its fruit, the pulp of which 
abounds in citric acid, and is much used in the 
manufacture of cooling and effervescing drinks. 
The peel, or rind, is covered with glands contain¬ 
ing oil, which is used as an aromatic; when dried 
and preserved, it forms an article of commerce, 
and is used for flavoring. The produce of the 
lemon groves of the Mediterranean is chiefly 
marketed in northern Europe and America. 
Lemons are now extensively cultivated in Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Leopard. The leopard, Felis pardus, is 
one of the largest of the cats, being exceeded in 
size only by the lions and tigers. The color is 
usually some shade of buff, irregularly marked 
with spots of black. The species is a native 
both of Africa and Asia. The body of this 
fierce and rapacious animal is about four feet 
long. From the great flexibility of the lim bs 
and spine, it can take surprising leaps, swim, 
crawl, and ascend trees. 

Lilac. A genus of plants belonging to the 
natural order Oleacecs (which includes the ash, 
jessamine, olive, etc.). The lilacs are natives 
of the East; they are shrubs or small trees; the 
flowers are characterized by a four-cleft corolla, 
by two stamens, and by a> two-valved fruit. 
Several species are cultivated for ornamental 
purposes, the common lilac being one of the most 
extensively cultivated shrubs in Europe. 

Lily. A popular name applied to plants of 
several genera belonging to the order LiliacecB, 
but especially to the individuals constituting 
the genus Lilium. The true lilies are herbaceous, 
with scaly bulbous roots and conspicuous flowers, 
on account of which they are great favorites with 
the horticulturist, and are extensively cultivated. 
The tiger lily, with its showy yellow flowers, is a 
native of warm climates, and is peculiar in pro¬ 
ducing bulbs in the axils of the leaves and capable 
of independent growth. The white lily and the 
orange lily are also familiar under cultivation. 
The bulbs are rich in starch, and in some 
districts those of certain species are used as 
food. 


Lion. The most majestic of carnivorous 
quadrupeds. It is, when mature, of a nearly 
uniform tawny or yellowish color, paler on the 
under parts, the young alone exhibiting mark¬ 
ings like those common in the Felides. The male 
has usually a great shaggy and flowing mane, 
and the tail, which is quite long, terminates in a 
tuft of hair. The whole frame is extremely 
muscular, and the fore parts, in particular, are 
remarkably powerful, giving, with the large head, 
bright, flashing eye, and copious mane, a noble 
appearance to the animal, which, with its 
strength, has led to its being called the “king of 
beasts”. A lion of the largest size measures 
about nine feet six inches from the nose to the 
tip of the tail. The lioness is smaller, has no 
mane, and is of a lighter color on the under parts. 
The strength of the lion is such that he can carry 
off a man as a cat carries a rat. The lion is 
chiefly an inhabitant of Africa, although it is 
found also in some of the wilds of Asia, particu¬ 
larly in certain parts of Arabia, Persia, and India. 
It was anciently much more common in Asia, 
and was found in some parts of Europe, particu¬ 
larly in Macedonia and Thrace, according to 
Herodotus and other authors. The lion is not, 
in general, an inhabitant of deep forests, but 
rather of open plains in which the shelter of 
occasional bushes and thickets may be found. 
He is easily tamed, at least when taken young 
and when abundantly supplied with food. 
Lions were made to contribute to the barbarous 
sports of the ancient Romans; a combat of lions 
was an attractive spectacle, and vast numbers 
were imported into Rome, chiefly from Africa, 
for the supply of the amphitheater. Pompey 
exhibited 600 at once. The mane of the lion 
and the tuft at the end of the tail are not fully 
developed until he is six or seven years old. 
There are several varieties of the lion, slightly 
differing from each other in form and color, but 
particularly in the development of the mane. 
The largest lions of the south of Africa are 
remarkable for the size of the head and the 
great black mane. 

Llama, or Lama. A South American 
mammal of the camel family used as a beast of 
burden in the Andes mountains. It has a height 
of about three feet at the shoulder and resembles 
a small camel, except that it lacks a hump and 
carries its head erect. It will carry a load of 100 
pounds at the rate of twelve to fifteen miles a 
day, and, being sure footed, is the principal 
carrier of burdens on the narrow mountaihous 
trails of the Peruvian Andes. The long hair or 
wool is used for making coarse fabrics. 

Lobster. A familiar invertebrate animal, 
belonging to the group Crustacea, and inhabiting 
the sea. Lobsters are found in great numbers 
about many European shores, and the greater 
part of those taken to English markets are sup¬ 
plied from Norway; they are also quite numerous 
on the coasts of North America. The body of 
the lobster is composed of two principal divisions, 
popularly termed head and tail: the former, 
however, which is technically called the cephalo- 
thorax , is constituted (as the name implies) by 
both head and thorax; the tail is the abdomen. 
The body carries twenty pairs of appendages, 





NATURAL HISTORY 


751 


consisting of feelers, jaws, claws, legs, etc. The 
nervous system consists of a chain of ganglia 
placed along the under surface. The stomach 
and the intestines form a long and straight 
canal. Lobsters are extremely combative, and 
fight furiously, the vanquished party sometimes 
leaving one of its limbs in its opponent’s grasp. 

Lynx. The lynxes are short-tailed, tree¬ 
climbing wild cats found in various parts of the 
world. In North America two species are known, 
the bay lynx or bob cat, and the Canada lynx. 
The former is of a reddish gray color, sometimes 
spotted, and varying greatly in the rufous shades. 
It is found in nearly all wild regions of the United 
States. The Canada lynx is found principally 
in southern and western Canada as far north as 
the sixtieth parallel. The body is about thirty- 
two inches long, the tail four or five inches, and 
the height at the shoulder about eighteen inches. 
It may be distinguished from the bay lynx by its 
fighter gray color, and huge hairy paws, and by 
a slender tuft of stiff hairs on the tip of each ear. 
It feeds upon small mammals and birds, which 
it catches after the manner of the cat family. 
Although it has a reputation for ferocity, it is 
said to lack courage and seldom voluntarily 
attacks man. 

Macaw. A genus of beautiful birds of the 
parrot tribe. The macaws are magnificent 
birds, distinguished by having their cheeks 
destitute of feathers, and their tails long and 
wedge-shaped. They are all natives of the 
tropical regions of South America. The largest 
and most splendid in regard to color is the great 
scarlet or red and blue macaw. The great green 
macaw and the blue and yellow macaw are some¬ 
what smaller. 

Magnolia. A genus of trees and shrubs, 
named from Pierre Magnol, a French botanist 
of the seventeenth century. The species, which 
chiefly inhabit North America, northern India, 
China, Japan, and other parts of Asia, are trees 
much admired on account of the elegance of 
their flowers and foliage, and are in great request 
for gardens. In their native countries some of 
them attain great height, and have flowers ten 
inches across. In America the magnolias are 
best known in the gulf states, but some species 
are hardy along the Appalachian mountains, 
and one, Magnolia acuminata , as far north as 
southern Canada. 

Magpie. A bird belonging to the crow 
family. There are several species, two of which 
belong to America. The common European 
magpie is about eighteen inches in length; the 
plumage is black and white, the black glossed 
with green and purple; the bill is stout, and the 
tail is very long. The magpies continue in pairs 
throughout the year, and prey on a variety of 
food, chiefly animal. They are determined 
robbers of other birds’ nests, destroying the eggs 
and young birds. In captivity they are cele¬ 
brated for their crafty instincts, their power of 
imitating words, and their propensity to purloin 
and secrete glittering articles. The American 
magpie, Pica pica hudsonica, is a beautiful 
bird, about 18 inches long, purple black with 
large patches of white on the breast, rump, and 
top of the wings. The tail is long and pointed. 


It feeds largely upon meat. It is found princi¬ 
pally in the Rocky Mountain region. 

Mahogany. This tree is a native of the 
West Indies and of tropical America. It is a 
tree of considerable magnitude, with compound 
leaves of several pairs of leaflets, and yellowish 
white flowers. Mahogany is applied to many 
uses. It is a fine wood, of close texture, of a 
reddish color shaded with brown, and is capable 
of taking a fine polish. It varies much in value 
according to the color and markings. The 
mahogany tree is found most commonly on the 
coasts of Honduras and Campeachy, and also 
in the islands of Cuba and Hayti. It was for¬ 
merly plentiful in Jamaica. The wood obtained 
from Honduras and Campeachy is often termed 
bay wood; that from Cuba and Hayti (which 
is of finer quality) is known in the market as 
Spanish mahogany. There are one or two other 
varieties of mahogany, produced by trees belong¬ 
ing to the same natural order, and natives of the 
East Indies. 

Manatee. The manatee or sea cow is an 
aquatic mammal of the genus Trichechus, order 
Sirenia. Three species are known, one of which 
is found in West Africa, and the others in Amer¬ 
ica. They frequent rivers from Florida to the 
Amazon and also those of Cuba, usually choos¬ 
ing the quiet reaches of the streams above tide 
water. Their food is water grasses and other 
aquatic plants. Their anterior limbs are flat 
and not adapted for walking, hence they never 
come upon land. The tail is flat and broad and 
adapted for swimming. They are large, awk¬ 
ward animals, attaining a length of eight to 
ten feet as a rule, but sometimes growing to 
thirteen feet. The skin is of a grayish color, 
sparsely covered with hairs. Their flesh is 
excellent, and they furnish a soft, clear oil which 
does not become rancid. 

Mandrill. A species of baboon which is 
distinguished by the short or rudimentary tail, 
by the elongated, dog-like muzzle, which is 
brilliantly blue and scarlet, and by its yellow 
chin beard. Mandrills inhabit western Africa, 
where they associate in large troops; 

Mangrove. A genus of plants consisting 
of trees or shrubs which grow in tropical coun¬ 
tries along the muddy beaches of low coasts, 
where they form impenetrable barriers for long 
distances. They throw out numerous roots from 
the lower part of the stem, and also send down 
long, slender roots from the branches, like the 
Indian banyan tree. The seeds germinate in 
the seed vessel, the root growing downward 
until it fixes itself in the mud. The wood is 
dark red, hard and durable, and the bark is 
used for tanning. 

Manna. The sweet, concrete juice which is 
obtained by incisions made in the stem of a 
species of ash, Fraxinus ornus, a native of Sicily, 
Calabria, and other parts of the south of Europe. 
The manna of commerce is collected in Sicily, 
where the manna ash is cultivated for the pur¬ 
pose in regular plantations. The best manna 
is in oblong pieces or flakes of a whitish or pale 
yellow color, fight, friable, and somewhat trans¬ 
parent. It has a slight peculiar odor, and a 
sweetish taste mixed with a slight degree of 




752 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


bitterness, and is employed as a gentle laxative 
for children or persons of weak habit. It is, 
however, generally used as an adjunct to other 
more active medicines. Other sweetish secre¬ 
tions exuded by some other plants growing in 
warm and dry climates, as the Eucalyptus man- 
nifera of Australia, the Tamarix mannifera or 
gallica of Arabia and Syria, are considered to be 
kinds of manna. Small quantities of manna, 
known under the name of Briangon manna , are 
obtained from the common larch. In Scripture 
we are told that a substance called manna was 
miraculously furnished as food for the Israelites 
in their journey through the wilderness of Arabia. 
Some persons identify it with the saccharine 
substance yielded by the Tamarix mannifera. 

Maple. A name for trees of the genus Acer , 
natural order Sapindacece, peculiar to the north¬ 
ern and temperate parts of the globe. About 
one hundred species are known, distributed 
through Europe, North America, and different 
parts of Asia. They are small or large trees, 
with a sweetish sap, usually lobed leaves, and 
small greenish flowers. 

Meadow Lark. A bird of the family 
Icteridce , related to the blackbirds and orioles. 
It is about the size of a robin, the upper parts 
being black, brown, or buff; the under parts 
yellow; the neck with a scarf of jet black; the 
sides with black spots arranged in rows, and 
the outer tail feathers white. They frequent 
meadows, preferring short thick grass, living 
much upon the ground. The nest is built in a 
tuft of grass, and usually contains from four to 
six whitish eggs spotted with brown. The 
meadow lark lives mostly upon insects, and is 
one of the most valuable birds upon the farm. 
(See Lark.) 

Mistletoe. An American and European 
plant growing parasitically on various trees, and 
celebrated on account of the religious purposes 
to which it was consecrated by the ancient 
Celtic nations of Europe, being held in great 
veneration by the Druids, particularly when it 
was found growing on the oak. It is a small 
shrub, with sessile, obovate, entire, somewhat 
leathery leaves, and small, yellowish-green 
flowers, the whole forming a pendent bush, 
covered in winter with small white berries, which 
contain a glutinous substance. It is common 
enough on certain species of trees, such as apple 
and pear trees, hawthorn, maple, lime, and other 
similar trees, but is very seldom found on the 
oak. Its roots penetrate into the substance of 
the tree on which it grows, and latterly it kills 
the branch supporting it. Traces of the old 
superstitious regard for the mistletoe still remain 
in Germany and England, as kissing under it 
at Christmas. 

Mocking Bird. A genus of the family 
Troglodytidce, or wrens, exclusively American in 
its distribution, but ranging widely over the 
southern and rarely over the northern portions 
of that continent. These birds are remarkable 
for their power of song. The best known species 
is Mimus polyglottos, which has marvelous power 
of voice, and is able to imitate almost any species 
of animal, as well as noises produced artificially. 
Its own song is loud, full, and exceedingly varied. 


In plumage it is decidedly somber, being of a 
general ashy-gray hue, paler beneath; but, 
though the mocking bird cannot vie with other 
American birds in brilliancy of plumage, its 
sweet and varied notes and its faculty of imita¬ 
tion render it a prime favorite. 

Monkey. The popular name of a large 
group of animals, including all of the order 
Primates except man. The name is frequently 
used to comprehend the members of the following 
famihes and sub-families of the order, viz., the 
Simiidce (Anthropoid Apes and Gibbons), the 
Cercopithecidce (Old World Monkeys), the Cebi- 
dce (American Monkeys), and the Callithricidce 
(Marmosets). In a restricted sense, however, 
it is only applicable to certain members of some 
of the above famihes and sub-families, and can¬ 
not be correctly applied to the anthropoid apes. 
The characteristics of the different species of 
monkeys are so varied that it is impossible to 
frame a general definition of them that would 
be applicable to all, and the limits of space 
preclude us from entering into a description of 
each species. The Cercopithecidce include the 
old world monkeys and baboons; they are widely 
distributed over Africa and Asia. The family 
Cebidce comprises all the American monkeys, 
which differ from those of the old world in hav¬ 
ing an additional molar tooth, or grinder, in each 
jaw, and the nostrils widely separated, while 
they have neither cheek pouches nor callosities, 
and their thumbs are never completely oppos¬ 
able. Some have a prehensile tail, winch is as 
useful to them as an additional hand in their 
arboreal haunts. The members of this family 
are strictly confined to the forest regions of 
tropical America, from southern Mexico to 
northern Chili. The last family, the Callithn- 
cidce, comprises the marmosets, which are dis¬ 
tributed from southern Mexico to southern 
Brazil. The habitats of all monkeys are chiefly 
forests, for which their structure is especially 
adapted, enabling them to climb trees with ease, 
and to leap from branch to branch with extra¬ 
ordinary agility. Here they are masters of the 
situation, the only foe they dread being the 
serpent, which alone can reach them in the ar¬ 
boreal retreats. Their food consists chiefly of 
fruits and other vegetable substances; but, 
in addition to these, birds and their eggs and 
insects are by no means unacceptable to them. 

Mosses. A large group of flowerless plants 
of diminutive size, which constitute the class 
Musci, or Muscinece. Mosses are among the 
most extensively diffused of all plants, and are 
both terrestrial and aquatic in habits. They 
consist of a leafy stem, the leaves being often 
closely packed or overlapping one another. 
The fructification of mosses is somewhat com¬ 
plicated, and may be compared to that of ferns 
in all essential points. A capsule is first pro¬ 
duced, and borne at the top of a long foot stalk 
which springs from a tuft of leaves. It is cov¬ 
ered at first by a hood, termed the calyptra, 
but this afterward falls off, and the capsule is 
then seen to be closed by an operculum or lid, 
which eventually bursts away to allow the 
escape of the contained spores. The mouth 
of the capsule, when the operculum has fallen 






MPfl 


LLAMA 


MUNGOOSE 


KANGAROO 


ORANG-UTAN 


AFRICAN RHINOCEROS 


HYENA 





NATURAL HISTORY 


753 


off, is seen to be surrounded by a row of minute 
teeth which constitute the peristome. The 
development of the spore gives rise to a branch¬ 
ing filament, on several points of which buds 
appear, which become leafy stems. Some of 
these produce true reproductive organs, the 
male organs being termed antheridia, and the 
female organs archegonia ; these may be borne 
by the same plant, or by different plants. 
Several thousand species of mosses are known, 
and many of them are extremely beautiful, 
especially under the microscope. 

Moth. The popular name of a numerous 
and beautiful division of lepidopterous insects, 
readily distinguished from butterflies by their 
antennae tapering to a point instead of termi¬ 
nating in a knob, by their wings being horizontal 
when resting, and by their being seldom seen on 
the wing except in the evening or at night 
(though some moths fly by day); hence the 
terms crepuscular and nocturnal lepidoptera 
applied to them. Among the more notable of 
the moths are the “feather or plume moths,” 
the “death’s-head moth,” the “clothes moths,” 
and the “silk moth.” 

Mother-of-Pearl, or Nacre. The 

hard, silvery, brilliant, internal or nacreous 
layer of several kinds of shells, particularly of 
the oyster family, often variegated with chang¬ 
ing purple and azure colors. It is destitute of 
coloring matter, but is composed of a series of 
minute and slightly imbricated layers or ridges 
which have the power of decomposing the rays 
of light, thus producing beautiful iridescent hues. 
The large oysters of the tropical seas produce the 
best nacre; but shells suitable for certain manu¬ 
facturing purposes are obtained in fresh waters, 
particularly in the Mississippi and its tribu¬ 
taries. Mother-of-pearl is extensively used in 
the arts, particularly in inlaid work, and in the 
manufacture of handles for knives, buttons, toys, 
snuffboxes, etc. 

Mountain Goat. See Goat. 

Mountain Sheep. See Sheep. 

Mouse. The name given to certain species 
of small mammals, belonging to the order 
Rodeniia, or gnawing animals. The mice, along 
with the rats, form the very extensive genus 
Mus, and, with other allies, the family Muridce. 
The British species of mice are the common 
house mouse, which is too familiar to need any 
description; the harvest mouse, the smallest and 
at the same time one of the prettiest of British 
mammals, which in the summer constructs a 
curious nest high up in the straws of the standing 
corn, retiring in the winter into burrows, in 
which it hibernates; and the long-tailed field 
mouse, which frequents fields and gardens. 

Mulberry. A fruit tree of the genus 
Morus akin to nettles. The black or common 
mulberry {Morus nigra) is the species most com¬ 
monly cultivated as a fruit tree. The fruit is 
used as a dessert, and is also preserved in the 
form of a syrup. The juice of the berries mixed 
with that of apples forms a beverage of a deep 
port wine color. 

Mule. A hybrid animal between the 
horse and the ass, differing in size, strength, 
and beauty, according to the predominance of 


its parental species; those between a male ass and 
a mare are far superior to the hinny, the 
progeny of a she ass with a horse. In moun¬ 
tainous countries mules are highly serviceable, 
no other beast of burden being so sure-footed, 
or so capable of enduring fatigue; but in beauty 
of form they fall very short of that noble quad¬ 
ruped, the horse, the mule having a large, clumsy 
head, long erect ears, a short mane, and a thin 
tail. 

Mungoose. A species of ichneumon, 
otherwise known as the “gray” or “Indian” 
ichneumon. Being easily domesticated, it is 
kept in many houses in Hindustan to rid them 
of reptiles and other vermin, as rats, mice, etc. 
It has been said that it neutralizes the poison 
of snakes, which it fearlessly attacks, by eating, 
during its contests with them, the snake-root; 
but its immunity is really due to the extreme 
celerity of its movements. It is of a reddish- 
gray color, and somewhat larger than a rat. 

Musk Deer. A genus of deer, forming 
the type of the sub-family Moschince, which is 
essentially distinct from the family of the Cer- 
vida, or true deer. The typical species of the 
family is found chiefly in the elevated table¬ 
lands of central Asia, and particularly of Tibet. 
These animals attain the size of a young roe 
deer, and the upper jaw bears prominent canine 
teeth. The males alone yield the musk, which 
is secreted by an abdominal gland of about the 
size of a hen’s egg. The Tibet musk is most in 
repute, that known as Russian or Siberian being 
inferior in quality. Besides its familiar use as a 
scent, musk is employed medicinally as an 
antispasmodic. 

Musk Ox. An animal intermediate be¬ 
tween the ox and the sheep, resembling in 
general appearance a large goat-like sheep. Its 
body is covered with a coat of tufted hair, 
brownish in color and of great length. The hair 
about the neck and shoulders' is so thick as to 
give the animal a “humped” appearance; on 
the rest of the body it is very long, smooth, and 
flowing, while interspersed among its fibers is a 
layer of lighter colored wool. The musk ox is 
active and agile, and climbs mountainous places 
with ease and dexterity. The horns, broad at 
the base and covering the forehead and crown, 
curve downward between the eye and the ear, 
and then upward and slightly backward. The 
ears are short, the head large and broad, the 
muzzle blunted. The average weight of the 
musk ox is from 400 to 600 pounds. The food 
consists of grass, lichens, etc. The musk ox 
inhabits the arctic regions of America north of 
the sixty-fourth degree of latitude. In spite 
of its name, both the five animal and its flesh 
are free from the odor or taste of musk. The 
beef is excellent and has been an important 
source of food to arctic explorers. 

Nightingale. A group of birds belonging 
to the genus Daulius, inhabiting Europe, Asia, 
and North Africa. One of these is a summer 
visitant to the southern and eastern counties of 
England, arriving about the middle of April. 
It occurs rarely as far north as Mid-Yorkshire. 
The plumage of this delightful songster is of a 
somber hue, being on the upper surface of a 





754 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


reddish brown, redder on the head and rump; 
the tail a lighter tint; the throat, lower part of 
the breast, and abdomen, grayish brown. The 
favorite haunts of this bird are copses and hedge¬ 
rows, and its food consists of insects of various 
descriptions. The nest, which is either on the 
ground or a low bush, is composed of dry leaves, 
lined with grass, roots, and hair. The eggs are 
four or five in number, and of a uniform olive 
brown, tinged with grayish blue. 

Opossum. A family of mammals, belong¬ 
ing to the order of pouch-bearers, which range 
throughout the wooded districts of America, 
from the southern boundary of Texas to the 
La Plata river where they are most numerous, 
while one species is found in North America, 
from Florida to the Hudson river, and west to 
the Missouri. They are rat-like in form, and 
the largest species is about the size of the common 
cat; they have a long tail, which is almost des¬ 
titute of hair, and is very useful from its prehen¬ 
sile nature, enabling the animal not only to 
hang by it, but also to climb and descend trees. 
They are sly and intelligent, and five chiefly 
in trees, hiding in the daytime, and at night 
roaming abroad in search of their food, which 
consists of fruit, insects, small reptiles, birds’ 
eggs, etc. Some, species have no marsupium, 
or pouch, or it is very slightly developed; in 
these particular species the young, on leaving 
the nipples, are carried on their mother’s back, 
retaining their position by entwining their tails 
around hers. 

Orange. The name given to certain plants 
of the genus Citrus. The common or sweet 
orange is in universal request for its fruit. It is 
an evergreen tree, with oblong leaves and white 
flowers. It is extensively cultivated in southern 
Europe, Asia, and, in fact, in every part of the 
world where ' the climate is suitable. In the 
United States it is grown extensively in Florida, 
Louisiana, and California. There are numerous 
varieties of the common orange, the most impor¬ 
tant of which are the Chinese or Mandarin 
orange, the navel and russet oranges, and the 
blood orange, which is remarkable for the color 
of the pulp. The Seville or bitter orange is 
another species, having a bitter fruit of different 
shape, but of not less importance than the com¬ 
mon orange. Its flowers yield the distilled water 
(orange-flower water), so much used in medicine, 
and a volatile oil called “essence of eeroli”, used 
in the preparation of eau de cologne. The 
rind is much used for making marmalade, and 
in the young state is one of the principal flavor¬ 
ing ingredients of the liqueur curagoa. Orange 
trees are extremely fruitful, a single tree pro¬ 
ducing as many as 20,000 oranges. The impor¬ 
tance of these fruits is due to the free acids con¬ 
tained in the pulp, and the volatile oil secreted 
by the'glands which cover the rind. The orange 
is specially cultivated in the Azores, Spain, 
Portugal, and the Mediterranean regions. 

Orang - Utan, or “Jungle Man,” also 
known as the “wild man of the wood.” A large 
ape with brick-red hair, brown skin, and small 
ears, now confined to the swampy forests of 
Sumatra and Borneo. “The largest specimen 
on record stood 4 feet 6 inches in height from 


heel to head, measured 42 inches around the 
chest, and between the finger tips stretched 8 
feet.” (W. T. Hornaday.) The weight of a 
full grown male orang may reach 250 pounds. 
The legs are very short, the arms disproportion¬ 
ately long, reaching to the ankle when the animal 
is placed in an erect position. The males have 
a longish beard, and they sometimes develop 
warty protuberances, called cheek callosities, 
on each side of the face. The resemblance to 
man in appearance is greatest in the females 
and in young animals. In its native home it 
lives in the tree tops, and seldom descends to 
the ground except for water. Instead of leap¬ 
ing from tree to tree like the monkey, they swing 
from one branch to another with great accu¬ 
racy. In its wild state the orang makes a nest 
of leafy branches laid crosswise in a forked tree. 
It sleeps lying flat on its back on this nest, 
grasping an overhead branch with both feet and 
hands for security. 

Oriole. A family of birds which inhabit 
southern Asia, the Malay islands, Africa, and 
Australia, while one species, the golden oriole, 
is a summer visitant to central Europe, and, 
during the period of migration, is occasionally 
observed in England. The male of this species 
is of great beauty, having a brilliant yellow body 
and black wings and tail. The female is much 
plainer, being of a greenish hue, streaked with 
dusky lines. It is about the size of the common 
thrush. The name oriole is also applied to 
several American birds of the genus Icterus , of 
which the Baltimore oriole, a bird ranging from 
Canada to Mexico, is a well-known example. 
It has the head, throat, wings, and upper back 
black; the lower back and all the under parts 
are bright orange, deepening into vermilion on 
the breast. 

Ostrich. A family of birds, belonging to the. 
order Ratitce, having a raft-like sternum (breast 
bone), and consequently not possessing the 
power of flight. The true ostriches belong to a 
single genus, Struthio. Formerly they roamed 
over nearly all the dry regions of Africa, with 
the exception of Libya and the Sahara; but they 
are now very rare except in the eastern and 
southern parts. In habit they are gregarious, 
usually ranging in small companies. They are 
polygamous, each male accompanying three or 
four females, all of which deposit their eggs in 
a single large nest scooped out in the sand. All 
the hens sit and relieve each other by turns, the 
male also taking his turn by night and assisting 
in the incubation of the eggs. The Rhea 
americana, or South American ostrich, is smaller 
than the African ostrich, has no tail, and is of a 
drab color. Its feet have three toes instead of 
two, as is the case with the true ostriches. The 
feathers have very little commercial value. 
The Rhea is found in Patagonia and the region 
northward as far as Brazil. Its habits are simi¬ 
lar to those of its African relatives. 

Owl. The popular name applied to the 
families Strigidce and Bubonidce , of the order 
Raptores, or birds of prey. The owl is easily 
recognized. The head is extremely large; the 
eyes huge and directed forward; the bill short 
and stout; the apertures of the ears very large; 





NATURAL HISTORY 


755 


the legs feathered; the toes four in number, the 
outer one capable of being directed backward. 
The plumage is full and remarkably soft, the 
feathers of the face being so arranged as to form 
two discs around the eyes. The owls are cos¬ 
mopolitan in their distribution, ranging over 
the whole of the globe from the highest northern 
latitudes, and are even found in the remotest 
oceanic islands. They feed on small mammals, 
birds, fishes, and insects, swallowing the hair, 
bones, feathers, and scales, which they after¬ 
ward disgorge in the shape of “pellets.” Their 
flight is bouyant and noiseless". They place 
their nests on the ground, among rocks, in hollow 
trees, and in buildings, while some resort to the 
old nests of other birds. They lay from two to 
five roundish white eggs. 

Oyster. A well-known edible shellfish. 
The oyster, particularly when eaten raw, is easy 
of digestion, and remarkably nutritious. The 
principal breeding time of the common oyster 
is in the spring, when their spawn is usually 
cast. The young oyster is at first a free-swim¬ 
ming organism which after a short time develops 
a shell and attaches itself to stones or other 
hard objects upon the sea bottom. Very com¬ 
monly they adhere to adult shells, and thus are 
formed the large masses termed oyster banks. 
In about a year and a half they attain a size fit 
for the table. 

Palms. A large and important order of 
plants, which are chiefly trees, often of great 
height. They have simple (rarely branched) 
trunks, marked with scars, which indicate the 
attachment of former leaves. The leaves are 
usually either feather-shaped or fan-shaped, 
arranged in a crown at the summit of the stem, 
and often of gigantic size. The flowers are com¬ 
monly perfect or polygamous, and small, but, 
when taken collectively, their bright clusters 
form a striking object. The palms are mostly 
natives of the tropics, and form one of the most 
striking characteristics of tropical vegetation. 
The only European species is the fan palm. The 
products of the palms are various. The fruits 
of some are edible, as the cocoanut palm and 
the date palm, and form an important item of 
food in the countries where they grow. Many 
supply oils, wax, starchy matter, and sugar, 
from which an intoxicating beverage is obtained 
by fermentation and distillation. The palm of 
the Bible appears to be the date palm. The 
cocoanut palm is one of the most important 
of the family. Betel nut is the produce of a 
palm of the genus Areca ; sago is also obtained 
from the stem of a palm. The Palmyra palm of 
the East Indies is chiefly important for its timber, 
which is very hard, heavy, and of a black color. 

Panther. A carnivorous animal measuring 
about six feet and a half from nose to tail, which 
is itself about three feet long. It differs from 
the leopard chiefly by its superior size and deeper 
color. The manner in which it seizes its prey, 
lurking near the sides of woods, etc., and dart¬ 
ing forward with a sudden spring, resembles 
that of the tiger. The puma, or cougar, is some¬ 
times called the American panther. See Puma. 

Par r o t. The name applied in a general sense 
to all the members of the order Psittad, which 


comprises the parrots proper, the cockatoos, 
parroquets, macaws, lories, nestors, etc. The 
true parrots have the upper mandible toothed, 
and longer than it is high, and have a short and 
rounded tail. These birds combine with the 
beauty of their plumage a nature of great docil¬ 
ity, and have the faculty of imitating the human 
voice in a degree not possessed by other birds. 
They are found chiefly in Africa, from which we 
get the gray parrot, which is the favorite; 
South America, which is particularly rich in 
species, furnishes the well-known green parrot; 
and North America is the home of a single species, 
the Carolina parrakeet. The parrots are forest 
birds, and are adepts at climbing, using for that 
purpose both the feet and the bill. Their food 
consists of seeds and fruits. 

Partridge. A well-known bird of the 
grouse family. The common partridge is the 
most plentiful of all game birds in Britain, and 
occurs in nearly all parts of Europe, in Nortn 
Africa, and in some parts of western Asia. The 
wings and tail are short, the tarsi as well as the 
toes naked, and the tarsi not spurred. The greater 
part of the plumage is ash-gray finely varied 
with brown and black. They feed on grain and 
other seeds, insects and their larvae and pupae, 
and are chiefly found in cultivated grounds. 
There are also the red-legged, French, or Guern¬ 
sey partridge, which belongs to a different genus 
and which may be found in considerable num¬ 
bers in different parts of England, the Greek 
partridge, the African partridge, the Arabian 
partridge, and the Indian partridge. The name 
partridge is applied in the United States to 
several North American species of the grouse 
family, as to the ruffed grouse and to quails. 

Passenger Pigeon. The American wild 
pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, at one time very 
abundant in the Mississippi valley and in the 
states eastward, but now very scarce or possibly 
extinct. In the early days of the United States 
these pigeons were so numerous that at times 
the flocks covered the entire visible heavens for 
hours at a time. As late as 1860 they were still 
so plentiful that, when migrating in the spring 
or autumn, flocks were visible almost constantly 
at all hours of the day. When roosting at night 
their weight broke down large branches and 
even small trees; advantage was taken of this 
gregarious habit to kill them, when sleeping, in 
great numbers. In 1911 they were so nearly 
extinct that the American Ornithologists’ Union 
made an organized effort to discover and save 
the remnant then living, and rewards aggregat¬ 
ing over $2000 were offered for the discovery of 
undisturbed nestlings. The passenger pigeon is 
16 inches long, with a ruddy breast, blue-gray 
back, and a pointed tail. Its nest is always 
built of twigs in shrubs or trees, and contains 
one or two white eggs one and a half inches long. 
The mourning dove, which might be mistaken 
for the wild pigeon, is 12 inches long, brownish 
on the back, and has a black spot on each side 
of the neck. It nests on or near the ground, 
frequently using a brush-heap or low-hanging 
branch as the support. The nest usually 
contains two white roundish eggs each an inch 
long. 





756 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Passion Flower. A large genus of twin¬ 
ing plants belonging to the natural order Passi- 
floracecs. They are all twining plants, often 
scrambling over trees to a considerable length, 
and in many cases are most beautiful objects, 
on account of their large, rich, or gaily-colored 
flowers, which are often succeeded by orange-col¬ 
ored edible fruits, for which indeed they are chiefly 
valued in the countries where they grow wild. 
Passiflora laurifolia produces the water lemon 
of the West Indies, and 'passiflora malijormis 
bears the sweet calabash. The name is applied 
more especially to passiflora ccerulea, winch is 
commonly cultivated in England out of doors, 
and is the one to which the genus owes its name. 

Peach. A stone fruit native to China. It 
has been cultivated from the earliest times, 
reaching Europe by the way of Persia, hence its 
name, Prunus persica. The tree is small and 
much-branched, about fifteen to twenty feet 
high. It is nearly as hardy as the apple, but, 
owing to its early blooming habit, its successful 
commercial culture is limited to comparatively 
few localities, as, in America, the eastern and 
southern shores of the Great Lakes, New Jersey, 
Delaware, and Maryland, northern Georgia and 
Alabama, parts of Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, 
and eastern Texas, and all of California. Peaches 
are propagated from the seed, the trees bearing 
about the third year. Under the most favorable 
conditions the tree seldom reaches thirty years, 
commercial orchards usually lasting about ten. 
The fruit is usually classified as clingstone and 
freestone. The fruit is a drupe, varying much 
in size and color of flesh and downy skin. It is 
used as a dessert, for canning, and in the manu¬ 
facture of peach brandy. 

Peacock. The common name of a genus 
of beautiful birds, including only the common 
peacock and the Javanese peacock. The name 
properly belongs to the male, but it is popularly 
applied to the species in general, though the 
female is, for distinction’s sake, called a peahen. 
Like other domesticated birds, the common 
peacock exhibits several varieties. The ordinary 
length of this splendid bird, from the tip of the 
bill to that of the full-grown fan-expanded tail, 
is about four feet. The female is rather less. 
Her train is not only very short, but destitute 
of those brilliant hues and striking beauties 
which adorn the male; her crest, too, is less 
developed, and her whole plumage partakes of a 
cinereous hue. When pleased, the peacock 
erects his tail, unfolds his feathers, and fre¬ 
quently turns around, as if to catch the sun¬ 
beams in every direction, accompanying this 
movement with a hollow murmuring. At other 
times his cry is very disagreeable, and often 
repeated, especially before rain. Every year 
he sheds his plumes, and courts the most obscure 
retreats until the returning spring renews his 
luster. The Javanese peacock resembles the 
common kind, but has a larger crest. 

Pear. An orchard fruit grown widely 
throughout all temperate regions. The coun¬ 
tries of largest production are France and the 
United States, where the pear ranks fourth in 
importance among orchard fruits. The best 
districts in the United States are the northeast¬ 


ern states from New England to the Great Lakes, 
and in California and parts of Washington and 
Oregon. Left to themselves the trees some¬ 
times reach a height of sixty feet. The size 
and quality of the fruit is increased, however, 
by dwarfing, which is done by grafting on quince 
stock. The Chinese pear, of little importance 
itself, has given two hybrids, the LeConte and 
the Kieffer, which have proved successful in 
the South. Pear trees thrive best on heavy 
clay loam, bearing in five to seven years. They 
are" grown from the seed. An important com¬ 
mercial variety is called the Bartlett pear. The 
Seckel is a prominent eastern variety of excep¬ 
tionally good quality, but of small size. 

Peccary. An American animal of the 
swine family and related to the wild boar of 
Europe. It is found from the Red river south¬ 
ward through Mexico, Central and South Amer¬ 
ica as far as Patagonia. Both jaws are fitted 
with long tusks, and when enraged it fights with 
great courage and ferocity. Its food consists 
of nuts, seeds, roots, and small animals. The 
peccary is provided with a musk gland which 
gives the flesh a strong flavor; but if this is 
removed as soon as the animal is dead, the meat 
is said to be palatable. The collared peccary is 
of a grayish-black color and has a narrow band 
of white around the neck. The white-lipped 
peccary is larger than the collared and has 
white hair on the upper lip. 

Pelican. The popular name applied to a 
family of birds, characterized by possessing a 
long, straight, broad, and much-depressed bill, 
the upper mandible flat and terminating in a 
very strong hook, and the lower mandible 
formed by two long branches, flexible and united 
at the tip. From these branches is suspended 
a pouch of naked skin, of considerable elasticity, 
and capable of holding a large number of fish. 
In this pouch these birds stow away the results 
of their fishing excursions, after having satisfied 
the immediate cravings of their stomachs. The 
pelicans are large, web-footed, ungainly-looking 
birds from four to six feet long, with an expanse 
of wing of about eight feet. In their habits 
they are gregarious, and frequent the banks of 
rivers and lakes or the seacoast. 

Peony. A genus of plants very generally 
cultivated in gardens for the sake of their large 
showy flowers. The species are mostly herba¬ 
ceous, having perennial tuberous roots and large 
deeply-lobed leaves, although a few are half- 
shrubby. The flowers are solitary, and of a 
variety of colors, crimson, purplish, pink, yellow, 
and white. The roots and seeds of all the species 
are emetic and cathartic in moderate doses. 
The common peony of cottage gardens was 
formerly in great repute as a medicine. 

Pepper. A name applied to various plants 
having pungent, acrid, and aromatic proper¬ 
ties. The most important is the black pepper, 
a native of the East Indies, and now extensively 
cultivated in the tropics for the fruit, which is 
used for various purposes, but chiefly as a spice 
and a condiment. It is a climbing shrub, with 
opposite leathery leaves, and spikes of hermaph¬ 
rodite flowers. The fruit, which is about the 
size of a pea, is gathered in an unripe state and 




NATURAL HISTORY 


757 


dried, constituting the “black pepper” of com¬ 
merce. The term “white pepper” is applied 
to the ripe fruit of the same plant after it is 
deprived of the outer fleshy portion. The dried 
fruiting spikes of a species of Piper longum con¬ 
stitute “long pepper” used for culinary purposes 
and for pickling. Most of these plants owe 
their active properties to the presence of an 
acrid resin, and of a crystalline principle called 
piperine. Cayenne pepper is the produce of 
capsicum. Jamaica pepper is obtained from a 
species of Eugenia belonging to the myrtle 
family. 

Petroleum. A combustible fluid which is 
found in sedimentary rocks in many parts of 
the earth. The prevailing opinion among 
geologists is that it was formed by the destruc¬ 
tive distillation of organic matter during and 
subsequent to the consolidation of the sediments 
of which the rock was formed. Petroleum 
varies greatly in color and consistence, being 
sometimes thin and pale, at other times thick 
and dark-colored. The substances which miner¬ 
alogists have distinguished by the names asphal- 
tum, maltha, petroleum, and naphtha are 
hydrocarbons of different densities. Abundant 
supplies of petroleum are obtained from wells 
and springs in Pennsylvania, New York, Texas, 
California, and Canada, and the demand for it 
to serve as an illuminating agent, and for the 
lubrication of machinery, has created an impor¬ 
tant branch of commerce. On fractional dis¬ 
tillation petroleum yields several important 
products, among which are paraffin, lubricating 
oils, kerosene, naphtha, gasoline, and benzine. 

Pheasant. A family of birds comprising 
peafowl, true pheasants, jungle fowl, turkeys, 
and Guinea fowl. The true pheasants, of which 
there are about fifteen species, whose home is 
Asia, are among the most gorgeous of the 
feathered tribe. No pheasant is indigenous to 
Europe, the British species being an introduc¬ 
tion from Asia Minor, and supposed to have been 
imported into England by the Romans. At the 
resent day, however, very few of this original 
reed exist in that country, for it has been 
crossed with the Chinese ring-necked pheasant 
to such a degree that pure-bred birds are rare. 
The pheasant chiefly frequents woods for the 
purpose of roosting, being in the daytime found 
in hedge bottoms and thickets searching for 
its food, which consists of grain, seeds, green 
shoots, and insects. It is polygamous, and very 
pugnacious in its own territory, not permitting 
intrusion from the males of its race. The female 
deposits her eggs, from six to ten in number, in a 
slight hollow, scantily lined with dry leaves; but, 
being a very timid bird, and easily made to 
desert her post, the eggs are in most cases 
removed from the nest, and the young hatched 
out under domestic fowls. It is questionable, 
if this were not done, if the pheasant would not 
become extinct in England. Among the most 
beautiful of the pheasant family are the golden 
pheasant and Reeves’s pheasant, both inhabi¬ 
tants of central Asia. 

Pigeon. The common name of a group of 
birds, forming the order Columbce. The pigeons 
or doves as a group have the upper mandible 


arched toward its apex, and of homy consis¬ 
tence; a second curve exists at its base, where 
there is a cartilaginous plate or piece through 
which the nostrils pass. The crop is of large 
size. The pigeons are generally strong on the 
wing. They are mostly arboreal in habit, 
perching upon trees, and building their nests 
in elevated situations. Both sexes incubate. 
These birds generally pair for life, the loss or 
death of a mate being in many cases apparently 
mourned and grieved over, and the survivor 
frequently refusing to be consoled by another 
mate. The song consists of the well-known 
plaintive cooing. The pigeons are distributed 
in every quarter of the globe, but attain the 
greatest luxuriance of plumage in warm and 
tropical regions. The pigeon family is divided 
into various groups. The true pigeons are 
represented by the stockdove, from which, it 
was once supposed, most of the beautiful varie¬ 
ties of the Columbse, which in a state of domes¬ 
tication are dependent upon man, derived their 
origin; but it is now believed the rock dove is 
the parent stock. The wild pigeon was at one 
time very abundant in North America, but is 
now believed to be extinct. The house pigeons, 
tumblers, fantails, pouters, carriers, and jaco¬ 
bins are the chief varieties of the rock pigeon, 
and have been employed by Darwin to illustrate 
many of the points involved in his theory of 
“descent by natural selection”. Other species 
of pigeons are the fruit pigeons of India, the 
Eastern Archipelago, and Australia, and the 
ground pigeons, the largest of the group, includ¬ 
ing the crowned pigeon of the Eastern Archipel¬ 
ago. (See Passenger Pigeon.) 

Pine. The popular name of trees of the 
genus Pinus, of the order Coniferce. The pines 
are distinguished by having persistent linear, 
needle-like leaves, usually in clusters of two to 
five in the axils of membraneous scales. The 
cones also afford an important ready means of 
distinction and classification. The Scotch pine, 
Pinus sylvestris, is a tall, straight, hardy tree, 
from sixty to 100 feet high; it is a native of most 
parts of Europe, flowering in May and June, and 
having many varieties. The leaves are rigid, 
in pairs, somewhat waved and twisted; the 
lower branches are somewhat pendent; the bark 
is of a reddish tinge, sometimes rough and 
furrowed. The leaves are distinguishable from 
those of all other pines in which they occur in 
pairs by their glaucous hue, especially when 
young. The Scotch pine almost always occurs 
in masses. It is considered full grown and fit 
to be cut down for timber in fifty or sixty years; 
but in the north of Scotland, where pine forests 
grew to perfection in former times, the tree 
continued to increase in bulk for three or four 
centuries. The tree is most abundant in the 
north of Europe. There are extensive forests 
of it in Russia, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Ger¬ 
many, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Vosges. 
In Scotland it grows at the height of 2,700 feet 
on the Grampians. The Corsican pine grows 
to a height of from eighty to 100 feet, and in the 
island of Corsica it is said to reach an altitude 
of 140 to 150 feet. The pinaster, or cluster 
pine, is indigenous to the south of Europe, to the 




758 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


west of Asia, the Himalayas, and, it seems, even 
to China. It is a large, handsome, pyramidal 
tree, varying from forty to sixty feet in height. 
Its cones point upward, in star-like clusters, 
whence the name of pinaster or star pine. In 
France, especially between Bayonne and Bor¬ 
deaux, it covers immense tracts of barren sand, 
in which it has been planted to prevent the sand 
from drifting. The stone pine is a lofty tree 
in the south of Europe, where it is a native. Its 
spreading head forms a kind of parasol; the 
trunk is fifty or sixty feet high, and clear of 
branches. In Britain the stone pine seldom 
exceeds the size of a large bush, although speci¬ 
mens have reached a height of thirty and forty 
feet. The Cembran pine is a native of Switzer¬ 
land and Siberia. The red Canadian pine, 
Pinus resinosa , inhabits the whole of Canada 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and is also found 
in the northern and eastern parts of the United 
States. The trunk rises to the height of seventy 
or eighty feet, is about two feet in diameter at 
the base, and is chiefly remarkable for its uni¬ 
form size for two-thirds of its length. The wood 
is yellowish, compact, fine-grained, resinous, and 
durable. The yellow pine, Pinus mitis, rises 
to the height of fifty or sixty feet, and is fifteen 
or eighteen inches in diameter at the base. The 
cones are small, oval, and armed with fine spines. 
The timber is largely used in shipbuilding and 
for house timber. Other American pines are 
the Jersey pine, the trunk of which is too small 
to be of any utility in the arts; the pitch pine, 
which is most abundant along the Atlantic coast, 
and the wood of which, when the tree grows in 
a dry, gravelly soil, is compact, heavy, and 
contains a large proportion of resin; the long¬ 
leaved pine, Pinus australis , which abounds in 
the lower part of the Carolinas, Georgia, and 
Florida, furnishing resin, tar, pitch, and turpen¬ 
tine, and timber which is hardly inferior to the 
white oak in naval architecture; the white pine, 
Pinus strobus, which was at one time the princi¬ 
pal pine of the region adjacent to the Great 
Lakes; and Lambert’s pine, which grows between 
the fortieth and forty-third parallels of latitude, 
and within about 100 miles of the Pacific. It is 
of gigantic size, the trunk rising from 150 to 
upward of 300 feet, and being from seven to 
nearly twenty feet in diameter. 

Pineapple. A tropical and sub-tropical 
plant of increasing commercial importance, 
which grows a single fragrant and palatable 
fruit usually from four to six inches in diameter 
and six to ten inches high. The plant is usually 
from two to four feet in height. It is extensively 
cultivated in the West Indies and Florida, and 
propagated by slips from the parent plant. 
Plants are set in rows three feet apart and about 
two feet distant in the row. In Florida they 
are usually grown under lath sheds to protect 
them from frost. 

Pink. A genus of plants of which about 
seventy species are known, all, with perhaps one 
or two exceptions, natives of the northern and 
temperate parts of the European continent. 
Their roots are annual and perennial; the stems 
herbaceous and jointed; the leaves opposite 
and entire, and the flowers terminal, aggregate, 


or solitary, and always beautiful. The clove 
pink or carnation, and the garden pink, of which 
there are many varieties, are familiar species. 

Platypus, or Duckbill. An Austra¬ 
lian animal of the order Monotremata, intermedi¬ 
ate between mammals and birds. It has webbed 
feet and a flat bill like a duck; the body is about 
a foot long and covered with soft brown fur, 
intermingled with longer hairs; the tail is broad, 
flat, hairy above and naked below. The plat¬ 
ypus is a nocturnal animal, frequenting quiet 
pools in streams and therefore not easily found. 
It digs deep burrows in the banks in which it 
builds a nest and lays two ovoid eggs, each less 
than an inch long. The young are at first blind 
and hairless like young mice. The food of the 
platypus is mostly animal and consists of water 
insects and other invertebrates. 

Plum. A stone fruit, widely grown in all 
temperate climates, and ranking third in impor¬ 
tance among orchard products in the United 
States. The three principal types of plums are 
the European plums, Japanese, and native plums. 
The European plums thrive in the regions about 
the Great Lakes and northern states, and on the 
Pacific slope where the prune industry has reach¬ 
ed its greatest development. The Japanese 
variety was introduced about 1870, and flour¬ 
ishes much farther south than the European 
plum. The native plum is inferior to either, 
though more hardy. The fruit is distinguished 
from the peach, its near relative, by its smooth 
skin and unwrinkled stone. Firm, sweet-fleshed 
varieties of plums that can be successfully cured 
are called primes. They are extensively grown 
on the Pacific slope where very favorable con¬ 
ditions exist for drying them. California pro¬ 
duces about five and a half million bushels of 
plums and prunes yearly. 

Polar Bear. The polar bear, Thalarctos 
maritimus, constitutes an entire genus. It is a 
tall creature with thin sides, long legs, and flat, 
wide, hairy paws. It stands over four feet high 
and has a length of over seven feet. Its color 
is pure white at all times of the year. The home 
of the polar bear is the ice packs and the barren 
islands of the Arctic zone, where it wanders at 
will, living upon fish, seals, walruses, and the 
scanty vegetable matter of the arctic regions. 
It is a great swimmer and diver, and remains for 
hours at a time, evidently with great pleasure, 
in the icy waters of the northern seas. 

Polecat. A name common to several species 
of the weasel family, but properly applied to the 
European marten, Putorius fcetidus. This ani¬ 
mal is about seventeen inches long, and the tail 
six inches. The color is dark brown. It is a 
nocturnal animal, sleeping during the day and 
searching for its prey at night. It is especially 
destructive to poultry, rabbits, and game, as 
pheasants, so that in Britain it is being rapidly 
exterminated by gamekeepers, farmers, and 
others. Frogs, toads, newts, and fish are often 
stored as food by this voracious animal. It has 
glands secreting a fetid liquor, somewhat like 
that of the American skunk, which it ejects when 
irritated or alarmed. The name of “Foumart” 
is also applied to the polecat; its fur, which 
is imported in large quantities from northern 



NATURAL HISTORY 


759 


Europe, i8 known as that of the “Fitch.” Its 
hairs form a superior kind of artists’ brushes. In 
America the skunk is sometimes called a polecat. 

Poppy. The common name for plants of 
the genus Papaver. The species of poppy are 
herbaceous plants, all bearing large, brilliant, 
but fugacious flowers. The white poppy yields 
the well-known opium of commerce. Most of 
the species are natives of Europe, and four are 
truly natives of Britain. They often occur as 
weeds in fields and waste places, and are fre¬ 
quently also cultivated in gardens for ornament. 
The seeds of the white poppy yield a fixed harm¬ 
less oil employed for culinary purposes; the 
oil cake is used for feeding cattle. The roots of 
the poppy are annual and perennial. The 
calyx is composed of two leaves, and the corolla 
of four petals; the stamens are numerous, and 
the capsule is one-celled, with several longitu¬ 
dinal partitions, and contains a multitude of seeds. 

Porcupine. A name of certain rodent 
quadrupeds, the best-known European species 
of which belong to the genus Hystrix. The body 
is covered, especially on the back, with the so- 
called quills, or dense solid spine-like structures, 
intermixed with bristles and stiff hairs. The 
muzzle is generally short and pointed, the ears 
short and rounded. The anterior feet possess 
four and the hinder feet five toes, all provided 
with strong thick nails. The common or crested 
porcupine, Hystrix cristdta , found in southern 
Europe and in northern Africa, is the best- 
known species. When fully grown it measures 
nearly two feet in length, and some of its spines 
exceed one foot. Its general color is a grizzled 
dusky black. The spines in their usual position 
lie nearly flat, with their points directed back¬ 
ward; but when the animal is excited they are 
capable of being raised. The quills are loosely 
inserted in the skin, and may, on being violently 
shaken, become detached. In America two 
species of arboreal porcupines are found, both 
belonging to the genus Erethizon. They inhabit 
the northeastern states and Canada. 

Porgy. A fish of the family Sparidoe, with 
an oblong body, scaly cheeks, and one dorsal 
fin, found off the coasts of the United States. It 
is one of the most important food fishes, and 
attains a length of eighteen inches and a weight 
of four pounds. 

Porpoise. A species of marine fish-like 
mammal, belonging to the same family as the 
dolphin, and to the order Cetacea. It is an 
inhabitant of northern seas, and is familiar on 
our own shores. It is usually from four to five 
feet in length, though frequently more. In 
color it varies, but is mostly of a jet-black tint 
on the upper surface, merging into pink, mottled 
gray, or white beneath. The porpoise is com¬ 
pelled continually to seek the surface of the 
water for breathing purposes; it is then observed 
rolling over, as it were, and is heard discharging 
air from the crescent-shaped blowhole on the 
crown of the head, at the same time taking in a 
fresh supply at the mouth. Porpoises are fre¬ 
quently observed in great numbers in pursuit 
of shoals of herring, mackerel, and other small 
fish, among which, being of _ an exceedingly 
voracious nature, they commit sad havoc. 


Prairie Dog. The name given to two 
species of small rodent animals of the squirrel 
family, found in America, on the plains east of 
the Rocky mountains from the Canadian border 
to the Red river and Rio Grande, and on the 
western slope in Colorado and Utah. They 
much resemble their allies, the marmots,, in 
appearance, and have well-developed claws on 
all the toes of the fore feet. The best known 
species is about one foot in length, and has a tail 
of about four inches. On the upper surface it 
is reddish-brown variegated with gray. These 
animals live together in great societies on those 
portions of the prairies where their favorite 
food, the buffalo grass, grows luxuriantly. Here 
they excavate burrows in the ground in con¬ 
tiguity to each other, and, when the little crea¬ 
tures are out, quite a busy scene is presented. 
The name prairie dog is given to the animal on 
account of a resemblance which is supposed to 
exist between its cry and the bark of a small dog. 

Precious Stones are those which, be¬ 
cause of their beauty, hardness, and rarity, are 
prized for use in ornamentation, especially in 
jewelry. The diamond, ruby, sapphire, and 
emerald are the only stones which are, strictly 
speaking, entitled to be called “precious” in 
this sense; but the opal, on account of its beauty, 
is often classed with the precious stones, as is 
also the pearl, which is really not a stone, but a 
secretion of a shellfish. 

Agate. A semipellucid, uncrystallized variety of 
quartz, presenting various tints in the same specimen. 
Its colors are delicately arranged in stripes or bands, or 
blended in clouds. 

Alexandrite. A variety of chrysoberyl found in the 
mica slate of the Ural mountains. It is of a rich garnet 
color by transmitted light; by daylight of a dark moss 
green. It is the only stone that so changes. The 
finest specimens of alexandrite are nearly as valuable as 
diamonds. 

Almandine. A common maroon-red variety of garnet. 

Amethyst. A variety of crystallized quartz, of a 
purple or bluish violet color, of different shades. It 
is much used as a jeweler’s stone. In value it is 
about the same as the garnet. 

Aquamarine. A transparent, sea-green variety of 
beryl, used as a gem. 

Aventurine. A variety of translucent quartz spangled 
throughout with scales of yellow mica. Also a variety 
of feldspar. 

Beryl. A very hard mineral of much beauty when 
transparent. It occurs in hexagonal prisms, commonly 
of a green or bluish green color, but also yellow, pink, 
and white. It is a silicate of aluminum and glucinum. 
Beryls are very rich in colors. Their value is about four 
dollars per carat. 

Bloodstone, or Heliotrope. A green siliceous stone 
sprinkled with red jasper, whence the name. 

Cameo. A figure cut in stone or shell that is com¬ 
posed of different colored layers. The value depends on 
the artistic merit of the engraved figure. 

Carbuncle. A beautiful gem of a deep red color 
(with a mixture of scarlet), found in the East Indies. 
When held up to the sun, it loses its deep tinge, and be¬ 
comes of the color of a burning coal. The carbuncle of 
the ancients is believed to have been a garnet. The 
name is now given also to the ruby sapphire and the 
red spinel. The ordinary carbuncle is a garnet cut en 
cabochon, and is worth about one dollar a carat. 

Carnelian. A variety of chalcedony, of a clear, deep 
red, flesh-red, or reddish white color. It is moderately 
hard, capable of a good polish, and often used for seals. 
It is now used but little. 

Cat’s-eye. A variety of quartz or chalcedony exhibiting 
opalescent reflections from within, like the eye of a cat. 
The name is given to other gems affording like effects, 
especially the chrysoberyl. A fine specimen about 
three-eighths of an inch across would be worth from two 
to three hundred dollars. 





760 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Chalcedony. A cryptocrystalline, translucent variety 
of quartz, having usually a whitish color, and a luster 
nearly like wax. 

Chrysolite. A mineral, composed of silica, magnesia, 
and iron, of a yellow to green color. It is little used. 

Chrysoprase. An apple-green variety of chalcedony. 
Its color is due to nickel contained in its composition. 

Dendrite. A stone or mineral in which are branching 
figures, resembling shrubs or trees, produced by a 
foreign mineral, usually by an oxide of manganese, as 
in the moss agate. 

Diamond. A precious stone or gem excelling in bril¬ 
liancy and beautiful play of prismatic colors, and remark¬ 
able for extreme hardness. It is found in many hues— 
green, rose, straw, yellow, etc.; but the straw-colored 
ones are the most common. The diamond is a native 
carbon occurring in isometric crystals, often octahe¬ 
drons, with rounded edges. It is the hardest substance 
known. Diamonds are said to be of the first water 
when very transparent, and of the second and third 
water as the transparency decreases. 

Diopside. A crystallized variety of pyroxene (a sili¬ 
cate of lime and magnesia), of a clear, grayish green 
color; also called mussite. 

Emerald. A precious stone of a rich green color; it 
is the most valuable variety of beryl. See Beryl. 

Epidote. A mineral, commonly of a yellowish green 
color, occurring granular, massive, columnar, and in 
crystals. It is a silicate of alumina, lime, and oxide of 
iron, or manganese. 

Essonite. Cinnamon stone. A variety of garnet. It 
is not much used. 

Fire Opal. See Opal. 

Flint. A massive, somewhat impure variety of 
quartz, in color usually of a gray to brown or nearly 
black, breaking with a conchoidal fracture and a sharp 
edge. 

Fluorite. Calcium fluoride, a mineral of many dif¬ 
ferent colors, white, yellow, purple, red, etc., often very 
beautiful. When crystallized it is commonly in cubes 
with perfect octahedral cleavage. Some varieties are 
used for ornamental vessels. Also called fluorspar, or 
simply fluor. The colored varieties are often called 
false ruby, false emerald, false topaz, false sapphire, and 
false amethyst. For jewelry purposes the chief value of 
the stone is the expense of cutting and mounting. 

Fluorspar. Same as Fluorite. 

Garnet. A mineral having many varieties differing 
in color and in their constituents, but with the same 
general chemical formula. The commonest color is red; 
the luster is vitreous, or glassy; and the hardness is 
greater than that of quartz, about half as hard as the 
diamond. 

The common crystal forms are the dodecahedron and 
trapezohedron. Besides the red varieties there are also 
white, green, yellow, brown, and black ones. 

The garnet is a silicate with various bases such as 
alumina-lime (grossularite essonite or cinnamonstone), 
alumina-magnesia (pyrope), alumina-manganese (spes- 
sartite), and chromium-lime (ouvarovite, color emerald 
green). The transparent red varieties are used as gems. 
The garnet was the carbuncle of the ancients. Garnet 
is a very common mineral in gneiss and mica slate. 

The finest specimens of red garnets come from Arizona 
and a single carat stone is worth about two dollars. 
A green variety that comes from Russia is worth about 
half as much as the diamond. 

Golden Beryl. See Beryl. 

Heliotrope or Bloodstone. A green siliceous stone 
sprinkled with Jasper, as if with blood, whence the name. 

Hematite. An important ore of iron, the sesquioxide, 
so called because of its red color when in the form of 
powder. It occurs in splendent rhombohedral crystals, 
and in massive and earthy forms, the last being called 
red ochre. It is now seldom used in jewelry. 

Hyacinth. A red variety of zircon, sometimes used 
as a gem. It resembles closely a dark Spanish topaz, 
and is worth a little more than the garnet. 

Idocrase. A mineral occurring in tetragonal crystals 
and also massive, of a brown to green color, rarely 
sulphur yellow or blue. It is a silicate of alumina and 
lime, with some iron and magnesia. It is common at 
Mt. Vesuvius. It is little used. 

Indicolite. A variety of tourmaline of an indigo-blue 
color. 

Iolite. A silicate of alumina, iron, and magnesia, 
having a bright blue color and a vitreous or glassy 
luster. It is remarkable for its dichroism, and is also 
called dichroite. 

Jacinth. Same as Hyacinth. 

Jade. A stone commonly of a pale to dark green 
color, but sometimes whitish. It is hard and very 
tough, capable of a fine polish, and is used for orna¬ 


mental purposes and for implements, especially in 
Eastern countries and among many primitive peoples. 

Jasper. An opaque, impure variety of quartz, of 
red, yellow, and other dull colors, breaking with a 
smooth surface. 

Kyanite. A mineral occurring in thin-bladed crystals 
and crystalline aggregates, of a sky-blue color. It is a 
silicate of aluminum. It is little used for jewelry. 

Labradorite. A kind of feldspar, commonly showing 
a beautiful play of bluish-gray colors, and, hence, much 
used for ornamental purposes. The finest specimens 
come from Labrador. 

Lapis-lazuli or Lazuli. A mineral of a fine azure-blue 
color, usually occurring in small rounded masses. It is 
essentially a silicate of alumina, lime, and soda, with 
some sodium sulphide. It is often marked by yellow 
spots or veins of sulphide of iron, and is much valued 
for ornamental work. 

Moonstone. A nearly pellucid variety of feldspar, 
showing pearly or opaline reflections from within. _ The 
best specimens come from Ceylon. Their value is not 
much more than the expense of cutting. 

Nephrite. A hard, compact mineral, of a dark green 
color, formerly worn as remedy for diseases of the kid¬ 
neys, whence its name kidneystone. Amphibole. 

Obsidian. A kind of glass produced by volcanoes. It 
is usually of a black color and opaque, except in thin 
splinters. 

Olivine. A common name of the yellowdsh green 
mineral chrysolite, especially of the variety occurring in 
eruptive rocks. See Chrysolite. 

Onyx. Chalcedony in parallel layers of different 
shades of color. It is used for making cameos, the 
figure being cut in one layer with the next layer as a 
background (see Cameo). It is stained black and used 
to make mourning jewelry. 

Opal. A mineral consisting, like quartz, of silica, 
but inferior to quartz in hardness and specific gravity. 
The precious opal shows a peculiar play of colors of 
delicate tints and it is highly esteemed as a gem. One 
kind, with a varied play of color in a reddish ground, is 
called harlequin opal. The fire opal (which comes from 
Mexico) has colors like the red and yellow of flame. 
This is not the cheap variety commonly called “Mexican 
opal.” A spherical opal about three-eighths of an inch 
in diameter, or an oval flat opal about half an inch long, 
would be worth about sixty dollars. A “Mexican opal” 
of the same size would be w r orth about fifteen dollars. 

Pearl. A shelly concretion, usually rounded, having 
a brilliant luster, with varying tints, formed in the 
mantle, or between the mantle and shell, of certain 
bivalve mollusks (especially in the pearl oysters and 
river mussels) and sometimes in certain univalves. Its 
substance is the same as nacre, or mother-of-pearl. 
Pearls which are round, or nearly round, and of fine 
luster, are highly prized as jew-els. They are sold by 
carat grains, instead of carats. 

Pyrope. A variety of garnet of a poppy-red or blood-red 
color, frequently with a tint of orange. It is used as a gem. 

Rhodonite. Manganese spar, or silicate of manganese, 
a mineral occurring crystallized and in rose-red masses. 
It is almost entirely used for ornamental purposes, in 
slabs, blocks, etc. 

Rock Crystal or Mountain Crystal. Any transparent 
crystal of quartz, particularly of limpid or colorless 
quartz. A sphere of rock crystal of absolutely perfect 
clearness, about five inches in diameter, is worth at 
least twenty thousand dollars. 

Rose Quartz. A variety of quartz w'hich is pinkish red. 

Rubellite. A variety of tourmaline varying in color 
from a pale rose red to a deep ruby, and containing 
lithium. It is a little more valuable than the garnet. 

Ruby. A precious stone of a carmine-red color, some¬ 
times verging to violet, or intermediate between carmine 
and hyacinth red. It is a crystallized variety of corun¬ 
dum. The ruby from Siam is of a dark color and is 
called ox-blood ruby. It has about the same value as 
the diamond. The ruby from Burmah, called the pigeon- 
blood ruby, is of a lighter color and several times more 
valuable than the ox-blood ruby. A fine pigeon-blood 
ruby of two carats would be worth upwards of six 
thousand dollars. 

Rutile. A mineral, usually of a reddish-brown color 
and brilliant, metallic, adamantine luster, occurring in 
tetragonal crystals. 

Sapphire.. A variety of native corundum or alumi¬ 
num sesquioxide. As the name of a gem the term is 
restricted to the transparent varieties of blue, pink, 
yellow, and other colors. The best specimens of the 
blue variety are nearly as valuable as the diamond. 
The sapphire is next to the diamond in hardness. 

Sard. A variety of carnelian, of a reddish-yellow or 
brownish color. 




NATURAL HISTORY 


761 


Sardonyx. A variety of onyx consisting of sard and 
white chalcedony in alternate layers. See Onyx. 

Spinel. A mineral occurring in octahedrons of great 
hardness and various colors, as red, green, blue, brown, 
and black, the red variety being the gem spinel ruby. 
It consists essentially of alumina and magnesia, but 
commonly contains iron and sometimes also chromium. 
The fine specimens of spinel ruby are worth rather more 
than half as much as the diamond. 

Sunstone. Aventurine feldspar; aventurine. 

Topaz. A mineral occurring in rhombic prisms, gen¬ 
erally yellowish and pellucid, also colorless, and of 
greenish, bluish, or brownish shades. It sometimes 
occurs massive and opaque. It is fluosilicate of alumi¬ 
num, and is used as a gem. It is but little more valuable 
than the garnet, except occasionally unusual fine speci¬ 
mens. 

Tourmaline. A mineral occurring in three-sided 
prisms. Black tourmaline is the most common variety, 
but there are also other varieties, as the blue ( indi - 
colite), red (.rubellite ); also green, brown and white. The 
red and green varieties, when transparent, are valued as 
jewels. The finest ones come from Maine, and are worth 
four or five times as much as garnets. 

Turquoise. A hydrous phosphate of alumina con¬ 
taining a little copper. It has a blue, or bluish-green 
color, and usually occurs in kidney-shaped masses with 
a nodular surface, like that of a bunch of grapes. The 
fine specimens are worth nearly half as much as diamonds. 

Uralian Emerald. A precious stone of a rich green 
color, a variety of beryl. 

Verd antique. A mottled-green, serpentine marble. 
Also a green porphyry, which is called Oriental verd 
antique. 

Zircon. A mineral occurring in tetragonal crystals, 
usually of a brown or gray color. It consists of silicon, 
iron, and zirconium, and is harder than the garnet. The 
transparent varieties are used as gems. The red variety 
is called Hyacinth’, a colorless, pale yellow, or smoky- 
brown variety from Ceylon is called jargon. 

Prickly Pear, otherwise called Indian 
fig, is a fleshy and succulent plant, destitute of 
leaves, covered with clusters of spines, and con¬ 
sisting of flattened joints inserted upon each 
other. The fruit is purplish in color, covered with 
fine prickles, and edible. The flower is large 
and yellow. It is a native of the sub-tropical 
and warm temperate parts of America, whence 
it has been introduced into Europe, Mauritius, 
Arabia, Syria, and China. It is easily propa¬ 
gated, and in some countries is used as a hedge- 
plant. It attains a height of seven or eight feet. 

Primrose. A genus of beautiful low plants 
of the order Primulacece. Some are among the 
earliest flowers in spring, as the common prim¬ 
rose, the oxlip, and cowslip; several Japanese 
and other varieties are cultivated in gardens as 
ornamental plants. Their roots are perennial, 
the leaves almost always radical, and the flowers 
are supported on a naked stem, usually disposed 
in a sort of umbel. The varieties of the common 
primrose which have arisen from cultivation are 
very numerous. 

Puma, or Cougar. A carnivorous ani¬ 
mal, Felis concolor, peculiar to America, where it 
ranks next to the jaguar in importance as a 
destructive or dangerous creature. It is known 
as the American lion, probably from its resem¬ 
blance in build and color to the lioness; but it is 
considerably less in size, and lacks a mane. Its 
length is from seven to eight feet from nose to 
tip of tail; its height is about two feet. The 
geographical range of the puma is very extensive, 
being found in the Adirondacks and Florida, 
and along the Rocky mountain and Andes 
systems from British Columbia to Patagonia. 
It is of a cowardly nature, and is not regarded 
with fear by man. Unlike most of the larger 


members of the cat family, it is remarkably 
silent; but it sometimes screams like a terrified 
child, especially when on a marauding expedi¬ 
tion. See Panther. 

Python. A genus and family of serpents 
allied to the family of boas. They are not 
venomous, but kill their prey by compression. 
The pythons belong exclusively to the old world, 
and are of enormous size, sometimes attaining 
a length of over 20 feet. They are found in 
India and in the islands of the Eastern Archi¬ 
pelago, in Africa and in Australia. A rudi¬ 
mentary pelvis and traces of hinder limbs exist 
in the pythons, these structures terminating 
externally in a kind of hooked claw. The head 
exceeds the neck in thickness, and the mouth is 
extremely large. Aided by their prehensile 
tails and rudimentary hinder limbs, the pythons 
suspend themselves from the branches of trees 
and lie in wait near water for animals which 
come to drink. The genus python contains 
various species, the best known of which is the 
reticulated python of the Malay peninsula, 
Sumatra, and Borneo, common in menageries. 

Quail. A name applied to several members 
of the grouse family, which is found widely 
distributed in both the eastern and western 
hemispheres. The best known American species 
is the Virginia quail, which is found from Maine 
to Florida, and as far west as Oklahoma and 
South Dakota. It is about ten inches long. 
The back is rufous, with black or dark brown 
markings; the forehead and breast are black, 
the throat and belly white. The female has a 
buff throat. The nest is placed on the ground 
and contains from ten to eighteen white eggs. 
The flesh of the quail is highly esteemed as a 
table delicacy. Other American species are the 
California mountain quail and the valley quail, 
both of the Pacific coast of the United States. 
Both of these birds are plumed, that of the 
mountain quail drooping, and of the valley 
quail erect. The European quail belongs to 
the genus Coturnix, and is found in most parts 
of the old world. 

Raccoon. A small family of plantigrade 
carnivorous mammals, bear-like in appearance 
and of small size. The raccoons are peculiar to 
America, where they range from British Colum¬ 
bia and Canada to Arizona. The common 
raccoon is a pretty animal, about the size of a 
cat, but much stouter; it has a long brown or 
grizzled coat, a ringed and bushy tail, and a 
turned-up nose. Its legs are short, and are 
armed with strong claws, useful for digging or 
climbing. In its attitudes it is somewhat 
monkey-like, and usually sits upon its haunches 
when feeding, holding its food in its fore paws. 
It has a curious habit, too, of washing articles 
given to it, and of soaking any food in water 
before eating it. Its skin is highly valued as 
a fur, and is consequently much sought after in 
North America, where the animal is widely dis¬ 
tributed. 

Redwood. The name of various sorts of 
wood of a red color, as the wood of the redwood 
of Jamaica; of Andaman wood; of the redwood 
of the Bahamas; and of a coniferous tree of 
California, the redwood of the timber trade. 




762 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


The redwood of California is found only in that 
state, and in but a comparatively contracted 
area even there. The available redwood is now 
confined to about 318 miles of coast. The 
lumber is now becoming much in demand for 
decorative purposes. Its color is a fight salmon 
when first cut, which afterward turns to a deep 
red. 

Reptiles. A class of vertebrate animals, 
which comprises the tortoises, crocodiles, snakes, 
lizards, etc. Reptiles are more closely related 
to birds than any other group of animals; and 
in some recent classifications birds and reptiles 
together are made to constitute the great division 
Sauropsida of the sub-kingdom vertebrata. 
Reptiles agree with birds and differ from all 
other vertebrates in the following characters: 
The skull articulates with the spinal column 
by a single condyle; the lower jaw articulates 
with the skull by the intervention of a peculiar 
bone, termed the os quadratum, or quadrate bone, 
and each half of the lower jaw consists of several 
pieces; at no period of their existence are bran¬ 
chial or water-breathing respiratory organs de¬ 
veloped. The heart in reptiles consists of three 
chambers—two auricles and a ventricle, the 
latter being divided into two portions only by 
a partition which is generally incomplete, and 
allows the arterial and venous blood to mix, so 
that the blood is never so perfectly aerated as 
in the higher animals. The blood is conse¬ 
quently much colder than that of birds and all 
the more highly organized animals, where the 
oxygen obtains a freer access to its particles. 
In the crocodiles the heart has a complete 
septum, but there is an intermixture of the 
venous and arterial blood outside the heart. 
In consequence of this organization of the cir¬ 
culatory system, the whole character of reptiles 
differs from that of the higher animals. The 
cavity of the thorax, or chest, in reptiles is not 
shut off from the abdomen by a complete mus¬ 
cular partition or diaphragm, though traces of it 
are found in crocodiles. The lungs are usually 
less cellular than in birds and mammals, but are 
often of large size, extending into the abdominal 
cavity. In snakes there is usually only one 
active lung, the other being rudimentary or 
completely atrophied. The rectum opens in a 
common cavity, or cloaca, which receives both 
excrementitious matters and the products of the 
generative organs. Reptiles are often provided 
with an exo-skeleton, or hardened skin, consist¬ 
ing of horny plates or scales. The strong and 
conspicuous outer shell of the body of tortoises 
and turtles is formed by this exo-skeleton unit¬ 
ing with the true endo-skeleton. Ribs are 
always present, but differ much in form. Teeth 
are generally present, but are not sunk in dis¬ 
tinct sockets, except in crocodiles. They are 
perpetually renewed as fast as they wear out. 
The tortoises and turtles, however, are toothless, 
but have jaws sheathed with horn like the beak 
of a bird. The jaws have sharp cutting edges 
for cutting the food into pieces small enough 
for swallowing. The young of reptiles are pro¬ 
duced from eggs, mostly hatched after being 
laid, but in some cases the eggs are hatched 
within the body. 


Rhinoceros. The name of a family of 
mammals, represented by five living species, 
characteristic of Africa to the south of the 
Sahara, India, Borneo, and Java. They have 
large unwieldy bodies, short thick legs, termi¬ 
nating in large pads, with hoof-bearing toes; 
large elongated heads, with a long horn or horns 
springing from the snout in existing forms; 
small eyes and ears; and short tails. Their 
hide is extremely thick, but is not bullet-proof, 
as is popularly supposed. The Asiatic species 
differ from the African in some dental charac¬ 
ters, but resemble the latter in other respects. 
Two species belong to Africa, both possessing 
two horns. Of these, the white rhinoceros is 
the larger, attaining a length of over twelve 
feet and a height of nearly six feet; but the black 
or common rhinoceros is the best known species. 
The Asiatic species are three in number, dis¬ 
tinguished by the possession of incisors, or front 
teeth, which are entirely absent in the African 
ones, and the hide has much the appearance of 
armor plates. They are also smaller in size; 
two of the species possess single horns, and 
one a double horn. The Indian rhinoceros, a 
one-horned species, is the one usually seen in 
menageries in this country. It leads a tranquil, 
indolent life, wallowing on the marshy borders 
of lakes and rivers. Owing to the keenness of 
its smell and hearing, the rhinoceros can not be 
easily attacked; but, when brought to bay, it 
charges with great fury and impetuosity. 

Rocky Mountain Sheep. See Sheep. 

Rose. A large genus of plants found chiefly 
in temperate regions. They are usually erect 
thorny shrubs, with compound leaves, and 
flowers of all shades of white, pink, or yellow. 
The calyx consists of five sepals, united in the 
lower part to form a fleshy tube, which encloses 
the fruits. There are normally five petals, but 
under cultivation the number is often much 
increased at the expense of the stamens, which 
are indefinite in number. The rose is one of 
the most beautiful and fragrant of flowers and 
has been held in high estimation for centuries. 

Sable. A carnivorous mammal, nearly 
allied to the common marten and pine marten, 
found chiefly in Siberia and Kamtchatka, and 
hunted for its fur. Its length, exclusive of the 
tail, is about eighteen inches. Its fur, which 
is extremely lustrous, and hence of the very 
highest value, is generally brown, grayish-yellow 
on the throat, with small grayish-yellow spots 
scattered on the sides of the neck. It is densest 
during winter, and owing to the mode of attach¬ 
ment of the hairs to the skin it may be pressed 
or smoothed in any direction. Sable fur has 
been highly prized from very early times. The 
skins readily bring from $30 to $50, and excep¬ 
tionally fine pelts are sometimes sold as high as 
$ 200 . 

Sago. A starchy product obtained from 
the trunk of several species of a genus of palms. 
The one from which the finest sago is prepared 
forms immense forests on nearly all the Moluccas, 
each stem yielding from 100 to 800 pounds of 
sago. The tree is cut down at maturity, the 
medullary part extracted and reduced to powder 
like sawdust. The filaments are next separated 




NATURAL HISTORY 763 


by washing, and the meal laid to dry. For 
exportation the finest sago meal is mixed with 
water, and then rubbed into small grains of the 
size and form of coriander seeds. The Malays 
have a process for refining sago, and giving it a 
fine pearly luster, the method of which is not 
known to Europeans; but there are strong 
reasons to believe that heat is employed, because 
the starch is partially transformed into gum. 
The sago so cured is in the highest estimation 
in all the European markets. Sago forms a 
light, wholesome, nutritious food, and may 
be used to advantage in all cases where a farina¬ 
ceous diet is required. It is also largely used 
in the manufacture of soluble cocoas, and for 
adulterating the common sorts of arrowroot. 

Salmon. A well-known fish, forming the 
type of the family Salmonidce. The salmon 
inhabits both salt and fresh waters, and ranks 
prominent among the food fishes of the United 
States and other countries. The Atlantic 
salmon attains a length of from three to four 
feet, and an average weight of from twelve to 
thirty pounds, but these limits of size and weight 
are frequently exceeded. It usually continues 
in the shallows of its native stream for two 
years after hatching, and during this period it 
attains a length of eight inches. In this stage 
it is called a parr. When the season of its migra¬ 
tion arrives, generally between March and June, 
the fins have become darker and the fish has 
assumed a silvery hue. It is now known as a 
smolt. The smolts now congregate into shoals 
and proceed leisurely seaward. On reaching 
the estuary they remain in its brackish water 
for a short time and then make for the open sea. 
Leaving its native river as a fish, weighing it 
may be not more than two ounces, the smolt, 
after an absence varying from a few months to 
two years, returns to fresh water as a grilse , 
weighing four or five pounds. In the grilse 
stage the fish is capable of depositing eggs. 
Alter spawning in the fresh water the grilse 
again seeks the sea in the autumn, and when its 
second stay in the ocean is over it returns after 
a few months’ absence as the adult salmon, 
weighing from eight to ten pounds. The salmon 
returns as a rule to the river in which it passed 
its earlier existence. The fertility of the fish is 
enormous. Salmon are caught by the rod, and 
by means of nets. For purposes of commercial 
supply they are taken in nets of special con¬ 
struction and of various forms, the fishings being 
regulated by law not only as to their seasons and 
times, but also as to the forms and dispositions 
of the machines for the capture of the fishes. 
There are important fisheries in some European 
and North American rivers. In Europe the fish 
is found between the latitudes of 45° and 75°, 
in North America in corresponding latitudes. 
The flesh of the salmon when fresh is of a bright 
orange color, and is of highest flavor when taken 
from the sea-feeding fish. In the waters of 
northwestern America are several salmon be¬ 
longing to a distinct genus, including the quinnat 
or king-salmon, blue-back salmon or red-fish, 
silver salmon, dog salmon, and humpbacked 
salmon. The quinnat has an average weight of 
twenty-two pounds, but sometimes reaches 100 


pounds. Both it and the blue-back salmon are 
caught in immense numbers in the Columbia, 
Sacramento, and Frazer (especially in spring), 
and are preserved by canning. 

Salt, Common. A substance in common 
use as a seasoner and preserver of food from the 
earliest ages. It exists in immense quantities 
dissolved in sea water, also in the waters of 
salt springs, and in solid deposits, sometimes 
on the surface, sometimes at greater or less 
depths, in almost every geological series. Rock 
salt, that is, salt in the crystalline or solid form, 
is found in great abundance in England. It is 
also found in abundance in nearly every country 
of Europe. The supply in other continents is 
equally great. The basin of the Indus and other 
parts of India possess extensive salt plains. In 
China deep salt wells abound. The Sahara and 
central and southern Africa afford inexhaustible 
supplies. Most of the South American repub¬ 
lics, the West Indies, and the United States 
also have large natural supplies. Salt manu¬ 
factured from sea water is produced extensively 
along the Mediterranean and Atlantic sea¬ 
boards of Europe as well as in America. It is 
chiefly made by natural drying in shallow reser¬ 
voirs, but also by boiling. Salt from sea water 
is usually known as bay salt. Most salt, how¬ 
ever, is produced from rock salt or from brine 
springs, the latter being due to the melting of 
rock salt by water. The salt mines of Wieficzka 
in Galicia were worked in the twelfth century, 
and are the most celebrated in the world. The 
chief manufacturing centers in England are in 
Cheshire and Worcestershire. The salt deposits 
of the United States extend widely through the 
geological strata. The most important salt 
yielding states are Michigan and New York, 
whose deposits are of remarkable richness. The 
wells, which are in the vicinity of Saginaw bay, 
seem inexhaustible in supply. Some are over 
1,900 feet in depth. In New York the salt 
deposit occurs in the Safina formation, at a 
depth ranging from 600 to more than 2,000 
feet. The rock-salt bed in places is 250 feet 
thick and is known to underlie a district 200 
miles long with a probable average width of 25 
to 30 mi les. In Louisiana, on Petit Anse and 
Avery islands, is an immense deposit of rock 
salt of unusual purity. On Virgin river, Nevada, 
there is a bed of rock salt, extending as a bluff 
along the river for over twenty-five miles; 
more than sixty per cent of the cliff is salt of 
great purity. 

Scorpion. Scorpions have an elongated 
body, suddenly terminated by a long slender 
tail formed of six joints, the last of which ter¬ 
minates in an arcuated and very acute sting, 
which effuses a venomous liquid. This sting 
gives rise to excruciating pain, but is usually 
unattended either with redness or swelling, 
except in the glands of the armpit or groin. 
It is very seldom, if ever, fatal to man. The 
animal has four pairs of limbs borne by the 
thorax or chest segments; the maxillary 
palpi (organs of touch belonging to the maxillae 
or lesser jaws) are largely developed, and con¬ 
stitute a formidable pair of nipping claws. 
With these claws they seize their insect prey, 




764 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


which is afterward killed by the sting. The eyes, 
which are of the simple kind, number six, eight, 
or twelve. The female scorpions are said to 
exhibit great care for their young; they carry 
them on their backs for several days after being 
hatched, while they tend them carefully for 
about a month, when they are able to shift for 
themselves. Scorpions generally live in dark 
places, and under stones. They are natives of 
warm countries in both hemispheres. About 20 
species are found in southern United States. 

Seal. The name given to the species of the 
family Phocidce. The true seals are earless; 
and this, in addition to the fact that the con¬ 
struction of their limbs does not permit of their 
using those organs on land, at once distinguishes 
them from the allied, family of eared seals, or 
sea lions. The fore limbs are short, and are so 
attached as to leave little free but the hand; 
in the hind limbs the thigh bones are very short, 
the leg bones relatively long and directed back¬ 
ward in a line with the spine, and closely attached 
by membrane to the inconspicuous tail as far 
as the heel, a construction which prevents the 
leg being thrown forward. The head is very 
round, and the eyes are large and expressive. 
In swimming they seldom use their fore feet, 
while the eared seals use them as powerful 
sweeps. In their distribution the species are 
pretty equally divided between the northern 
and the southern hemispheres, inhabiting tem¬ 
perate and cold regions. The Alaskan fur 
seal belongs to the allied family of eared seals 
and is of great commercial importance. Seals 
are hunted on account of the oil they yield, for 
the sake of which great numbers are slaughtered. 
To the inhabitants of the polar regions they 
afford food, clothing, and fire. 

Sequoia. A genus of conifers, related to 
the cypresses and growing almost, or quite, 
exclusively in California. The genus consists of 
two species, Sequoia sempervirens, the ordinary 
redwood (q. v.), and Sequoia gigantea, the 
famous “big trees” of California. One speci¬ 
men in Calaveras county, Cal., has a height of 
325 feet, and a girth six feet from the ground 
of forty-five feet. The Mariposa grove, sixteen 
miles south of the Yosemite valley, contains 
upward of 100 trees over forty feet in circum¬ 
ference, one over ninety-three feet at the ground, 
and sixty-four feet at eleven feet higher. Some 
of these trees indicate an age of over 2,000 years. 
This grove is government property. The 
sequoia has been successfully introduced into 
England, where some of them have already 
attained a good height. 

Shad. A name of several fishes, of the 
family Clupeidce or herrings, and including two 
American species, the common or American 
shad, and the Alabama shad. The common 
shad inhabits the sea near the mouths of large 
rivers, and in the spring ascends them for the 
purpose of depositing its spawn. The form of 
the shad is the same as that of the other her¬ 
rings, but it is of larger size, and in some places 
receives the name of “herring king.” Its color 
is a dark blue above, with brown and greenish 
lusters, the sides being silvery white. Mature 
specimens have a length of twenty-four to thirty 


inches, and a weight of three to four pounds. 
The Alabama shad is smaller than the common 
species, and weighs on an average about two 
pounds. Both American species of shad are 
highly esteemed for food, and are consumed in 
great quantities in the fresh state. They are 
found all along the coast from New England to 
the gulf of Mexico, and have been successfully 
introduced on the Pacific coast. By some 
authorities the common and Alabama shad are 
regarded as a single species. 

Shark. The general name for a group of 
cartilaginous fishes, celebrated for the size and 
voracity of many of the species. The form of 
the body is elongated, and the tail thick and 
fleshy. The mouth is large, and armed with 
several rows of compressed, sharp-edged, and 
sometimes serrated teeth. The skin is usually 
very rough, covered with a multitude of little 
osseous tubercles or placoid scales. They are 
the most formidable and voracious of all fishes, 
pursue other marine animals, and seem to care 
little whether their prey be living or dead. They 
often follow vessels for the sake of picking up 
any offal which may be thrown overboard, and 
man himself often becomes a victim to their 
rapacity. The basking shark is by far the 
largest species, sometimes attaining the length 
of forty-five feet, but it has none of the ferocity 
of the others. The white shark is one of the 
most formidable and voracious of these fishes. 
It is rare on the British coasts, but common in 
many of the warmer seas, reaching a length of 
over thirty feet. The hammer-headed sharks 
which are chiefly found in tropical seas are very 
voracious, and often attack man. They are 
noteworthy for the remarkable shape of their 
head, which resembles somewhat a double¬ 
headed hammer, the eyes being at the extremi¬ 
ties. Other forms are the blue shark, fox shark, 
or thresher, and the mackerel shark. 

Sheep. The common name of the genus 
Ovis, belonging to the hollow-horned ruminant 
family. Naturalists are by no means agreed 
as to what was the original breed of this invalu¬ 
able animal, which is in modern farming almost 
equally important for furnishing the farm with 
a dressing of manure, and the community at large 
with mutton, clothing, and other necessaries 
of fife. The breeds of sheep are grouped as 
short-wooled, medium-wooled, and long-wooled. 
The Spanish Merinos are typical of the first class, 
the Southdown and Shropshire of the second, 
and the Leicester and Cotswold of the last. 
Wild sheep are found in both Asia and North 
America and are easily recognized from the fact 
that they are the only wild animals having cir¬ 
cling horns. Central Asian species are the 
Argali, Marco Polo’s sheep, and the Siar sheep. 
In America six species are known, the most 
famous being the Bighorn or Rocky Mountain 
sheep. In color it is gray-brown, with a large 
whitish patch near the tail. The horns of a 
full grown specimen have a length of forty inches 
and a spread of seventeen inches. The height 
of the shoulders is about forty inches, and its 
length, including tail, about five feet. They 
inhabit the wildest and most inaccessible parts 
of the Rocky Mountain system, and are larger 





NATURAL HISTORY 


765 


than the largest varieties of domestic breeds. 
The horns of the male are of great dimensions, 
arising a short way above the eyes, and occu- 
ying almost the entire space between the ears, 
ut without touching each other at their bases. 
The hair in this species resembles that of a deer, 
and is short, dry, and flexible in its autumn 
growth, but becomes coarse, dry, and brittle 
as the winter advances. 

Silkworm. A term applied to the larvae, 
or caterpillars, of several species of moths. The 
common silkworm moth, Bombyx mori, is the 
most important of the silk-producing moths, 
and is a native of China, where it has been culti¬ 
vated from a remote period. The mature insect 
is of a cream color with two or three faint brown¬ 
ish lines across the fore wings. The caterpillar 
(silkworm) when first hatched is black or dark 
gray, becoming lighter each time it sheds its skin 
and cream colored after the last molt. It feeds 
upon the white mulberry, and will also eat the 
black mulberry, the Osage orange, and lettuce, 
but the silk produced by larvae fed on the latter 
is of an inferior quality. The silk is produced 
in a pair of specially-constructed vessels which 
contain a gelatinous substance, and become 
much enlarged at the time when the animal is 
about to spin. These silk organs unite at the 
mouth to form a common duct termed the 
spinneret ; through this tube the semi-fluid sub¬ 
stance is ejected, and on coming in contact with 
the air hardens into the soft fiber which is so 
largely used in commerce. The caterpillar 
employs the silk in constructing a cocoon in 
which it assumes the pupa state. The pupa is 
usually killed by heating gently in an oven, 
because the natural exit of the moth is injurious 
to the silk. The Japanese oak-feeding silk-moth 
produces a green cocoon, the silk of which is 
much used for embroidery. Another species 
inhabits northern China and is also an oak-feeder. 
Its cocoon is large and grayish-brown in color. 
Philosamia cynthia, the Ailanthus silkworm of 
China and north Asia, manufactures a gray 
cocoon, from which the Chinese manufacture a 
silk recognized by its soft texture. From the 
cocoon of the Indian or “tussur moth,” the 
natives manufacture the tussur silk fabric. 
There are several other varieties of silk-producing 
moths, but they are less notable and commer¬ 
cially unimportant. 

Silver. A brilliant white metal which was 
known to the ancients. It melts at a heat esti¬ 
mated at about 1900° F. When melted, it 
absorbs oxygen, and just before solidifying it 
evolves it with effervescence, causing spirting 
and projection of the metal. It is the best 
known conductor of electricity and heat, is 
extremely malleable and ductile, and has great 
tenacity; it is not oxidized at ordinary tempera¬ 
tures, and is unaffected by any atmospheric 
agent, except sulphur compounds which are 
sometimes present. It is found native or com¬ 
bined with other elements, the principal ores 
being compounds of sulphur, arsenic, chlorine, 
antimony, or tellurium. The method of extrac¬ 
tion from the ore depends upon the nature of the 
compound used. It is sometimes produced on 
a large scale by fusing its ore with a lead com¬ 


pound, and then cupelling, or by amalgamation 
with mercury. Silver is found in different parts 
of the earth; but it is most abundant along the 
Rocky Mountain-Andes system of the Americas. 
The silver mines of Mexico, Peru, and the United 
States far exceed in value the whole of the 
European and Asiatic mines. Extensive de¬ 
posits of silver also occur at Cobalt in the 
province of Ontario, Canada. 

Snail. A term popularly applied to the 
family Heliddce of gastropod mollusks, but 
particularly to land air-breathing and fresh¬ 
water gastropods of that family. In certain 
species of land snails, as the slugs, the shell is 
rudimentary or absent. The others have a 
spiral shell which the land snail can close at will 
by means of a limy disk called an operculum. 
The part of the snail protruding from the shell 
is the foot , upon the forward end of which is the 
head, bearing one or two pairs of tentacles or 
feelers, which are retractile. The eyes are 
either at the base of the tentacles or, as in the 
land snail, on the ends of the upper pair. The 
mouth has a hard, horny upper jaw and lip for 
biting, and contains a long rasp-hke tongue, the 
radula, for tearing or rasping food. Snails lay 
round semi-transparent eggs, which are either 
deposited on the surface of the ground or buried 
beneath it. The large garden snail is abundant 
in Europe. This species, together with some 
of the smaller species, has been naturalized in 
the most remote colonies. Helix pomatia is the 
well-known edible snail, or Roman snail. It was 
considered a great luxury by the ancient Romans, 
and in the Mediterranean region is still valued 
as an article of food, being fed in some parts 
in large numbers in places specially constructed 
for the purpose. 

Sparrow. A name popularly applied to 
several species of birds of the Finch family 
inhabiting nearly all parts of the world. The 
house or English sparrow is perhaps the best 
known species. It inhabits the British islands 
and other parts of Europe, from which it has 
been introduced into America, where it is now 
regarded as a pest. Their amazing fecundity, 
their strong attachment to their young, their 
familiarity, not to say impudence, and their 
voracity are familiar to all. They often do great 
injury in cornfields and gardens. Many of the 
native American sparrows are fine singers, and 
they are of great use in destroying insects and 
the seeds of harmful plants. 

Sparrow Hawk. The common name of 
several hawks, one of which, about twelve inches 
in length, is well known in Britain. The male 
is colored dark brown on the top of the head, 
and on the upper aspect of the body and wings. 
The under parts are of a reddish-brown color, 
marked with narrow bands of darker tint. The 
female bird is of a duller brown hue on the back 
and the head, and her plumage is diversified by 
numerous white spots. It is a bold, active bird, 
very destructive to pigeons and small birds. The 
American sparrow-hawk, Falco sparverius, is the 
smallest of American hawks. It has a dull 
blue cap, a white throat, with a black streak 
under each eye, and its back is a reddish-brown. 
It feeds principally upon grasshoppers and other 





766 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


insects, but occasionally kills birds and mice. It 
usually nests in hollow trees. Unlike its Euro¬ 
pean relative, it is a beneficial inhabitant of a 
farm. 

Spider. The common name of insect-like 
animals, constituting the order Araneida, of the 
class Arachnida. The head and the chest are 
united to form one segment known as a cephalo- 
thorax; no wings are developed; breathing is 
effected by means of pulmonary or lung sacs. 
The abdomen is unsegmented, and joined to the 
cephalothorax by a short narrow stalk; at the 
end of the abdomen are organs for spinning silk. 
The spider’s web is usually intended to entangle 
prey (chiefly insects); but spiders also spin webs 
to make their abodes, and for other purposes. 
The legs number four pairs, and no antennae 
are developed. Their mandibles are terminated 
by a movable hook, flexed inferiorly, under¬ 
neath which, and near its extremity, is a little 
opening that allows a passage to a venomous 
fluid contained in a gland of the preceding joint. 
After wounding their prey with their hooked 
mandibles they inject this poison into the wound, 
which suddenly destroys the victim. The com¬ 
mon garden or orb spider, with its geometrical 
web, is a very familiar species. To this family 
also belong the trap-door spiders, which excavate 
a nest in the ground, and fit to the aperture a 
curious little door or lid. The tarantulas are 
dark colored, hairy spiders living in tropical or 
sub-tropical countries. Some species of these 
are the largest spiders known, often reaching a 
length of five or six inches. Their sting is 
believed to be very poisonous. 

Sponge. A group of low, many-celled, water 
animals forming the branch Porifera. The body 
is penetrated by numerous channels, some of 
which are inlet tubes, others outlet tubes, and a 
third set connecting the two. The outside of 
the sponge is covered with a thin, leathery 
membrane, the ectoderm ; the pores are lined with 
a softer membrane, the endoderm , and between 
these is a third membrane, the mesoderm, which 
is strengthened by fibrous, limy, or glassy mater¬ 
ial. In the connecting tubes are chambers lined 
with ciliated cells. The water enters through 
the inlet tubes, passes through the connecting 
tubes, and is expelled through the outlet tubes. 
In passing through the chambers fined with 
ciliated cells, the cells capture and digest minute 
vegetable and animal organisms in the water, 
and by movement of the cilia create currents 
which keep the water moving through the sponge. 
The bath sponge of commerce is the siliceous 
skeleton of a sponge. Sponges are of almost 
universal occurrence and are almost exclusively 
marine, being generally found attached to the 
under side of projecting rocks, or clinging to 
the roofs of submarine caverns. The sponges 
of commerce are mostly obtained from the 
Grecian Archipelago, Florida, and the Bahamas. 

Spruce. The name given to several species 
of trees of the genus Picea. The Norway spruce 
is Picea excelsa, which yields the valuable timber 
known under the name of white or Christiania 
deal. It is a native of a great part of northern 
Europe, and is a noble tree of conical habit of 
growth, reaching sometimes the height of 150 


feet. The white spruce is Picea alba, the black 
spruce is Picea nigra, both natives of North 
America. The latter attains the height of 
seventy or eighty feet, with a diameter of from 
fifteen to twenty inches. Its timber is of great 
value on account of its strength, lightness, and 
elasticity, and is often employed for the yards 
of ships and the sides of ladders. From the 
young shoots is extracted the essence of spruce, a 
decoction used in making spruce beer. Douglas’s 
spruce or fir, the Picea Douglasii of northwestern 
America, reaches a height of 300 feet and a 
diameter of twelve feet in its native forests. The 
timber is heavy and strong, and is very valuable 
for building purposes. 

Squirrel. A rodent mammal with a 
bushy, hairy tail. In America the squirrel 
family is divided into three groups—the mar¬ 
mots, the flying squirrels, and the true squirrels. 
The marmots include the woodchucks and 
prairie dogs (q. v.). The flying squirrel is a 
nocturnal animal with a body about five inches 
long, and a flat tail of about four inches covered, 
like the body, with short, fine, silky hair. It has 
a thin flap of skin attached between the fore and 
hind legs. This it uses like a parachute, leaping 
from a tree and sailing downward to another. 
The true squirrels are divided into the tree 
squirrels, the rock squirrels, and the ground 
squirrels, according to their mode of living. 
The tree squirrels are mostly arboreal, living 
either in hollow trees or building spherical nests 
on the branches. The gray squirrel is typical 
of this group. As the name indicates, it is 
grayish, or iron-grayish, on the back, and the 
tail is fringed with white. From tip'of nose to 
tip of tail its length is eighteen inches. The 
black squirrel is considered a variety of the 
gray and is similar in size and habits. In some 
parts of the United States the black variety is 
more numerous than the gray. The fox squir¬ 
rels are larger than the grays, having a length 
of twenty-three to twenty-five inches. The body 
is iron gray and the tail fringed with brown. In 
the southern fox squirrel the tail is fringed with 
black and the nose and ears are white. The red 
squirrel is reddish-brown on the back and white 
on the belly. It is smaller than those described 
and a destroyer of bird eggs and young. The 
rock squirrels five in rocks, stone piles, and fence 
corners. The chipmunk is the type of this 
group. It has cheek pouches, and uses them to 
gather and store up grain and nuts for the winter. 
The ground squirrels burrow in the eaith and 
store their food in their burrows. They five 
mostly on grain, and from this fact are known 
as spermophiles, or “seed lovers”. They are 
most numerous west of the Mississippi. Nearly 
all the squirrels are oaten as food, and the skins 
of some species have some commercial impor¬ 
tance as fur. 

Starfishes. A term in its widest applica¬ 
tion embracing all the echinoderms comprised 
in the orders Ophiuroidea and Asteroidea, but 
more commonly restricted to the members of the 
latter order, of which the common genus Asterias 
may be taken as the type. The starfishes proper 
are covered with a tough leathery skin beset 
with prickles, and have the form of a star, with 






SPARROW HAWK 


TURKEY BUZZARD 


PELICAN 


FLAMINGO 


MEADOW LAR 


BITTERN 


WOODCOCK 


AMERICAN 
^ MAGPIE 


CARDINAL X 
GROSBEAK 


PASSENGER 

PIGEON 


BUSTARD 


QUAIL 






NATURAL HISTORY 


767 


five or more rays radiating from a central disc. 
In the middle of the under surface of the disc 
is situated the mouth, opening into a digestive 
system which sends prolongations into each ray. 
If the prickly skin be removed it will be seen 
to be supported by a series of plates beautifully 
jointed together. On the under surface of each 
ray the plates exhibit a series of perforations, 
through which, in the living state, the ambula¬ 
cra or tubular feet can be protruded so as to 
effect locomotion. Starfishes are found in 
almost all tropical, European, and American 
seas, and some species are found as far north as 
Greenland. 

Stork. A family of birds, whose members 
are chiefly confined to the old world. The true 
storks are contained in the genus Ciconia, and 
range over Europe, Asia, and Africa. In form 
they resemble the herons, but are more robust, 
and have larger bills and shorter toes, which 
are partly webbed. They inhabit the vicinity 
of marshes and rivers, where they find an abun¬ 
dant supply of food, consisting of frogs, lizards, 
fishes, and even young birds. They are migra¬ 
tory birds, arriving from the South at then- 
breeding haunts in the early spring, and depart¬ 
ing again in autumn. The white stork, which is 
common in many countries of Europe, constructs 
a large nest, most frequently on the chimney of 
a cottage, to which it is thought to bring good 
luck. In plumage it is white, with black wings. 

Sugar Cane. A plant from which a great 
part of the sugar of commerce is obtained. It 
is nowhere found in a wild state, but it is prob¬ 
ably a native of tropical Asia. It grows to the 
height of seven or eight feet or more, and has 
broad ribbed leaves, and smooth shining stems. 
It is now cultivated in all the warm parts of the 
globe, such as the West Indies, Brazil, Java, 
Louisiana, etc., but varies in growth according 
to the situation, the season, or the weather. 
The plant is propagated by cuttings, and a 
plantation lasts from six to ten years. The 
juice of the cane is very palatable and nutritious. 

Swallow. Any one of the numerous pas¬ 
serine birds of the family Hirundinidce. In the 
United States the best known species are the 
barn swallow, the cliff, eaves, or chimney swal¬ 
low, the white bellied or tree swallow, and the 
bank swallow. The species usually described 
by naturalists as the type of the family is 
Hirundo rustica, a well-known European visitor 
whose arrival from Africa (usually about the 
middle of April) is eagerly looked for as a sign 
of approaching summer. Swallows usually 
arrive in pairs—a male and a female—though 
several pairs often form a small flight; but if a 
single bird is seen to arrive, there is a strong 
presumption that it has lost its mate. They 
return with unfailing regularity to their old 
haunts, and in May commence building their 
nests, which are in shape somewhat like a flat¬ 
tened cup, divided perpendicularly; they are 
made of clay, mud, and straw, lined with horse¬ 
hair or feathers, and the eggs, which are from 
four to six in number, are white, spotted with 
purplish-red. 

Swan. A genus of swimming birds, distin¬ 
guished as a group by the bill being of equal 


length with the head, and broad throughout its 
length; by the cere being soft; by the front toes 
being strongly webbed, while the hinder toe is 
not webbed, and has no lobe or underskin. The 
species which inhabit or visit Britain are the 
mute or tame swan, the whooper, whistling, or 
wild swan, and Bewick’s swan. The mute or 
tame swan, so named from having little or no 
voice, is the only species which is permanently 
resident in Britain. The nest is constructed of 
reeds and grasses, and is generally situated near 
the edge of the water on some islet. The young 
(“cygnets”) when hatched are of a light bluish- 
gray color. The food consists of vegetable mat¬ 
ters, smaller fishes, worms, etc., and fish-spawn. 
The wild swan and Bewick’s swan pass the win¬ 
ter in Great Britian, flying northward in the 
spring. The first is a native of Iceland, eastern 
Lapland, and northern Russia; the second has 
its home farther east. They have their repre¬ 
sentatives in North America in the trumpeter 
swan, and the North American whistling swan, 
Olor columbianus. South America produces one 
very distinct species, the beautiful black-necked 
swan. The black swan of Australia, like the 
white swan, is frequently kept as an ornament 
in parks or pleasure grounds. 

Tea. A small tree, reaching the height 
sometimes of thirty feet, whose leaves when 
properly handled become the tea of commerce. 
To increase the leaf production, the tree is 
pruned to the form of a much branching shrub 
from two to four feet high. It is propagated 
from seed sown in the fall in shaded seed beds, 
and after a year is transferred to the field. The 
first crop is ready to pick in the third year, and 
the full crop is established about five years after 
planting. The plant is cut back about the 
seventh year to induce the growth of young 
shoots, which produce better leaves, and by 
repeating this pruning at intervals the plant is 
made to produce for many years. Japan, 
including Formosa, produces the most tea; 
China ranks second in production, and India and 
Ceylon third. Some tea is now grown in South 
Carolina. The difference between green and 
black tea is due to a difference in the process of 
manufacture. The leaves are wilted and allowed 
to ferment before they are subjected to a firing 
process in the manufacture of black tea. In 
making green tea the leaves are roasted in pans 
for five minutes as soon as gathered, and then 
rolled in the hands and subjected to further 
drying. The tea is an evergreen tree. Formerly 
nearly all the work of manufacturing tea was 
done by hand; but in more recent times the use 
of machinery has greatly increased, avoiding 
personal contact and reducing expense. 

Thrush. A group of interesting perching 
birds of the family Turdidce, including many of 
our most familiar birds and sweetest songsters. 
In America the robin, Merula migratoria, and 
the bluebird, Sialia sialis, are among the earliest 
birds of spring, and build their nests in orchards 
or near the habitations- of men. Of the true 
thrushes (genus Turdus ) the veery or Wilson’s 
thrush, the hermit thrush, and the wood thrush 
are famous for the sweetness and brilliancy of 
their songs. They are all cinnamon-brown upon 





768 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


the upper parts with brown spots upon the 
breasts or sides, and are all inhabitants of groves 
and woodlands. Among the thrushes of the 
old world are the song thrush or mavis of the 
Scotch, the fieldfare, the song ouzel, and many 
others. The name thrush is also inaccurately 
given to birds of other families that are fine 
singers. 

Tiger. The largest and most dangerous of 
the Felidce, exceeding the lion slightly in size, 
and far surpassing him in destructiveness. It 
is purely Asiatic in its habitat, but is not by any 
means confined to the hot plains of India, though 
there it reaches its highest development, both 
of size and coloration. According to Fayrer, the 
full-grown male Indian tiger is from nine to 
twelve and the tigress from eight to ten feet 
from the nose to the tip of the tail, and from 
thirty-six to forty-two inches high at the shoul¬ 
der. The ground color of the skin is rufous or 
tawny yellow, shaded with white on the ventral 
surface. This is varied with vertical black 
stripes or elongated ovals and brindlings. On 
the face and posterior surface of the ears the 
white markings are peculiarly well developed. 
The depth of the ground color and the intensity 
of the black markings vary according to the age 
and condition of the; animal. In old tigers the 
ground becomes more tawny, of a lighter shade, 
and the black markings better defined. The 
ground coloring is more dusky in young animals. 
Though possessed of immense strength and 
ferocity, the tiger rarely attacks armed men, un¬ 
less provoked, though often carrying off women 
and children. When pressed by hunger or 
enfeebled by age and incapable of dealing with 
larger prey, like buffaloes, the tiger prowls around 
villages, and, having once tasted human flesh, 
becomes a confirmed man eater. In a govern¬ 
ment report it is stated that “one tigress caused 
the desertion of thirteen villages, and 250 square 
miles of country were thrown out of cultiva¬ 
tion.” The jaguar is sometimes called the 
American tiger. 

Toad. See Anura. The popular name 
of any species of the family Bufonidce, which is 
almost universally distributed, being found in 
all parts of the world, except Madagascar, 
Papuasia, and some of the smaller islands of the 
Pacific. The common American species, Bufo 
americanus , or lentiginosus, is more active than 
the European species, moving principally by 
leaping. The body is swollen and heavy look¬ 
ing, covered with a warty skin, head large, flat, 
and toothless, with a rounded, blunt muzzle. 
There is a swelling above the eyes covered with 
pores, and the parotids are of medium size and 
more or less reniform in shape. From these and 
from the skin it secretes a fluid that is extremely 
irritating and acts as a protection from its ene¬ 
mies; when handled or irritated, these animals 
can eject a watery fluid from the vent. But 
neither the secretion from the parotids nor the 
ejected fluid is harmful to man, and there is little 
doubt that its effects' on the lower animals 
have been much exaggerated. The toad has 
four fingers and five partially webbed toes. 
Toads are mostly terrestrial, hiding in damp, 
dark places during the day, and crawling with 


the head near the ground; but some members 
of this family are aquatic, burrowing, or even 
arboreal. They are extremely tenacious of fife, 
and can exist a long time without food. 

Tobacco. A plant of the Solanaceoe or 
nightshade family, to which belong the potato 
and the tomato. It grows from four to six feet 
high, with broad leaves and purple blossoms. 
The meaning of the name is unknown. The 
generic word nicotine is from Jean Nicot, who 
introduced it into France. The United States 
is the greatest tobacco raising country in the 
world. Virginia, Ohio, and Tennessee are the 
greatest tobacco raising states. Cuba produces 
the best cigar tobacco, though most Havana 
cigars are made in Florida by Cubans from the 
raw material imported from the island. The 
United States annually produces over eight 
billion cigars, over seven billion cigarettes, 
five hundred million pounds of manufactured 
tobacco, and over twenty-four million pounds 
of snuff. The total farm value of the tobacco 
crop of the United States is upward of ninety- 
one million dollars. The use of tobacco is now 
common in every country on the globe; both 
sexes smoke in China, Persia, India, and the 
Philippines. 

Tomato. A common garden vegetable, 
native to South America. It was formerly called 
the love apple, and was considered poisonous. 
It is now widely cultivated in the temperate 
regions. In gardens the plants are sometimes 
supported by stakes to keep the fruit off the 
ground, but in field culture they are left unsup¬ 
ported. They are used largely for canning in 
this country. An acre of tomatoes will yield 
five to twenty tons of fruit, and a ton of fruit 
will produce almost four hundred three-pound 
cans. Over eight million cases of twenty-four 
cans each are packed annually. Maryland and 
New Jersey produce about one-half of the entire 
crop. The popular tomatoes are the large, 
smooth, red kind. The fruit varies in color 
from dark red to yellow, and in size from a 
currant to the globular form two to four inches 
in diameter. 

Turkey Vulture, or Turkey Buz¬ 
zard. A large bird of the vulture family, com¬ 
mon in tropical and sub-tropical America and 
occasionally seen in the middle and New England 
states. It is of a dark brown color, with the wing 
covers fighter brown or grayish. The head and 
the neck of the male are naked and conspicu¬ 
ously red, with whitish specks; the head of the 
female has a scanty growth of short gray-brown 
feathers. Full grown birds have a length of 
thirty inches and a spread of wing of six feet. 
They are graceful birds on the wing, soaring in 
great circles to enormous heights. They feed on 
carrion, and for this reason are carefully pro¬ 
tected in warm countries where they are allowed 
to come into the market places and act as scav¬ 
engers. When in danger, they disgorge the 
foul-smelling contents of their crops upon the 
intruder, an act that affords effective protection. 
They do not build a nest, but lay their eggs .on 
the ground, on the top of a stump, or on any 
convenient spot. The nestlings are yellowish- 
white. 




NATURAL HISTORY 


769 


Turtle. The popular name for any species 
of the order Chelonia , which comprises three 
sub-orders, land tortoises, fresh water terrapins, 
and sea turtles. The body is inclosed in an 
exo-skeleton or shell consisting of an upper 
convex part, the carapace, and a lower, flatter 
portion called the plastron. The jaws are en¬ 
cased in horn and have a sharp-cutting edge. 
The tortoises and terrapins are land and fresh 
water animals, and turtles are marine. The 
turtles have limbs modified for swimming; the 
tortoises have toes furnished with claws. Turtles 
sometimes live at a great distance from land, to 
which they periodically return to deposit their 
soft-shelled eggs (from 100 to 250 in number) in 
the sand. They are found in all the inter- 
tropical seas, and sometimes travel into the 
temperate zones. The flesh and eggs of all the 
species are edible, though the Indian turtles are 
less valuable in this respect than those of the 
Atlantic. The most highly valued of the 
family is the green turtle ( Chelone mydas ), from 
which turtle soup is made. It attains a large 
size, sometimes from six to seven feet long, with 
a weight of 700 to 800 pounds. The popular 
name has no reference to the color of the cara¬ 
pace, which is dark olive, passing into dingy 
white, but to the green fat so highly prized by 
epicures. The edible turtle of the East Indies 
is also highly prized. 

Victoria Regia. See Water Lily. 

Walrus. A marine carnivorous mammal, 
closely related to seals and sea lions. It is 
known by its enormous down-turned tusks, or 
canine teeth, projecting from the upper jaw. 
They sometimes reach a length of eighteen to 
twenty-four inches beyond the sockets. Wal¬ 
ruses have a thick clumsy body, deepest at the 
shoulders, and their feet, which are adapted for 
swimming, are also furrowed so as to hold on to 
smooth surfaces. They reach a length of twelve 
feet and a weight of 2,000 pounds. There are 
two living species, one found in the Atlantic and 
one in the Pacific. The Atlantic form is still 
found, according to Wm. T. Hornaday, in 
Smith Sound and north of Franz-Josef Land, 
but formerly extended farther south. The Pacific 
form is more northern, being rarely found on the 
mainland. They feed largely on clams and 
other mollusks, which they dig from the sea 
bottom with their tusks. They visit islands 
and ice floes, and congregate in considerable 
numbers during the breeding period. They 
are hunted for their hides, oil, and flesh. 

Wasp. The wasps belong to the Hymen - 
optera , the highest order of insects, and include 
two superfamilies, the Sphedna or digger wasps, 
and the Vespina or true wasps. These well- 
known insects show some variation in form: 
sometimes the thorax and the abdomen are con¬ 
nected by a slender thread; in other forms these 
parts of the body merge into one another. The 
social wasps, like the hornet, or yellow jacket, 
are the best known. They build nests of paper 
attached to bushes, trees, roofs, and eaves of 
buildings. The paper is manufactured from 
wood fiber obtained from posts and unpainted 
boards. This is chewed in the jaws and united 
into sheets, often of considerable extent. The 


nests are often top-shaped or balloon-shaped, 
with horizontal layers of cells inside resembling 
honeycomb, all inclosed in a spherical paper 
envelope with a hole at the bottom for entrance 
and exit. These nests are sometimes eighteen 
inches long and more than a foot in diameter. 
The wasps that build these nests attack intrud¬ 
ers savagely and their sting is extremely painful. 
The colonies include three forms, males, females, 
and workers. The males and workers die on 
the arrival of cold weather, but the females five 
over the winter in sheltered places, and start a 
new colony in the spring. The workers only 
have stings. The solitary wasps form another 
division of these insects which includes miners, 
mud daubers, and carpenters. The mason 
wasps, or mud daubers, are the most familiar, 
as their mud nests are commonly seen on beams 
and walls. The carpenters cut tubular nests 
in wood and divide them by mud partitions. 
The miners dig tunnels in the earth. Wasps 
are endowed with a considerable degree of intel¬ 
ligence. 

Water Lily, also called Pond Lily, is a 

name applied to plants of the genus Nymphcea. 
They are all aquatic perennial herbs with mostly 
roundish, peltate, or heart-shaped leaves which 
float on the surface of the water. Both leaves 
and flowers grow from rootstalks imbedded in 
the mud Of ponds or sluggish streams, the peti¬ 
oles and flower stalks sometimes attaining a 
length of several feet. The American species 
are the Nymphcea odorata, with sweet scented 
flowers from three to four inches in diameter, 
mostly white, but sometimes pinkish or even 
deep pink, the pinkish variety being most com¬ 
mon in the Lake Champlain region and east¬ 
ward, and Nymphcea tuberosa, with larger 
flowers four to nine inches in diameter, which 
are nearly scentless. This species is most abun¬ 
dant in the region of the Great Lakes. Nym¬ 
phcea ccerulea is a blue Egyptian species culti¬ 
vated in aquaria. The flowers are sweet scented. 
The so-called yellow pond lily belongs to the 
genus Nuphar. It is often associated with the 
Nymphcea. Victoria regia is the name given 
in honor of Queen Victoria to the most magnifi¬ 
cent genus of the order Nymphceacece. There 
is only one species recognized by botanists, a 
native of the Amazonian region of South Amer¬ 
ica, where it was first observed by the unfortu¬ 
nate botanical traveler Haenke, in 1801, and 
said to have been met with by the French natu¬ 
ralist D’Orbigny, in 1827, but not described 
until it was found by Poppig in the Amazon in 
1832. This noble water lily has floating leaves 
of a bright green above, and a deep purple or 
violet on the lower surface, measuring as much 
as five and one-half feet in diameter, with a 
uniformly turned-up margin of about three 
inches, thus resembling hugh shallow trays. 
The flowers, which are proportionately large— 
some measuring fourteen inches in diameter— 
are of all shades from white to pink, and are 
delightfully fragrant.' 

Whale. The popular name of the larger 
cetaceans, particularly of all those belonging to 
the families Balcenidce and Physeteridce. In 
the Balcenidce the head is of enormous size, but 



770 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


is entirely destitute of teeth, instead of which 
the palate is furnished with an apparatus of 
baleen, or whalebone, for the purpose of strain¬ 
ing out of the water the small crustaceans, which 
form the food of these whales. The fibrous 
structure of baleen, or whalebone, its elasticity, 
and its heaviness are well known. The plates 
of it in the mouth of a whale are very numerous, 
several hundreds being on each side of the 
mouth, and they are very closely placed together, 
so that the mouth is filled with them. The 
sulphur bottom whale of the Pacific ocean is the 
largest of the Balcenidce, sometimes reaching 
a length of ninety-five feet. The baleen of such 
a whale weighs about 800 pounds. The head 
of whales usually occupies from a fourth to a 
third of the whole length. The lower surface 
of the true skin extends into a thick layer of 
blubber, an open network of fibers, in which 
fat is held. The blubber is from one foot to 
two feet in thickness, the whole mass in a large 
whale sometimes weighing more than thirty 
tons. The most important species is that 
known as the right whale or Greenland whale. 
It inhabits the seas of the northern parts of the 
world, and abounds chiefly in the arctic regions. 
It commonly attains a size of sixty or seventy 
feet in length. Although smaller than the 
sulphur bottom whale it furnishes large quanti¬ 
ties of baleen and oil. A single specimen has 
yielded as much as 3,500 pounds of whalebone. 
The main physical characteristics of the whale 
are its distorted jaws, with upward directed 
nostrils, its great bulk, and rudimentary limbs. 
The huge bulk of the creature is driven forward 
by the flexible caudal fin, and while the body is 
rigid in front it exhibits great mobility behind. 
The blowholes are placed on the top of the head, 
and the animal can respire only when these are 
above water. The larger whales travel at the 
rate of about four miles an hour, but when pur¬ 
suing their prey or goaded by pain they rush 
through the water at a much greater pace. They 
are aided in this by the broad and powerful tail, 
which is their chief organ of locomotion. Instead 
of being vertical, as in the fishes, this is horizon¬ 
tal, and the larger species can command im¬ 
mense driving power. The tail is also used as 
an offensive and defensive weapon. The blub¬ 
ber, the great object of the whalers, is at once 
dense and elastic, and, while it preserves the 
animal heat, it also serves to reduce the mighty 
bulk of the whale and to bring it nearer to the 
specific gravity of the element in which it spends 
its existence. It might be thought that the 
whale, with its vast bulk, would need sea crea¬ 
tures of a high organization to nourish it; but 
this is not so. Its chief food consists of minute 
mollusks and crustaceans, and with these its im¬ 
mense pasture grounds in the north seas abound. 

Whippoorwill. A bird widely known 
on account of its oft-repeated cry of whippoor¬ 
will. It is not often seen, although it is abun¬ 
dant in damp woods of eastern United States. 
It usually rests on the ground during the day 
and is active at twilight and early nightfall, 
sending forth its cry, and also coursing low over 
the grass in search of insects. It is about ten 
inches long and of plain colors, being grayish, 


much variegated with black and buff. Its bill 
is very short, its mouth large and provided with 
a tuft of long bristles. It builds no nest, but 
deposits its eggs on leaves or a slight depression 
in the ground. To the same family belong the 
chuck-wifi’s-widow and the nighthawk. 

Willow. A group of woody-stemmed plants 
of the order Salicacece, to which the poplars also 
belong. Willows vary in size from those of the 
Alps, which are an inch or two high, to trees of 
from fifty to eighty feet. They are found in 
most countries, with the exception of Australia, 
and grow rapidly. They have many and large 
roots, which grow a long distance through moist 
soil, and bind it with a network of fibers, thus 
preventing the banks of streams from being 
worn away. The bark is tough and bitter. The 
wood is used in houses, vessels, farm tools, casks, 
etc., as fuel and for charcoal. The twigs and young 
shoots are used in making baskets and fight 
furniture. There are some sixty North Ameri¬ 
can willows, ten of which are not found else¬ 
where. The most important of all kinds is the 
white willow, common throughout Asia, Europe, 
and America. It sometimes reaches the height 
of eighty feet. It is very useful on the prairies, 
as it is a fast grower, and also protects other 
trees from the wind. Other kinds are the purple, 
black, brittle, varnished, and bay willows. The 
weeping willow, a native of Asia and North 
Africa, has been introduced into America. It 
is a large tree, and one of the first to leaf out in 
the spring. 

Wistaria. A genus of leguminous plants 
having pinnate leaves and flowers, in terminal* 
recemes, the pod leathery. Some species are 
among the most magnificent ornamental climb¬ 
ers. Wistaria frutescens, a native of Virginia, 
Illinois, and other parts of North America of 
similar climate, found chiefly in marshy grounds, 
attains the length of thirty feet, and has beau¬ 
tiful recemes of fragrant bluish-purple flowers. 
The Chinese wistaria is a cultivated species with 
showy blue flowers, much used as a climber over 
arbors and the walls of houses. It is taller than 
Wistaria frutescens. 

Witch-hazel. A North American shrub, 
Hamamelis virginiana, attaining the height of 15 
to 25 feet. It blossoms late in autumn, the 
flowers being in yellow showy clusters, the fruit 
not maturing until the following year. An 
extract prepared from the flowering twigs is 
much esteemed as a lotion. 

Wolf. The name applied to several species 
of carnivorous animals, belonging to the dog 
family. The common gray or timber wolf is 
about five feet in length including the tail, 
which is fifteen inches long, and is about twenty- 
six inches in height at the shoulder. The muz¬ 
zle much resembles that of a sheep dog; the ears 
are upright and pointed, and the eyes are set 
obliquely. The coat is subject to variation in 
tint, depending much upon the country the 
animal inhabits. Perhaps the most usual tint 
is a yellowish-gray; but it is sometimes almost 
black. The prairie wolf or coyote is similar in 
form and color to the gray wolf, but is about 
one-third smaller. It is a cowardly animal, a 
killer of poultry, pigs, lambs, rabbits, and small 



NATURAL HISTORY 


771 


mammals. Its home is the Rocky Mountain 
region from the city of Mexico to northern 
Canada. In Europe the wolf is found in Lap- 
land, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Poland, Hun¬ 
gary, some districts of Germany, France, Italy, 
Spain, and Greece. The wolf of India is con¬ 
sidered a distinct species, and has a dingy, 
reddish-white fur. 

Woodchuck. A hairy-tailed rodent, Arc- 
tomys monax, allied to the squirrels and also 
known as the American marmot. It inhabits 
North America from the Atlantic seaboard to 
Nebraska and from Hudson bay to South Caro¬ 
lina. A full-grown specimen is about 18 inches 
long, exclusive of the tail, and weighs from 10 to 
15 pounds. The head is broad and flat, the legs 
short, and the body thick and “chunky”. The 
prevailing color is a grizzly, reddish-gray, 
although individuals are frequently nearly black, 
while others show a tendency to albinism. The 
fur has no commercial value. The woodchucks 
dig holes, preferably in gravelly hillsides in which 
they live and in which the young are born. The 
bottom of the burrow is usually below the frost 
line and may extend from 15 to 20 feet under¬ 
ground, sometimes having several connecting 
passages. In summer they frequent meadows 
and cultivated fields when they do much damage 
to the crops upon which they feed and become 
very fat. At the approach of winter they retire 
to their burrows, preferring those in the woods, 
where they remain in a comatose state until 
spring. During hibernation the feeble activities 
of the body are probably supported by the slow 
oxidation of the fat stored in summer, as they 
emerge in the spring lean and emaciated. In 
eastern New York the hibernation extends from 
October 15 to January, although weather con¬ 
ditions may prolong the period several weeks. 
The young are from four to six in number and 
are probably born in April. Although eatable, 
the flesh has a strong flavor and is not regarded 
as of much value. On account of its depreda¬ 
tions on growing crops, the woodchuck is con¬ 
sidered a nuisance by farmers who wage constant 
war upon it with dog and gun. 

Woodcock. A famous game bird belong¬ 
ing to the snipe family, and found in northern 
parts of both the old and new worlds. The 
American woodcock is about ten and a half 
inches long, variegated in black, brown, gray, 
and rusty colors. The bill is very long and 
flexible at the end, and it is thrust into the soft 
ground, in search of earthworms. The pres¬ 
ence of woodcocks can often be detected by a 
cluster of these holes. The European bird is 
larger. It is a winter resident in England, 
breeding in summer in North Scotland. 

Woodpecker. The popular name of birds 
of the family Picidce. Woodpeckers have a 
slender body, powerful beak, and protrusile 
tongue, which is sharp, barbed, and pointed, 
and covered with a glutinous secretion derived 
from glands in the throat. The tail is stiff and 
serves as a support when the birds are clinging 
to the branches or stems of trees. Woodpeckers 
are very widely distributed, but abound chiefly 
in warm climates. They are solitary in habit, 
and live naturally in the depths of forests; but 


as they have become accustomed to man, they 
are now numerous in cultivated fields. Fruits, 
seeds, and insects constitute their food; in 
pursuit of the latter they exhibit wonderful 
dexterity, climbing with astonishing quickness 
on the trunks and branches of trees, and when, 
by tapping with their bills, a rotten place has 
been discovered, they dig vigorously in search 
of the grubs or larvae beneath the bark. They 
cut deep holes in the rotten trunks of trees, in 
which the glossy white eggs are laid. Wood¬ 
peckers do much good by destroying the larvae 
of tree-boring insects. 

Wren. A genus of birds having a slender, 
slightly curved, and pointed bill; the wings 
very short and rounded; the tail short, and 
carried erect; the legs slender, and rather long. 
Their plumage is generally dull. They five on 
or near the ground, seeking for insects and 
worms among low brushes, and in other similar 
situations. The common or European wren is 
found in all parts of Europe, in Morocco 
and Algeria, in Asia Minor and northern 
Persia. The common wren is more abundant 
in the north than in the central and southern 
parts of Europe. It frequents gardens, hedges, 
and thickets. Its flight is not long sustained; 
it merely flits from bush to bush, or from one 
stone to another, with very rapid motion of 
the wings. It sometimes ascends trees, nearly 
in the manner of creepers. The North American 
species of wren are numerous; but many of 
them are ranked under different genera. The 
house wren is larger than the European wren, 
being about five inches long. It is abundant in 
the eastern parts of the United States. It is 
less shy than the European wren, and often 
builds its nest near houses, and in boxes pre- 
ared for it. The nests are made to fill the 
oxes; to effect this a large mass of heter¬ 
ogeneous materials is sometimes collected. The 
song of the house wren is very sweet. The 
male is a very bold, pugnacious bird, readily 
attacking birds far larger than itself, as the 
bluebird and swallows, and taking possession 
of the boxes which they have appropriated for 
their nests. It even attacks cats when they 
approach its nest. 

Yak. A ruminant mammal related to cattle 
and sometimes known as the grunting ox of Tar¬ 
tary. It inhabits the highest and coldest regions 
of central Asia pasturing near the snow line 
which it follows, descending to lower levels in 
winter and reascending to the highest mountain 
meadows in summer. The yak is about the size 
of the domestic ox which it somewhat resembles 
in form. The head is short, the eyes soft and 
expressive, the horns tapering, spreading, and 
curved backward. The body is covered with 
long, silky hair which hangs down like the wool 
of a sheep. Between the horns is a mass of thick 
curly hair, and over the shoulders is a large 
bunch of long, fine hair, resembling a hump, and 
giving the animal the appearance of a buffalo or 
zebu. The tail is covered with long hair, like the 
tail of a horse, and descends nearly to the ground. 
The prevailing color of the hair is black. The 
voice is a short grunt like that of a pig, from 
which the animal probably derives its popular 




772 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


name. The domesticated yak is of much impor¬ 
tance to the Tibetans, forming a large part of 
their wealth. The milk is rich and yields a high 
per cent of butter which is an important article 
of domestic commerce. From it are also made 
curds which are widely eaten both fresh and 
cured. The meat resembles beef and is palatable 
and nutritious. The hair is spun into ropes or 
woven into cloth for tent coverings; the finer 
fur of the hump is used for clothing. The skins, 
tanned with the fur on, are used for caps, outer 
winter garments, rugs and blankets. 

Yam. A plant belonging to the genus 
Dioscorea, characterized by herbaceous twin¬ 
ing stems, seeds with membranous wings, and 
fleshy, tuberous roots. The yams are natives of 
the tropics and are largely cultivated for food 
both in the East and West Indies. The roots 
are starchy or sweet and used as food like the 
sweet potato. In some species the roots attain 
great size. The winged yam, Dioscorea alata, 
has roots that attain the weight of 25 pounds. 
The best known American species is the common 
West Indian yam , Dioscorea sativa, which has 
heart shaped leaves and bears bulbous tubers in 
the axils of the leaves. This is grown in some 
of the southern United States. The yam is pre¬ 
pared for eating by boiling or roasting, and is 
much esteemed as food in the countries where it 
is grown. 

Zamia. A name applied to a genus of 
plants belonging to the order Cycadacece which 
grows exclusively in warm or tropical regions. 
The order is characterized by unbranched palm¬ 
like or corm-like trunks with a terminal bud and 
palm-like foliage. In habit they resemble the 
tree ferns, the pinnate leaves forming a terminal 
crown and unrolling in vernation like those of a 
fern. The ovules are naked and borne on a scale 
or transformed leaf. In the structure of the 
stem they resemble the conifers, the woody 
bundles being arranged in concentric circles 
loosely connected by cellular tissue. The central 
cylinder of the trunk contains much starch from 
which a kind of sago or arrowroot is made. The 
cycads, therefore, combine characteristics of 
three natural orders of plants, the Conifers, 
Palms, and Ferns. They appeared in great 
numbers in the Mesozoic era, forming prominent 
features of the Triassic and Jurassic forests. In 
an evolutionary sense, they are regarded as 
transition forms connecting the acrogens of the 
Carboniferous with the gymnosperms of later 
geologic periods. The cycads best known to 
Americans are Cycas revoluta or the Japanese 
sago palm of the conservatories, and Zamia 
integrifolia or the coontie of Florida. The latter 
has a root-like or rhizome-like subterranean stem 
terminated by a bud and a crown of pinnate 
leaves. From the starchy rhizome a kind of flour 
known as “Florida arrowroot” is prepared. 


Zebra. A name sometimes given to all 
the striped Equidce, all of which are natives of 
Africa; but also, in a more restricted use, desig¬ 
nating a single species, the “true” zebra ( Equus 
or A sinus zebra), a native of the mountainous 
districts of South Africa. In the whole group 
the characters resemble those of the ass more 
than of the horse. The zebra is about twelve 
hands high at the shoulder. It is of a fight, 
graceful form, with slender limbs and narrow 
hoofs; the head fight, the ears rather long and 
open; the ground color white or slightly tinged 
with yellow; the head, neck, body, and legs 
striped with black—the neck and body trans¬ 
versely, but not regularly, the head with bands 
in various directions, the legs with irregular 
cross stripes. The “true” zebra is now nearly 
extinct. The other species of zebra now living 
are Burchell’s zebra of South Africa, and Grevy’s 
zebra inhabiting the hilly country north of the 
Victoria Nyanza. The latter species is more 
slender than the true zebra, and the black 
markings narrower and closer together. The 
habits of the zebra are similar to those of wild 
horses and asses. 

Zebu. A species of cattle found in southern 
Asia, eastern Africa and adjacent islands known 
scientifically as Bos indicus. Different breeds 
of these cattle vary greatly in size, some being 
as large as our largest oxen and others no larger 
than a Newfoundland dog. The prevailing color 
is a rusty gray or mouse color but this is not 
constant, buff, red and black being also found. 
The ears are pendulous and the horns usually 
short or wanting There is a conspicuous dewlap, 
and a prominent fatty hump over the shoulders. 
The flesh makes excellent beef, the fatty hump 
being regarded as a great delicacy. These cattle 
are gentle and docile and are used as beasts of 
burden. In India the white bulls are considered 
sacred by the Brahmins and allowed to graze, 
without interference, in gardens and cultivated 
fields as they will. 

Zeuglodon. (Yoke tooth). A fossil whale- 
like Cetacean found in the strata of the Eocene 
series. The living animal was probably 70 or 
more feet long and shaped somewhat like the 
whale of the present day. It differed from all 
existing whales in having two kinds of teeth, the 
incisors being conical, and the back teeth or 
molars having serrated. triangular crowns and 
being inserted in the jaw by two roots. In 
appearance the tooth suggests two teeth united 
by their crowns. This peculiarity has given 
rise to the generic name (Gr. Zeugle, a yoke; and 
odous, a tooth). The fossil remains of this whale 
occur in great numbers in the “Jackson Beds” 
of southern United States. According to Dana, 
some of the larger vertebrae were a foot and a 
half long and a foot in diameter. In Alabama 
they were formerly so abundant as to have been 
built up into stone walls or burned to rid the 
fields of them. 














UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO—MAIN BUILDING 


















MISCELLANY 


Animals, Symbolism c 

Ant. Frugality and prevision. 
Ape. Uncleanness. 

Ass. Stupidity. 

Bantam Cock. Pluckiness, prig¬ 
gishness. 

Bat. Blindness. 

Bear. Ill-temper, uncouthness. 
Bee. Industry. 

Beetle. Blindness. 

Bull. Straightforwardness. 

Bull Dog. Pertinacity. 

Butterfly. Sportiveness, living 
in pleasure. 

Cat. Slyness, deceit. 

Calf. Lumpishness. 

Cicada. Gift of poetry. 

Cock. Vigilance, overbearing in¬ 
solence. 

Crow. Longevity. 

Crocodile. Hypocrisy. 

Cuckoo. Cuckoldom. 

Dog. Fidelity, dirty habits. 
Dove. Innocence, harmlessness. 
Duck. Canard. 

Eagle. Majesty, inspiration. 


Elephant. Sagacity, ponderosity. 
Fly. Feebleness, insignificance. 
Fox. Cunning, artifice. 

Frog and Toad. Inspiration. 
Goat. Lasciviousness. 

Goose. Conceit, folly. 

Gull. Gullibility. 

Grasshopper. Old age. 

Hare. Timidity. 

Hawk. . Penetration. 

Hen. Maternal care. 

Horse. Speed, grace. 

Jackdaw. Vain assumption, 
empty conceit. 

Jay. Senseless chatter. 

Kitten. Playfulness. 

Lamb. Innocence, sacrifice. 
Lark. Cheerfulness. 

Lion. Noble courage. 

Lynx. Suspicious vigilance. 
Magpie. Garrulity. 

Mole. Obtuseness. 

Monkey. Tricks. 

Mule. Obstinacy. 

Nightingale. Forlornness. 


Ostrich. Stupidity. 

Ox. Patience, strength. 

Owl. Wisdom. 

Parrot. Mocking verbosity. 
Peacock. Pride. 

Pigeon. Cowardice. 

Pig. Obstinacy, dirtiness. 
Puppy. Empty-headed conceit. 
Rabbit. Timidity. 

Raven. Ill luck. 

Robin Redbreast. Confiding 
trust. 

Serpent. Wisdom. 

Sheep. Silliness, timidity. 
Sparrow. Litigiousness. 

Spider. Wiliness. 

Stag. Cuckoldom. 

Swallow. A sunshine friend. 
Swan. Grace. 

Tiger. Ferocity. 

Tortoise. Chastity. 

Turkey Cock. Official insolence. 
Turtle-dove. Conjugal fidelity. 
Vulture. Rapine. 

Wolf. Cruelty. 


April Fool’s Day. The modern custom 
of sending one upon a bootless errand on the 
first day of April is of uncertain origin. It is 
possible, however, that itYnay be a relic of some 
old heathen festival. The custom, whatever its 
origin, of playing little tricks on this day, 
whereby ridicule may be fixed upon unguarded 
individuals, appears to be general throughout 
Europe, and of almost universal scope. In 
France, one thus imposed upon is called un 
voisson d’Avril, “an April fish.” In Eng¬ 
land and the United States such a person is 
called an “April fool”; in Scotland, a “gowk.” 
The favorite jest is to send one upon an errand 
for something grossly nonsensical, or to make 
appointments which are not to be kept, or to 
call to a passer-by that his latchet is unloosed, or 
that there is a spot of mud upon his face. It is 
curious that the Hindus practise precisely similar 
tricks during the Holi Festival which takes place 
about the time of the vernal equinox. 

Arms and Armor. The former term is 
applied to weapons of offense, the latter to the 
various articles of defensive covering used in 
war and military exercises, especially before 
the introduction of gunpowder. Weapons of 
offense are divisible into two distinct sections — 
firearms, and arms used without gunpowder or 
other explosive substance. The first arms of 
offense would probably be wooden clubs, then 
would follow wooden weapons made more deadly 
by means of stone or bone, stone axes, slings, 
bows and arrows with heads of flint or bone, and 
afterwards various weapons of bronze. Subse¬ 
quently a variety of arms of iron and steel were 
introduced, which comprised the sword, javelin, 


pike, spear, or lance, dagger, axe, mace, chariot 
scythe, etc., with a rude artillery consisting of 
catapults, ballistae, and battering-rams. From 
the descriptions of Homer we know that almost 
all the Grecian armor, defensive and offensive, 
in his time was of bronze; though iron was 
sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin 
were the principal weapons of this age among the 
Greeks. The bow is not often mentioned. 
Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to 
have been most accustomed to the use of the 
bow, which was the principal weapon of the 
Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians 
was a defensive weapon intended to catch and 
break the sword of the enemy. With the 
Assyrians the bow was a favorite weapon; but 
with them lances, spears, and javelins were in 
more common use than with the Egyptians. 
Most of the large engines of war, chariots with 
scythes projecting at each side from the axle, 
catapults, and ballistae, seem to have been of 
Assyrian origin. During the historical age of 
Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy 
spear from twenty-one to twenty-four feet in 
length. The sword used by the Greeks was 
short, and was worn on the right side. The 
Roman sword was from twenty-two to twenty- 
four inches in length, straight, two-edged, and 
obtusely pointed, and, as by the Greeks, was worn 
on the right side. It was used principally as a 
stabbing weapon. It was originally of bronze. 
The most characteristic weapon of the Roman 
legionary soldier, however, was the pilum, which 
was a kind of pike or javelin, some six feet or 
more in length. The pilum was sometimes used 
at close-quarters, but more commonly it was 







776 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


thrown. The favorite weapons of the ancient 
Germanic races were the battle-axe, the lance 
or dart, and the sword. The weapons of the 
Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives, 
and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar 
weapons, and were well furnished with archers 
and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively 
late invention introduced by the Normans. 
Gunpowder was not used in Europe to discharge 
projectiles till the beginning of the Fourteenth 
Century. Cannon are first mentioned in Eng¬ 
land in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt 
that they were used by the English at the siege 
of Cambrai, in 1339. The projectiles first used 
for cannon were of stone. Hand firearms date 
from the Fifteenth Century. At first they 
required two men to serve them, and it was 
necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming 
and firing. The first improvement was the 
invention of the match-lock, about 1476 ; this 
was followed by the wheel-lock, and about the 
middle of the Seventeenth Century by the flint¬ 
lock, which was in universal use until it was 
superseded by the percussion-lock, the invention 
of a Scotch clergyman early in the Nineteenth 
Century. The needle-gun dates from 1827. 
The only important weapon not a firearm that 
has been invented since the introduction of gun¬ 
powder is the bayonet, which is believed to have 
been invented about 1650. Some kind of defen¬ 
sive covering was probably of almost as early 
invention as weapons of offense. The principal 
pieces of defensive armor used by the ancients 
were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. 
In the earliest ages of Greece the shield is de¬ 
scribed as of immense size, but in the time of the 
Peloponnesian War (about B. C. 420) it was 
much smaller. The Romans had two sorts of 
shields; the scutum, a large oblong rectangular 
highly convex shield, carried by the legionaries; 
and the parma, a small round or oval flat shield, 
carried by the light-armed troops and the cavalry. 
In the declining days of Rome the shields became 
larger and more varied in form. The helmet 
was a characteristic piece of armor among the 
Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. 
Like all other body armor it was usually made 
of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of 
Greece was distinguished by its lofty crest. The 
Roman helmet in the time of the early emperors 
fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard 
and hinged cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, 
and a small bar across the face for a visor. Both 
Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time 
of bronze, but latterly of flexible materials. 
Greaves for the legs were worn by both, but 
among the Romans usually on one leg. The 
ancient Germans had large shields of plaited 
osier covered with leather, afterwards their 
shields were small, bound with iron, and studded 
with bosses. The Anglo-Saxons had round or 
oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and 
having a boss in the center; and they also had 
corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened with 
iron rings. The Normans were well protected 
by mail; their shields were somewhat triangular 
in shape, their helmets conical. Great variety 
is found in the pattern of the armor, and in some 
cases small pieces of metal were used instead of 
rings, forming what is called scale-armor. A 


suit of armor consisting of larger pieces of metal, 
called plate-armor, was now introduced, and the 
whole body came t.o be incased in a heavy metal 
covering. The various forms of ring or scale 
armor were gradually superseded by the plate- 
armor, which continued to be worn until long 
after the introduction of firearms and field- 
artillery. A complete suit of armor was an 
elaborate and costly equipment, consisting of a 
number of different pieces, each with its distinc¬ 
tive name. In modern European armies the 
metal cuirass is still to some extent in use, the 
cuirassiers being heavy cavalry; and it is said 
that this piece of armor proves a useful defense 
against rifle bullets. During all the time that 
the use of heavy armor prevailed, the horsemen, 
who alone were fully armed, formed the principal 
strength of armies; and infantry were generally 
regarded as of hardly any account. England 
was, however, an exception, as the English 
archers were almost at all times, before the inven¬ 
tion of gunpowder, an important and sometimes 
the chief force in the army. The bow ( long¬ 
bow ) of the English archers was from five to six 
feet in length, and the arrow discharged from 
it was itself a yard long. The long-bow con¬ 
tinued in general use in England till the end 
of the reign of Elizabeth, and even' as late 
as 1627 there was a body of English archers 
in the pay of Richelieu at the siege of La 
Rochelle. 


Armies of the World. 


Countries 

Avail¬ 
able for 
Active 
Service 

Re¬ 

serves 

Total 

War 

Strength 

Avail¬ 
able FOR 
Duty 
Unorg. 

Germany, . . 

613,000 

1,227,000 

1,840,000 

5,500,000 

France, . . . 

529,000 

761,000 

1,290,000 

3,500,000 

Russia, . . . 
Austria-Hun- 

1,100,000 

700,000 

1,800,000 

9,600,000 

gary, . . . 
Italy,.... 

409,000 

381,000 

790,000 

4,700,000 

240,000 

390,000 

630,000 

3,000,000 

Great Britain, 

263,000 

487,000 

750,000 

4,000,000 

Japan, . . . 

220,000 

380,000 

600,000 

5,000,000 

Spain, . . . 

130,000 

180,000 

310,000 

1,850,000 

Belgium, . . 

49,700 

93,300 

143,000 

700,000 

Netherlands,. 

34,540 

6,510 

126,055 

500,000 

Denmark, . . 

14,000 

36,000 

50,000 

270,000 

Sweden,. . . 

62,536 

278,295 

340,831 

260,000 

Norway, . . 

30,000 

125,000 

155,000 

100,000 

Portugal,. . . 

40,000 

84,000 

124,000 

475,000 

Bulgaria, . . 

52,500 

312,500 

365,000 

125,000 

Servia, .... 

27,000 

198,000 

225,000 

80,000 

Rumania, . . 

136,000 

34,000 

170,000 

550,000 

Switzerland, . 

143,000 

135,000 

278,000 

125,000 

Turkey, . . . 

350,000 

495,000 

845,000 

2,000,000 

Greece, . . . 

25,000 

25,000 

50,000 

230,000 

China, . . . 

60,000 

500,000 

560,000 


Mexico, . . . 

26,595 

82,000 

108,595 

1,500,000 

Brazil, ... 

25,000 

75,000 

100,000 

2,000,000 

Argentine,. . 

18,000 

482,000 

500,000 

Chile. 

15,000 

50,000 

65,000 


Peru, .... 

4,000 

9,600 

10,000 

20,000 

14,000 

29,600 


Venezuela,. . 


Bolivia. 

2,430 

176,158 

178,588 


Colombia, . . 

5,000 

200,000 

205,000 


Costa Rica, . 

1,000 

5,000 

6,000 


Ecuador, . . 

4,379 

90,000 

94,379 


Salvador, . . 

3,000 

18,000 

21,000 


Nicaragua, 

4,000 

36,000 

40,000 


Uruguay, . . 
Hayti, . . . 
U nited States, 

5,800 

7,000 

102,000 

35,000 

40,800 

7,000 

212,000 


110,000 

14,900,000 


Barber’s Pole. Anciently the functions 
of barber and surgeon were united in one person. 
The barber-surgeon was formerly known by his 






























MISCELLANY 


777 


pole at the door. The pole was used by the 
barber-surgeon for the patient to grasp in blood¬ 
letting, a fillet or bandage being used for tying 
his arm. When the pole was not in use, the tape 
was tied to it and twisted round it, and thus both 
were hung up as a sign. At length, instead of 
the hanging of the actual pole used in the opera¬ 
tion, a pole was painted with stripes around it, 
in imitation of the real pole and its bandages; 
hence the barber’s pole. 

Bells, Weight of. ^ , 

T 7 - Founds 

Kremlin, Moscow,. 440,000 

Kioto,.165! 000 

Pekin. ; .. 130,000 

St. Ivan s, Moscow,. 127 800 

Novgorod, .! ! ! 62,000 

Sacred Heart, Pans,. 55 000 

Sens. ! ! 43|000 

Vienna. 40,200 

Olmiitz, Moravia,. 40,000 

Rouen,. 40,000 

St. Paul s,. 38,000 

Erfurt, . . . 30,800 

Westminster, ‘Big Ben,”. 30,300 

Notre Dame, Paris,. 28,600 

Montreal.| 28! 500 

Cologne. 25,000 

City Hall, N. Y.,. 22,500 

St. Peter’s,.18,600 


Black Friday. (1) December 6, 1745, 
the day on which the news arrived in England 
that the Pretender had landed. (2) May 11, 
1866, the culmination of the commercial panic 
in London, when Overend, Gurney & Co. stopped 
payment. (3) Particularly September 24, 1869, 
in Wall Street, New York, when a group of specu¬ 
lators forced the price of gold to 162J, creating 
a serious crisis. (4) A similar panic occurred 
September 18, 1873. 

Black Hole. An appellation familiarly 
given to a dungeon or dark cell in a prison, and 
which is associated in the public mind with a 
horrible catastrophe in the history of British 
India; viz, the cruel confinement of a party of 
English in an apartment called the “Black Hole 
of Calcutta,” on the night of the 18th of June, 
1756. The garrison of the fort connected with 
the English factory at Calcutta having been 
captured by the Nabob Suraja Dowlah, he 
caused the prisoners, one hundred and forty-six in 
number, to be confined in an apartment twenty 
feet square. This cell had only two small win¬ 
dows, obstructed by a veranda, and after a 
night of excruciating agony from pressure, heat, 
thirst, and want of air, there were in the morning 
only twenty-three survivors. 

Black Maria. Everybody knows that 
the Black Maria is the vehicle used to convey 
prisoners and disorderly persons to a police 
station or prison. Probably few are aware how 
its name originated. During the old colonial 
days, Maria Lee, a negress, kept a sailors’ boarding 
house in Boston. She was a woman of gigantic 
stature and prodigious strength, and was of great 
assistance to the authorities in keeping the peace, 
as the entire lawless element of that locality stood 
in awe of her. Whenever an unusually trouble¬ 
some person was to be taken to the station house, 
the services of Black Maria were likely to be re¬ 
quired. It is said that she took at one time, and 
without assistance, three riotous sailors to the 
iock-up. So frequently was her help required 
that the expression, “ Send for Black Maria, ” ca me 
to mean “take the disorderly person to jail.” 


Blarney Stone. This relic of the ancient 
castle of Blarney, in Ireland, is a triangular stone 
suspended from the north angle of the castle 
about twenty feet from the top, and bearing the 
inscription: “Cormack MacCarthy fortis me 
fieri fecit, A. D., 1446” (Built in 1446 A. D., 
by Cormack MacCarthy). According to a tradi¬ 
tion of the country the castle was besieged by 
the English under Carew, Earl of Totness, who, 
having concluded an armistice with the com¬ 
mander of the castle on condition of its surrender, 
waited long for the fulfillment of the terms, but 
was put off from day to day, with soft speeches 
instead, until he became the jest of Elizabeth’s 
ministers and the dupe of the Lord of Blarney. 
From that day “kissing the Blarney Stone” has 
been synonymous with flattery and smooth, 
deceitful words. . 

Bloody Shirt. The origin of this phrase 
was given by Roscoe Conkling, in a speech made 
in New York, September 17, 1880. Referring to 
the “bloody shirt,” he said: “It is a relief to 
remember that this phrase, with the thing it 
means, is no invention of our politics. It dates 
back to Scotland, three centuries ago. After a 
massacre in Glenfruin, not so savage as that 
which has stained our annals, two hundred and 
twenty widows rode on white palfreys to Stirling 
Tower, bearing each on a spear her husband’s 
bloody shirt. The appeal waked Scotland’s 
slumbering sword, and outlawry and the block 
made the name of Glenfruin terrible to victo¬ 
rious Clan Alpine, even to the third and fourth 
generation.” 

Blue Stocking means, figuratively, a 
female pedant. In 1400, a society of ladies and 
gentlemen was formed at Venice, distinguished 
by the color of their stockings, and addicted to 
literary pursuits. Similar societies sprang up 
throughout Europe generally. In England, they 
did not become extinct till 1840, when the 
Countess of Cork, who, as Miss Moncton, was 
the last of the clique, died. 

Bohemian. A term of mild reproach 
bestowed on persons of unconventional habits. 
But a “Bohemian,” in the real sense of the word, 
is a person, man or woman, who does not go into 
“society;” who is happy-go-lucky, unconven¬ 
tional, now “flush,” now “short” of money; 
who, having money, spends it freely, enjoying 
it, and having none, hopes for it in the future; 
who makes the best of everything, and takes life 
as it comes. Your true Bohemian is a philoso¬ 
pher, and in spite of his unconventionality he is 
at least as apt to be respectable as a leader in 
conventional society. 

Boycott. The word “boycott” originated 
in this way: Lord Erne, an Irish land-owner, 
had for his agent, Captain Boycott, Lough Mask, 
Connemara, who treated the tenants with such 
severity that they petitioned for his removal. 
As Lord Erne ignored their complaints, they and 
their sympathizers retaliated in the autumn of 
1880, by refusing to work for Boycott and pre¬ 
venting any one else from doing so. The agent 
would have been ruined had not certain Ulster 
men, protected by an armed force, come to his 
relief and husbanded the crops. Boycott, 
meaning “a combination that refuses to hold 
any relations, either public or private, business 
























778 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


or social, with any person or persons, on account 
of political or other differences,” was first used 
by the Irish Land Leaguers, and the word 
thence passed into popular use. 

Bridges. The earliest bridges were no doubt 
trunks of trees. The arch seems to have been 
unknown amongst most of the nations of an¬ 
tiquity. Even the Greeks had not sufficient 
acquaintance with it to apply it to bridge build¬ 
ing. The Romans were the first to employ the 
principle of the arch in this direction, and after 
the construction of such a work as the great 
arched sewer at Rome, the Cloaca Maxima, a 
bridge over the Tiber would be of comparatively 
easy execution. One of the finest examples of 
the Roman bridge was the bridge built by Au¬ 
gustus over the Nera at Narni, the vestiges of 
which still remain. It consisted of four arches, 
the longest of 142 feet span. The most cele¬ 
brated bridges of ancient Rome were not gen¬ 
erally, however, distinguished by the extraor¬ 
dinary size of their arches, nor by the lightness 
of their piers, but by their excellence and dura¬ 
bility. The span of their arches seldom exceeded 
seventy or eighty feet, and they were mostly 
semicircular, or nearly so. The Romans built 
bridges wherever their conquests extended, and 
in Britain there are still a number of bridges 
dating from Roman times. One of the most 
ancient post-Roman bridges in England is the 
Gothic triangular bridge at Croyland, in Lin¬ 
colnshire, said to have been built in 860, having 
three archways meeting in a common center at 
their apex, and three roadways. The longest 
old bridge in England was that over the Trent 
at Burton, in Staffordshire, built in the Twelfth 
Century, of squared freestone, and recently 
pulled down. It consisted of thirty-six arches, 
and was 1,545 feet long. Old London bridge 
was commenced in 1176, and finished in 1209. 
It had houses on each side like a regular street 
till 1756-58. In 1831, it was altogether removed, 
the new bridge, which had been begun in 1824, 
having then been finished. The art of bridge¬ 
building made no progress after the destruction 
of the Roman Empire till the Eighteenth Cen¬ 
tury, when the French architects began to intro¬ 
duce improvements, and the constructions of 
Perronet (Nogent-sur-Seine; Neuilly; Louis 
XVI. bridge at Paris) are masterpieces. Within 
the last half century or so the use of steam and 
iron, the immense developments of all mechani¬ 
cal contrivances, and the great demand for rail¬ 
way bridges and viaducts have given a great 
stimulus to invention in this department. Stone 
bridges consist of an arch or series of arches, 
and in building them the properties of the arch, 
the nature of the materials, and many other mat¬ 
ters have to be carefully considered. It has been 
found that in the construction of an arch the 
slipping of the stones upon one another is pre¬ 
vented by their mutual pressure and the friction 
of their surfaces; the use of cement is thus 
subordinate to the principle of construction in 
contributing to the strength and maintenance of 
the fabric. The masonry or rock which receives 
the lateral thrust of an arch is called the abut¬ 
ment, the perpendicular supports are the 'piers. 
The width of an arch is its span; the greatest span 
in any stone bridge is about 250 feet. A one- 


span bridge has, of course, no piers. In con¬ 
structing a bridge across a deep stream it is 
desirable to have the smallest possible number 
of points of support. Piers in the waterway are 
not only expensive to form, but obstruct the 
navigation of the river, and by the very extent 
of resisting surface they expose the structure to 
shocks and the wearing action of the water. In 
building an arch, a timber framework is used 
called the center, or centering. The centering 
has to keep the stones or voussoirs in position till 
they are keyed in, that is, all fixed in their places 
by the insertion of the keystone. The first iron 
bridges were erected from about 1777 to 1790. 
The same general principles apply to the con¬ 
struction of iron as of stone bridges, but the 
greater cohesion and adaptability of the material 
give more liberty to the architect, and much 
reater width of span is possible. At first, iron 
ridges were erected in the form of arches, and 
the material employed was cast iron; but the 
arch has now been generally superseded by the 
beam or girder, with its numerous modifications; 
and wrought iron or steel is likewise found to be 
much better adapted for resisting a great tensile 
strain than cast metal. Numerous modifications 
exist of the beam or girder, as the lattice-girder, 
bow-string-girder, etc.; but of these none is more 
interesting than the tubular or hollow girder, 
first rendered famous from its employment by 
Robert Stephenson in the construction of the rail¬ 
way bridge across the Menai Strait, and connect¬ 
ing Anglesey with the mainland of North Wales. 
This is known as the Britannia Tubular Bridge. 
The tubes are of a rectangular form, and con¬ 
structed of riveted plates of wrought iron, with 
rows of rectangular tubes or cells for the floor and 
roof respectively. The bridge consists of two 
of these enormous tubes or hollow beams laid 
side by side, one for the up and the other for the 
down traffic of the railway, and extending each 
to about a quarter of a mile in length. Other 
tubular bridges of importance are the Conway 
Bridge, over the River Conway, an erection iden¬ 
tical in principle with the Britannia Bridge, but 
on a smaller scale; the Brotherton Bridge over 
the river Aire; the tubular railway bridge across 
the Damietta branch of the Nile, which has this 
peculiarity, that the roadway is carried above 
instead of through the tubes; and the Victoria 
Bridge over the St. Lawrence, Canada. In 
many respects this structure was even more re¬ 
markable than the Britannia Bridge, being sup¬ 
ported by twenty-four piers, ana nearly two 
miles in length, or about five and a half times 
that of the bridge across the Menai Strait. 
The bridge over the Firth of Forth, at Queens- 
ferry, a notable structure, has two chief spans 
of 1,710 feet, two others of 680 feet, fifteen of 
168 feet, and seven small arches, and will give 
a clear headway for navigation purposes of 150 
feet above high-water of spring-tides. The 
great spans consist of a cantilever at either end, 
680 feet long, and a central girder of 350 feet. 
A girder railway bridge across the Firth of Tay 
at Dundee was opened in 1887, being the second 
built at the same place, after the first had given 
way in a great storm. It is two miles seventy- 
three yards long, has eighty-five spans, is seven¬ 
ty-seven feet high and carries two lines of rails. 



MISCELLANY 


779 


Both bridges were built to carry the lines of 
the North British Railway. The Crumlin Rail¬ 
way Viaduct, South Wales, having lattice- 
girders supported on open-work piers is more 
remarkable for height than length, being 200 
feet high. Suspension bridges, being entirely 
independent of central supports, do not interfere 
with the river, and may be erected where it is 
impracticable to build bridges of any other kind. 
The entire weight of a suspension bridge rests 
upon the piers at either end from which it is 
suspended, all the weight being below the points 
of support. Such bridges always swing a little, 
giving a vibratory movement which imparts a 
peculiar sensation to the passenger. The modes 
of constructing these bridges are various. The 
roadway is suspended either from chains or 
from wire-ropes, the ends of which require 
to be anchored, that is attached to the solid 
rock or masses of masonry or iron. One of 
the earlier of the great suspension bridges 
is that constructed by Telford over the Menai 
Strait near the Britannia Tubular Bridge, 
finished in 1825; the opening between the 
points of suspension is 580 feet. The Hammer¬ 
smith Chain-bridge, the Union Suspension 
bridge near Berwick, and the suspension bridge 
over the Avon at Clifton are other British 
examples. On the European Continent, the 
Fribourg Suspension bridge in Switzerland, 
span 870 feet, erected 1834, is a celebrated 
work; as is that over the Danube connect¬ 
ing Buda with Pesth. In America the lower 
suspension bridge over the Niagara, two 
miles below the falls, now replaced by a steel 
arch bridge, was 821 feet long; it had two 
roadways connected together but fifteen feet 
apart, the lower serving for ordinary traffic, 
the upper carrying three lines of rails, 245 
feet above the river. Another bridge, close 
to the falls, has a span of 1,268 feet. The 
Cincinnati bridge over the Ohio has a length of 
2,720 feet. A suspension bridge of great mag¬ 
nitude, connecting the city of New York with 
Brooklyn, was opened in 1883. The central 
or main span is 1,595^ feet from tower to 
tower, and the land spans between the towers 
and the anchorages 930 feet each;, the ap¬ 
proach on the New York side is 2,492 feet 
long, and that on the Brooklyn side, 1,901 
feet; total length of bridge 5,989 feet. The 
height of the platform at the center is 135 
feet above high water, and at the ends 119 
feet. The roadway is eighty-five feet broad, 
and is divided into five sections, the two out¬ 
side for vehicles, the two inner for trolley- 
cars, the middle one, twelve feet above the 
rest, for foot-passengers. Cost over $15,000,- 
000. Though the oldest bridges on record 
were built of wood, like the Sublician Bridge 
at Rome, or that thrown by Caesar across the 
Rhine, it is only in certain places and for 
certain purposes that wood is much used at 
present. In modern times Germany has been 
the school for wooden bridges. Perhaps the 
most celebrated of all wooden bridges was 
that which spanned the Rhine at Schaffhausen 
in Switzerland. This was 364 feet in length 
and eighteen feet broad. It was designed 
and executed by Ulric Grubenman, a village 


carpenter, in 1758, and was destroyed by the 
French, in 1799. In the United States, where 
timber is still in common use, we have some fine 
examples, the Trenton Bridge over the Delaware, 
erected in 1804; the bridge over the Susque¬ 
hanna, etc. 

Some of the most notable developments in 
the art of bridge construction are to be found 
in North America, where an enormous railway 
system, traversing a country of great rivers and 
ravines, has given an exceptional stimulus to 
the art. The main characteristics of American 
bridges are simplicity and boldness of design, 
the reduction of the number of members to a 
minimum by the use of open trusses composed 
of simple systems rather than the plate, 
tubular, or closely-latticed girders of European 
engineers, thus offering less resistance to wind 
pressure. 

NOTABLE BRIDGES 

Albany (over the Hudson). Iron; length of draw, 400 
feet. — 

Arcueuil Aqueduct. Stone; length, 1,279 feet;-semi¬ 
circular arch. 

Barentin Viaduct. Stone; length, 1,545 feet; semi¬ 
circular arch. 

Biscari Aqueduct. Stone; length, 1,222 feet; ogival. 
Bombay (Madras). Length, 3,730 feet. 

Boyne. Wrought iron; length, 1,760 feet; lattice. 
Brighton Viaduct. Brick; length, 960 feet; semi¬ 
circular arch. 

Britannia. Wrought iron; length, 1,488 feet; tubular. 
Brooklyn (East River). Length, 5,989 feet; suspen¬ 
sion. 

Carpentras Aqueduct. Stone; length, 1,687 feet; 
semi-circular arch. 

Chaumont Viaduct. Length, 1,968 feet; semi-cir¬ 
cular arch. 

Cincinnati and Covington (over the Ohio). Built, 
1867; reconstructed, 1897; length, 2,720 feet; sus¬ 
pension. 

Cleveland Viaduct. Length, 3,211 feet; width, 64 
feet; contains a drawbridge 332 feet in length, 46 feet 
wide, and 68 feet above the ordinary water mark. 
Clifton, now known as the Upper Arch (over Niagara 
River). Length, 1,268 feet. 

Congleton Viaduct. Stone; length, 2,870 feet; arch, 
segment. 

Crumlin Viaduct. Iron; length, 1,050 feet; truss-gird. 
Danube (near Stadlan, Austria). Iron; length, 2,520 
feet. 

Dee Viaduct. Stone; length, 1,388 feet; semi-circular 
arch. 

Dinting Vale Viaduct. Timber; length, 1,452 feet; 
arch, segment. 

Dubuque (over the Mississippi). Iron; length, 1,758 
feet. 

Florence (over the Arno). Built 1569; marble; length, 
322 feet; elliptical arch. 

Forth Bridge. Over the Firth of Forth, Scotland; 
cantilever; iron and steel; length, nearly two miles, 
including approaches. Opened March 4, 1890. 
Franzdorf Viaduct. Stone; length, 1,916 feet; semi¬ 
circular arch. 

Godavery Irrigation Aqueduct. Stone; length, 
2,356 feet; arch, segment. 

Goeltzschthal Viaduct. Stone; length, 1,900 feet; 
elliptical arch. 

Harlem River Aqueduct (High Bridge). Stone; 

length, 1,450 feet; semi-circular arch. 

Indre Viaduct. Stone; length, 2,463 feet; semi-cir¬ 
cular arch. 

Kinzua Viaduct (R. R. ). On Bradford branch of 
New York, Lake Erie, and Western R. R., near Brad¬ 
ford, Pa., iron; height, 301 feet; length, 2,052 feet. 
Lisbon Aqueduct. Stone; length, 3,805 feet; ogival. 
London Bridge. The present stone bridge is 920 feet 
long, 56 feet wide and 55 feet high, with a central 
span of 150 feet. 

Louisville, Ky. (over the Ohio). Length, 5,310 feet. 
Maintenon Aqueduct. Stone; length, 16,367 feet; 
semi-circular arch. 

Minneapolis Suspension Bridge. Completed, 1876; 

length, with approaches, one mile. 

Montpellier Aqueduct. Stone; length, 3,214 feet; 
semi-circular arch. 














780 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


New Tay Bridge. Across the Firth of Tay near 
Dundee, Scotland, is-a steel truss bridge, 10,780 feet 
long. 

Niagara Cantilever. Steel bridge over the Niagara 
River; length, 910 feet. 

Niagara Suspension. (Now replaced by steel and 
known as the Lower Arch.) Total length, about 2,220 
feet; width of span, 821 feet; height above river, 245 feet. 
Nogent-sur-Marne Viaduct. Stone; length, 2,722 
feet: semi-circular arch. 

Omaha (over the Missouri). Length, 2,800 feet. 

Pavia. Stone; length, 620 feet; ogival. 

Poughkeepsie. Iron; cantilever; length, 6,767 feet. 
Quincy (over the Mississippi). Iron; length, 3,200 feet. 
Rochester (new). Cast iron; length, 498 feet; arch, 
segment. 

Rockville Bridge. Near Harrisburg, Pa., is the largest 
four-track stone railway bridge in the world. Length, 
3,810 feet. It contains forty-eight 70-foot stone 
arches, and cost 81,000,000. 

Royal Border Bridge (Berwick). Stone; length, 
2,160 feet; semi-circular arch. 

Schuylkill. Timber; length, 1,000 feet; frame truss. 
St. Anne’s. Wrought iron; length, 1,350 feet; tubular. 
St. Charles (Mo.). Iron; length, 6,536 feet. 

St. Louis (across the Mississippi). Minnesota and North 
Western R. R.; iron; 1,825 feet long, draw span 412 
feet long, the latter being one of the largest and 
heaviest in the world. 

Trenton (Delaware). Timber; length, 960 feet; frame 
truss. 

Victoria (St. Lawrence). Wrought iron; length, 9,437 
feet; tubular. 

Washington Bridge (across Harlem River valley, 
N. Y.); two steel arches of 510 feet span; roadway, 
80 feet wide; length, 2,375 feet; height above the 
Harlem River, 133 feet. 

Williamsburg. Across East River, connecting Man¬ 
hattan and Brooklyn. Total length, 7,275 feet; 
main span, 1,600 feet; width, 118 feet; height above 
mean high water, 135 feet; cost 812,000,000, exclusive 
of real estate. 

British Lion. This term symbolizes the 
spirit of pugnacity of the British nation, as 
opposed to “John Bull,” which symbolizes the 
substantiality, obstinacy, and solidity of the 
British nation, with all its prejudices and 
national peculiarities. To rouse John Bull is 
to tread on his corns; to rouse the British Lion 
is to blow the war-trumpet in his ears. 

Brother Jonathan is a collective per¬ 
sonification of the people of the United States. 
When General Washington, after being ap¬ 
pointed commander of the army of the Revolu¬ 
tionary War, came to Massachusetts to organize 
it and make preparations for the defense of the 
country, he found a great want of ammunition 
and other means necessary to meet the powerful 
foe he had to contend with, and great difficulty 
to obtain them. If attacked in such condition, 
the cause at once might be hopeless. On one 
occasion, at that anxious period, a consultation 
of the officers and others was had, when it 
seemed no way could be devised to make such 
preparation as was necessary. His Excellency, 
Jonathan Trumbull, the elder, was then governor 
of the State of Connecticut, on whose judgment 
and aid the General placed the greatest reliance, 
and remarked: “We must, consult ‘Brother 
Jonathan’ on the subject.” He did so, and the 
governor was successful in supplying many of 
the wants of the army. When difficulties after¬ 
wards arose, and the army was spread over the 
country, it became a byword, “We must consult 
Brother Jonathan.” 

Burial is applied to the prevalent method 
among civilized nations of disposing of the 
dead by hiding them in the earth. The general 
tendency of mankind has been to bury the 
dead out of sight of the living; and various 


as the methods of accomplishing this end have 
been, they have resolved themselves into three 
great classifications: (1) The simple closing up 

of the body in wood or stone. (2) The burning 
of the body and the entombing of the ashes. 
(3) The embalming of the body. The first of 
these seems to be the earliest form of which we 
have any record, and it is the form most amply 
sanctioned by the existing practice of the civil¬ 
ized world. It is the method referred to in the 
earliest Scriptures; and all are familiar with the 
touching scene in which Abraham buries Sarah 
in the cave in the land of Canaan which be¬ 
longed to Ephron, but was, after a solemn and 
courteous negotiation, secured to Abraham 
for a possession in which to bury his dead. 
There is frequent allusion in the later Scriptures, 
and especially in the New Testament, to the 
embalming of the body in antiseptics and 
fragrant substances. The Israelites may have 
learned the practice of embalming from the 
Egyptians, among whom it was an art so greatly 
cultivated and extensively practiced that 
Egyptian corpses, as inoffensive as any article 
of wood or stone, are scattered over Europe in 
museums, and are even to be found as curiosities 
in private houses. The soil and climate of 
Upper Egypt seem to have afforded facilities for 
embalming unmatched in any other part of the 
world; and in other places the vestiges of the 
practice are comparatively rare, though it is 
usual even yet to embalm royal corpses, and in 
some places to preserve a series of mummies, 
as in the vault of the monastery of Kreuzberg, at 
Bonn, where the monks have been successively 
preserved in their costume for centuries. The 
practice of incremation, of the burning of the 
body and the entombing of the ashes, deserves 
more inquiry than it has yet obtained. In 
Greece, in Etruria — both before and after it 
came under the Romans — and in the North of 
Europe, the simple burial of the body, and its 
prior reduction to ashes, were both practiced, 
and sometimes contemporaneously. The tombs 
of Etruria are rich in art, much of it going to the 
adornment of the urns of baked clay in which 
the ashes of the dead are kept. Vessels of terra 
cotta, or cooked earth, containing human re¬ 
mains, have been found, often so large that they 
appear to have served as coffins for containing 
the whole body. When human remains are con¬ 
nected with barrows, cromlechs, or the large, 
shapeless pillars commonly called Druidical, it 
is often very questionable whether the monu¬ 
ment was made to receive such remains. It is 
certainly ascertained to have been a practice in 
ancient times to bury bodies in tombs which 
were themselves ancient when they received 
their inmates. Some of the grandest buildings 
in the world have been tombs; such are the 
pyramids, the castle of St. Angelo, the tomb 
of Cecilia Metella, and many temples scattered 
over Hindustan. Thus, the respect paid by the 
living to the dead has preserved for the world 
many magnificent fruits of architectural genius 
and labor. A notion that the dead may require 
the things they have been fond of in life has 
also preserved to the existing world many relics 
of the customs of past ages. The tombs of 
Egypt have supplied an immense quantity of 




MISCELLANY 


781 


them, which have taught the present age more 
of the manners of ancient nations than all the 
learned books that have been written. It is an 
awful remembrance, at the same time, that 
inanimate things were not all that the dead were 
expected to take with them. Herodotus tells 
us of favorite horses and slaves sacrificed at the 
holocaust of the dead chief. The same thing 
has been done in our own day in Ashantee. 
In many countries the wives had the doom, or 
privilege, as it was thought, of departing with 
their husbands; and down to the present gener¬ 
ation the practice has lived in full vigor in the 
Hindu suttee. Among the Jews, the Greeks, 
the Romans, and many ancient nations the dead 
were buried beyond the towns. In Christian 
countries, if the remains of the saint to whom a 
church was dedicated could be obtained — or 
anything passing for the remains — they were 
buried near the altar in the choir. It became a 
prevalent desire to be buried near these saints, 
and the bodies of men eminent for their piety, or 
high in rank, came thus to be buried in churches. 

Candlemas, in its ecclesiastical meaning, 
is the feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary, 
and is observed on the 2d of February. This 
festival is very strictly kept by the Roman 
Catholic Church, there being a procession with 
many lighted candles, and those required for the 
service of the ensuing year being also on that 
occasion consecrated; hence the name Candle¬ 
mas Day. In Scotland, this day became one of 
four term-days appointed for periodical annual 
payments of money, interest, taxes, etc., and of 
entry to the premises. 

An old document, of the time of Henry VIII., 
preserved in the archives of the Society of 
Antiquaries, London, concerning the rites and 
ceremonies in the English Church, speaks thus 
of the custom of carrying candles: “ On Candle¬ 

mas Daye it shall be declared that the bearyinge 
of candels is done in memorie of Christe, the 
spirituall lyghte whom Simeon dyd prophecye 
[‘ a light to lighten the Gentiles ’], as it is redde in 
the churche that daye.” But an older and 
heathen origin is ascribed to the practice. The 
Romans were in the habit of burning candles on 
this day to the goddess Februa, the mother of 
Mars. There is a tradition in most parts of 
Europe, which extends also to the United States, 
to the effect that a fine Candlemas portends a 
severe winter. In Scotland, the prognostication 
is expressed in the following distich: 

“If Candlemas is fair and clear, 

There’ll be twa winters in the year.” 

Carpet-baggers. Corrupt and often 
ignorant politicians — mostly from the North 
— who flocked to the South during the era of 
Reconstruction. They were uniformly “on the 
make,” and were responsible for much of the 
venality and rascality that disgraced that period 
of the history of the South. 

Castle Garden. Popularly referred to as 
the landing place for European emigrants. It is a 
circular building situated on the Battery, New 
York, and from 1855 to 1891 served the above 
named purpose. It is now used as an aquarium. 
It was built in 1805, as a fort, was granted to 
the State in 1822, and was for some years used 
as an opera house and for civic receptions. 


Catacombs. Subterraneous chambers and 
passages formed generally in a rock, which is 
soft and easily excavated, such as tufa. Cata¬ 
combs are to be found in almost every country 
where such rocks exist, and, in most cases, 
probably originated in mere quarries, which 
afterward came to be used either as places of 
sepulture for the dead or as hiding-places for 
the living. The most celebrated catacombs in 
existence, and those which are generally under¬ 
stood when catacombs are spoken of, are those 
on the Via Appia, at a short distance from 
Rome. To these dreary crypts it is believed 
that the early Christians were in the habit of 
retiring, in order to celebrate their new worship 
in times of persecution, and in them were buried 
many of the saints and martyrs of the primitive 
Church.. They consist of long, narrow galleries, 
usually about eight feet high and five feet wide, 
which twist and turn in all directions, very much 
resembling mines. The graves were constructed 
by hollowing out a portion of the rock, at the 
side of the gallery, large enough to contain the 
body. The entrance was then built up with 
stones, on which usually the letters D. M. (Deo 
Maximo), or XP, the first two letters of the 
Greek name of Christ, were inscribed. Other 
inscriptions and marks, such as the cross, are 
also found. Though latterly devoted to pur¬ 
poses of Christian interment exclusively, it is 
believed that the catacombs were at one time 
used as burying-places by pagans also. At 
irregular intervals these galleries expand into 
wide and lofty vaulted chambers, in which the 
service of the Church was no doubt celebrated, 
and which still have the appearance of churches. 
The original extent of the catacombs is uncer¬ 
tain, the guides maintaining that they have a 
length of twenty miles, whereas about six only 
can now be ascertained to exist, and of these 
many portions have either fallen in or become 
dangerous. When Rome was besieged by the 
Lombards in the Eighth Century, many of the 
catacombs were destroyed, and the popes after¬ 
ward caused the remains of many of the saints 
and martyrs to be removed and buried in the 
churches. Art found its way into the catacombs 
at an early period, and many remains of fres¬ 
coes are still found in them. Belzoni, in 1815 
and 1818, explored many Egyptian catacombs 
built 3,000 years ago, and brought to England 
the Sarcophagus of Psammetichus, formed of 
Oriental alabaster exquisitely sculptured. In 
the Parisian catacombs, formerly stone quarries, 
human remains from the Cemetery of the Inno¬ 
cents were deposited in 1785, and many of the 
victims of the Revolution of 1792-94 are in¬ 
terred in them. 

Catching a Tartar means to be outdone 
or outwitted. An Irish soldier in a battle 
against the Turks shouted to his commanding 
officer that he had caught a “Tartar.” “Bring 
him along, then,” said the general. “But he 
won’t come.” “Then come along yourself.” 
“Bedad, and so I would, but he won’t let me,” 
answered Pat. 

Center of Area and Population of 

the U. S. The center of area of the United 
States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii and other 
recent accessions, is in northern Kansas, in 




782 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


approximate latitude 39° 55', and approximate 
longitude 98° 50'. The center of population, in¬ 
dicated below, is, therefore, about three-fourths 
of a degree south and more than twelve degrees 
east of the center of area. 


Date 

Center of Population, 
Approximate Location by 
Important Towns 

Westward 

Movement 

During 

Preceding 

Decade, 

Miles 

1790 

23 miles east of Baltimore, Md., . . 


1800 

18 miles west of Baltimore, Md., . . 

4i 

1810 

40 miles northwest by west of Wash- 



ington, D. C.,. 

36 

1820 

16 miles north of Woodstock, Va., . 

■50 

1830 

19 miles W. S. W. of Moorefield, in the 



present State of W. Va., .... 

39 

1840 

16 miles south of Clarksburg, in the 



present State of W. Va., .... 

55 

1850 

23 miles S. E. of Parkersburg, in the 



present State of W. Va., .... 

55 

1860 

20 miles south of Chillicothe, Ohio, . 

81 

1870 

48 miles east by north of Cincinnati, 



Ohio. 

42 

1880 

8 miles west by south of Cincinnati, 



Ohio,. 

58 

1890 

20 miles east of Columbus, Ind., . . 

48 

1900 

6 miles southeast of Columbus, Ind., 

14 

1910 

W. part of Bloomington, Ind., . . . 

39 


Total. 

558 


Chemical Substances, Common 
Names of. 


Common Names 
Alum,. 

Aqua fortis,. 

Aqua regia,. 

Calomel,. 

Carbolic acid, . . . . 

Caustic potash. 

Caustic soda,. 

Chalk. 

Copperas,. 

Corrosive sublimate, 
Cream of tartar, . . . 

Epsom salts,. 

Fire damp,. 

Glauber’s salt, . . . . 
Goulard water, . . , . 

Grape sugar,. 

Iron pyrites,. 

Jewelers’ putty, . . . 
Laughing gas, . , . . 

Lime, .. 

Lunar caustic, . . . . 

Mosaic gold,. 

Muriatic acid, . . . . 
Plaster of Paris, . . . 

Realgar. 

Red lead,. 

Rochelle salts, . . . . 

Sal ammoniac. 

Salt, common, . . . . 
Salt of tartar (potash), 

Saltpetre,. 

Salts of lemon, . . . . 

Slaked lime,. 

Soda,. 

Soda, baking, . . . . 
Soda, washing, . . . . 
Spirits of hartshorn, 
Spirits of salts, . . . . 
Sugar of lead, . . . . 

Tartar emetic, . . . . 

Verdigris,. 

Vermilion,. 

Vinegar,. 

Vitriol, blue. 

Vitriol, green, . . . . 

Vitriol, oil of, . . . . 

Vitriol, white, . . . . 

Volatile alkali, . . . . 


Chemical Names 
Sulphate of aluminum and potas¬ 
sium. 

Nitric acid. 

Nitro-hydrochloric acid. 
Mercurous chloride. 

Phenol. 

Potassium hydrate. 

Sodium hydrate. 

Calcium carbonate. 

Sulphate of iron. 

Mercuric chloride. 

Bitartrate of potassium. 
Magnesium sulphate. 

Light carbureted hydrogen, me¬ 
thane. 

Sodium sulphate. 

Basic acetate of lead. 

Glucose. 

Sulphide of iron. 

Oxide of tin. 

Nitrous oxide. 

Calcium oxide. 

Silver nitrate. 

Bisulphide of tin. 

Hydrochloric acid. 

Calcium sulphate. 

Sulphide of arsenic. 

Oxide of lead. 

Sodium potassium tartrate. 
Ammonium chloride. 

Sodium chloride. 

Potassium carbonate. 

Potassium nitrate. 

Oxalic acid. 

Calcium hydrate. 

Sodium carbonate. 

Sodium bicarbonate. 

Sodium carbonate. 

Ammonia, solution of. 
Hydrochloric acid. 

Lead acetate. 

Potassium antimony tartrate. 
Basic acetate of copper. 
Sulphide of mercury. 

Dilute acetic acid. 

Copper sulphate. 

Ferrous sulphate. 

Sulphuric acid. 

Zinc sulphate. 

Ammonia. 


Chivalry, a term which indicates strictly 
the organization of knighthood as it existed in 
the Middle Ages, and in a general sense the 


spirit and aims which distinguished the knights 
of those times. The chief characteristics of the 
chivalric ages were a warlike spirit, a lofty de¬ 
votion to the female sex, a love of adventure, 
and an undefinable thirst for glory. The Cru¬ 
sades gave for a time a religious turn to the 
spirit of chivalry, and various religious orders of 
knighthood arose, such as the Knights of St. 
John, the Templars, the Teutonic Knights, etc. 
The education of a knight in the days of chivalry 
was as follows: In his twelfth year he was sent 
to the court of some baron or noble knight, 
where he spent his time chiefly in attending on 
the ladies, and acquiring skill in the use of arms, 
in riding, etc. When advancing age and experi¬ 
ence in the use of arms had qualified the page for 
war, he became an esquire, or squire. This word 
is from Latin scutum, a shield, it being among 
other offices the squire’s business to carry the 
shield of the knight whom he served. The third 
and highest rank of chivalry was that of knight¬ 
hood, which was not conferred before the twenty- 
first year, except in the case of distinguished 
birth or great achievements. The individual 
prepared himself by confessing, fasting, etc.; 
religious rites were performed; and then, after 
promising to be faithful, to protect ladies and 
orphans, never to lie nor utter slander, to live 
in harmony with his equals, etc., he received 
the accolade, a slight blow on the neck with 
the flat of the sword from the person who 
dubbed him a knight. This was often done 
on the eve of battle, to stimulate the new 
knight to deeds of valor; or after the com¬ 
bat, to reward signal bravery. Though chiv¬ 
alry had its defects, chief amongst which, 
perhaps, we may note a tendency to certain 
affectations and exaggerations of sentiment 
and profession, yet it is to be regarded as 
tempering in a very beneficial manner the 
natural rudeness of feudal society. It taught 
the best ideals which the times could under¬ 
stand. 

Christmas Tree. The Christmas Tree, 
which has become an almost universal symbol, 
and is by most persons supposed to have origi¬ 
nated in Germany, had its origin in Egypt at a 
period long before the Christian era. The 
palm-tree is known to put forth a branch every 
month, and a spray of this tree, with twelve 
shoots on it, was used in Egypt at the time of 
the winter solstice, as a symbol of the year 
completed. 

Cigar. The word, of course, is Spanish, and 
is derived from cigarra, the Spanish name for 
grasshopper. When the Spaniards first intro¬ 
duced tobacco into Spain from the island of 
Cuba, they cultivated the plant in their gardens, 
which in Spanish are called cigarrals. Each 
grew his tobacco in his cigarral. When one 
offered a smoke to a friend, he would say: u Es 
de mi cigarral,” that is, it is from my garden. 
Soon the expression came to be: “ Este cigarro 

es de mi cigarral/’ this cigar is from my garden. 
The grasshopper (cigarra) was very common in 
Spain, and cigarral meant the place where the 
cigarra sings. 

Cities, Popular Names of. 

Aberdeen. Granite City. 

Athens. City of the Violet Crown. 















































MISCELLANY 


783 


Bagdad. City of Peace. 

Baltimore. Monumental City, from the number of 
monuments it contains. 

Birmingham. The Midland Capital. 

Boston. City of Notions, from the amount of “ Yankee 
notions,” so called, manufactured there; Hub of the 
Universe, so called by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes; 
Tri-Mountain City, from the three hills on which it 
was originally built. 

Brighton. Queen of Watering Places, “London- 
super-Mare.” 

Brooklyn. City of Churches, from the number of 
churches it contains. 

Buffalo. Queen City of the Lakes. 

Chicago. Garden City, from the number and beauty 
of its private gardens; Windy City, from the constant 
winds blowing from the lakes. 

Cincinnati. Queen City, so called when it was the 
commercial metropolis of the Middle West. 

Cleveland. Forest City, from the number of trees on 
its streets. 

Columbus, Ohio. The Arch City. 

Constantinople. City of the Golden Horn. 

Detroit. City of the Straits, from its location on the 
strait connecting Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie. 

Edinburgh. Modern Athens. 

Hannibal, Mo. Bluff City, from its location on the 
bluffs of the Missouri River. 

Indianapolis. Railroad City, from its being a great 
railroad center. 

Jerusalem. Holy City; City of David; City of Peace. 

Keokuk, la. Gate City, from its situation at the foot 
of the Mississippi Rapids. 

Liverpool. The Modern Tyre. 

Louisville, Ky. Falls City, from the falls of the Ohio 
River, here located. 

Lowell, Mass. City of Spindles, from its large manu¬ 
facturing interests. 

Manchester. Cottonopolis. 

Minneapolis. Flour City. 

Nashville, Tenn. City of Rocks, from its natural 
surroundings. 

New Haven. City of Elms, from the great number of 
these trees it contains. 

New Orleans. Crescent City, from its position on a 
curve of the Mississippi. 

New York. Empire City, from its being the chief city 
of the United States. 

Paris. City of the Lily, or City of Louis. 

Philadelphia. City of Brotherly Love, from the 
meaning of the name. 

Pittsburg, Pa. Iron City, from the extent of its iron 
manufactures; and Smoky City, from the smoke 
which overhangs it. 

Portland, Me. Forest City, from the number of trees 
in its streets. 

Rochester, N. Y. Flower City, from the profusion 
of flowers and extensive nurseries there. 

Rome. City of the Seven Hills. 

St. Louis. Mound City, from the artificial mounds 
found there. 

San Francisco. City of the Golden Gate. 

Springfield, Mass. City of Homes, from ‘the many 
people who own their own homes. 

Springfield, O. Flower City, from the beauty of its 
surroundings. 

Venice. City of St. Mark, City of the Seventy Isles. 

Washington. City of Magnificent Distances, from its 
being laid out on a large and regular scale. 

Worcester, Mass. The Faithful City, so called from 
its motto: Floreat Semper Civitas Fidelis. 

Columns, Spires, and Towers, 


Height of. Feet 

Eiffel Tower, Paris,. 984 

Wool worth Building, New York City,. 750 

Washington Monument, Washington, D. C., . . . 555 

Ulm Cathedral, . 529 

Cologne Cathedral,. 512 

Strassburg,.1. 468 

St. Stephen’s, Vienna. 465 

Pyramid of Cheops,.451 

St. Peter’s, Rome,. 448 

Cathedral, Salisbury,. 406 

Cathedral, Antwerp.'. 400 

Cathedral, Cremona,. 397 

Cathedral, Florence,. 387 

St. Paul’s, London,. 364 

Milan Cathedral, .. 355 

Hotel des Invalides, Paris,. 344 

Bunker Hill Monument, Charlestown, Mas?., . . . 221 

Leaning Tower of Pisa,. 179 

Alexander Column, St. Petersburg,. 155 


Confidence Man. One who by plausi¬ 
ble stories and falsehoods or by assurance ob¬ 
tains the confidence of kind-hearted people. 
This well-known phrase is said to have origi¬ 
nated thus: A few years ago, a man in New 
York, well dressed and of exceedingly genteel 
manners, went about saying, in a very winning 
manner, to almost every gentleman he met, 
“Have you confidence enough in me, an entire 
stranger, to lend me five dollars for an hour or 
two ? ” In this way he got a good deal of money, 
and came to be generally known in the courts 
and elsewhere as “the confidence man.” 

Copperheads. A popular nickname 
which originated during the Civil War in the 
United States, and was applied to a faction in 
the North which was very generally considered 
to be in secret sympathy with the Rebellion, 
giving it aid and comfort by attempting to 
thwart the measures of the Government. The 
name is derived from a poisonous serpent called 
the copperhead, whose bite is considered as 
deadly as that of the rattlesnake. The copper¬ 
head, unlike the rattlesnake, gives no warning 
of its attack, and is, therefore, the type of a 
concealed foe. 

Crystal Palace. The name “Crystal 
Palace” was applied by Douglas Jerrold, in 
“ Punch,” to the building in Hyde Park, London, 
in which the Great Exhibition of 1851, was held. 
After its close, the materials of which it was 
composed were sold to a company, for £70,000, 
and removed to the present site at Sydenham. 
It was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, and is 
used for popular concerts and other entertain¬ 
ments, as well as for a permanent exhibition of 
the art and culture of various nations. 

Dangerous Trades. The expression 
“dangerous trades” is especially applied to those 
trades in which some form of poison or disease 
is incidental to the trade itself as at present 
carried on. It is not generally used with refer¬ 
ence to those trades in which sudden injury and 
death are caused by dangerous machinery or 
unguarded perils, but rather refers to those 
slower acting causes which, while not so sensa¬ 
tional in their horrors, are even more frightful in 
their results. 

American legislation has been much more 
unresponsive in safe-guarding workers in these 
trades than that of England and Europe gener¬ 
ally. The following is a classified list of those 
trades w T hich have been considered dangerous 
in acts of the British Parliament. 

1. Trades in which lead is a poisonous ele¬ 
ment : — The manufacture of earthenware and 
china, file cutting, the manufacture of white 
lead, lead smelting, the use of lead in print or dye 
works, the manufacture of red, orange, or yellow 
lead, glass polishing, enameling of iron plates, 
enameling and tinning of hollow metal ware and 
cooking utensils, processes in which yellow 
chromate of lead is made, or in which goods dyed 
with it undergo the process of building, winding, 
weaving, etc. 

2. Trades which produce other chemical 
poisons:—Manufacture of paint and colors, 
extraction of arsenic, dry cleaning, paper stain¬ 
ing, coloring and enameling, hatters’ and furriers’ 
work, the manufacture of matches, chemical 
























784 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


works, bronzing and metallochrome powder in 
lithographic works, India rubber works, dying 
with certain dyes, mixing and casting of brass, 
gun metal, bell metal, white metal, phosphor- 
bronze and manila mixture. 

3. Trades in which anthrax or lockjaw is an 
incident:—Wool sorting, the handling of hides 
and skins, hair factories, brush-making, bone 
factories, fellmongers’ works, furriers’ works, 
tanneries, wool combing, blanket stoving and 
tentering, warp dressing, carbonizing and grind¬ 
ing of rags, flock making, feather cleaning. 

4. Trades in which the danger arises from 
injurious particles in the air or from dust:— 
Basic slag works, manufacture of silicate of cot¬ 
ton, file cutting, flour mills, trades which use 
grindstones or emery wheels, china scouring, 
silk combing, flax scutching. 

5. Trades in which sudden accidents are so 
frequent as to demand special legislation:— 
Metal works which use converters, electrical 
generating works, bottling and bottle testing, 
quarries, manufacture of salt. 

6. Processes which require a sudden change 
from great heat to cold and vice versa, such as 
lacquering and japanning, galvanizing of iron 
and the work carried on in furnaces and found¬ 
ries. 

7. Processes that require artificial humidity: 
— Cotton spinning, weaving, etc., flax spinning, 
weaving, etc., wool spinning, silk spinning. 

This list shows a wide prevalence of trades in 
which special dangers exist, and calls for the 
utmost remedial precaution on the part of both 
the public and all workers immediately con¬ 
cerned. 

Dark Horse. A frequent phrase in sport¬ 
ing and political parlance, and indicating one 
who, up to a certain time kept in the background, 
suddenly comes to the front, and snatches vic¬ 
tory from the hands of others. The phrase 
was used by Thackeray in his “Adventures of 
Philip.” Said Philip, referring to some talk 
about a candidate for parliament: “Well, bless 
my soul, he can’t mean me. Who is the dark 
horse he has in his stable?” 

Days of Grace. In the reign of Henry IL, 
the day first mentioned in each term of court was 
called “essoign day,” because the court then 
took the essoigns or excuses of those who did not 
appear according to the summons of the writs. 
But as — by a custom traced by Blackstone to 
the Germans of the days of Tacitus — three 
days of grace were allowed to every defendant 
within which to appear, the courts did not sit 
for the despatch of business until the fourth 
day after that time. On the other hand, they 
continued to sit till the fourth day after the last 
return. The rule allowing days of grace in the 
United States was adopted from the English 
law. 

Dead Letter Office, in the United 
States postal department, is the place where 
unclaimed letters are sent. After remaining 
a month in the office to which they are 
directed, the unclaimed or “dead” letters are 
sent to Washington, and opened in the dead 
letter office. If the writer’s address can be 
found, the letter is returned to him; if not, 
it is destroyed. In one year nearly 7,000,000 


pieces of mail matter were received — many 
had no state on the address, 3,000 had no 
address at all; 892,000 in cash and more than 
83,000,000 in drafts were found in the letters. 
Thousands of magazines, illustrated papers, 
icture cards, and valentines were sent to 
ospitals. 

Death Warrant of Jesus Christ. 

In 1810, some workmen, while excavating in 
the ancient city of Amiternum (now Aquila), in 
the kingdom of Naples, found an antique marble 
vase in which lay concealed a copper plate, 
bearing on the obverse side a long inscription in 
the Hebrew tongue. This, when translated, 
proved to be the death-warrant of Jesus Christ. 
On the reverse side of the plate were found 
the words: “A similar plate is sent to each 
tribe.” After its excavation, it was enclosed in 
an ebony box, and preserved in the sacristy of 
the Carthusians. This relic, if genuine, is _ to 
Christians the most impressive and interesting 
legal document in existence. It has been faith¬ 
fully transcribed, and reads as follows: 

Sentence rendered by Pontius Pilate, acting 
Governor of Lower Galilee, stating that Jesus 
of Nazareth shall suffer death on the cross. 

In the year seventeen of the Emperor Tiberius 
Caesar, and the 27th day of March, the city of 
the holy Jerusalem — Annas and Caiaphas being 
priests, sacrificators of the people of God,— 
Pontius Pilate, Governor of Lower Galilee, 
sitting in the presidential chair of the praetory, 
condemns Jesus of Nazareth to die on the cross 
between two thieves, the great and notorious 
evidence of the people saying: 

1. Jesus is a seducer. 

2. He is seditious. 

3. He is the enemy of the law. 

4. He calls himself falsely the Son of God. 

5. He calls himself falsely the King of Israel. 

6. He entered into the temple, followed by 
a multitude bearing palm-branches in their 
hands. 

Orders the first centurion, Quilius Cornelius, 
to lead him to the place of execution. Forbids 
any person, whomsoever, either poor or rich, to 
oppose the death of Jesus Christ. 

The witnesses who signed the condemnation 
of Jesus are: 

1. Daniel Rotyani, a Pharisee. 

2. Joannus Robani. 

3. Raphael Robani. 

4. Capet, a citizen. 

Jesus shall go out of the city of Jerusalem by 
the gate of Struenus. 

Decoration Day, or Memorial Day, is 
a day designated as a legal holiday in all the 
States, except Idaho and Texas, for the purpose 
of commemorating the soldiers who fell in the 
Civil War, and decorating their graves. The 
day thus set apart is May 30th, in all the North¬ 
ern and Western States and in Virginia. In the 
latter State, as in all the Southern States, the 
name adopted is “Confederate Memorial Day.” 
Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Florida 
observe April 26th; North Carolina and South 
Carolina, May 10th; Tennessee, the second Fri¬ 
day in May; and Louisiana, June 3d — Jeffer¬ 
son Davis’s birthday, which is also observed in a 
number of other Southern States. 



MISCELLANY 


785 


Carats 

(uncut) 

Carats 

(cut) 

3,025f 

J 516* 

1 309f 

1680(?) 

Never cut 

787* 

367i 9 (5 

.... 

1941 

.... 

139* 

242* 


150 

138* 

410 

1361 

254 

127 

186* 

106 jo 

.... 

86 

891 

781 

288f 


150 


112 

67* 

83 

52* 


49 

83* 

46* 

88* 

44* 

.... 

49* 

.... 

40 


28 


DIAMONDS OF NOTE 


Name 


Cullinan I, . . . 
Cullinan II, . . . 
Braganza,. . . , 
Rajah of Mattan, 

Orloff,. 

Florentine, . . . 
Tavernier. 


Pitt or Regent, . . 
Star of the South, . 

Koh-i-nur. 

Shah. 

Nassac. 

Light Yellow, . . . 
Porter Rhodes, . . 

Blue . 

Sancy,. 

Pigott,. 

Star of South Africa, 

Dudley,. 

Hope,. 

Pasha of Egypt, . . 
Charles the Bold, . 


Discov¬ 

ered 

Possessor 

1S05 

1905 

1741 

King George V. 

Among Portuguese royal jewels. 

1756 

Rajah of Mattan (Borneo). 


Czar of Russia (scepter). 


Emperor of Austria. 

1668 

Stolen in 1792. 

1775 

Among Portuguese royal jewels. 

1702 

King of Prussia. 

1853 

Gaekwar of Baroda, India. 

B.C. 56 

Royal family of England. 


Czar of Russia. 


Lord (Marquis of) Westminster. 


Stewart (diamond). 

1872 

Found in South Africa. 

15th Cent. 

Czar of Russia. 

1867 

Bought by Messrs. Rundell and Bridge. 


Earl of Dudley. 


Mr. Henry Hope’s family. 


Khedive of Egypt. 


Dixie. Popularly applied to the States 
south of Mason and Dixon’s line, the former 
boundary of slavedom. Also, in folklore, a 
fabulous realm of peace, plenty, and indolence, 
whose charms form the burden of many a negro 
melody. Brewer says that a Mr. Dixie was a 
slaveholder of Manhattan Island, compelled by 
public opinion to remove his human chattels to 
the South. In their new abode they had to toil 
ceaselessly, and often sighed for their old home 
at the North, which lapse of time and distance 
invested with a halo of paradisaic pleasures. 
This “ Dixie Land ” became to the entire colored 
race in the South a species of Utopia, similar to 
the Scottish “ Land o’ the Leal ” or the Fortu¬ 
nate Islands of the ancients. 

Dollar Mark, $. Writers are not agreed 
as to the derivation of this sign to represent dol¬ 
lars. Some say it comes from the letters U. S., 
which after the adoption of the Federal Consti¬ 
tution, were prefixed to the federal currency, 
and which afterwards, in the hurry of writing, 
were run into one another, the U being made 
first and the S over it. The more probable ex¬ 
planation is that it is a modification of the 
figure 8, and denotes a piece of eight reals, or, 
the dollar which was formerly divided into 
eight parts. It was then designated by the 
figures f. 

Domes of the World, Great. 

Diameter Height 


feet feet 

Pantheon, Rome,.142 143 

Duomo, Florence,. 139 310 

St. Peter’s, Rome,. 139 330 

Capitol, Washington, D. C., .135* 287* 

St. Sophia, Constantinople,. 115 201 

Baths of Caraealla (ancient), Rome, . . 112 116 

St. Paul’s, London, . . ..112 215 


Duel. A premeditated and prearranged 
combat between two persons, with deadly 
weapons, for the purpose of deciding some pri¬ 
vate difference or quarrel. The combat gener¬ 
ally takes place in the presence of witnesses 
called seconds, who make arrangements as to 
the mode of fighting, place the weapons in the 
hands of the combatants, and see that the laws 
they have laid down are carried out. The origin 


of the practice of duelling is referred to the trial 
by “wager of battle,” which obtained in early 
ages. This form of duel arose among the Ger¬ 
manic peoples, and a judicial combat of the kind 
was authorized by Gundebald, King of the Bur¬ 
gundians, as early as 501 A. D. When the 
judicial combat declined the modem duel arose, 
being probably to some extent an independent 
outcome of the spirit and institutions of chiv¬ 
alry. France was the country in which it arose, 
the Sixteenth Century being the time at which 
it first became common. Upon every insult or 
injury which seemed to touch his honor, a gen¬ 
tleman thought himself entitled to draw his 
sword, and to call on his adversary to give him 
satisfaction, and it is calculated that 6,000 per¬ 
sons fell in duels during ten years of the reign 
of Henry IV. His minister, Sully, remonstrated 
against the practice; but the King connived at 
it, supposing that it tended to maintain a mili¬ 
tary spirit among his people. In 1602, however, 
he issued a decree against it, and declared it to 
be punishable with death. Many subsequent 
prohibitions were issued, but they were all 
powerless to stop the practice. During the 
minority of Louis XIV. more than 4,000 nobles 
are said to have lost their lives in duels. The 
practice of duelling was introduced into Eng¬ 
land from France in the reign of James I.; but 
it was never so common as in the latter country. 
Cromwell was an enemy of the duel, and during 
the protectorate there was a cessation of the 
practice. It came again into vogue, however, 
after the Restoration, thanks chiefly to the 
French ideas that then inundated the court. 
As society became more polished duels became 
more frequent, arid they were never more num¬ 
erous than in the reign of George III. Among 
the principals in the fatal duels of this period 
were Charles James Fox, Sheridan, Pitt, Can¬ 
ning, Castlereagh, the Duke of York, the Duke 
of Richmond, and Lord Camelford. The last- 
mentioned was the most notorious duellist of his 
time, and was himself killed in a duel in 1804. 
A duel was fought between the Duke of Welling¬ 
ton and Lord Winchelsea in 1829, but the prac¬ 
tice was dying out. It lasted longest in the 































































786 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


army. By English law fatal duelling is con¬ 
sidered murder, no matter how fair the combat 
may have been, and the seconds are liable to 
the same penalty as the principals. In 1813, the 
principal and seconds in a fatal duel were sen¬ 
tenced to death, though afterwards pardoned. 
An officer in the army having anything to do 
with a duel renders himself liable to be cashiered. 
In France duelling still prevails to a certain 
extent; but the combats are usually very blood¬ 
less and ridiculous affairs. In the German army 
it is common, and is recognized by law. The 
duels of German students, so often spoken of, 
seldom cause serious bloodshed. In the United 
States duels are now uncommon. In some of 
the States the killing of a man in a duel is pun¬ 
ishable by death or by forfeiture of political 
rights, and in a large number the sending of a 
challenge is a felony. In the army and navy it 
is forbidden. During the Revolution there were 
a number of duels: Charles Lee was wounded 
by John Laurens; Gwinnett, a signer of the 
Declaration, was killed by Gen. McIntosh; 
Alexander Hamilton was slain by Aaron Burr. 
Decatur was killed and Barron wounded fight¬ 
ing a duel. Andrew Jackson killed Dickinson, 
and fought several other duels. Col. Benton 
killed Lucas, and had other encounters. Henry 
Clay and John Randolph fought in 1826. De 
Witt Clinton was a duellist. 

Dun. The word “ dun ” is by some supposed 
to be derived from the French donnez. The 
“British Apollo” of 1780, says, however, that 
the word owes its origin to a Joe Dun, a famous 
bailiff of Lincoln, in the time of Henry VII. 
He is said to have been so very successful in the 
collection of debts that his name became pro¬ 
verbial, and whenever it seemed almost, impos¬ 
sible to make a man pay, people would say, 
“Why don’t you Dun him?” 

Dwarf. A term applied to any animal or 
plant greatly below the usual size of its kind, 
particularly to a human being of small dimen¬ 
sions. Accounts of dwarf tribes have been com¬ 
mon from early times, such tribes being located 
especially in Africa; and it would appear from 
the accounts of Du Chaillu, Schweinfurth, and 
other travelers that there are several dwarfish 
tribes throughout this continent. The Obongo, 
a race of dwarfs, are described as living in 
woods near the Okanda River, in wretched 
huts made of branches. Other races are the Ma- 
bongo, and the Akka dwarfs of Central Africa; 
and a race is said to exist in the Congo State, 
not as a distinct community, however, but 
mixed with other tribes. Individual dwarfs oc¬ 
cur in all races, and were formerly a fashionable 
appendage to the courts of princes and the fam¬ 
ilies of nobles. Jeffery Hudson, the favorite 
dwarf of Charles I., at the age of thirty is said to 
have been only eighteen inches high, though he 
afterwards grew to three feet and nine inches. 
Beb6, the celebrated dwarf of Stanislas of Po¬ 
land, was thirty-three inches; Wybrand Lolkes, 
a Dutch dwarf, when sixty years of age was only 
twenty-seven inches; Charles H. Stratton, “ Gen¬ 
eral Tom Thumb,” was thirty-one inches high 
at the age of twenty-five; Francis Flynn, “ Gen¬ 
eral Mite,” was only twenty-one inches at six¬ 
teen. 


Dying Gaul, The. This celebrated 

antique statue of the Pergamene school, form¬ 
erly known as “The Dying Gladiator,” may be 
seen in the Capitoline Museum, Rome. The 
warrior nude, sits on the ground with bowed 
head, supporting himself with his right arm. 
The statue is especially fine in the mastery of 
anatomy displayed, and in its characterization 
of the racial type. 

Earthquakes. A shaking of certain parts 
of the earth’s surface, produced by causes not 
perceivable by our senses. This motion occurs 
in very different ways, having sometimes a per¬ 
pendicular, sometimes a horizontal undulating, 
and sometimes a whirling motion. It also va¬ 
ries much in degrees of violence, from a shock 
which is hardly perceptible to one which bursts 
open chasms and changes the appearance of the 
ground itself. During these shocks sometimes 
smoke and flames, but more frequently stones 
and torrents of water are discharged. There is 
little doubt that earthquakes and volcanic erup¬ 
tions are kindred phenomena, the latter differing 
from the former principally in proceeding from 
a permanent crater. All observations go to 
prove that both are due to disruptions produced 
by internal heat at a great depth beneath the 
surface of the earth. Of the particular way in 
which this force works, however, there are vari¬ 
ous theories. It has been thought by some 
that the center of earthquakes and volcanic dis¬ 
turbances is always near the sea or other large 
supplies of water, and that the disturbances are 
directly caused by the filtration of the water 
down to igneous matter, and the consequent 
generation of vast quantities of steam which 
frees itself by explosion. Others have sought 
to explain earthquakes as part of the phenomena 
of a planet cooling at the surface. The parts 
of the world most frequented by earthquakes 
are exhibited in the following table: 


Area 


Earth¬ 

quakes 


Scandinavia,. 

British Isles. 

France,. 

Spain and Portugal,. 

Switzerland,. 

Italy, ... 

Holland and North Germany, 

Sicily. 

Greece,. 

Russia,.. 

Asia Minor,. 

India. 

Japan, . 

Africa. 

Atlantic Islands,. 

United States, Pacific Coast, . . . . 

Atlantic Coast. 

Mexico,.. 

Central America. 

West Indies,. 

South America,. 

Java, .. 

Australia and Tasmania,. 

New Zealand,. 


646 

1,139 

2,793 

2,656 

3,895 

27,673 

2,326 

4,332 

10,306 

258 

4,451 

813 

27,562 

179 

1,704 

4,467 

937 

5,586 

2,739 

2,561 

8,081 

2,155 

83 

1,925 


The most remarkable earthquakes of history 
are the following: 


U. v_y. 

One which made Euboea an island,.425 

Ellice and Bula, in Peloponnesus, swallowed up,. . 372 

One at Rome, when, in obediance to an oracle, M. 
Curtius, armed and mounted on a stately horse, 
leaped into the dreadful chasm it occasioned 
{ Livy ) .358 

































MISCELLANY 


787 


B. C. 

Duras, in Greece, buried, with all its inhabitants; 

and twelve cities in Campania also buried, . . , 345 

Lysimachia and its inhabitants totally buried, . . 283 

A. D. 


Ephesus and other cities overturned,. 17 

One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius; the 
cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried,... 79 

Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Galatia 

overturned,.107 

Antioch destroyed,.115 

Nicomedia, Caesarea, and Nicaea overturned, . . . 126 

In Asia, Pont us, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 

towns damaged,. 357 

Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants 

buried in its ruins,.358 

One felt by nearly the whole world,.543 

At Constantinople; its edifices destroyed, and thou¬ 
sands perished.557 

In Africa; many cities overturned.560 

Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia; more than 
500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of life 

surpassed all calculations.742 

In France, Germany, and Italy,.801 

Constantinople overturned; all Greece shaken, . . 936 

One felt throughout England,.1089 

One at Antioch; many towns destroyed, among 

them Mariseum and Mamistria,.1114 

Catania, iii Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons 

buried in the ruins,.1137 

One severely felt at Lincoln.1142 

At Calabria; one of its cities and all its inhabitants 

overwhelmed in the Adriatic Sea,.1186 

One again felt throughout England; Glastonbury 

destroyed,.1274 

In England; the greatest known there,.1318 

At Naples; 40,000 persons perished.1456 

At Lisbon; 1,500 houses and 30,000 persons buried 
in the ruins; several neighboring towns ingulfed 

with their inhabitants,.1531 

One felt in London; part of St. Paul’s and the 

Temple churches fell.1580 

In Japan; several cities made ruins, and thousands 

perished, ..1596 

Awful one at Calabria.1638 

One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in 

Pekin alone, ..1662 

One severely felt in Ireland.1690 

One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Royal, 
whose houses were ingulfed forty fathoms deep, 

and 300 persons perished,.1692 

One in Sicily, which overturned fifty-four cities and 
towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 
18,000 inhabitants not a trace remained; more 

than 100,000 lives were lost.1693 

Palermo nearly destroyed; 6,000 lives lost.1726 

Again in China; and 100,000 people swallowed up 

at Pekin,.1731 

In Hungary; a mountain turned round,.1736 

One at Palermo, which swallowed up a convent; 

but the monks escaped,.1740 

Lima and Callao demolished; 18,000 persons buried 

in the ruins.1746 

In London, a slight shock, February 8th; but 

severer shock, March 8th,.1750 

Adrianople nearly overwhelmed,.1752 

At Grand Cairo; half of the houses and 40,000 per¬ 
sons swallowed up,.1754 

Quito destroyed, .. 1755 


Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight min¬ 
utes most of the houses and upward of 50,000 
inhabitants were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
Braga suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was 
wholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One-half of Fez, in Mo¬ 
rocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 
Arabs perished there. Above half of the island 
of Madeira became waste; and 2,000 houses in 
the island of Mytilene, in the Archipelago, were 
overthrown. This awful earthquake extended 

5,000 miles; even to Scotland,.1755 

In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles; Baal- 

bec destroyed, . .. 1759 

At Martinico, 1,600 persons lost their lives, . . . 1767 
At Guatemala, which, with 8,000 inhabitants, was 

swallowed up,.1773 

A destructive one at Smyrna.. . . . 1778 

At Tauris; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi¬ 
tudes buried. 1780 

Messina and other towns m Italy and Sicily over¬ 
thrown; 40,000 persons perished.1783 


A. D. 


Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 per¬ 
sons buried in its ruins.. . . 1784 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro; many houses and 1,000 

persons swallowed up,.1789 

Another fatal one in Sicily,.1791 

In Naples: Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 

Torre del Greco,.1794 

In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 persons 

lost their lives,.1794 

The whole country between Santa F6 and Panama 
destroyed, including Cusco and Quito; 40,000 

people buried in one second,.1797 

At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal 
palace and an immensity of buildings, and ex¬ 
tended into Romania and Wallachia,.1800 

A violent one felt in Holland,.1804 

At Frosolone, Naples; 6,000 lives lost.1805 

At the Azores; a village of St. Michael’s sunk, and 
a lake of boiling water appeared in its place, . . 1810 

Awful one at Caraccas ( which see), .1812 

Several throughout India; district of Kutch sunk; 

2,000 persons buried.1819 

Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 

greatly damaged; thousands perish,.1819 

One in Calabria and Sicily,.1826 

In Spain; Mercia and numerous villages devas¬ 
tated; 6,000 persons perish, . ..1829 

In the Duchy of Parma; no less than forty shocks 
were experienced at Borgotaro; and at Pontre- 
moli many houses were thrown down, and not a 

chimney was left standing,.1834 

In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed; 1,000 

persons buried,.1835 

In Calabria; 1,000 buried at Rossano, etc., .... 1836 
In many cities of Southern Syria, by which hun¬ 
dreds of houses were thrown down, and thou¬ 
sands of lives lost.1836 

At Martinique; nearly half of Port Royal de¬ 
stroyed; nearly 700 persons killed, and the 

whole island damaged,.1839 

At Ternate; the island made a waste, and thousands 

of lives lost.1840 

Awful and destructive earthquake at Mount Ararat, 
in one of the districts of Armenia; 3,137 houses 
were overthrown, and several hundred persons 

perished. 1840 

Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons 

perished,.1840 

At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
nearly two-thirds of the town; between 4,000 

and 5,000 lives were lost,.1842 

At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was entirely 

destroyed, .. 1843 

At Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain fell in at 
the latter place, crushing a village, and destroy¬ 
ing 600 persons,.1851 

At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses were 

destroyed,.1851 

In South Italy; Melfi almost laid in ruins; 14,000 

lives lost,.1851 

At Philippine Isles; Manila nearly destroyed, , . 1852 

In Northwest of England, slight.1852 

Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed.1853 

St. Salvador, South America, destroyed.1854 

Amasca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, de¬ 
stroyed; Jeddo much injured.1854 

Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed,.1855 

Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, . . . 1855 

Jeddo nearly destroyed,.1855 

At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, 
volcanic eruption and earthquake; nearly 3,000 

lives lost,.1856 

In the Mediterranean; at Candia, 500 lives lost; 

Rhodes, 100; and other islands, 150. 1856 

In Calabria, Montemurro and many other towns 
destroyed, and about 22,000 lives lost in a few 

seconds,.1857 

Corinth nearly destroyed,.1858 

At Quito; about 5,000 persons killed, and an im¬ 
mense amount of property destroyed,.1859 

At Erzeroum, Asia Minor; above 1,000 persons said 

to have perished,.1859 

At San Salvador; many buildings destroyed, no 

lives lost.1859 

In Cornwall, slight. 1859-1860 

At Perugia, Italy; several lives lost,.1861 

At Mendoza, South America; about two-thirds of 

the city and 7,000 lives lost.1861 

In Greece; North Morea, Corinth, and other places 

injured,. 1861 

Guatemala; 150 buildings and fourteen churches 
destroyed,.1862 
























































































788 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


A. D. 

Rhodes; thirteen villages destroyed, about 300 

f iersons perished, and much cattle and property 

ost,.1863 

Manila, Philippine Isles; immense destruction of 
property; about 10,000 persons perished, . . . 1863 
Central, West, and Northwest of England, .... 1863 
At Macchia, Bendinella, etc., Sicily; 200 houses 

destroyed, sixty-four persons killed,.1865 

In San Francisco, California, great damage, . . . 1865 
On the Hawaiian (Sandwich) Islands, accompanied 
by an eruption of Mauno Loa. During a period 
of fifteen days over two thousand shocks were 
experienced. The eruption of lava was profuse, 
causing much destruction of life and property, . . 1868 
Peru, Ecuador, and Chile were largely devastated 
by a violent earthquake, which destroyed several 
large cities along the coast. It is reported that 
between 30,000 and 60,000 people lost their lives, 1868 

Island of Ischia.1884 

Charleston, South Carolina,.1886 

Mentone and the Riviera of Italy,.1887 

Japan, 4,000 killed; 50,000 houses destroyed, . . 1891 
Greece, 200 lives lost and many buildings destroyed, 1894 
Constantinople and along the Dardanelles,. . . . 1894 
Valparaiso, Chile, great loss of life and property, . 1906 
San Francisco, 1,000 lives lost and $400,000,000 in 

property destroyed,.1906 

Sicily and Calabria. Greatest earthquake of 
modern times, if not of all time, resulting in 
the destruction of Messina, Reggio, and many 
smaller towns and villages, including upward of 
200,000 lives,. 1908 

East India Company. The name of 
various mercantile associations formed in dif¬ 
ferent countries in the Seventeenth and Eight¬ 
eenth Centuries for the purpose of conducting 
under the auspices of the government a monopoly 
of the trade of their respective countries with 
the East Indies. The greatest of these was the 
British East India Company. 

Education, Cost of, in Various 
Countries. The figures given in the tables of 
the cost of higher education in various countries 
are from the report of the Commissioner of Edu¬ 
cation, and are intended to give an idea of the 
approximate amounts paid for higher education 
in the principal countries of the world. Educa¬ 
tional systems differ greatly in different countries, 
and it is possible to make fair comparisons of cost- 
only where it is possible to make fair comparisons 
of the systems employed. In Germany a great 
deal of such work as is done in higher educational 
institutions in this country is carried on in the 
secondary schools, or gymnasia. In a number of 
countries which might have place in these tables 
it was impossible to obtain data, according to the 
Commissioner’s report, and no safe figures can be 
given. In other cases census figures had to be 
used, though dating back several years previous 
to the time of the report. The data for Greece 
were obtained shortly after the war with Turkey, 
and are much lower than might be expected. 

The cost of higher education in the United 
States can be approximated only, as the expenses 
are met by so many different methods. For the 
same reason only an approximation of the per 
capita can be given. 


Country 

Expenditure 
for Higher 
Education 

Per 

Capita 

(Cents) 

Algeria,. 

$ 128,535 

2.9 

Argentine,. 

250,000 

6.0 

Australia,. 

614,140 

15.2 

Austria,. 

2,692,370 

11.3 

Belgium. 

748,267 

11.4 

Bulgaria,. 

75,498 

2.3 

Canada,. 

1,014,254 

19.5 


Country 

Expenditure 
for Higher 
Education 

Per 

Capita 

(Cents) 

Denmark,. 

299,686 

13.7 

France,. 

4,391,012 

11.4 

Germany, . .. 

7,450,366 

14.3 

Great Britain and Ireland,. . 

8,353,655 

21.7 

Greece,. 

103,636 

4.3 

Hungary. 

1,240,246 

7.1 

Italy,. 

2,198,833 

7.0 

Liberia. 

102,434 

1.8 

Netherlands,. 

767,229 

15.3 

Norway,. 

166,717 

8.3 

Portugal, .. 

253,268 

5.0 

Rumania,. 

426,324 

7.3 

Russia (and Siberia). 

4,740,709 

3.7 

Servia, . 

63,690 

2.8 

Spain,. • . 

487,892 

2.8 

Sweden. 

653,209 

13.0 

Switzerland,. 

672,505 

21.8 

United States,. 

40,705,120 

50.0 


Esperanto. This artificial international 
language, which has recently received consider¬ 
able impetus, was invented by Dr. Zamenhof, 
an oculist of Warsaw, in 1887. His brochure 
was published under the pseudonym, Dr. Esper¬ 
anto ; hence the name. Simple in grammar, 
and forming its w T ords by the addition of prefixes 
and suffixes to root words, it is akin to English 
in syntax, to French in vocabulary, to Spanish 
or Italian in sound, to German in the abundance 
of prefixes and suffixes, to Greek in correlative 
pronouns and the formation of participles and 
compound tenses, and to the Slavonic languages 
in the want of the indefinite article. 

The grammar, which is absolutely regular and 
without any exceptions, has been reduced to the 
utmost extent, having due regard to the neces¬ 
sary qualities of clearness, precision, and flexi¬ 
bility. There are only sixteen rules, and the 
reading, it is stated, can be learned in one hour. 
The noun is indicated by the terminal “o,” to 
which “j” is added to indicate the plural. 
Adjectives terminate in “a,” adverbs in “e,” 
and the infinitive in “i.” 

The principle adopted in the formation of the 
vocabulary is the selection of those root-words 
which are common to all the principal European 
languages, then those which are common to all 
but one, to all buF two, and so forth. For 
connective words (conjunctions, prepositions) 
Latin and Greek, too, have been used some¬ 
times. By means of an elaborate system of 
clearly defined prefixes and suffixes the dic¬ 
tionary is simplified and augmented to an 
almost unlimited degree: e. g. mal is the prefix 
denoting contrary notion, thus bona=good, 
malbona=bad, fermi=to close, malfermi=to 
open; in is the suffix for the feminine, thus 
knabo=boy, knabino=girl; et is the suffix for 
diminutives, thus knabeto=:little boy, knabine- 
tino=little girl; knabinetinigi would mean to 
behave like a little girl, and so forth. The 
syntax of Esperanto is free, the order of words 
suffering very little constraint. Its pronuncia¬ 
tion is phonetic, every letter having always the 
same sound and being pronounced where written. 
Numerous works have been published in Esper¬ 
anto, including a number of scientific works, to 
show the adaptability of the tongue to all pur¬ 
poses. 

In 1906, the English Chamber of Commerce 



















































MISCELLANY 


789 


put Esperanto on the examination list for 
applicants for positions. It is an elective 
branch of study in many schools to-day, especi¬ 
ally in France. Recently it has been made an 
elective in several prominent American uni¬ 
versities. In Frankfort, Germany, an Inter¬ 
national Commercial Esperanto Society was 
founded in 1906. American officers and magis¬ 
trates in the Philippines find the language useful. 
There are yearly international congresses of 
Esperantists, and the study of the language 
extends to all parts of the world. There are 
about thirty journals and papers advocating the 
cause. The English organ is The British Esper¬ 
antist. The headquarters of the American 
Esperanto Association is in Boston, Mass. 

The following is a specimen of the language, 
which shows how readily it can be understood 
by an English-speaking individual: “ Esperanto 
estas helpa lingvo internacia, eksterordinare 
facila; estas tre bonsona, kaj egale bona por la 
komerco, la scienco, la literaturo kaj la poezio.” 

The favorite grammar of Esperanto for Eng¬ 
lish-speaking people is O’Connor’s Complete 
Textbook. 

Flag, United States. On June 14, 1777, 
the United States Congress passed a resolution 
declaring “ that the flag of the thirteen United 
States be stripes alternate red and white; that 
the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, 
representing the new constellation.” In 1794, 
Congress decreed that after May 1, 1795, “the 
flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alter¬ 
nate red and white, and that the union be 
fifteen stars, white in a blue field.” This 
change was made to mark the admission of Ver¬ 
mont and Kentucky into the Union. The stars 
and stripes were then equal and a star and stripe 
were to be added with the admission of each new 
State. It was realized, however, that the addi¬ 


tion of a stripe for each new State would soon 
render the flag too large, and a resolution was 
accordingly passed by Congress, April 4, 1818, 
reducing the number of stripes to thirteen — 
representing the original Union — and making 
the stars twenty in number. It was, further¬ 
more, enacted that a new star should be added 
for each new State admitted into the Union. 
The flag now contains forty-eight stars, corre¬ 
sponding to the forty-eight states. 

According to tradition the first flag, known as 
the “Stars and Stripes,” was made by Mrs. 
Betsy Ross of Philadelphia, about whom suc¬ 
ceeding years have thrown a glamor of patriotic 
romance. 

Fool, or Jester, Court. Among the more 
celebrated of French court fools were Triboulet 
of the court of Francis I.; Chicot, the jester of 
Charles IX.; and Angely, the cynical buffoon 
of Louis XIII., and the last of his order in that 
country. England had also her special repre¬ 
sentatives in this field of Momus, the court fool 
of Henry VIII., with his retinue of giants and 
Xit, the dwarf, and Archie Armstrong, James 
I.’s licensed joker, being the most celebrated. 
Court fools in all European countries save Rus¬ 
sia were discontinued soon after the first quarter 
of the Seventeenth Century. Peter the Great 
and the Empress Anne, however, kept up the 
practice much later. 

Freemasonry. The name of a secret 
brotherhood which claims a very remote origin, 
and seems to have descended to us directly from 
the craft guilds of the mediaeval period. Modern 
Masonry arose in England in the early part of 
the Eighteenth Century, and has no connection 
with the builder’s craft. It was first established 
in the United States in 1730. There are now 
in the United States and British America a total 
of about 1,500,000 members. 


DEGREES IN FREEMASONRY 


York Rite 


Scottish Rite 


Lodge 


Lodge of Perfection 


Councils of Princes of 
Jerusalem ( Continued ) 


1. Entered Apprentice. 

2. Fellow Craftsman. 

3. Master Mason. 

Chapter 

4. Mark Master. 

5. Past Master. 

6. Most Excellent Master. 

7. Royal Arch Mason. 

Council 

8. Royal Master. 

9. Select Master. 

10. Super Excellent Master. 

Commandery. 

11. Red Cross Knight. 

12. Knight Templar. 

13. Knight of Malta. 


4. Secret Master. 

5. Perfect Master. 

6. Intimate Secretary. 

7. Provost and Judge. 

8. Intendant oi the Build¬ 

ing. 

9. Elect of Nine. 

10. Elect of Fifteen. 

11. Sublime Knight Elect. 

12. Grand Master Archi¬ 

tect. 

13. Knight of the Ninth 

Arch. 

14. Grand Elect Perfect 

and Sublime Mason. 

Councils of Princes of 
Jerusalem 

15. Knight of the East or 

Sword. 


16. Prince of Jerusalem. 

Chapters of Rose Croix 

17. Knight of the East and 

West. 

18. Knight of the Rose 

Croix de H. R. D. M. 

Consistories of Sublime 
Princes of the Royal 
Secret 

19. Grand Pontiff. 

20. Master Ad Vitam. 

21. Patriarch Noachite. 

22. Prince of Libanus. 

23. Chief of the Taber¬ 

nacle. 

24. Prince of the Taber¬ 

nacle. 


Consistories of Sublime 
Princes of the Royal 
Secret ( Continued) 

25. Knight of the Braien 

Serpent. 

26. Prince of Mercy. 

27. Commander of the 

Temple. 

28. Knight of the Sun. 

29. Knight of St. Andrew. 

30. Grand Elect Knight, 

K. H., or Knight of 
the Black and White 
Eagle. 

31. Grand Inspector In¬ 

quisitor Commander. 

32. Sublime Prince of the 

Royal Secret. 

33. Sovereign Grand In¬ 

spector-General of 
the 33d and Last 
Degree. 


Gardens of the World. Garden of 
Eden. First abode of man, supposed to 
be located near the city of Babylon. 
Garden of England. Worcestershire and 
Kent. Both so called. 

Garden of Erin. Carlow, in Leinster. 
Garden of Europe. Italy and Belgium. 
Both so called. 


Garden of France. Amboise, in the department 
of Indre-et-Loire. 

Garden of Gethsemane. East of Jerusalem, near 
the Brook Kedron. 

Garden of Helvetia. Name given to Thurgau, 
Switzerland. 

Garden of the Hesperides. In the western part of 
the mythological world. 











790 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Garden of India. Oude. 

Garden of Italy. Sicily. 

Garden of South Wales. The southern divis¬ 
ion of Glamorganshire. 

Garden of Spain. Andalusia. 

Garden of the Argentine. Turcuman, a 
province of Argentinia. 

Garden of the East. Ceylon and Burmah. 
Both so called. Ceylon is also called 
“ The Resplendent ”; the “ Jewel of the 
Eastern Sea”; the “Gem of Paradise.” 
Its climate and productions are quite 
unrivaled. 

Garden of the West. Illinois and Kansas. 
Both so called. 

Garden of the World. The region of the 
Mississippi. 0 

Giants. The following are among authen¬ 
tic instances of persons who attained to the 
stature of giants: The Roman Emperor Maxi- 
min, a Thracian, nearly 9 feet high; Queen 
Elizabeth’s Flemish porter, 7 feet 6 inches; C. 
Munster, a yeoman of the guard in Hanover, 
who died in 1676, 8 feet 6 inches high; Cajanus, 
a Swedish giant, about 9 feet high, exhibited in 
London in 1742; C. Byrne,- who died in 1783, 
attained the height of 8 feet 4 inches; Patrick 
Cotter O’Brien, who lived about the same time, 
was 8 feet 7f inches; a Swede in the celebrated 
grenadier guard of Frederick William I. of 
Prussia stood 8^ feet. In 1844, died Pauline 
Wedde (called Marian), over 8 feet 2 inches at 
the age of 18. The following are still or were 
quite recently exhibiting: Anna Swan, a native 
of Nova Scotia, above 8 feet high; her husband, 
Captain Bates, a native of Kentucky, of the same 
height; Chang-wu-gon, the Chinese giant, 7 feet 
9 inches high. 

Gypsies. Popularly supposed to be Egyp¬ 
tians. In Italian they are known as Zingaro; 
Spanish, Zingaro; French, Bohemien; Danish, 
Tater, etc. They are a peculiar vagabond race 
which appeared in England for the first time 
about the beginning of the Sixteenth Century, 
and in eastern Europe at least two centuries 
earlier, and are now found in every country of 
Europe, as well as in parts of Asia, Africa, and 
America. The Gypsies are distinguishable from 
the peoples among whom they rove by their 
bodily appearance and by their language. Their 
forms are generally light, lithe, and agile; skin 
of a tawny color; eyes large, black, and brilliant; 
hair long, coal black, and often ringleted; mouth 
well shaped, and teeth very white. 

Hall of Fame. A hall erected on Univer¬ 
sity Heights, New York, in 1900, in commemo¬ 
ration of great Americans. It is a semi-circular 
colonnade connecting two of the buildings of 
New York University, with a ground floor under¬ 
neath containing a long hall and six rooms to be 
used as a museum to contain memorials of those 
honored. Space is provided within the colon¬ 
nade for 150 panels, which are to contain bronze 
tablets bearing the names (with busts or statues 
of bronze on parapets just above) of such 
Americans as shall be judged most famous in 
their respective fields by an electorate of eminent 
American citizens appointed by the senate of the 
University. 

Only persons who shall have been dead ten or 


more years are eligible to be chosen. Fifteen 
classes of citizens were particularly recommended 
for consideration, to-wit: Authors and editors, 
business men, educators, inventors, missionaries 
and explorers, philanthropists and reformers, 
preachers and theologians, scientists, engineers 
and architects, lawyers and judges, musicians, 
painters and sculptors, physicians and surgeons, 
rulers and statesmen, soldiers and sailors, distin¬ 
guished men and women outside the above 
classes. Fifty names were to be inscribed on the 
tablets at the beginning, and five additional 
names every fifth year thereafter, until the year 
2,000, when the 150 inscriptions will be completed. 
In case of failure to fill all the panels allotted, 
the vacancies are to be filled in a following year. 

In February, 1904, the plan was announced 
of an additional structure in the form of a loggia 
joining the colonnade on the north, having 
thirty panels for foreign born Americans, six to 
be filled in 1905, and beyond this of a Hall of 
Fame for Women, about 30 by 60 feet, with a 
museum on the ground floor and a main story 
above of twenty-eight columns supporting a 
pedimented roof, with places for sixty tablets, 
ten to be filled in 1905. 

The rules prescribed that the Council should 
invite nominations from the public. Every 
nomination seconded by a member of the Uni¬ 
versity Senate should be submitted to an electo¬ 
rate of one hundred eminent citizens selected by 
the Council. 

In October, 1900, the University Senate re¬ 
ceived the ballots of the electors. Of the one 
hundred judges selected, ninety-seven voted. 
The number of names which had been submitted 
to them was 252. Of these each judge returned 
a vote for fifty. The rule required that no can¬ 
didate receiving less than fifty-one votes could 
be accepted. The returns showed that but 
twenty-nine candidates received the required 
number and were chosen. These were as fol¬ 
lows: George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, 
Daniel Webster, Benjamin Franklin, Ulysses S. 
Grant, John Marshall, Thomas Jefferson, Ralph 
Waldo Emerson, Henry W. Longfellow, Robert 
Fulton, Washington Irving, Jonathan Edwards, 
Samuel F. B. Morse, David G. Farragut, Henry 
Clay, Nathaniel Hawthorne, George Peabody, 
Robert E. Lee, Peter Cooper, Eli Whitney, John 
J. Audubon, Horace Mann, Henry Ward Beecher, 
James Kent, Joseph Story, John Adams, William 
E. Channing, Gilbert Stuart, Asa Gray. 

In October, 1905, under the rules named above, 
the senate received the ballots of ninety-five 
Electors out of 101 appointed, of whom only 
eighty-five undertook to consider the names of 
women. A majority of fifty-one was demanded, 
but in the case of the names of women, a majority 
of only forty-seven. The following persons were 
found to be duly chosen: John Quincy Adams, 
fifty-nine; James Russell Lowell, fifty-eight; 
William Tecumseh Sherman, fifty-eight; James 
Madison, fifty-six; John Greenleaf Whittier 
fifty-three; Alexander Hamilton, eighty-eight; 
Louis Agassiz, eighty-three; John Paul Jones, 
fifty-four; Mary Lyon, fifty-eight; Emma 
Willard, fifty; Maria Mitchell, forty-eight. 

The third election was held in 1910, the total 
number of ballots cast being ninety-seven, and 




MISCELLANY 


791 


the number required for a choice fifty-one. 
Eleven new members were elected, as follows: 
Harriet Beecher Stowe, seventy-four; Oliver 
Wendell Holmes, sixty-nine; Edgar Allan Poe, 
sixty-nine; Roger Williams, sixty-four; James 
Fenimore Cooper, sixty-two; Phillips Brooks, 
sixty; William Cullen Bryant, fifty-nine; Frances 
E. Willard, fifty-six; Andrew Jackson, fifty- 
three; George Bancroft, fifty-three; John 
Lothrop Motley, fifty-one. 

The Hall of Fame, as it is now constituted, 
includes thirteen authors, eleven statesmen, five 
soldiers and sailors, five preachers, four teachers, 
three scientists, three inventors, three jurists, 
two philanthropists, one artist, and one reformer. 
Among these there are five women, and four 
Americans of foreign birth, of whom, however, 
three were born before America became a nation. 

Hartford Convention. A political as¬ 
sembly which met at Hartford, December 15, 
1814, and January 5, 1815. It was composed of 
twelve delegates from Massachusetts (including 
its president, George Cabot), seven from Con¬ 
necticut, and four from Rhode Island (appointed 
by the legislatures of those States), and two 
from New Hampshire, and one from Vermont 
(appointed by counties), all Federalists. It 
published a report protesting against the war 
with England and against the action of the 
United States Government in refusing to pay 
the expenses of defending Massachusetts and 
Connecticut because those States refused to 
place their militias under the control of the 
Federal Government, and recommended, among 
other things, the restriction of the powers of 
Congress pertaining to war and to the laying of 
embargos. Its proceedings were carried on in 
secret, and the convention was suspected at the 
time of treason. 

Hobson’s Choice. Tobias Hobson was 
the first man in England that let out hacking 
horses. When a man came for a horse he was 
led into the stables where there was a great 
choice; but he obliged him to take the horse 
which stood next to the stable door; so that 
every customer was alike well served according 
to his chance. Hence, when something which 
ought to be one’s own election is forced upon 
him, we say he took Hobson’s choice. 

Holidays in the United States. 

January 1st. New Year’s Day: In all the 
States (including the District of Columbia, 
Arizona, and New Mexico), except Massachu¬ 
setts, Mississippi, and New Hampshire. 

January 8th. Anniversary of the Battle of 
New Orleans: In Louisiana. 

January 19th. Lee’s Birthday: In Florida, 
Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Vir¬ 
ginia, Alabama, and Arkansas. 

February. Mardi-Gras: In Alabama and 
the parish of Orleans, Louisiana. 

February 12th. Lincoln’s Birthday: In 
Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Kan¬ 
sas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New 
Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, 
Washington, and Wyoming. 

February 22d. Washington’s Birthday r; In 
all the States, District of Columbia, and Arizona, 
except Mississippi. It is observed, however, in 
the public schools of the latter State. 


March 2d. Anniversary of Texan Independ¬ 
ence : In Texas. 

April. In Oregon, the forty-fifth day preced¬ 
ing general State Election, primary nomi¬ 
nating election held. Every day on which an 
election is held throughout Oregon is a legal 
holiday. 

Good Friday: In Alabama, Connecticut, 
Delaware, Florida, Louisiana, Maryland, Minne¬ 
sota, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Tennessee. 

April 19th. Patriots’ Day: In Maine and 
Massachusetts. 

April 21st. Anniversary of the Battle of San 
Jacinto: In Texas. 

April 26th. Confederate Memorial Day: In 
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi. 

May 10th. Confederate Memorial Day: In 
North Carolina and South Carolina. 

May (Second Friday) Confederate Day: In 
Tennessee. 

May 20th. Anniversary of the Signing of the 
Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence: In 
North Carolina. 

May (lastFriday). Pioneers’ Day.;In Montana, 
observed in public schools. 

May 30th. Decoration Day: In all the 
States and Territories (and District of Columbia), 
except Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Louis¬ 
iana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Tennessee, Texas, and Louisiana. In Virginia, 
known as “ Confederate Memorial Day,” as also 
in certain other Southern States. 

June 3d. Jefferson Davis’s Birthday: In 
Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, 
Texas, and South Carolina. In Louisiana, 
known as “Confederate Memorial Day.” In 
Virginia, in public schools. 

June (first Monday), even years. General State 
election in Oregon. 

July 4th. Independence Day: In all the 
States, District of Columbia, and Territories. 

July 24th. Pioneers’ Day: In Utah. 

August 16th. Bennington Battle Day: In 
Vermont. 

September (first Monday). Labor Day: In 
all the States and Territories (and District of 
Columbia), except North Dakota. In Louisiana, 
observed in Orleans Parish. In Wyoming, by 
proclamation of the governor. 

September (first Tuesday). Primary Election 
Day: In Wisconsin. 

September 9th. Admission Day: In Cali¬ 
fornia. 

September 12th. “Old Defenders’ Day”: In 

Baltimore, Md. 

October 31st. Admission Day: In Nevada. 

November 1st. All Saints’ Day: In Louisi¬ 
ana. 

November. General Election Day: In Arizona, 
California, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, 
Illinois (in Chicago, Springfield and East St. 
Louis only), Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken¬ 
tucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minne¬ 
sota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hamp¬ 
shire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, 
North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio (from 
5.30 A. M. to 9 A. M. only), Oklahoma, Oregon 
(vote for presidential elections only), Pennsyl¬ 
vania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 
Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, Wash- 




792 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


ington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming, in the years 
when elections are held therein. 

November. Thanksgiving Day (last Thursday 
in November): Observed in all the States, and 
in the District of Columbia, though in some 
States it is not a statutory holiday. 

December 25th. Christmas Day: In all the 
States, District of Columbia, and Territories. 

Sundays and Fast Days are legal holidays in all the 
States which designate them as such. 

There are no statutory holidays in Mississippi, but 
by common consent the Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, 
and Christmas are observed. In New Mexico, Wash¬ 
ington’s Birthday, Decoration Day, Labor Day, Flag- 
Day (June 14), and Arbor Day are holidays when so 
designated by the governor. In South Carolina, Thurs¬ 
day of Fair Week is a legal holiday. 

Arbor Day is a legal holiday in North Dakota, Illinois, 
Minnesota, Maine, and Wyoming, the day being set by 
the governor. In Nebraska, April 22d; Montana, third 
Tuesday in April; Arizona, first Monday in February; 
Utah, April 15th; Rhode Island, second Friday in May; 
Idaho, first Friday after May 1st; Florida, first Friday 
in February; Georgia, first Friday in December. 

Every Saturday after 12 o’clock noon is a legal holi¬ 
day in California, in public offices, Illinois (in cities of 
200,000 or more inhabitants), Maryland, Michigan, New 
York, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
Virginia, the District of Columbia (for banking pur¬ 
poses), and in New Orleans, La., and Charleston, S. C.; 
in Louisiana in cities exceeding 15,000, and in Missouri 
in cities of 100,000 or more inhabitants; in Tennessee, 
for State and county officers, and in Colorado during 
June, July, and August; in Indiana, first Saturday in 
June to last Saturday in October, inclusive, for all public 
offices in counties having a county-seat of 100,000 popu¬ 
lation or more. 

There is no national holiday, not even the Fourth 
of July. Congress has at various times appointed 
special holidays. In the second session of the Fifty- 
third Congress it passed an act making Labor Day a 
public holiday in the District of Columbia, and it has 
recognized the existence of certain days as holidays for 
commercial purposes, but, with the exception named, 
there is no general statute on the subject. The procla¬ 
mation of the president designating a day of Thanks¬ 
giving only makes it a legal holiday in the District of 
Columbia and the Territories. 

CHURCH DAYS 

Ember and Rogation Days are certain periods 
of the year devoted to prayer and fasting. 
Ember Days (twelve annually) are the Wednes¬ 
day, Friday, and Saturday after the first Sunday 
in Lent, after the feast of Pentecost (Whit Sun¬ 
day), after the festival of the Holy Cross, and 
after the festival of St. Lucia. Ember Weeks 
are the weeks in which the Ember Days ap¬ 
pear. 

Rogation Days occur on the Feast of St. Mark, 
April 25, and on the three days immediately 
preceding Ascension Day. 

Easter, the Christian passover and festival of 
the resurrection of Christ. The English name 
is probably derived from that of the Teutonic 
goddess of spring, Ostera or Eostre, whose festi¬ 
val occurred about the same time as the celebra¬ 
tion of Easter. Those of the early Christians 
who believe the Christian passover to be a 
commemoration of Christ’s death adhered to the 
custom of holding the Easter festivity on the day 
prescribed for the Jewish pasch, the 14th day of 
the first month, that is, the lunar month of which 
the 14th day either falls on or next follows the 
day of the vernal equinox. But most of the 
Christian Churches, attaching greatest impor¬ 
tance to the day of Christ’s resurrection, held to 
Easter’s being celebrated on the Sunday which 


followed the 14th day of the moon of March, 
the day on which Christ suffered. This question 
was the cause of a serious difference in the 
Church as early .as the Second Century, and was 
not finally settled until the Council of Nice in 325. 
The rule was then adopted which makes Easter 
day to be always the first Sunday after the full 
moon which happens upon or next after March 
21st; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, 
Easter day is the Sunday after. By this arrange¬ 
ment Easter may come as early as March 22d, 
or as late as April 25th. This sacred festival is 
celebrated in every part of the Christian world 
with great solemnity and devotion, and generally 
also with proper sports and observances. Among 
the best known of the latter is the custom of 
making presents of colored eggs, called pasch or 
pace eggs. This custom originated from the 
old German legend of a white hare stealing into 
the house on Easter eve and secreting a number 
of beautifully colored eggs in odd corners for 
good little children. In America, where the 
hare is practically unknown, the custom has 
been transferred to the rabbit, its near relation. 
Hence, the colored Easter eggs are popularly 
referred to as “ rabbit’s eggs.” 

OLD ENGLISH HOLIDAYS 

These holidays, with their names, had their 
origin in mediaeval England when the state 
religion was that of the Church of Rome, and 
they are still observed generally or in some 
parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. 

January 6th. Twelfth Day, or Twelfth-tide, 
sometimes called Old Christmas Day, the same 
as Epiphany. The previous evening is Twelfth 
Night, with which many social rites have long 
been connected. 

February 2d. Candlemas: Festival of the 
Purification of the Virgin. Consecration of the 
lighted candles to be used in the church during 
the year. 

February 14th. Old Candlemas: St. Val¬ 
entine’s Day. 

March 25th. Lady Day: Annunciation of 
the Virgin. April 6th is old Lady Day. 

June 24th. Midsummer Day: Feast of the 
Nativity of John the Baptist. July 7th is old 
Midsummer Day. 

July 15th. St. Swithin’s Day. There was 
an old superstition that if rain fell on this day 
it would continue forty days. 

August 1st. Lammas Day: Originally in 
England the festival of the wheat harvest. In 
the Church the festival of St. Peter’s miraculous 
deliverance from prison. Old Lammas Day is 
August 13th. 

September 29th. Michaelmas: Feast of St. 
Michael, the Archangel. Old Michaelmas is 
October 11th. 

November 1st. Allhallowmas: Allhallows 
or All Saints’ Day. The previous evening is 
Allhalloween, observed by home gatherings and 
old-time festive rites. 

November 2d. All Souls’ Day: Day of 
prayer for the souls of the dead. 

November 11th. Martinmas: Feast of St. 
Martin. Old Martinmas is November 23d. 

December 28th. Childermas: Holy Inno¬ 
cents’ Day. 



MISCELLANY 


793 


Lady Day, Midsummer Day, Michaelmas, and 
Christmas are quarter (rent) days in England, 
and Whitsunday, Martinmas, Candlemas, and 
Lammas Day, in Scotland. 

Shrove Tuesday, the day before Ash Wednes¬ 
day, and Maundy Thursday, the day before 
Good Friday, are observed by the Church. 
Mothering Sunday is Mid-Lent Sunday, in which 
the old rural custom obtains of visiting one’s 
parents and making them presents. 

Honeymoon. “Honeymoon” is a word 
left us, while the custom giving it name is a 
thing of the past. It had its origin among the 
ancient Germans, whose newly-married couples 
drank mead mingled with honey for thirty days 
after the wedding. 

Honor, Legion of. An order of merit 
instituted under the French Republic in 1802, 
by the First Consul, as a recompense for military 
and civil services. The order originally com¬ 
prised three classes — grand officers, command¬ 
ers, and legionaries. The class of grand officers 
was, on the coronation of Napoleon I., divided 
into knights of the grand eagle (the highest 
class) and grand officers. On the restoration of 
the Bourbons the legion was retained, but re¬ 
modeled so as to lose much of its original char¬ 
acter. The decoration was a star of five rays, 
white enamel, surrounded with oak and laurel 
branches. In the center of the star was the 
figure of Napoleon Bonaparte. On one side was 
the legend Honneur et Patrie, and the device 
was an eagle holding thunderbolts. It was sus¬ 
pended to a red-watered ribbon. Remodeled 
by Napoleon III. (January 22, 1853). 

Badge for a Chevalier, a bow of red ribbon 
in the buttonhole of the coat, with medal at¬ 
tached. 

Badge for an Officer, a rosette of red ribbon in 
the buttonhole of the coat, with medal attached. 

Badge for a Commander, a collar ribbon. 

Badge for a Grand Officer, a broad ribbon 
under the waistcoat. 

Badge for a Grand Cross, a broad ribbon with 
a star on the breast, and jewel cross pendant. 

Horoscope. In astrology, an observa¬ 
tion of the aspect of the heavens at the 
moment of a person’s birth, by which the 
astrologer claimed to foretell the future. A 
scheme or figure of the 12 houses or 12 signs of 
the zodiac, in which is marked the disposition 
of the heavens at a given time, and by which 
astrologers formerly told the fortunes of persons, 
according to the position of the stars at the time 
of their birth. A kind of planisphere invented 
by John of Padua. A table of the length of the 
days and nights at all places. 


Immigration to United 

Period 


States. 


Immigrants 

Arrived 


Year ending September 30 — 

1820, . 

1821. 

1822. 

1823. 

1824,.. 

1825 . 

1826 . 

1827, . 

1828. 


8,385 

9,127 

6.911 
6,354 

7.912 
10,199 
10,837 
18,875 
27,382 


Period 


Immigrants 

Arrived 


1829, . 

1830, . 

1831, . 

October 1, 1831, to December 31, 1832, . 
Year ending December 31 — 

1833 . 

1834 . 

1835 . 

1836 . 

1837 . 

1838 . 

1839 . 

1840 . 

1841 . 

1842,. 

January 1st to September 30, 1843, . . . 
Year ending September 30 — 

1844 . 

1845 . 

1846 . 

1847,. 

1848 . 

1849 . 

1850, . . .. 

October 1st to December 31, 1850, . . . 
Year ending December 31st — 

1851. 

1852, . 

1853, . 

1854. 

1855, . 

1856, . 

January 1st to June 30, 1857,. 

Year ending June 30th — 

1858. 

1859, . 

1860. 

1861, . 

1862. 

1863,.. 

1864 . 

1865 . 

1866 . 

1867. 

1868, . 

1869, . 

1870, . 

1871 . 

1872 . 

1873, . 

1874. 

1875, . 

1876. 

1877, . 

1878 . 

1879 . 

1880 . 

1881. 

1882. 

1883 . 

1884 . 

1885 . 

1886 . 

1887, ... . 

1888, . 

1889 . 

1890 . 

1891 . 

1892,. 

1893 . 

1894 . 

1895 . 

1896 . 

1897, . 

1898 ... 

1899 . 

1900 . 

1901, . 

1902, . 

1903, . 

1904 . 

1905 . 

1906, . . . .. 

1907, . 

1908 . 

1909 . 

1910 . 

1911, .. 


22,520 

23,322 

22,633 

60,482 

58,640 

65,365 

45,374 

76,242 

79,340 

38,914 

68,069 

84,066 

80,289 

104,565 

52,496 

78,615 

114,371 

154,416 

234,968 

226,527 

297,024 

310,004 

59,976 

379,466 

371,603 

368,645 

427,833 

200.877 

195.857 
112,123 

191,942 

129.571 
133,143 

142.877 
72,183 

132,925 

191,114 

180.339 
332,577 
303,104 
282,189 
352,768 

387.203 
321,350 
404,806 
459,803 

313.339 
227,498 
169,986 

141.857 
138,469 
177,826 
457,257 
669,431 
788,992 
603,322 
518,592 
395,346 

334.203 
490,109 
546,889 
444,427 
455,302 
560,319 
579,663 
439,730 
285,631 
258,536 
343,267 
230,832 
229,299 
311,715 

448.572 
487,918 
648,743 
857,046 

812.870 
1,027,421 
1,100,735 
1,285,349 

782.870 
751,786 

1,041,570 

878,587 











































































































794 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Inauguration Day. The present date 
of the inauguration of the President of the 
United States is March 4th. Washington’s first 
inauguration took place on April 30, 1789. 
March 4th was chosen for this purpose rather by 
accident than design. A committee appointed 
by the Constitutional Convention chose the first 
Wednesday in March, 1789, as the date for the 
first Congress under the Constitution to meet. 
This date happened to be March 4th, which has 
since then been used as the date of presidential 
inauguration. Twenty-one presidents have been 
inaugurated on March 4th, viz., George Wash¬ 
ington, in 1793; John Adams, in 1797; Thomas 
Jefferson, in 1801 and 1805; James Madison, in 
1809 and 1813; James Monroe, in 1817; John 
Quincy Adams, in 1825; Andrew Jackson, in 
1829 arid 1833; Martin Van Buren, in 1837; 
William Henry Harrison, in 1841; James K. 
Polk, in 1845; Franklin Pierce, in 1853; James 
Buchanan, in 1857; Abraham Lincoln, in 1861 
and 1865; Ulysses S. Grant, in 1869 and 1873; 
James A. Garfield, in 1881; Grover Cleveland, 
in 1885 and 1893; Benjamin Harrison, in 1889; 
William McKinley, in 1897 and 1901; Theodore 
Roosevelt, in 1905; William H. Taft, in 1909, and 
Woodrow Wilson in 1913. George Washington 
was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, because the 
bad weather had prevented Congress from assem¬ 
bling and organizing. James Monroe, Zachary 
Taylor, and Rutherford B. Hayes were inaug¬ 
urated on March 5,1821,1849, and 1877, respect¬ 
ively, because March 4th in those years fell on 
Sunday. John Tyler was inaugurated April 6, 
1841; President Harrison died on April 4th, and 
Tyler could not reach Washington sooner. Mill¬ 
ard Fillmore took the oath on July 9, 1850, the 
same day that General Taylor died. Andrew 
Johnson was sworn in on April 15, 1865, a few 
hours after Lincoln expired. Chester A. Arthur 
took the oath late on Monday night, September 
19, 1881, about an hour after Garfield died, and 
Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office in 
Buffalo, N. Y., on September 14, 1901, shortly 
after the death of President McKinley. 

John Dull. A collective nickname for the 
English people, first used in Arbuthnot’s ludi¬ 
crous “ History of Europe.” It is now also 
applied to characteristic English traits. 

Kitchen Cabinet. This name was sport¬ 
ively given in the United States to Francis P. 
Blair, Amos Kendall and others, by the opponents 
of President Jackson’s administration. Blair was 
the editor of the “Globe,” the organ of the 
president, and Kendall was one of the principal 
contributors to the paper. As it was necessary 
for Jackson to consult frequently with these 
gentlemen, in order to avoid observation, they 
were accustomed, when they called upon him, 
to go in by a back door. The Whig party styled 
them, in derision, therefore, the “Kitchen 
Cabinet,” alleging that it was by their advice 
that the president removed so many Whigs 
from office and put Democrats in their places. 
During the Roosevelt administration a similar 
group of the president’s intimates was styled the 
“Tennis Cabinet,” because they usually met at 
the tennis court. 

Ku-Klux-Klan. The name of a secret 
society in the Southern States bitterly op¬ 


posed to the exercise of the electoral franchise 
by the negroes. Early in 1868, this society 
issued lists of proscribed persons, who, if they 
did not quit the country after warning, became 
liable to assassination. General Grant endeav¬ 
ored to suppress the society. Its repression 
by the militia in Arkansas was ordered Novem¬ 
ber, 1868, and it became the subject of leg¬ 
islation at Washington, June, 1871, under 
which many persons were tried and convicted 
for lawless outrages and murders. The Ku- 
Klux outrages were generally committed at 
night, the men being masked and even their 
horses being disguised. The vigorous prosecu¬ 
tion of Ku-Klux offenders speedily destroyed 
the organization. 

Liberty Bell. The famous Liberty Bell, 
weighing about 2,000 pounds, was made in Lon¬ 
don in 1752, and was ordered by the Pennsyl¬ 
vania Assembly for the State House, then located 
in Philadelphia. It was put in place the fol¬ 
lowing year, but on account of a defect in sound, 
it was recast in Philadelphia, and, in June, 1753, 
was again placed in the State House belfry. 

When the Continental Congress, on July 4, 
1776, declared the independence of the American 
colonies from Great Britain, the old bellman, 
in his enthusiasm and ecstasy, according to the 
story, rang the bell for two hours. In 1777, 
when the British threatened Philadelphia, the 
bell was taken down, and carried to Allentown, 
Pa., but a new steeple was built for it, and it was 
again returned to the State House, in 1778. 
In 1835, it cracked under a stroke of the 
hammer, and has remained impaired ever since. 
It has been transported to a number of exposi¬ 
tions, and the utmost caution taken to preserve 
it as one of our most hallowed national relics. 
The bell contains the following inscriptions: 
“By order of the Assembly of the Province of 
Pennsylvania, for the State House, in the City of 
Philadelphia, 1752;” beneath is inscribed, 
“ Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all 
the inhabitants thereof — Levit. XXV., 10.” 

Log. A contrivance used to measure the 
rate of a ship’s velocity through the water. For 
this purpose there are several inventions, but the 
one most generally used is the following, called 
the common log. It is a piece of thin board, 
forming the quadrant of a circle of about six 
inches radius, and balanced by a small plate of 
lead nailed on the circular part, so as to swim 
perpendicularly in the water, with the greater 
part immersed. One end of a line, called the 
log-line, is fastened to the log, while the other 
is wound round a reel. When the log is thrown 
out of the ship while sailing, as soon as it touches 
the water it ceases to partake of the ship’s mo¬ 
tion, so that the ship goes on and leaves it be¬ 
hind, while the line is unwound from the reel, 
so that the length of line unwound in a given 
time gives the rate of the ship’s sailing. This 
is calculated by knots made on the line at cer¬ 
tain distances, while the time is measured by a 
sandglass running a certain number of seconds. 
The length between the knots is so proportioned 
to the time of the glass that the number of knots 
unwound while the glass runs down shows the 
number of nautical miles the ship is sailing per 
hour. Thus, if the glass be a half-minute one, 





MISCELLANY 


795 


it will run down 120 times in an hour. Now, 
since a nautical mile contains about 6,076 feet, 
the 120th part of this is about 50§ feet; so that 
if the spaces between the knots be 50§ feet, the 
number of knots and parts of a knot unwound 
from the reel in half a minute is the number of 
miles and parts of a mile the ship runs in one hour. 

Mines, Deepest. 1. Ashton Moss Col¬ 
liery, near Manchester, England, 2,850 feet. 

2. Adalbert Silver-lead Mine, at Przibram, 
Bohemia, 3,432 feet. 

3. Calumet Copper Mine, near Lake Superior, 
in Michigan, 3,900 feet. 

The deepest mine in the world is the rock-salt 
bore hole at Sperenberg, near Berlin, which is 
4,175 feet in depth. It is not, however, quite 
perpendicular. The deepest British mine is 
Dunhill Colliery, near Wigan, which is 2,824 
feet. The deepest boring in the world is the 
artesian well at Potsdam, Missouri, which is 
5,500 feet, or 220 feet beyond a mile. 

Mortality. In an extended sense, the con¬ 
dition of all organized bodies — of being subject 
to the cessation of life. In the sense in which 
it is most frequently employed, the death rate, 
i. e., the proportional quantity of individuals 
who, in a certain population, die in a given time. 
If we assume the population of the earth to be 
one thousand millions, and a generation to last 
thirty-three years, in that space of time, the 
one thousand millions must all die, and, conse¬ 
quently, the number of deaths will be, by ap¬ 
proximation : 

Each year,. 30,000,000 

Each day,. 82,107 

Each hour,. 3,421 

Each second, .... 1 nearly. 

One-quarter of the population die at or before 
the age of 7; the half part of it die at or before 
the age of 17. One in 100,000 persons reaches 
the age of 100 years; one in 500 reaches the age 
of 90; one in 100, the age of 60. 

DEATH RATES FROM CERTAIN CAUSES IN 
THE UNITED STATES 


DEATH RATE IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS 


Cause 


Pneumonia,. 

Consumption, 1 . . . . 
Heart disease, 2 . . . . 
Diarrhceal diseases, 3 
Diseasesof the kidneys, 4 

Apoplexy,. 

Cancer,. 

Old age,.. 

Bronchitis,. 

Cholera infantum, . . 
Debility and atrophy, . 
Inflammation of the 
brain and meningitis, 
Diphtheria, .... 
Typhoid fever, . . . 
Influenza, . . . 
Diseases of the brain, 

Croup,. 

Malarial fever, . . . 


Death Rate 
per 100,000 

Increase or 
Decrease in 
Death Rate, 
1890 to 1900 

1900 

1890 

In¬ 

crease 

De¬ 

crease 

191.9 

186.9 

5.0 


190.5 

245.4 


54.9 

134.0 

121.8 

12.2 


85.1 

104.1 

. . . 

i9.0 

83.7 

59.7 

24.0 


66.6 

49.0 

17.6 


60.0 

47.9 

12.1 


54.0 

44.9 

9.1 


48.3 

74.4 


26. i 

47.8 

79.7 


31.9 

45.5 

88.6 


43.1 

41.8 

49.1 


7.3 

35.4 

70.1 


34.7 

33.8 

46.3 


12.5 

23.9 

6.2 

i.7.7 


18.6 

30.9 


i 2.3 

9.8 

27.6 


17.8 

8.8 

19.2 


10.4 


1 Including general tuberculosis. 2 Including pericar¬ 
ditis. 3 Including cholera morbus, colitis diarrhoea, 
dysentery, and enteritis. 4 Including Bright’s disease. 


Occupation 

Basis of 

Death 

Rate 

Estimate 

1900 

1890 

Males. All occupations, . 

5,575,745 

15.0 

13.8 

Professional. 

203,104 

15.3 

15.7 

Architects, artists, and 
teachers of art, etc., . 

23,485 

23.5 

18.2 

Clergymen, ...... 

19,587 

11.7 

12.4 

Engineers and surv’rs, . 

36,539 

8.2 

5.6 

Journalists,. 

9,021 

15.0 

16.8 

Lawyers. 

28,597 

17.2 

17.7 

Musicians and teachers 
of music,. 

16,008 

15.2 

16.0 

Physicians and surgeons, 

29,622 

19.9 

21.6 

Teachers (school), . . . 

20,135 

12.2 

10.4 

Others of this class, . . 

20,110 

16.0 


Clerical and official, . . . 

424,781 

13.5 

9.8 

Bookkeepers, clerks, and 
copyists,. 

278,137 

13.6 

11.2 

Bankers, brokers, and 
officials of companies,. 

43,430 

11.8 

4.7 

Collectors, auctioneers, 
and agents,. 

73,958 

13.1 

10.7 

Others of this class, . . 

29,256 

15.1 

.... 

Mercantile and trading,. . 

493,994 

12.1 

12.3 

Apothecaries, pharma¬ 
cists, etc.,. 

14,728 

18.3 

16.2 

Commercial travelers, . 

25,989 

5.7 

5.8 

Merchants and dealers, . 

228,899 

16.4 

14.7 

Hucksters and peddlers, 

33,482 

12.0 

14.1 

Others of this class, . . 

190,896 

7.4 

— 

Public entertainment, . 

87,888 

15.4 

14.5 

Hotel and boarding-house 
keepers,. 

19,969 

22.3 

14.9 

Saloon and restaurant, . 

67,919 

13.3 

14.4 

Personal service, police, and 
military,. 

149,164 

12.9 

15.4 

Barbers and hairdressers, 

40,007 

10.4 

12.5 

Janitors and sextons,. . 

19,493 

16.6 

17.2 

Policemen, watchmen, 
and detectives, . . . 

43,145 

15.4 

16.2 

Soldiers, sailors, and ma¬ 
rines (United States), 

14,851 

12.1 

22.7 

Others of this class, . . 

31', 668 

10.9 

.... 

Laboring and servant, . . 

800,983 

20.2 

22.6 

Labor (not agricultural), 

719,647 

20.7 

25.3 

Servants,. 

81,336 

15.5 

12.9 

Manufacturing and mechan¬ 
ical industry,. 

1,796,928 

13.8 

13.0 

Bakers and confectioners, 

39,181 

12.3 

14.6 

Blacksmiths. 

56,840 

18.3 

15.6 

Boot and shoe makers, . 

96,662 

9.4 

15.3 

Brewers, distillers, and 
rectifiers,. 

5,840 

19.7 

14.7 

Butchers. 

38,228 

16.1 

14.9 

Cabinetmakers and up¬ 
holsterers. 

24,787 

18.0 

15.3 

Carpenters and joiners, . 

180,110 

17.2 

13.8 

Cigarmakers and tobacco 
workers,. 

25,581 

18.7 

16.3 

Compositors, printers, and 
pressmen,. 

54,374 

12.1 

11.1 

Coopers,. 

11,020 

23.8 

21.5 

Engineers and firemen 
(not locomotive), . . 

71,388 

15.7 

13.6 

Glass blowers and glass 
workers,. 

10,219 

10.8 

9.5 

Hat and cap makers, . . 

12,763 

17.9 

19.5 

Iron and steel workers, 

69,851 

10.7 

9.8 

Leather makers, .... 

16,697 

12.3 

10.3 

Leather workers, . . . 

12,320 

17.5 

13.3 

Machinists,. 

116,918 

10.5 

11.4 

Marble and stone cutters, 

26,272 

14.9 

13.8 

Masons (brick and stone), 

55,117 

19.9 

15.6 

Mill and factory opera¬ 
tives (textile), .... 

150,783 

8.8 

8.1 

Millers (flour and grist),. 

6,044 

26.6 

17.3 

Painters, glaziers, and 
varnishers,. 

108,992 

16.2 

13.0 

Plasterers and white- 
washers, .... 

8,603 

17.0 

17.3 

Plumbers and gas and 
steamfitters, . . 

48,634 

9.1 

9.7 

Tailors. 

83,856 

11.8 

16.5 




















































































796 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Occupation 

Basis of 

Death Rate 

Estimate 

1900 

1890 

Tinners and tinware 




makers. 

19,708 

14.5 

12.2 

Others of this class, . . 

446,140 

13.9 


Agriculture, transportation 




and other outdoor, . . 

1,528,241 

15.8 

12.1 

Boatmen and canalmen, 

8,178 

18.8 

20.1 

Draymen, hackmen, 

11.0 


teamsters, etc., . . . 

185,552 

12.1 

Farmers, planters, and 



farm laborers, .... 

958,778 

17.6 

11.9 

Gardeners, florists, nur- 



serymen, vinegrowers, 

34,296 

17.2 

14.8 

Livery stable keepers and 




hostlers,. 

32,529 

12.1 

12.0 

Lumbermen, raftsmen, . 

13,078 

16.5 

13.1 

Miners and quarrymen, . 

38,890 

9.6 

7.8 

Sailors, pilots, fishermen, 




and oystermen, . . . 

47,747 

27.7 

22.0 

Steam R. R. employees, 

129,472 

10.8 

9.0 

Stockraisers, herders, and 



drovers. 

966 

32.1 

19.4 

Others of this class, . . 

78,755 

9.9 


All other occupations, . . 

90,662 

6.5 

.... 

Females. All occupations, 

1,587,874 

8.3 

10.5 

Musicians and teachers of 




music,. 

16,566 

5.0 

2.4 

Teachers in schools, . . . 

91,964 

5.9 

4.3 

Stenographers and type- 



writers,. 

33,780 

2.7 

1.8 

Bookkeepers, clerks, and 



copyists,. 

72,713 

5.6 

3.2 

Hotel and boarding-house 



keepers,. 

19,755 

4.5 

3.5 

Laundresses,. 

59,300 

5.1 

6.7 

Nurses and midwives, 

41,912 

9.5 

11.2 

Servants,. 

403,801 

17.1 

18.2 

Artificial flower and paper- 



box makers. 

12,624 

1.3 

3.5 

Cigarmakers and tobacco 



workers,. 

12,838 

4.1 

3.4 

Mill and factory operatives 



(textile),. 

162,392 

4.0 

5.3 

Milliners,. 

29,122 

5.9 


Dressmakers, seamstresses, 

195,176 

5.2 

f 4.4 

Telegraph and telephone 



operators. 

7,801 

5.4 

4.1 

All other occupations, . . 

428,130 

5.7 



DEATH RATE IN CITIES 

p Trrv Deaths per 

1,000 Inhabitants 


Algiers.30.08 

Allegheny, Pa.,.18.4 

Amsterdam,.26.07 

Antwerp,.24.69 

Atlanta, Ga.,.19.3 

Baltimore,.21.0 

Basel,.. . 23.34 

Berlin,.21.81 

Birmingham.25.28 

Bologna.35.13 

Bombay.24.31 

Bordeaux, . . . .26.71 

Boston,.20.1 

Brooklyn,. . .. , 24.0 

Brussels,.29.06 

Buffalo, N. Y.,.. 14.8 

Cadiz,.28.23 

Calcutta,.25.82 

Charleston, S. C.,.31.9 

Chicago,.16.2 

Christiania,.21.53 

Cincinnati. 19.1 

Cleveland, Ohio,.17.1 

Columbus,.15.8 

Denver,. 18.6 

Detroit,. 17.1 

Dresden,.34.82 

Edinburgh.21.97 

Fall River,.22.4 

Frankfort-on-the-Main.20.08 

Genoa.36.75 

Glasgow,.28.92 


Deaths per 
1,000 Inhabitants 


The Hague,.26.05 

Halifax.23.39 

Havana,.37.70 

Honolulu,.110.35 

Indianapolis,.16.7 

Jacksonville, Fla.,.28.4 

Jersey City,.20.7 

Kansas City.17.4 

Lausanne,.24.32 

Leghorn,.31.37 

Leicester.23.74 

Leipsic,.26.08 

Liverpool,.25.81 

London,.22.83 

Los Angeles, Cal.,.18.1 

Louisville, Ky.,.20.0 

Manchester,.28.29 

Mayence,.29.40 

Memphis, Tenn.,.25.1 

Messina,.28.91 

Mexico,.30.94 

Milan,.34.19 

Milwaukee, Wis. 15.9 

Minneapolis,.10.8 

Mobile, Ala.,.24.4 

Montreal,.30.02 

Munich,.45.48 

Nashville, Tenn.23.3 

Newark, N. J.,. 19.8 

Newcastle.. . 29.76 

New Haven, Conn. 18.5 

New Orleans,.28.9 

New York,.20.4 

Nice.34.89 

Nottingham,.21.18 

Palermo,.28.46 

Paris,.22.04 

Paterson, N. J. 19.0 

Pesth,.49.23 

Philadelphia,.21.2 

Pittsburg, Pa.20.0 

Providence, R. 1. 19.9 

Quebec,.22.97 

Richmond, Va.,.27.6 

Rochester, N. Y. 15.0 

Rome,.34.14 

Rotterdam,.31.48 

Salt Lake City, Utah,.20.4 

San Francisco.20.5 

Savannah, Ga.,.32.6 

Scranton, Pa.,.20.7 

St. Joseph,. 9.1 

St. Louis,.17.9 

Stockholm,.30.45 

St. Paul,. 9 .7 

Stuttgart,.25.68 

Sunderland,.22.42 

Syracuse, N. Y.,.13.8 

Toledo,.16.0 

Turin,.26.07 

Valparaiso,.64.58 

Venice,.36.26 

Vienna,.35.28 

Wolverhampton.24.65 

Worcester, Mass. 15.5 

Zurich,. 25.59 

Washington, D. C.22.8 


Mourning. The colors used as badges of 
grief or bereavement in different countries. In 
this country, as in Europe, the ordinary color 
for mourning is black; in China, as with the 
ancient Spartan and Roman ladies, it is white; 
in Turkey, it is blue or violet; in Egypt, yellow; 
in Ethiopia, gray. Some have attempted to 
trace the associations which caused the adoption 
of the various colors to natural causes. Thus 
black, which is the privation of light, is supposed 
very appropriately to denote the privation of 
life; white is an emblem of purity; yellow is 
the color of leaves when they fall, and represents 
that death is the end of all human hopes, etc. 
In the East, to cut the hair was considered a 
sign of mourning; among the Romans, on the 
contrary, it was deemed a mark of sorrow to let 
it grow. 




































































































































MISCELLANY 


797 


NAMES AND NAME ORIGINS 

GEOGRAPHICAL, PERSONAL, CURIOUS, AND OTHERWISE 

KEY TO THE VOWEL SOUNDS 

d, as in farm, father; a, as in ask, fast; a, as in at, fat; a, as in day, fate; d, as in care, fare; £, as 
in met, set; e, as in me, see; e, as in her, ermine; i, as in pin, sin; i, as in pine, line; 6, as in not, got; 
o, as in note, old; 6, as in for, fought; 5, as in sole, only; 6, as in fog, orange; o, sound cannot be 
exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in burn and burnt is perhaps the nearest 
equivalent to o; do, as in cook, look; do, as in coon, moon; u, as in cup, duck; u, as in use, amuse; 
d, as in fur, urge; u sound cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in luke 
and duke resembles the original sound of it. The letter n represents the nasal tone of the preceding 
vowel, as in encore (aN-kor'). 

ABBREVIATIONS 

Arab., Arabic or Arabian; A. S., Anglo Saxon; Boh., Bohemian; Eng., English; Fr., French; Gael., 
Gaelic; Ger., German; Gr., Greek; Heb., Hebrew; Hind., Hindustani; Hung., Hungarian; Ind., Indian; 
It., Italian; Lat., Latin; M.H. G., Middle High German; N. H. G., North High German; Nor., Nor¬ 
wegian; 0. E., Old English; O. F. or O. Fr., Old French; O. G., Old German; O. H. G., Old High 
German; Pers., Persian; Port., Portuguese; Russ., Russian; Sp., Spanish; Sw., Swedish; Teut., 
Teutonic; Turk., Turkish. 


Aachen {a'-ken). See Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aaron ( dr'-un or a!-run). From the Hebrew 
’Aharon, perhaps the same as haron, “a moun¬ 
taineer”; Arabic, Haroon or Harun; Fr., Aaron; 
Ger., Aaron or Aron; It., Aronne; Lat., Aaron; 
Port., Aarao; Sp., Aron. 

Abel ( a'-bl). From the Hebrew Hebhel, which 
St. Jerome translates “vanity or vapor.” Gesenius 
renders the name “breath,” and says the son of 
Adam was probably so called from the shortness of 
his life. Arabic, Habeel or Habil; Fr., Abel; Lat., 
Abel. 

Aberdeen ( ab-er-den'). The ancient and correct 
orthography of this name was “Aberdon,” from 
Aber, the mouth of a river, and Don, the name of 
the river upon whose banks the city is built. 

Abolitionists. A term denoting the Anti-Slavery 
party in the United States, which appeared soon 
after the founding of “The Liberator” by William 
Lloyd Garrison, in 1831; Garrison, Wendell 
Phillips, John Brown, E. P. Lovejoy, Joshua R. 
Giddings, John P. Hale, Salmon P. Chase, and 
Charles Sumner were avowed Abolitionists. 

Abraham (a' -bra-ham). From the Hebrew 
Abhraham, according to some a Hebrew-Arab com¬ 
pound signifying “father of a multitude,” from 
Hebrew abh, “father,” and Arabian, raham. 
Others translate the name “lofty father of a multi¬ 
tude,” or “father who shall see the people.” Ara¬ 
bic, Ibraheem or Ibrahim; Danish, Abraham; 
Dutch, Abraham or Abram; Fr., Abraham; Ger., 
Abraham; It., Abramo; Lat., Abrahamus; Russ., 
Avraam, or Abramii; Sp., Abrahan; Sw., Abra¬ 
ham. 

Abram. Derived from same root as Abraham. 

Absalom (ab'-sd-lom). From the Hebrew Ab- 
shalom, signifying “father of peace”; from abh, 
“father, and shalom. Fr., Absalon. 

Abyssinia ( ab-is-sin'-i-a ). Named from the rivers 
Abia and Wabash, or, according to Bruce, from 
habish, “mixed,” i. e., “the country of the mixed 
races”; others derive it from the land of the 
Abassins, or “mixed races.” 

Acadia (a-ka'-di-d), or Acadie ( a-ka-de'). The 
name originally given to Nova Scotia, but now 
only the poetical designation. It was granted by 
Henry IV., of France, November 8, 1603, to De 
Monts, a Frenchman, and a company of Jesuits, 
who were finally expelled from the country by the 
English governor and colonists of Virginia, who 
claimed all that coast by virtue of its prior dis¬ 
covery by the Cabots in 1497. In 1621, Sir Wil¬ 
liam Alexander, a Scotchman, applied to and ob¬ 
tained of James I. a grant of the whole peninsula, 
which he renamed Nova Scotia, in honor of his 
native land. 

Acquia Creek, Va. Indian equiwi, “between,” 
or akki, “earth”; i. e., “earthy or muddy creek.” 

Acropolis ( d-krop'-o-Us ). From the Greek 
akropolis, “the upper city.” Once a general name 


for the citadel of any ancient Greek city, but es¬ 
pecially appropriated to that of Athens, famous for 
the placing on its summit in the Fifth Century, 
B. C., of the highest achievements of Greek art, the 
Parthenon and the Erechtheum, with the sculp¬ 
tures which adorned them without and within, and * 
the Propylaea, or monumental gate, inside of the 
walls at the west end. At first Acropolis was the 
only name of the city, which was so called from 
Acrops, the founder. Afterwards, when the city 
extended over the adjoining plains, the name 
Acropolis was confined to the citadel and the hilly 
ground adjoining. 

Ada {a'-da). According to some, this name has 
been corrupted from Adama, feminine of Adam. 
Others derive it from the name Ead, which is from 
A. S. ead, “happy”; or from the name Eadith. 
Littleton gives “Eada” (Saxon), Auda, Ada, and 
Idonea, which he translates, “fit, meet, proper”; 
also “pious, honest, rich.” 

Adam (ad'-am). From the Hebrew Adham, 
signifying “man”; literally, “earthy, red earth.” 
Rudolph, however, says the name in Ethiopic 
means “to be fair, beautiful.” Arabic, Adam; 
Danish, Adam; Dutch, Adam; Fr., Adam; Ger., 
Adam; It., Adamo; Lat., Adamus; Port., Adao; 
Sp., Adan. 

Adela (ad'-e-la). A female name Latinized from 
Old German edel, “noble, noble descent or lineage.” 

Adelaide (ad'-e-lad). From the Old German 
male name Adalheid (in Middle High German Adal- 
hait, North High German Adelheid), signifying “a 
noble person”; from edel, “noble,” and heit, 
“cheer.” 

Adelaide Island. In honor of the queen of Wil¬ 
liam IV. 

Adeline (ad'-e-lin), Adelina (ad-e-li'nd). Dimin¬ 
utives of Adela. Danish, Adeline; Dutch, Ade¬ 
lina; Fr., Adeline; Ger., Adeline; It., Adelina; 
Lat., Adelina. 

Adirondack. Mountains in New York and vil¬ 
lage in Warren County, of the same State. Indian 
word compounded from dor an, “a people who eat 
bark,” and dak., “trees,” with the French article 
la prefixed. This section was called by the natives 
Coughsarage, “the dismal wilderness.” 

Adolphus (a-dol'-fus). The same as the Old 
German name Atalphus, which Wachter renders 
“helper of happiness,” from od “happiness,” and 
hulf, “help or helper.” It is commonly defined as 
“noble wolf.” Danish, Adolf; Dutch, Adolf; Fr., 
Adolphe; Ger., Adolf or Adolph; It., Adolfo; Lat., 
Adolphus; Sp., Adolfo; Sw., Adolf. 

Adrian (a'-dri-an), or Hadrian (ha'-dri-dn). 
From the German name Adrias, so called from the 
capital of the Prsetutii, on the coast of the Adriatic, 
where the family of the Emperor Adrian, according 
to his own account, had its rise. Danish, Adrian; 
Dutch, Adriaan; Fr., Adrien; It .. Adriano; Lat., 
Adrianus; Port. * Adriano; Sp., Adrian. 





798 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Adriatic (a-dre-dt'-lk, dd-re-dt'-Ik) Sea. Indicates 
the Sea of Adrian or Hadrian. 

Afghanistan ( df-gan-is-tan '). The country of 

the Afghans. 

Africa ( df'-ri-ka ). Origin traced to the Pheni- 
cian afer (pi. afri ), “a black man,” whence Lat. 
Africa, and Or. Aphrike. 

Agatha ( ag'-a-tha ). A female name derived 
from the Greek agathos, “good.” Danish, Agathe; 
Dutch, Agatha; Fr., Agathe; Ger., Agathe; Gr., 
Agathe; It., Agata; Lat., Agatha; Sp., Agata; 
Sw., Agata. 

Agnes ( ag'-nes or ag'-nez). From the German 
agnos, “chaste.” Danish, Agnes, or Agnete; 
Dutch, Agnes; Fr., Agnes; Ger., Agnes; It., Agnese; 
Lat., Agnes. 

Agra ( a'-gra ), or Akberabad. Founded by 
Akber. Abad, a dwelling or town, generally con¬ 
nected with the name of its founder; hence, “town 
of Akber.” 

Ailean or Aileen ( a-len '). An Irish female name. 
Some translate it “light.” If so, it may be a form 
of Helen; but it is more probably from the Erse 
ail, “noble, beautiful”; or from aille, “handsome, 
fair”; or corrupted from ailgean, “noble offspring.” 

• Aix-la-Chapelle ( aks-la-sha-pel '), or Aachen. 
Celebrated for its mineral springs, and for the 
chapel erected over the tomb of Charlemagne. To 
distinguish it from other places named Aix, it was 
so called from the domed basilica erected by 
Charlemagne. 

Akron ( ak'-ron ). City in Summit County, Ohio, 
which occupies the highest ground in the northern 
part of the State, and several other places named 
for the same reason. A Greek word, meaning “the 
summit or peak.” 

Alabama (dl-d-ba'-ma) . State of the Union and 
a river of that State, named from an Indian tribe. 
There are several explanations of the meaning of 
the word. Gatchet gives “burnt clearing.” Others 
say it means “here we rest.” Haines, in his Ameri¬ 
can Indian, gives “thicket clearers.” 

Alameda ( al-a-ma'-da ). County and city in 
California, town in Bernalillo County, New Mexico, 
and post-office in Clarke County, Alabama, named 
from the cottonwood trees growing in the vicinity. 
A Spanish word meaning “grove of poplar trees.” 

Alamo {a'-la-mo). Post-office in Contra Costa 
County, California, and many other places named 
from the old fort in Texas, which was so called 
from a grove of cottonwood trees. A Spanish 
word meaning “poplar or cottonwood.” 

Alan ( dl'-an ). Some derive this name from 
Old French alan, allan, “a hunting dog,” origin¬ 
ally from the country of the Alani or Alauni, a 
warlike people of European Sarmanatia. 

Alaric (dl'-ar-ik). From the Gothic Alareiks, 
“noble ruler”; Danish, Alarick; Fr., Alaric; Ger., 
Alarich; It., Alarico; Lat., Alaricus; Sp., Alarico. 

Alaska ( a-lds'-ka ). Territory of the United 
States. An Indian word meaning “great country,” 
“continent,” or “great land.” It was encountered 
by Russian explorers as Al-ay-es-ka, the name 
having since changed through Aliaska, Alaksa, 
Alashka, to its present form. When purchased by 
the United States, the names of Walrussia, Ameri¬ 
can Siberia, Zero Islands, and Polario were sug¬ 
gested, but Alaska was adopted in accordance with 
a proposition of Charles Sumner. 

Albany ( ol’-ba-nx ). County and city in New 
York, named in honor of the Duke of York (from 
his second title, Albany), afterwards James II., of 
England; Albany, derived from his Scotch title, 
originally the same as Albyn, the Celtic name of 
Scotland. 

Albemarle ( al'-be-marl ) Sound, N. C. After the 
Duke of Albemarle (Captain-General George Monk), 
one of the original members of the Charter Com¬ 
pany. 

Albert (dl'-bert ). The same with the Old High 


German names, Albrecht, Ailbracht, and the North 
High German, Albrecht ; from all-brecht, “very 
distinguished.” Danish, Albrecht; Dutch, Alber- 
tus, or Albert; Fr., Albert; Ger., Albrecht; It., 
Alberto; Lat., Albertus; Sp., Alberto; Sw., Albert. 

Albino ( al-bi'-no ). Albino is a term originally 
applied to the white negro of the African coast 
(albus , white), by the Portuguese. The characteris¬ 
tics are extreme whiteness of the skin, white or very 
pale flaxen hair, and pink eyes. The wool of the 
negro Albino is generally perfectly white. Albinos 
are also found among white people. It is now 
known that these characteristics are the result of a 
peculiar disease, to which some animals, as the 
domestic rabbit, are also liable. 

Albuquerque (Sp., al-boo-kar'-ka), New Mexico. 
Named by the Spaniards, from Albuquerque, a 
town in Spain, near the frontier of Portugal, which 
took its name from Alphonso d’Albuquerque, the 
“Portuguese Mars.” 

Alcazar (al-kaz'-ar). From the Arabic, al gasr, 
“the palace.” The palace of the Moorish kings and 
later of Spanish royalty at Seville. A large part of 
it is of the original Alhambresque architecture, and 
extremely beautiful, though restored and too 
highly colored. 

Aleutian ( a-lu'-shi-dn ). Islands in the Pacific 
Ocean. A derivation of the Russian word aleaut, 
meaning “bald rock,” later appearing in the 
name applied to the river Olutora on the coast 
of Kamchatka, the people near the mouth of the 
stream being called Olutorsky. The Russians 
when first viewing the Alaskan natives applied the 
name Olutorsky. The initial O of the Russian 
invariably broadens into a sound almost equivalent 
to a in father, accounting for the transition from 
Olutorsky to Aleutsky, and then to Aleutian. 

Alexander. From the Greek name Alexandras, 
“helper of men.” Dutch, Alexander; Fr., Alex¬ 
andre; Ger., Alexander; It., Alessandro; Lat., 
Alexander; Sp., Alejandro, or Alexandra. 

Alexandria, an Egyptian city named after Alex¬ 
ander the Great. In reading or speaking in Latin, 
this name is pronounced Alexan-dri'a, but it is 
properly Alex-an'dria, the accent being placed on 
the third syllable. 

Alexis (a-lex'-is). From the Greek name Alexis, 
“help,” defense; ” Fr., Alexis; Russ., Alexei. 

Alfred. This name is usually translated “all 
peace.” Neidinger derives the first syllable of the 
Anglo-Saxon name Alfred, Aelfred, from the word 
alp, alf, elf, “strong,” “powerful.” The name is 
rather from alf-rad, “help in counsel.” Danish, 
Alfred; Dutch, Alfred; Fr., Alfred; Ger., Alfred; 
It., Alfredo; Lat., Alfredus; Sp., Alfredo. 

Algernon (al'-jer-nun) . From als (aux) gernons, 
was originally given in the Twelfth Century to 
those who, contrary to the fashion of the time, wore 
their whiskers. Roquefort renders the Old French, 
gernon, grenon, guernon, ghernon, “poil de la barbe, 
moustache”; from Med. L. granus, greno; the latter 
is no doubt from L. crinis, “hair of the head.” 

Algiers (al-jerz'). From the Arabic, Al-iazirah, 
“the peninsula.” 

Alhambra (al-ham'-bra) . From the Arabic, 
al-hamrd, “red.” A great citadel and palace 
founded in the Thirteenth Century above the city 
of Granada, Spain, by the Moorish kings. 

Alice (dl'-is). From the Teutonic, meaning 
“noble” or “noble cheer.” Danish, Else; Dutch, 
Elsje; Fr., Alice; Lat., Alicia; Sw., Elsa. 

Alison (al'-i-son). A Scottish female name, 
which in old parish registers is spelled Alisone It 
is of French origin, and the same as Alizon. Roque¬ 
fort gives Alizon, Alieite, Ailexe, Aileye, Auly, as 
female diminutives of Alexis. 

Allee Verte (al-la' ydrt). French, “green walk.” 
A double avenue of limes beginning at the western 
end of the Boulevard d’Anvers in Brussels and 
extending along the bank of the Willebroeck Canal. 




MISCELLANY 


799 


Alleghany ( dl'-e-ga-ni ), or Allegheny, also Alle¬ 
gany. County, city, and river in Pennsylvania, 
and mountains in eastern United States. An 
Indian word variously spelled, the origin of which 
is in dispute. The most generally accepted deri¬ 
vation is from welhikhanna, “the best" or “the 
fairest river.” 

Allen. According to some, this is the same name 
as Allan and Alan. Lower shows that it is found 
written Allayne. It is a probable corruption of the 
name Alwine. 

Allentown. City in Lehigh County, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and borough in Monmouth County, New 
Jersey, named for William Allen, of Pennsylvania, 
at one time chief justice of the province. 

All Saints* Bay. Because discovered by Ves¬ 
pucci on the Feast of All Saints in the year 1503. 

Alma ( al'-ma ). At the time of the war between 
England and Russia this name was introduced in 
the west of England, so christened after the Battle 
of the Alma. 

Almack’s ( ol'-maks ). This well-known place of 
assembly in King Street, St. James’s, London, 
was built by one MacCall, a tavern-keeper, in 1759. 
He was originally a poor Highlander, who, having 
made his way to London, inverted the syllables of 
his name to disguise his northern origin. As 
Almack he opened the tavern and the celebrated 
rooms w'hich were known as Almack’s for the 
greater part of a century. They were afterwards 
called “Willis’s Rooms.” 

Alonzo ( a-lon'-zo ), or Alonso. See Alphonso. 

Alphonso ( al-fon'-sd, al-fon'-zo), or Alonzo. 
From the Teutonic, meaning “battle eager.” 
Danish, Alfons; Fr., Alphonse; It., Alfonso; Lat., 
Alphonsus; Port., Affonso; Sp., Alfonso, or Alonso. 

Alps. The word Alp, or Alb, is Keltic, and 
signifies “white.” Its application to the white 
tops of the mountains of the Alps is a natural one, 
and it is singular that the names of nearly all the 
great mountains of the earth have some reference 
to their snow-covered summits. 

Altai ( al-ti '). A mountain range in central Asia, 
rich in the precious metals, is now called in Mongo¬ 
lian Altain ula, “mountain of gold,” from ula, 
“mountain,” and altain, genitive of alta, “gold.” 
Al-tai (for Altagh) is the Tartaric form of the 
name. Hence the name Altaie which is applied 
to languages of the Mongol-Turkic class. 

Altoona ( al-too'-nd ). City in Blair County, Penn¬ 
sylvania, so named because of its high situation in 
the Allegheny Mountains, and town in Polk County, 
Iowa, situated on the highest point between the 
Des Moines and Mississippi Rivers. A derivative 
of the Latin word altus, “high.” 

Alvin ( al'-vin ), or Alwin ( al'-win ). Means “win¬ 
ning all.” Dutch, Alewijn; Fr., Aluin; Ger., 
Alwin; It., Alvino; Lat., Alwinus; Sp., Aluino. 

Amadeus ( dm-d-de'-us ). Translated, a “lover of 
God.” Fr., Amadee; Ger., Amadeus; It., Amedeo, 
or Amadeo; Lat., Amadeus; Sp., Amadeo. 

Amanda (d-man'-dd). A female name from the 
Latin Amanda, “to be .loved,” i. e., “worthy of 
being loved.” It is also found as a male name in 
the parish registers of Nottingham, England. 

Ambrose ( am'-broz ). From the Latin name 
Ambrosius; meaning “immortal, divine, godlike.” 
Danish, Ambrosius; Dutch, Ambrosius; Fr., Ara- 
broise; Ger., Ambrosius, or Ambros; It., Ambrogio; 
Sp., Ambrosio. 

Amelia (d-me'-li-a). From Aemylia, name of a 
noble family in Rome, also the name of a vestal 
who rekindled the fire of Vesta, which had been 
extinguished by putting her veil over it. The 
name means “gentle, engaging, courteous.” Dan¬ 
ish, Amalie; Fr., Amalie; Ger., Amalie; Sp., 
Amelia. 

America. From Amerigo Vespucci, sometimes 
spelled Vespucius, who landed on the Western 
Continent south of the equator in 1497. His name 


was given to this country by a German geographer 
Martin Waldseemuller, who published an account 
of the four voyages of Vespucci at Frankfort, Ger¬ 
many, in 1507. 

Amherst ( am'-erst ). County in Virginia, and 
towns in Hillsboro County, New Hampshire, and 
Hampshire County, Massachusetts, named for 
Lord Jeffrey Amherst. 

Amos (a'-mds). From the Hebrew, signifying a 
“burden.” Fr., Amos. 

Amy (a'-mi). Some derive this name from the 
French aimee, “beloved”; others from amie, “a 
friend.” It‘is found Latinized both Amata and 
Amicia. Danish, Amalie; Fr., Aimee; It., Amata. 

Anabella. A female name formed from Han¬ 
nibal, i. e., Annibal, the Carthaginian name. In 
Phenician it is found written Chanbaal, “favor of 
Baal.” 

Andalusia (an-da-lob'-shi-d) . Now a captaincy- 
general in southern Spain, comprising the modern 
provinces Almeria, Jaen, Granada, Cordova, Malaga, 
Seville, Cadiz, and Huelva. It was called by the 
Moors Belad-al-Andalus, the “land of the Andalus,” 
Andalus being probably a corruption of the Latin 
Valdalos, “the Vandals.” 

Andes (an'-dez). Properly “Cordilleras de los 
Andes,” the “chain of the Andes,” is a name of 
uncertain meaning. Garcilasso de la Vega says 
that it was derived from the Anti tribe near Cuzco. 
It has also been referred to a Peruvian word anta, 
“copper.” Another proposed etymology is from 
anta, a “tapir,” of which the Portuguese plural 
would be antas, so that the Cordilleras de los 
Antas would mean the “mountains of the tapirs.” 

Andrew. From the Greek Andreas, meaning 
“manly, brave, courageous.” Danish, Andreas; 
Dutch, Andries; Fr., Andre; Ger., Andreas; It., 
Andrea; Lat., Andreas; Port., Andre; Sp , Andres. 

Androscoggin ( an-drds-kog'-gin ). River in Maine 
and New Hampshire, and county in Maine. As a 
compliment to Sir Edmund Andros, name was 
changed from the Indian name first given to the 
river, from the tribe Amasagunticook, that former¬ 
ly lived on its banks, and variously spelled from 
pronunciations, Ammoncongan, Ammoscoggin, 
Amariscoggen. The authorities give the meaning 
“a fishing place for alewives,” or “fish spearing.” 

Angela (an'-je-la). A female name of Italian 
origin, derived from angelo, “an angel.” 

Angelica ( an-jel'-i-ka ). Translated “angelic.” 
Fr., Angelique; Ger., Angelica; It., Angelica. 

Angelo, Sant* (an'-je-lo) , Castle of. The remod¬ 
eled mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. It is a huge 
circular tower about 230 feet in diameter on a 
basement about 300 feet square, with medieval 
chambers and casemates excavated in its solid con¬ 
crete, and three Renaissance stories added on its 
summit to serve the purposes of a citadel. 

Anna or Anne. Same origin as Hannah. Dan., 
Anna; Dutch, Anna; Fr., Anne; Ger., Anne; It., 
Anna; Lat., Anna. 

Anselm (dn'-selm). From the Teutonic, meaning 
“divine helmet,” hence “a defender.” Dutch, An- 
selmus; Fr., Anselme; Ger., Anselm; It., Anselmo; 
Lat., Anselmus; Sp., Anselmo. 

Antarctic Ocean. Denotes the ocean anti, 
“against” or “opposite to” the Arctic Ocean, 

Antony (an'-to-ne), Anthony. From Latin Anto - 
nius, meaning “inestimable.” According to Lit¬ 
tleton, the Antonian family were descended from 
Antius, son of Hercules. Danish, Anton; Dutch, 
Anton, or Antoon, or Antonius; Fr., Antoine; 
Ger., Anton; It., Antonio; Port., Antonio; Sp., 
Antonio; Sw., Anton. 

Antwerp ( dnt'-werp ). From Andoverpum, “at 
the wharf”; voerf, a dam or wharf; literally, 
“what is thrown up,”— werfen. 

Apennines (ap'-en-inz) . Now used as the name 
of the central mountain chain of Italy. The Roman 
term Mons Apenninus originally denoted the Mari- 



800 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


time Alps near Genoa, the Mons Peninus signifying 
the Dauphiny Alps, more especially the part near 
the Great St. Bernard. The Romans explained 
the Mons Peninus or Pennine chain as the Pcenine 
or Punic Mountains, most likely because Hannibal 
crossed them when he invaded Italy. But the 
name Mons Peninus doubtless contains the Celtic 
word pen, “head, summit, mountain,” and the 
Mons Peninus can hardly be separated from the 
neighboring Mons Apenninus, which is probably the 
same word with a prefixed article or preposition. 

Appalachian ( ap-pa-ldch'-x-an, ap-pd-la'-chi-dn) 
Mountains. From the Appalachicola River, or the 
ancient town called Apalache, found by DeSoto in 
Florida. 

Appalachicola ( ap-pd-ldch-x-ko'-ld ) River, Fla. 
From an Indian town Apaiatichiokli, “those on the 
other side”; another source notes it Apalatclnukla, 
“old town,” a former Indian settlement on its banks. 

Appalachie {ap-pa-lach'-e) Bay, Fla. Variously 
spelled Apahlahche, Apeolatei, P ataxy, Palatcy, the 
prefix is supposed to be Spanish, the word in full 
said to mean “the men.” (See Appalachicola.) 

Appian Way. The Via Appia of ancient Rome, 
most famous of Roman highways. It ran from 
Rome to Brundisium (Brindisi) and is probably 
the first great Roman road which was formally 
undertaken as a public work. It was begun in 
312 B. C., by Appius Claudius Caecus, the censor, 
and was ultimately extended to Brundisium when 
a Roman colony was inaugurated there. At 
present the Appian Way, for a long distance after 
it leaves Rome, forms one of the most notable 
memorials of antiquity in or near the Eternal City, 
bordered as it is by tombs and the ruins of monu¬ 
mental buildings. 

Appomattox (ap-po-mat'-oks) . River and county 
in Virginia. An Indian word, meaning “a tobacco- 
plant country.” 

April. From aperio, “to open,” this being the 
month in which the buds shoot forth. 

Arabella (ar-d-beV-la) . Corrupted from the old 
name Oragel, Oragele, meaning a “fair altar.” 
Dutch, Arabella; Fr., Arabelle; Ger., Arabelle; It., 
Arabella; Lat., Arabella. 

Arabia ( a-ra'-bx-d ). The country of the Arabs, 
“men of the desert.” 

Arc de Triomphe de 1’Etoile ( ark du tre-owf' dU 
la-twal'). Meaning, “triumphal arch of the star.” 
The largest triumphal arch in existence, at the 
head of the Champs Elysees, Paris. 

Arch of Constantine ( kon'-stan-txn ). An arch in 
Rome built 312 A. D., in honor of Constantine’s 
triumph over Maxentius. 

Arch of Septimius Severus. An arch in the Ro¬ 
man Forum, dedicated 203 A. D., in commemora¬ 
tion of victories over the Parthians. 

Arch of Titus. An arch in Rome, built in com¬ 
memoration of the taking of Jerusalem. 

Arch of Trajan. Arch over the Appian Way at 
Benevento, Italy, dedicated A. D. 114, and one of 
the finest of ancient arches. 

Archangel (ark-an'-jel) . City of Russia, named 
in honor of the archangel, Michael. 

Archibald (ar-'chx-bald). From the Old Gre- 
man name Ercheneals, Erchanpald; from erchan- 
bald, “bold in work or activity.” Fr., Archam- 
baud; Lat., Archibaldus. 

Arctic. The word “arctic” is derived from the 
Greek name for the constellation of the Bear, 
Arctos, and means “near Arctos, ” i. e., “in the 
extreme north.” 

Areopagus (ar-e-dp'-a-gus) . From the Greek 
Areios pagos, “Martial hill,” i. e., “Hill of Mars.” 
A low, rocky hill at Athens continuing westward 
the line of the Acropolis, from which it is separated 
by a depression of ground. 

Argentina (ar-jen-te'-nd). Now the Argentine 
Republic, “silver republic,” which owes its name 
to the silvery reflection of its rivers. 


Arizona ( ar-x-zd'-nd ). Territory of the United 
States. Generally accepted that the name is derived 
from the Indian word meaning “arid zone or 
desert ”; but Mowry claims that the name is 
Aztec, from Arizuma, signifying “silver bearing.” 

Arkansas ( ar'-kan-so, or ar-kan'-sas). River, 
State, county, and town in said State, and city in 
Cowley County, Kansas. Marquette and other 
French explorers wrote the word Alkansas and 
Akamsca, from the Indian tribe. The usual ety¬ 
mology derives the name from the French arc, “a 
bow,” and Kansas, “smoky water,” while another 
theory makes the prefix a Dakota word meaning 
“people”; hence, “people of the smoky water.” 
Schoolcraft says there is a species of acacia found 
in Arkansas from which the Indians made bows. 
This is thought to have been the origin of the 
name of the Arc or Bow Indians. 

Arles (drlz Fr., drl). A city in the department 
of Bourches-du-Rhone, France, situated on the left 
bank of the eastern arm of the Rhone near its 
mouth. It was anciently known as Are-late or 
Ardatum, “by the marsh” or “on the clay.” 

Arlington House. A mansion on the heights 
opposite Washington, District of Columbia, in the 
midst of the national cemetery. It was once the 
property of General Washington and the home of 
General Robert E. Lee. 

Arnold. Bailey says this name in Saxon, arn- 
hold, signifies “faithful to his honor”; Lower says 
the surname Arnulfe is the same as Arnold, in 
medieval records sometimes Latinized Ernulphus, 
which might translate both “help in war” and 
“helping lord,” all doubtless from ern-walt, “power¬ 
ful lord.” Fr., Arnaud; Ger., Arnold; It., Arnaldo; 
Lat., Arnoldus or Arnaldus. 

Aroostook ( a-rdbs'-tdok. River and county in 
Maine. An Indian word, meaning “good river,” 
or “clear of obstruction.” 

Arthabasca ( ar-tha-bas'-ka ) Lake, Me. Indian 
word, meaning “swampy.” 

Arthur. Armstrong derives this name from 
Gael, ard, “an eminent person”; literally, “high, 
lofty, exalted, noble, eminent, excellent, proud”; 
others derive it from arth, “a bear.” Fr., Arthur, 
or Artus; It., Arturo; Lat., Arthurus. 

Asakasa ( a-sa-ka'-sa ), Pagoda. A picturesque 
Buddhist tower in Tokio, Japan. 

Ascension Island. Was so named because dis¬ 
covered by the Portuguese on Ascension Day, 1501. 

Ashley River, S. C. From Sir Anthony Ashley 
Cooper, afterward Earl of Shaftesbury, named in 
the original charter. Indian name of the stream, 
Kiauah. 

Asia ( a'shi-a ). From the Sanskrit ushas, signify¬ 
ing “land of the dawn.” 

Asia Minor. Lesser Asia. 

Astoria ( as-to'-ri-d ). City in Clapsop County, 
Oregon, named for the founder, John Jacob Astor, 
who established a fur-trading station there in early 
days. 

Atchafalaya (ach-d-fa-li'-d) River, La. Choctaw 
Indian Achafalaya, “long river”; i. e., hucha, 
“river,” falaya, “long.” 

Athens ( ath'-enz ). A name of doubtful ety¬ 
mology, cannot be separated from that of Athene, 
the tutelary goddess of the city. Athens is either 
the city of Athene, as the Athenians believed, or 
Athene may be the goddess of Athens, or both 
names may be independent formations from the 
same root. 

Athol ( ath'-dl ). Town in Worcester County, 
Massachusetts, said to have been named for James 
Murray, second Duke of Athol. 

Atlanta ( dt-l&n'-ta ), Ga. Originally, Marthas- 
ville. Atlanta was suggested by the late Edgar 
Thomson of Philadelphia, owing to its geographi¬ 
cal position, immediately on the dividing ridge, 
separating the Gulf and Atlantic waters. 

Atlantic Ocean. Was known to the Greeks by 




MISCELLANY 


801 


the name of Atlantikos pelagos, from the Isle of 
Atlantes, which both Plato and Homer imagined 
to be situated beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. 

Aubrey ( d'-bri ). A name derived from the 
Old German name Amalric, signifying “powerful 
without a blot,” or “rich in chastity.” Amalaric 
has been corrupted to Alberic, whence Aubrey. 

Audrey, or Audrie ( d'-dri ). A female name cor¬ 
rupted from Etheldreda. 

August. Named by Augustus Caesar after him¬ 
self, because in this month he celebrated three 
distinct triumphs, reduced Egypt to subjection, 
and put an end to the civil wars. Before this the 
month was known in Rome as sextilis. In Gallia, 
however, and in other remote parts of the empire, 
the ancient name for this month was Eaust, or 
Aust, i. e., “harvest.” 

Augusta (o-gus'-ta). The female form of Au¬ 
gustus, meaning “venerable.” Danish, Auguste; 
Dutch, Auguste; Fr., Auguste; Ger., Auguste or 
Augusta; It., Augusta; Lat., Augusta 

Augusta, Maine. Given in 1737, after the name 
of the English Princess Augusta Charlotte, eldest 
granddaughter of George II. The Indian name of 
the locality was Cushnoc. 

Augustin. See Augustine. 

Augustine (d-gus'-tin, o'-gus-tin). From the 
Latin augustus, “venerable.” Dutch, Augustinus, 
orAugustijn; Fr., Augustin; It., Augustino; Lat., 
Augustinus; Port., Agostinho; Sp., Augustin. 

Aurelia ( d-re'-li-a ). A female name derived 
from that of Aurelia, mother of Caesar, formed from 
Aurelius, name of a Roman emperor. 

Aurora ( d-ro'-ra ). A female name from Latin 
aurora, “the dawn.” 

Austerlitz ( ows'-ter-lits ). The east town of the 
River Littawa; ost, “the east.” 

Austin. Corrupted down from Augustin. 

Austin. County and city in Travis County, 
Texas, and town in Lonoke County, Arkansas, 
named for Stephen Fuller Austin, the first man to 
establish a permanent American colony in Texas 
(1844). 

Australasia (ds-tral-d'-shi-a). Meaning, “South¬ 
ern Asia,” derived from the Latin australis, “south¬ 
ern.” 

Australia ( ds-tra'-li-d ). Meaning, “the South.” 
The first indication of Australia on any map is in a 
small map of the world which forms the vignette to 
a Dutch work, Journael vande Nassauche Vloot, 
under Admiral v’Hermitte, in 1623-4-5-6. The 
place indicated is to the west of Cape Carpentaria 
of the present map, and is marked “Land eend- 
racht.” 

Austria ( ds'-tri-a ). From the German, Oster- 
reich, “the Eastern Empire,” in contradistinction 
to the Western Empire founded by Charlemagne. 

Aventine (av'-en-tin) Hill. One of the seven hills 
of ancient Rome, rising on the left bank of the Tiber, 
south of the Palatine. Below it to the northeast 
lay the Circus Maximus, and to the east the Baths 
of Caracalla. 

Aztec ( az'-tek ). Village in San Juan County, 
New Mexico, named for one of the native tribes of 
Mexico. The word is said to mean “place of the 
heron.” Other interpretations give “white” or 
“shallow land where vapors arise.” Humboldt 
gives “land of flamingoes.” The word azcatl 
means “ant,” but Bushmann says that this word 
has no connection with the name of the tribe. 

Baalbec ( bal'-bek, bal-bek'), Baalbek, Baalbak. 
An ancient city of Syria, situated on the slope of 
Anti-Libanus, thirty-four miles northwest of 
Damascus. It is the Greek Heliopolis “city of the 
sun,” famous for its ruins. 

Baffin ( baf'-fin ) Land. Named for the famous 
Arctic navigator who discovered it. 

Baldwin. From the Teutonic, probably meaning 
a “bold winner,” or “powerful warrior”; by other 
^authorities, “prince friend”; Danish, Balduin; 


Dutch, Boudewijn; Fr., Baudouin; Ger., Balduin; 
It., Baldovino; Lat., Balduinus. 

Balearic (bal-e-&r'-ik) Islands. From the Greek 
ballein, “to throw”; so called because their inhab¬ 
itants were skillful in the use of the sling. 

Balkan ( bol'-k&n, bal-kan'). From Turk., balkh, 
“high ridge,” “high town”; also called Mount 
Hsemus, meaning “the snowy mount”; from 
Sanskrit hima, “snow.” 

Ballston Spa ( bol'-stun spa). Village in Saratoga 
County, New York. Named for Rev. Eliphalet 
Ball, an early settler, the “spa” being added in 
reference to the medicinal springs resembling the 
celebrated watering place in Belgium. 

Balthasar ( bal'-ta-zar ). The Greek form of 
Belshazzar, “king protector”; Fr., Balthazar or 
Balthasar; It., Baldassare; Lat., Balthasar; Sp., 
Baltasar. 

Baltic Sea. Denotes, in accordance with the 
Swedish bait, a “strait, a sea full of belts, or straits.” 

Baltimore ( bol'-ti-mor ). County and city in 
Maryland, and town in Windsor County, Vermont, 
named for the proprietor of a large tract of land in 
Maryland, Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who 
settled the province in 1635. 

Banbury (ban'-ber-i). A town in Oxfordshire, 
England, situated on the Cherwell twenty-two miles 
north of Oxford. O. E., Berenburig, “Bera’s fort.” 

Bangor ( ban'-gor ), Maine. By Rev. Seth Noble, 
from a well-known psalm tune of that name. Pre¬ 
viously the section was known as Sunbury; the 
Indian name, Con, or Kenduskeag. 

Banks Land. So called in compliment to Sir 
Joseph Banks, the eminent naturalist and president 
of the Royal Society of Great Britain. 

Baptist. From the Greek, meaning a “bap- 
tizer”; Fr., Baptiste; Ger., Baptist; It., Battista; 
Lat., Baptista; Port., Baptista; Sp., Bautista. 

Barbadoes (bar-ba'-doz) . From the Latin barba, 
“a beard,” in allusion to the beardlike streamers of 
moss always hanging from the branches of the trees. 

Barbara ( bar'-ba-rd ). From the Greek, meaning 
“foreign, stranger”; Dutch, Barbara; Fr., Barbe; 
Ger., Barbara; It., Barbara; Lat., Barbara. 

Barbary ( bar'-ba-ri ). The land of the Berbers. 

Barberini ( bar-ba-re'-ne ), Palace. A palace in 
Rome, near the Quirinal, begun by Urban VIII., 
whose name was Carlo Barberini, and finished in 
1640. It is noted for its art treasures. 

Barcelona (bar-se-lo'-na) . Named from Hamil- 
car Barca, who founded it. 

Bar Harbor. A village in Hancock County, 
Mount Desert Island, Maine, so named from a 
sandy bar, visible only at low tide. 

Baring ( ba!-ring, bdr'-ing), Island. Discovered 
by Captain Penny, received the name of Sir Francis 
Baring, First Lord of the British Admiralty. 

Barnabas ( bar'-na-bas ), or Barnaby ( bar'-na-bi ). 
From the Hebrew Bar Nebah, which some translate 
“son of exhortation,” or “son of consolation.” It 
rather means “son of prophecy,” from bar-nebuah. 
Danish, Barnabas; Dutch, Barnabas; Fr., Barnabe; 
Ger,, Barnabas; It., Barnaba; Lat., Barnabas; Sp., 
Bernabe. 

Barrow Island. Discovered by Captain Penny, 
in 1850, received the name of John Barrow, son of 
Sir John Barrow, the eminent British statesman. 

Barrow’s Strait. So Called by Captain Penny, 
in compliment to John Barrow, the son of Sir John 
Barrow, the traveler and statesman. 

Bartholomew (bar-thol'-o-mu) . From the He¬ 
brew Bartolomai, which, according to some, means 
“son of Ptolemy,” but it translates rather “son of 
Tolmai.” Danish, Bartholomseus; Dutch, Bar¬ 
tholomew; Fr., Barthelemi; Ger., Bartholomaus; 
It., Bartolommeo; Lat., Bartholomaeus; Port., 
Bartholomeu; Russ., Varfolomei; Sp., Bartolome; 
Sw., Bartholomaus. 

Basil ( bd'-sU ). From the Greek, Basileios, mean¬ 
ing “kingly.” Danish, Basilius; Dutch, Basilius; 





802 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Fr., Basile; Ger., Basilius; It., Basilio; Lat., Bas- 
ilius; Russ., Vasilii; Sw., Basilius. 

Basque (bask) Provinces. The provinces of 
Vizcaya, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, in Spain, united to 
Castile in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. 
From bassoco, “a mountaineer”; or, according to 
Humboldt, from basoa, “a forest.” 

Bastille (bas-tel'), The. A celebrated state prison 
in Paris. Probably from the Latin, bastile, “a 
tower, fortress.” 

Bath (bath), Maine. From Bath in England, 
adopted February 17, 1781. 

Baths of Caracalla (kar-a-kdl'-d). Baths in 
ancient Rome, begun by Severus, 206 A. D. Named 
for the Emperor “Caracalla,” a nickname for 
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. 

Baton Rouge (bat'-un roozh). City in East Baton 
Rouge Parish, Louisiana. It is a French name, 
meaning “red staff” or “stick,” given because 
of a tall cypress tree which stood upon the spot 
where it was first settled. Some authorities say 
that the name is derived from the name of an 
Indian chief, whose name translated into French 
was “Baton Rouge.” Still another theory ascribes 
the name to the fact that a massacre by the Indians 
took place upon the spot upon the arrival of the 
first settlers. 

Bavaria. The country of the Boarii, a tribe 
related to the Boii. 

Bayeux (ba-yo'). Named from the Bajoccas, a 
Keltic tribe name, meaning “great conquerors.” 

Bayeux Tapestry. A strip of linen 231 feet long 
and twenty inches wide, preserved in the Library 
at Bayeux, France, embroidered with episodes of 
the Norman conquest of England from the visit of 
Harold to the Norman court until his death at 
Senlac, each with its title in Latin. The work is 
of great archaeological interest from its details of 
costume and arms. It is believed to have been 
made by Matilda, queen of William the Conqueror. 

Bayreuth (bl'-ruth. German, bl'-roit), Baireuth. 
A former German burgraviate and principality, 
now in the northern part of Bavaria. 

Bayreuth Festival. A musical festival held at 
Bayreuth, for the representation of the German 
composer’s Wagner, works. The National Theater, 
in which it is held, was opened by Wagner in 1876. 

Beacon Hill. An eminence in Boston, Mass., 
which has become famous in history. The old 
beacon, shown in all the early plans of the town, 
and which gave the name to Beacon Hill, was 
erected in 1634-1635, to alarm the country in case 
of invasion. It stood near the present State House, 
the exact spot being the southeast corner of the 
reservoir formerly standing on Temple Street. 
It was a tall mast, standing on cross timbers placed 
upon a stone foundation, supported by braces, and 
was ascended by treenails driven into it; and, 
sixty-five feet from the base, projected a crane of 
iron, from which an iron skeleton frame was sus¬ 
pended, to receive a barrel of tar or other combus¬ 
tibles. When fired, this could be seen for a great 
distance inland. It was newly erected in 1768, 
having fallen from some cause unknown; and in 
1789 it was blown down. The next year a monu¬ 
ment of brick, sixty feet high and four in diameter, 
was erected on its site to the memory of those who 
fell at Bunker Hill; and in 1811 this was taken 
down, the mound being leveled. 

Beacon Street. A street in Boston, Mass., which 
extends from Tremont Street along the north side 
of the Common and Public Gardens westward. 
It is noted as a street of residence and its name is a 
synonym for the wealth and culture of the city. 

Beatrice (be'-a-tris. French, ba-d-tres'), Beatrix 
(be'-a-triks). Female names formed from Latin 
beatus, “blessed, happy.” Danish, Beatrix; Dutch, 
Beatrix; Fr., Beatrice; Ger., Beatrix, or Beatrice; 
It., Beatrice; Lat., Beatrix; Sp., Beatriz; Sw., 
Beatrix. 


Beaufort (bu'-furt), S. C. In honor of Henri, 
Duke of Beaufort. 

Behring (ba'-ring, or be'-ring) Strait, Alaska. 
Named by Captain Cook, in memory of Ivan Ivan- 
vitch or Vite’ Behring (who wrote it Bering or 
Bereng; Behring, a German corruption), a Russian 
navigator, its discoverer, in 1728. On some “olde 
mappes” (1566) the waters are noted as “Stret de 
Anian.” 

Belgium (bel'-ji-um). Literally, the land of the 
Belgae. 

Belinda. A female name. It may be from 
Italian Bella Linda, or corrupted from bellino, a 
diminutive of bello, “beautiful/’ 

Bella. An abbreviation of both Isabella and 
Arabella. 

Belleisle (bel-iV). French for “beautiful island.” 

Bellevue (bel-vu'). A noted castle near Cassel in 
Germany. It contains a fine picture gallery. 
Among its masterpieces are specimens of Holbein, 
Rembrandt, Vandyck, Rubens, Teniers, Wouver- 
man, Titian, Guido Reni, etc. 

Beloochistan (bel-do-chis-tan'), or Baluchistan. 
From the Persian, meaning “the country of the 
Belooches, or Baluches.” 

Belvedere (bel-ve-der'). A portion of the Vatican 
Palace at Rome. The word is from the Italian, 
meaning “fair view.” 

Benedict (ben'-e-dikt), or Bennet (ben'-net). 
From the Latin Benedictus, “blessed”; Danish, 
Benedict; Dutch, Benedictus; Fr., Benoit; Ger., 
Benedict; It., Benedetto; Sp., Benito, or Bene- 
dicto; Sw., Bengt. 

Benjamin. From the Hebrew, Binyamiyn, 
which, according to the Samaritan Pentateuch, 
means “son of days”; i. e., “son of old age.” 
Fuerstius translates it “lucky son.” The name 
means, literally, “son of the right hand”; figura¬ 
tively, “son of good fortune.” Danish, Benjamin; 
Fr., Benjamin; Ger., Benjamin; It., Beniamino; 
Lat., Benjaminus. 

Bennet. See Benedict. 

Bennett. This occurs frequently as a female 
name in the registers of Kent, England. It is 
sometimes varied to Bennetta and Benett. 

Bennington. Town in Hillsboro County, New 
Hampshire, and county, township, and town in 
Vermont, named for Governor Benning Wentworth, 
of New Hampshire, who gave grants for the original 
town, in 1748. 

Berenice (ber-e-ni'-se), or Bernice (ber-ni'-se). 
From the Latin, “bringing victory.” Gr., Berenike; 
It., Berenice. 

Beriah (be-ri'-d). The Hebrew B’riyah, which 
Simonis translates “in calamitate,” i. e., “born in 
calamity”; Jones, “a calamity in his house”; and 
Tragelles, “gift.” 

Berkshire (berk'-shir). This is derived from 
barruc, “a polled or pollard oak,” and scyre, “a 
shire”; from the Shirmotes of that county being 
anciently held in the shade of a large polled oak- 
tree. 

Berkshire. County in Massachusetts, named for 
Berkshire, England. Several towns in the county 
are named from the same. 

Berlin (ber'-lin. German, ber-len'). The capital 
of Prussia, is a name the meaning of which has been 
much discussed. The name is probably Wendish, 
either from berle, “uncultivated ground,” or, as 
Krebs thinks, from barlin, a “shelter,” or “place of 
refuge”; or, according to Kloden, an “enclosure or 
field”; while Vilovski suggests brljina, “a pool,” 
which conforms to the local conditions. 

Bermudas (ber-mu'-das). Named for the dis¬ 
coverer, Juan Bermudez, in 1522. 

Bern (bern. German, bSrn). A Swiss canton 
which takes its name from its chief town, which 
grew up round a castle built in 1192, by Duke 
Berchtold V. of Zahringen. The name Berne 
appears in 1224 on a seal of the town. Not im- 



MISCELLANY 


803 


probably, Berchtold gave the place the name of 
Berne in memory of Dietrich of Berne (Verona), a 
favorite hero of Alamannic poetry. According 
to the local legend, the town was named from a bear, 
the first animal killed in a hunting expedition in an 
oak forest on the site of the town. Hence a bear 
rampant on a gold field has been taken as the 
heraldic shield of the city, and a tame bear is 
always kept in a cave, like the wolf at Rome. 

Bernard ( ber'-nard ). From the Old German 
Bernhard, from hern-hart, “strong or hardy”; 
Danish, Bernhard; Dutch, Bernhardus, or Barend; 
Fr., Bernard; Ger., Bernhard; It., Bernardo; hat., 
Bernardus; Sw., Bernhard. 

Bernese Oberland ( ber-nes ', or ber-nez' d'-ber- 
lant). A mountainous region in the southern part 
of the canton of Bern, Switzerland, famous for its 
picturesque scenery. 

Bertha ( ber'-tha ). From the Old German name, 
Berta, “bright or famous”; Dutch, Bertha; Fr. 
Berthe; Ger., Bertha; It., Berta; Lat., Bertha; Sw., 
Bertha. 

Bertram (her'-tram). The Old German name, 
from hrecht-ram, “renowned for strength.” Fr., 
Bertrand; Ger., Bertram. 

Berwick (her'-Ik). This is a contraction of Aher- 
wick, the meaning of which is a town (wick), at 
the mouth (aber) of a river. 

Bessie. Corrupted from Elizabeth. 

Bibliotheque Nationale ( be-ble-o-tak' nas-yoN- 
nal'). That is, “National Library,” the great 
French library, the largest in the world. 

Big Sandy River, Ky. From its extensive sand 
bars, the Indian names Tatteroi, Chatteroi, and 
Chatterwha being from a similar application. 
Known to the Miamis as Wepepoconecepewe, by the 
Delawares as Sikeacepe, “Salt River.” 

Binnenhof (bin'-nen-hof) . Originally, the palace 
of Count William of Holland, at The Hague. It is 
an irregular agglomeration of buildings, in part 
medieval, inclosing a court in which stands the 
Hall of the Knights, a brick, chapel-like, gabled 
structure with turrets, now used as a depository 
for archives. 

Birmingham (ber'-ming-um). Probably a patro¬ 
nymic from the Bcerings; ham, a home or family 
residence, literally “a place of shelter,” from 
heiman, “to cover.” Hence, originally, “Boering’s 
home.” 

Biscay. Takes its name from the Spanish 
province of Biscaya or Viscaya, meaning the land 
of the Basques or Vasks. 

Bismarck (biz'-mark). City in St. FranQois 
County, Missouri, city in Burleigh County, North 
Dakota (capital of State), and many other places, 
named for Prince Otto von Bismarck of Germany. 

Black Sea. Probably because it abounds with 
black rocks. Another explanation is that it is so 
called from its frequent storms and fogs. The 
Greeks called it Euxine, from euxinos, “hospitable/ 
disliking its original name, Axinos, “inhospitable.” 

Blackstone River, R. I. In memory of William 
Blackstone, an Episcopal minister, the first white 
settler of Rhode Island. Indian name of stream 
Kehetuck, “great river,” changed afterwards to 
Pawtucket, meaning “the forks,” from Pochatuck, 
“a branch.” 

Blaise (blaz). In France the name of the saint 
is found written Blaise, and in Germany Blaes. 
In Latin it occurs as Blasius and Blavius. It seems 
to be the same as the Roman name Blaesus, 
which Statius renders “lisper.” Danish, Blasius; 
Dutch, Blasius; Fr., Blaise; Ger., Blasius; It., 
Biagio; Lat., Blasius; Sp., Bias; Sw., Blasius. 

Blenheim (blen'-im) Palace. A mansion at 
Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England, built by Van¬ 
brugh at national cost, 1705-16, for the first Duke 
of Marlborough. 

Blue Grotto. A celebrated cavern on the shore 
of Capri in Italy. 


Bodleian (bod-le'-dn), Library. A library 
of Oxford University, England, which was origi¬ 
nally established in 1445, formally opened in 
1488, and reestablished by Sir Thomas Bodley 
in 1597-1602. 

Boer (boor.) Applied to Dutch inhabitants of 
the country districts of the Cape of Good Hope, is 
the German name for farmers and agriculturists. 
The English word “boor” originally had the same 
significance. 

Bohemia (bd-he'-mi-a). The country of the Boii. 
The inhabitants were called by Tacitus Bohemi, or 
Boemanni. 

Bois de Boulogne (bwa du boo-lon'-yu). A park in 
Paris reached by the Champs Elysees, the avenue of 
the Grande Armee, or the avenue of the Bois de 
Boulogne. It literally means “Boulogne wood.” 

Bois de Vincennes (bwa du vaN-sen'). A public 
park in Paris larger than the Bois de Boulogne. It 
contains a farm for agricultural experiments, a 
drill-ground, a race-course, etc. Literally, “wood 
of Vincennes.” 

Boise (boi'-za), City, Idaho. From the river on 
which it was located, the latter named by the 
French Riviere Boise, “woody river,” its banks 
being thickly lined with woods. 

Bokhara (bo-ka'-ra). The treasury of sciences, 
or “town of learning”; the chief town in a State 
of the same name. 

Bolivia (bd-liv'-i-a. Spanish, bd-le'-ve-a). To 
perpetuate the memory of General Simon Bolivar, 
“the liberator of Peru.” 

Bologna (bd-ldn'-ya), and Bologne. Named from 
the Boii, originally Bononia. 

Bombay (bom-ba'). Named after an Indian 
goddess Bambd, but translated by the Portuguese 
into Buon-bahia, “good bay.” 

Boniface (bon'-e-fas). From the Latin Boni- 
facius, name of several popes; this, in turn, from 
benefacio, “to do good,” hence, a “well-doer.” 
Danish, Bonifacius; Dutch, Bonifacius; Fr., Boni¬ 
face; Ger., Bonifaz, or Bonifacius; It., Bonifacio; 
Lat., Bonifacius; Sw., Bonifacius. 

Bordeaux (bdr-dd'). Literally means “the dwel¬ 
ling on the water”; borda, “a dwelling.” 

Borghese (bdr-ga'-za) Palace. A famous Roman 
palace, seat of the Borghese family, and noted for 
its art collections. It was built toward the end of 
the Sixteenth Century by Martino Lunghi and 
Flaminio Ponzio. 

Borgne (born'y’) Lake, La. French word, mean¬ 
ing “blind of one eye,” or “one-eyed,” application 
never been explained; the legendary derivation is 
that some peculiar modern cyclops was encountered 
on its shores. The word also bears the translation 
of “dingy,” which no doubt is the cause of the use 
of the word, given from a local first impression. 

Borneo (bor'-ne-o). Comes from the Malay 
Brunei, once the name of the largest city on the 
island, and changed by the Portuguese to Borneo. 

Bosnia (boz'-ni-d). The country traversed by 
the river Borna. 

Bosporus .(bds'-pd-rus). A Greek term com¬ 
posed of bous, “an ox,” and poros, “a ford,” 
alluding to the legend that when Io was transformed 
into a cow she forded this strait. Hence the popu¬ 
lar meaning, “The passage of the ox.” 

Boston (bos'-ton, bos'-tun). City in Massachu¬ 
setts. By some authorities the name is said to 
have been given in honor of John Cotton, vicar of 
St. Bodolph’s church in Boston, Lincolnshire, Eng¬ 
land, and one of the first clergymen in the American 
Boston. Others say it was named before the 
arrival of John Cotton, for three prominent colo¬ 
nists from Boston, England. The tracing for the 
word Boston elicits that in the Seventh Century a 
pious monk known as St. Botolph or bot-hopl 
(boat-help) founded a church in what is now Lin¬ 
colnshire, in England. A town grew up around it, 
which was called Botolph’s Town. This was con- 













804 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


tracted into Botolphston, Bot-os-ton, finally Boston. 
Boston, Mass., owing to its hills, was called by the 
English Trimountaine or Tremont, “three hills” 
(Beacon, Kopp, and Fort Hills); at a court held in 
Charlestown, September 17 (N. S.), 1630, “It is 
ordered*that Trimountain shall be called Boston.” 
Indian name of locality Shawmut, an abbreviation 
of Mushancoonmuk, variously translated as “living 
fountains,” “free lands or unclaimed lands.” 

Botany Bay. So called by Captain Cook from 
the great variety of plants which he found growing 
on its shores when exploring it in the year 1770. 

Bramapootra (brd-md-poo' -tra) . River of India, 
of Sanskrit origin, meaning “the offspring of 
Brahma,” or “Brahma’s son.” 

Brandenburg (bran'-den-boorg) . A former mar- 
gravate and electorate of the German Empire, the 
nucleus of the kingdom of Prussia. The name 
means “forest fortress.” 

Brandywine River, Penn. Called by the first 
settlers, the Swedes, Fish-kiln, “fish creek.” Its 
present name is ascribed by tradition to the loss 
of a Dutch vessel laden with brandy, or brand-wijn. 
Other authorities derive it from Andrew Braind- 
wine, who owned lands near its mouth, in early 
days. A third theory is that the slough near 
Downington discharged its muddy waters into the 
creek, tinging it the color of brandy. A celebrated 
battle was fought there, which accounts for the 
name being given to eight places in the country. 

Brasenose ( braz'-noz ), College. The term brazen- 
nose or brasenose is a corruption of the word brasen- 
house, or “brewing house.” 

Brazil ( bra-zxl '). Named from the color of its 
dye-woods, braza, “a live coal.” 

Brazos ( bra'-zos ) River, Tex. As named by 
the Spaniards Brazos de Dios,“ arm of God.” The 
Spaniards established a mission on its banks some 
thirty miles from the mouth of the San Saba, and 
the guard having been called away, the Indians 
descended on the mission, completely destroying 
it. When the soldiery returned their loss was 
quickly discovered, and searching for a solution 
they found in the river many of the dead bodies of 
the depredators,*still floating in its eddies; as they 
could discern no marks of violence they pronounced 
it a retributive miracle done by the “arm of God.” 
The river then received its name of Brazos de Dios. 

Brenner ( bren'-ner) Pass. The lowest pass over 
the main chain of the Alps. It is situated in the 
Tyrol about twenty-five miles south of Innsbruck; 
has been used since Roman times; is traversed by a 
railway (since 1867), and is the main line of travel 
between Italy and Germany. Height, 4,485 feet. 

Breton ( bret'-un ) Cape. Discovered by mariners 
from Brittany. 

Brian ( bri'-an ) or Briant. Names derived from 
the Irish name Brian, which has been rendered 
“warrior of great strength” ( bri-an ). According 
to some it has been Anglicised to Bernard. 

Bridget ( brif-et ). Mr. Arthur derives this female 
name from Gaelic brighid, “fiery dart” or “shining 
bright,” and he says the Gaelic word signifies 
also a hostage; Armstrong renders brighide “a 
hostage.” Danish, Birgitte; Dutch, Brigetta; Fr., 
Brigitte; Ger., Brigitta; It., Brigida, or Brigita; 
Lat., Brigida; Sp., Brigida. 

Brighton ( bri'-tun ). Formerly Brighthelmston, 
from a personal name. A city and watering-place 
in Sussex, England, situated on the English Chan¬ 
nel. It is the leading seaside resort in Great 
Britain. 

Bristol, R. I. From the town of same name in 
England. Derived from Anglo-Saxon words bris, 
“bright,” stol, “place.” 

Britain (brit'-an or brit'-n). From brith, meaning 
“to paint.” The British poets called it Inis gwyn, 
“white island,” which answers to the Roman name 
Albion. It is said that it was known to the Pheni- 
cians as Barat-Anac, or “theland of tin,” asfar back 


as the year 1037 B. C. Some five hundred years 
afterwards the island was alluded to by the Romans 
under the name of Britannia, which subsequently 
became shortened into Britain. 

British Columbia. The only portion of North 
America that retains the name of the discoverer of 
the New World, with the exception of the District 
of Columbia. 

British Museum. A celebrated museum at 
Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury, London, founded 
in 1753. 

Brittany ( brit'-ta-ni ). In French, Bretagne, com¬ 
prised the land appropriated by the kings of Britain, 
and was originally called Armorica, a Celtic name 
meaning the land “by the sea.” 

Broad River, S. C. The Indian name given by 
the Catawbas was Eswan Huppeday, or “Line 
River,” because it was the established line between 
the Cherokees and Catawba tribes. 

Broadway. The principal business street of 
New York, extending from Bowling Green north¬ 
ward to Central Park for about six miles. 

Brocken (brok'-en), or Blocksberg ( bldks'-berg). 
The chief summit of the Harz Mountains, and the 
highest mountain in northern Germany, situated 
in the province of Saxony, Prussia. It is the 
Roman Mons Bructerus. 

Bronxville. Village in Westchester County, New 
York. Named for Jonas or Jacob Bronck, an 
early settler. 

Brooklyn. City in New York, corruption of the 
Dutch name Breuckelen, from a village in the 
province of Utrecht, Holland. The name signifies 
“broken up land, or marshy land.” 

Bruges ( bru'-jez. French, bruzh). In Belgium, 
“a city with many bridges” ; brucke, “a bridge.” 

Brussels (brus'-selz), or Bruxelles. Meaning, “the 
seat or site on the marsh”; broek, “a marsh,” and 
seli, “a house.” 

Bryan. Same as Brian. 

Bucharest ( bu-ka-rest'). From an Albanian 
word, bucurie, “pleasure, joy,” hence, “the city 
of enjoyment.” 

Buckingham (buk'-%ng-um) . A tribe name, or 
“the dwelling among beeches”; buche, “the beech 
tree”; ham, “ a home or family dwelling.” 

Buckingham Palace. The London residence of 
the sovereign, situated at the western end of St. 
James’s Park. 

Buda (boo'-dd). In Hungary, took its name from 
Buda, the brother of Attila, as well as Bud-var and 
Bud-falva, meaning “buda’s fort and village,” 
buda, “a hut or dwelling.” 

Buenos Ayres ( bd'-nus a'-riz or drz). Meaning 

“good breezes,” buen, “good.” 

Buffalo. A city in New York, named from the 
stream “Buffalo Creek, on which it is located, the 
stream receiving its name from the frequent visits 
of the American bison to a salt spring which welled 
up about three miles from its mouth, ‘where the 
buffalo drinks.’ ” Indian name of the locality 
Teosahwa or Teshuway, “the place of the basswood,” 
also sisilichanne, “waters sought by the buffaloes.” 
The name has been given to counties in Nebraska, 
South Dakota, and Wisconsin, numerous creeks, 
rivers, towns, and villages. 

Bulgaria ( bobl-ga'-rt-d ). A corruption of Vol- 
garia, meaning the “country peopled by the Volsci.” 
The Greeks called these people Bulgars, hence the 
name. 

Burlington House, Old. A house standing be¬ 
tween Bond Street and Sackville Street, London, 
named for Lord Burlington, by whom it was 
built. 

Butte (but). City in Montana, named from a 
bare butte overlooking the place. The word is 
French, meaning “small knoll or hill.” 

Buzzard’s Bay, Mass. Waters discovered by 
Gosnold, May 21, 1602, and by him named “Bay 
of Hope.” Indian name Manomet. 




MISCELLANY 


805 


Cadillac ( kdd'-U-dk . French, ka-del-yak') . City 
in Wexford County, Michigan, named for La Motte 
(or La Mothe) Cadillac, who established a fort on 
the Detroit River in 1701. 

Cadiz (ka'-diz. Spanish, ka'-theth). From Gadr, 
meaning “an enclosure, a city, or fortified place,” 
and kir, “a wall.” 

Caesar ( se'-zdr ). Some translate this name 
“hairy”; Schlegel says from Sanskrit kesa, 
“adorned with hair.” It is more probable, how¬ 
ever, of Persian origin, and comes from the Persian 
sar, “head, highest, greatest, chief.” Danish, 
Caesar; Fr., C6sar; Ger., Casar or Caesar; It., 
Cesare; Lat., Caesar; Sp., Cesar. 

Cairo ( ki'-rd ), a corruption of the Arabic Al- 
kdhirah, “the victorious,” so called because Kahir 
(Mars), the planet of victory, was visible on the 
night when the city was founded. 

Cairo ( ka'-ro), Ill. A local fancied adoption from 
the Egyptian city Cairo, in its being a sister loca¬ 
tion, namely, at the mouth of a large river. 

Calcutta (kal-kut'-td). Called Kalkatta in early 
annals. Is supposed to be a corruption of the Indian 
name Kali-Kata, the “dwelling or sacred place of 
Kali,” the wife of Siva. The Kalikuti were “the 
ghauts or passes leading to the temple of the god¬ 
dess Kali”; ghdt, “an opening or passage.” 

Caleb. From the Hebrew Kalebh, “a dog.” 

California. Most authorities derive it from the 
two Spanish words, caliente fornalia, i. e., “hot 
furnace,” given by Cortez in the year 1535 to the 
peninsula now known as Old or Lower California, 
of which he was the discoverer, on account of its 
hot climate. H. H. Bancroft, in his History of 
California, says the name was first given to the 
Gulf, then to Lower California. 

California, Gulf of. Variously called Mar de 
Cortez and Alar Bermejo by the Spaniards, the 
former in honor of Hernando Cortez, the latter, 
meaning “bright reddish color,” literally, “Red 
Sea, ” through its resemblance in color to the Red 
Sea. The French applied their translation of 
Bermejo, namely Vermeille, from which the English 
adaptation, Vermillian Sea. (See also California.) 

Calton ( kdl'-ton ) Hill. A height in the north¬ 
eastern part of Edinburgh. 

Calumet (kal' -u-met) . River in Illinois and 
Indiana, county and village in Wisconsin, and 
seven other places in the country. A Canadian 
corruption of the French Chalemel, which literally 
means “little reed,” but which, in its corrupted 
form, refers to the “pipe of peace” used by the 
Indians to ratify treaties. Haines derives the 
word from calamo, “honey wood.” 

Cambria ( kam'-bri-d ). The original name for 
Wales, so called on account of the Cmyri, or Kimri, 
who peopled it. 

Cambridge ( kam'-brij ). City in Middlesex 
County, Massachusetts, so named for the English 
university town, after the general court decided to 
establish a college there. Twenty-two other places 
bear the name of the English town, two having the 
suffix “port” and one “springs.” The English 
name is usually supposed to mean “the bridge over 
the river Cam,” the real name of which is the 
Granta. 

Camden, N. J. In honor of the distinguished 
English statesman, Earl of Camden (Cambden). 

Camilla (kd-mil'-ld). The feminine of Camillus. 
Fr., Camille; It., Camilla; Lat., Camilla. 

Camillus (kd-mU'-lus). Some translate this 
name “attendant at a sacrifice.” The Roman name 
was probably corrupted from the Arabic, Kasen-El, 
signifying “oracle of God.” 

Campagna di Roma ( kdm-pan'-ya de ro'-md). 
A large plain in Italy, surrounding Rome, lying 
between the Mediterranean and the Sabine and 
Alban mountains. 

Campanile ( kam-pd-ne'-la) of Giotto. A famous 
tower near the Duomo, at Florence, Italy, begun by 


the architect, Giotto, in 1334, and after his death, 
in 1337, continued by Andrea Pisano. 

Canaan ( ka'-ndn ). The “Land of Canaan” is 
interpreted to mean “lowland,” from Semitic kana, 
“to humble,” “ subdue,” generally denoting in the 
Old Testament the country west of the Jordan and 
the Dead Sea extending to the Mediterranean. 
Originally, it comprised only the strip of land, from 
ten to fifteen miles in breadth and 150 in length, 
shut in between the Lebanon and the Mediterra¬ 
nean, and extending from the Bay of Antioch to 
the promontory of the Cermal, i. e., southern 
Phenicia. Later, the name was extended to the 
whole territory west of the Jordan. 

Canada ( kan'-a-dd ). Called La Nouvelle France 
by the French settlers, is probably the native word 
Kanata, which means “a collection of huts or wig¬ 
wams.” 

Canandaigua ( kan-an-da'-gwd ). Lake town in 
Ontario County, New York, and village in Lenawee 
County, Michigan. An Indian word, the derivation 
of which is in dispute. Morgan defines it as “a 
place selected for settlement,” a “chosen spot”; 
Haines, “a town set off.” Others have thought 
the word to be derived from Cahnandahgwah, 
“sleeping beauty,” while another theory is that it 
is corrupted from the Seneca Indian, Genundewah- 
guah, “great hill people,” so called from a large hill 
near the lake. 

Canaveral ( ka-nav'-er-al ) Cape, Fla. Named by 
the Spaniards; a Spanish word meaning “the land 
of the rose tree.” 

Candia ( kan'-di-a ). From the Arabic Khandae, 
“the island of trenches.” 

Canterbury ( kan'-ter-ber-i ). A corruption of the 
Anglo-Saxon Cantwarabyrig, “the forts or strong¬ 
holds of the Cantwere, or men of Cant” (Kent). 

Cape Colony. A British colony in South Africa 
is so called after the parent settlement at Cape 
Town, which dates from the year 1826. 

Cape Fear River, N. C. Was originally named 
by the English Charles River. Afterward the name 
of Cape Fair River was adopted from the Atlantic 
cape of that name, the stream being located by 
navigators as “coming in back of Cape Fair.” 
Subsequently corrupted to Fear. 

Cape Horn. The most southern point of South 
America was called Cape Hoorn by Schonten, who 
first rounded it in 1616, after Hoorn, his native 
place in North Holland. 

Cape May, Va. Was so named by the Dutch 
commander, Captain Cornelius Jacobse May. 

Cape of Good Hope. Discovered by Bartholo¬ 
mew de Diaz in 1487, was so named (Cabo de Bon 
Esperance) by John II., King of Portugal, who, 
finding that Diaz had reached the extremity of 
Africa, regarded it as a favorable augury for future 
maritime enterprises. 

Capitoline ( kap'-it-ol-in ) Hill, The. One of the 
seven hills of ancient Rome, northwest of the 
Palatine, on the left bank of the Tiber, on which 
the Capitol was erected. After the construction of 
the Servian wall it constituted the citadel of the 
city. On its southwestern summit was the famed 
Tarpeian Rock; on its northeastern summit rose 
the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The modern 
capitol stands between the two summits. From 
the Capitoline the Forum Romanum extends its 
long, narrow area toward the southeast, skirting the 
northern foot of the Palatine. 

Capitoline 3Iuseum. A famous museum of 
antiquities in Rome. It was founded in 1471 by 
Sixtus IV., who presented the papal collections to 
the Roman people, and designated the Capitol as 
the place where the art-treasures of Rome should be 
preserved. 

Capri ( ka'-pre ). Signifies “the island of goats,” 
being derived from the Latin caper, a he-goat. 

Caribbean ( kdr-ib-be' -dn ) Sea. Washes the terri¬ 
tory of the Caribbs, whose name means “ cruel men.” 




806 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Carnatic. From Sanskrit, Karnata, S. India tribe. 

Carolina ( kar-d-lx'-na ). Name given to two 
States, North and South Carolina. Near the 
middle of the Sixteenth Century, Jean Ribault 
visited the region and named it Carolina in honor of 
his king, Charles IX. of France, but the name never 
came into general use and soon disappeared. About 
1628, this name was applied definitely to that part 
of the country lying between Virginia and Florida, 
having been given in honor of Charles I. of England. 
In an old manuscript, now in London, the following 
may be found; “ 1629-30, Feb. 10. The Attorney- 
General is prayed to grant by Patent 2 Degrees in 
Carolina,” etc. In 1663, the name was definitely 
applied to the province granted to proprietors by 
Charles II. of England. This province was named 
in honor of the reigning king, and thus the old 
name given in honor of Charles I. was retained. 

Caroline ( kar'-o-lxn or liri). From Carolus, from 
root of Charles. Danish, Caroline; Dutch, Caro¬ 
lina; Fr., Caroline; Ger., Caroline or Karoline; 
It., Carolina; Lat., Carolina; Sw., Karolina. 

Caroline Islands. Discovered by Lopez de 
Villalobos in 1543, and named after Charles V., 
Emperor of Germany and first king of Spain. 

Carpathians ( kar-pa'-thi-an ). The range of 
mountains north of Hungary, is a name derived 
from Krapat or Karpa, the local name of the main 
chain, which is explained by the Slavonic root 
chrb, signifying a “ridge” or “range of hills.” 

Carrara ( ka-ra'-rd ). A town in the province of 
Massa-e-Carrara, Italy. It is famous for the 
neighboring quarries of marble. 

Carrie, Carry. Female names corrupted from 
Caroline. 

Carson City, Nevada. In honor of Christopher 
Carson; or, as more widely known, “Kit” Carson, 
the noted frontiersman and hunter. 

Carthage. From Kartha-hadtha, “the new city,” 
in opposition to Utica, “the old.” 

Casa d’oro ( ka'-sa do'-ro). A noted palace of 
the Fourteenth Century. It has been marred by 
restoration. It has three stories, divided vertically 
into two divisions. The left-hand division has in 
the lowest story five open arches, the middle one 
round, and in the two upper ones most rich and 
graceful foliated arcades set between larger arches. 
The right-hand division consists of ornamented 
paneling, also set between decorated arches. Above 
there is a picturesque cresting in marble. To 
beauty of form this facade adds great and diversified 
charm of color in its incrusted and inlaid marbles. 

Casco Bay, Me. From an Italian word, meaning 
“crane.” Hence “Crane Bay.” 

Casper. See Jasper. 

Caspian ( kas'-px-an ). The European name of 
the great inland sea of Asia, was so called by the 
Greeks from the Caspii, a tribe who, in the time of 
Herodotus, dwelt on its western shore, probably in 
the district of Jasp, which is supposed to preserve 
their name. 

Cassandra ( kas-san'-dra ). Mr. Arthur translates 
this name “inflaming one with love.” It is feminine 
of the Greek Kassandros. Fr., Cassandre; It., 
Cassandra; Lat., Cassandra. 

Catawba River, N. C. So named from the 
“Catawbaws,” a tribe of Indians. 

Catawissa ( kat-d-wxs'-sd ) "River, Pa. From the 
Delaware Indian word Gattawissa, “getting fat.” 

Catharine ( kath’-d-rxn ). The real name of 
Catharine of Alexandria, the patron saint of 
girls and virgins, was Dorothea. St. Jerome says 
she had the name of Catharine from the Syriac 
kethar or kather, “a crown,” because she wore the 
triple crown of martyrdom, virginity, and wisdom. 
The proper derivation of the word is from the 
Greek Katharos, “pure”; and, therefore, the cor¬ 
rect spelling of the name is Catharine or Katharine. 
Danish, Catharine; Dutch, Catharina; Fr., Cather¬ 
ine; Ger., Katharine^ Gr., Katharine; It., Cate- 


rina; Lat., Catharina; Russ., Ekaterina, or Yeka¬ 
terina; Sp., Catalina; Sw., Katarina. 

Catskill Mountains, N. Y. Name originally 
applied to the river (Kill) by the Dutch, and trans¬ 
ferred to the mountains, Katskill, “panther 
creek,” from the numerous panthers or lynxes (cat¬ 
like animals) formerly infesting the hills. The 
mountains were called Katsbergs by the Dutch. 

Cattaraugus (k&t-ta-rd'-gus) River, N. Y. From 
an Iroquois Indian word, which may be translated, 
“bad spelling shore.” 

Cavaliers. The adherents of Charles I. and 
Charles II. during the civil war; also called Royal¬ 
ists. 

Cayuga ( ka-yoo'-gd ). County, village, and lake in 
New York. Indian word, the derivation of which 
is in dispute. The generally accepted theory is 
that it means “long lake,” having been originally 
applied to the lake, which is thirty-eight miles long 
and from one to three and one-half miles wide. 
Morgan derives it from Gweugweh, “the mucky 
land,” while others say that it signifies “canoes 
pulled out of the water.” One of the six nations 
of Indians was so called. Six small places in the 
country bear this name. 

Cazenovia (kaz-e-no'-vi-a) . Lake and town in 
Madison County, New York, named by its founder, 
Col. John Linkhaen, for Theophilus Cazenove, 
general agent of the Holland Land Company. 

Cecil ( se'-sil, sis'-U, ses'-xl). A male name derived 
from the Latin Cecilus or Ccecilius, a diminutive 
of coccus, “blind,” or “dim-sighted.” Cecil is also 
found as a female name. Dutch, Cecilius; Fr., 
Cecile; Lat., Csecilius. 

Cecilia ( se-sxl'-x-d ). A baptismal name derived 
from Cecilia, feminine of Csecilus. See Cecil. 
Dutch, Cecilia; Fr., Cecile; It., Cecilia; Lat., 
Csecilia. 

Celestial Empire. Applied to the Chinese Em¬ 
pire, because its legendary rulers were all celestial 
deities. 

Central Park. The principal park in New York, 
extending from 59th Street to 110th Street, and 
from Fifth Avenue to Eighth Avenue. It was 
designed by Olmsted and Vaux, and contains 
besides numerous drives, the Mall, the Croton 
Reservoirs, Cleopatra’s Needle (the Obelisk), the 
Metropolitan Art Museum, etc. Length two and 
one-half miles; area, about 840 acres. 

Certosa (cher-td'-sa) . A former Carthusian mon¬ 
astery, at Pavia, Italy, one of the largest and most 
splendid existing. 

Ceylon ( se-lon Hindustani Silan is derived 
from Pali Sihatana (Sanskrit Sinhala ), “the land of 
lions,” from sinha, “a lion.” Its Aryan inhabit¬ 
ants were called Sinhalas. The old Sanskrit name 
of Ceylon is Lanka. Marco Polo calls it Seilan, 
whence the Portuguese forms Cilan and Ceilao, from 
the last of which comes the English term Ceylon. 

Cliamp de Mars (shavi-du-mars'). In early 
French institutional history, an annual political 
and military assembly, held in March. The time 
of meeting was changed to May in the Eighth 
Century, and thereafter these assemblies were 
called “Champs de Mai.” 

Champlain ( sham-plan '. French, shaN-pl&x'), 
Lake, N. Y. By its discoverer Samuel de Cham¬ 
plain, in 1609. Indian name Canaderi-Guarante, 
“mouth or door of the country.” Allusion to the 
north entrance of the lake. In the Abenaqui 
tongue, called Petawa-bouque, “alternate land and 
water,” alluding to its numerous islands. Iroquois 
name Andiatora. 

Champs-Elysees (shdN-za-le-za'). An avenue, 
and the gardens surrounding it, in Paris, extending 
from the Place de la Concorde one and one-fourth 
miles to the Place de l’Etoile, celebrated as a place 
of public resort. It was acquired by the crown in 
1616, and ceded to the city in 1828. 

Charing Cross ( chdr'-xna krds). A cross in 



MISCELLANY 


807 


memory of Queen Eleanor, erected by Edward I., 
one and one-fourth miles west-southwest of St. 
Paul’s, London. It was demolished by the Long 
Parliament, in 1647, and restored by the South 
Eastern Railway Company, in 1865. 

Charles. From the Teutonic, meaning “manly ” 
or “noble spirited.’’ Danish, Carl; Dutch, Karel; 
Fr., Charles; Ger., Karl; It., Carlo; hat., Carolus; 
Sp., Carlos; Sw., Karl. 

Charles Cape, Va. So named in April, 1607, by 
Admiral Newport, in honor of “ baby ” Charles, son 
of James I., afterward King Charles I., of England. 

Charleston, S. C. In honor of Charles II. of 
England, original settlement being called Charles 
Fort. The name of Charleston substituted in 1783. 

Charleston, W. Va. Originally known as 
“Clendman’s Settlement” and “The Town at the 
mouth of the Elk.” December 19, 1794 the name 
of Charlestown was fixed by the Virginia Legisla¬ 
ture, but from some cause unknown, through com¬ 
mon consent it was changed to Charleston. The 
name Charlestown was given by George Clendman, 
its founder, in honor of his father Charles. 

Charlotte ( shar'-lot ). From the Teutonic, mean¬ 
ing “noble-spirited.” Danish, Charlotte; Dutch, 
Charlotta; Fr., Charlotte; Ger., Charlotte; It., 
Carlotta; hat., Caroletta; Sp., Carlota; Charlotta. 

Charlotte, N. C. A compliment to Princess 
Charlotte of Mecklenburg. 

Charlottenburg (shar-lot'-ten-boorg). A city in the 
province of Brandenburg, Prussia, named from a 
palace built for Charlotte, wife of Frederick I. It 
is situated on the Spree, three miles west of Berlin. 
It is a municipality, practically a part of Berlin, 
and contains a royal palace, the tombs of the 
Hohenzollerns, a magnificent technical school, and 
royal porcelain factory. 

Charlottesville. City in Virginia, named for 
Charlotte Augusta, Princess of Wales. 

Charterhouse. The name of the Charterhouse, 
a famous school in London, is a corruption of the 
word Chartreuse, that is, “Carthusian.” The Char¬ 
terhouse was originally a Carthusian monastery 
founded in 1371, but was seized by Henry VIII. 
The present charity was founded by Thomas Sutton, 
November 8, 1611, who died December 12th of the 
same year. 

Chartists ( char'-txsts ). A body of political 
reformers, chiefly working men, that sprang up in 
England about the year 1838. They disappeared 
as a party after 1849. 

Chateau de Meillant ( sha-to' de md-yd^'). Noted 
chiefly on account of its architecture, is now the seat 
of the Due de Mortemart at St. Amand Montrond, 
France. It received its present great development 
in the florid pointed style at the end of the Fifteenth 
and the beginning of the Sixteenth Century. 

* Chatsworth (chats'-werth). A celebrated man¬ 
sion of the Duke of Devonshire in Derbj^shire, Eng¬ 
land. The interior is lavishly adorned with paint¬ 
ing and sculpture, and contains a splendid collection 
of drawings by the old masters, some fine old and 
modern paintings, a Venus by Thorwaldsen, and 
Canova’s Napoleon, Madame Letitia, and Endy- 
mion. The formal gardens are famous. They con¬ 
tain elaborate fountains and fine conservatories. 

Chattahoochee (chat-td-hob'-che) River. Trans¬ 
lated “figured or painted stone,” from the Indian 
Chatehoche, chateo, “stone,” hoche, “marked or 
figured.” 

Chattanooga (chat-ta-noo'-ga). City in Hamilton 
•County, Tennessee, and creek in Georgia. From 
the Cherokee Indian word, meaning “crow’s nest” 
or “eagle’s nest.” 

Chaucer’s Inn, the “ Tabard.” This old London 
tavern, immortalized by Chaucer as the “Tabard,” 
was burnt down in the great fire of 1676. Upon its 
restoration the name was changed to the “Talbot,” 
or Dog, which name it retained until about 1873, 
when it was demolished. 


Chautauqua (sha-to'-kwa). A village and sum¬ 
mer resort situated on Chautauqua Lake, in western 
New York; noted as the seat, since 1874, of the 
Chautauqua Assembly. An Indian word which has 
been the subject of much controversy. Webster 
says it is a corruption of a word which means 
“foggy place.” Another derivation gives the 
meaning as “bag tied in the middle,” referring to 
the shape of the lake. It is also said to mean 
“place where a child was washed away.” Dr. 
Peter Wilson, an educated Seneca, says it is literally 
“where the fish was taken out.” Other meanings 
given are “place of easy death,” “place where one 
was lost.” 

Clieapside (chep'-sid). The central, east-and- 
west thoroughfare of the city of London, originally 
a large open common. Formerly the road which 
skirted the West Cheap, or market place, was dis¬ 
tinguished from the East Cheap. The West Cheap 
was a spacious open area from which there branched 
streets of booths and shops of the type made 
familiar by revivals of Old London. Cheap side, of 
course, ran by the side of the market-place. 

Cheboygan (she-boi'-gan). River, county, and 
city in Michigan. An Indian word, variously inter¬ 
preted. Haines says it is composed of two words, 
che, “great,” and poygan, “pipe.” Another deriva¬ 
tion gives the meaning, “the river that comes 
out of the ground.” The Michigan Historical 
Society gives Chabwegan, “a place of ore.” 

Chemung ( she-mung ') River. Indian word, sig¬ 
nifying “big horn,” or “ horn-in-the-water ’ , 
called by the Delawares conongue, a similar signi¬ 
fication to the Iroquois. 

Chenango ( she-nbng'-go ) River, N. Y. From an 
Iroquois word, ochenung, “bull thistles.” 

Chepstow (chep'-sto). A town in Monmouth¬ 
shire, England, situated on the Wye, thirteen miles 
northwest of Bristol. It contains the ruins of 
Chepstow Castle, a fortress of the Thirteenth and 
Fourteenth Centuries, with high walls and massive 
cylindrical towers. 

Chesapeake (ches'-a-pek). Bay in Maryland 
which gives name to several places in the country. 
An Indian name variously explained. Heckewelder 
says it is corrupted from Tschischwapeki, which is 
compounded of kitshi, “highly salted,” and peek, 
“a body of standing water, a pond, a bay.” Others 
give che, “great,” and sepi, “waters.” Bosman 
interprets it as “mother of waters.” W. W. Tooker 
says that the early form was Chesopiooc, from 
k’che-sepi-ack, “country on a great river.” The 
waters were called by the English, Bay of St. Mary. 

Chester, Caster, Cester. Places whose names 
terminate with any of these words were sites of 
castles built by the Romans in Great Britain. 

* Chesuncook Lake, Me. Indian, meaning “the 
goose place.” Chesunk, “a goose,” auke, “a place.” 
Chesunk or Schunk being the sound made by a wild 
goose when flying. 

Cheyenne (shi-en'). Counties in Colorado, Kan¬ 
sas, and Nebraska, mountain in Colorado, rivers in 
Nebraska and South Dakota, city in Laramie 
County, Wyoming, and several small places 
named for the Indian tribe. The word is probably 
a corruption of the French chien, “ dog,” applied 
by some neighboring tribes to those at present 
known as Cheyennes. It was the custom for 
Indians to call themselves by the name which 
signified “men” and to call neighboring tribes by 
some opprobrious epithet. The word was doubt¬ 
less introduced by the early French traders. 

Chianti ( ke-an'-te ). A group of mountains near 
Siena, Italy, in Tuscany. It gives name to cele¬ 
brated wines. 

Chicago (shi-kd'-go). City and river in Illinois. 
The origin of the word is from the Indian, being a 
derivation by elision and French annotation from 
the word Chickaugong. Col. Samuel A. Starrow 
used the name in a letter to Gen. Jacob Brown, in 




808 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


1816, as follows: “The river Chicago (or in Eng¬ 
lish, ‘Wild Onion River')-” Schoolcraft in 1820 
saia: “Its banks produce abundantly the wild 
species of cepa or leek," Bishop Baraga gives: 
“From Chicag, or Sikag, ‘skunk/ a kind of wild 
cat.” John Turner defines skunk as she-gahg ; 
onion, she-gau-za-winzhe, “skunk weed.” When 
the word first appeared the country was inhabited 
by a tribe of Miamis, in whose dialect the word for 
skunk was “ se-kaw-kwaw.” Father Ferhorst gives 
the origin as che-cag-wau, a “place where skunks 
abound.” 

Chickahominy ( chik-a-hom'-i-ni). River in Vir¬ 
ginia, which, according to De Vere, is named from 
the Indian word, Checahaminend, “land of much 
grain,” so called because it flows through fertile 
lowlands. Heckewelder, however, says that it is 
corrupted from Tschikene-mahoni, “a lick fre¬ 
quented by turkeys.” 

Chickamauga (chik-d-mo'-gd) River, Tenn. From 
a Cherokee Indian word, meaning “river of death.” 

Chicopee ( chlk'-o-pe ), Mass. An Indian word, 
meaning “the birch-bark place,” or “the cedar 
trees.” 

Chili ( chil r -% ) or Chile ( chil'-e ). A Peruvian 
name denoting “land of snow.” 

Chillicotlie ( chU-i-kdth'-e ). Cities in Ohio and 
Illinois, and towns in Wapello County, Iowa, and 
Livingston County, Missouri, named from an 
Indian tribe. The word is said to mean “town” 
or “city.” 

Chillon ( shil'-on . French, she-ydn'). A castle 
in Vaud, Switzerland, at the eastern end of Lake 
Geneva. It covers an isolated rock on the edge of 
the lake, and is a very picturesque combination of 
semicircular and square towers and machicolated 
curtains grouped about a higher central tower. It 
is famous in literature and song, especially as the 
prison of Bonnivard, a defender of Swiss liberties 
against the Duke of Savoy in the Sixteenth 
Century. 

Chiltern {chxl'-tern) Hundreds. The Chiltern 
Hills are a range of chalk eminences, in England, 
separating the counties of Bedford and Hertford, 
and passing through the middle of Bucks, to 
Henley in Oxfordshire. They comprise the Hun¬ 
dreds of Burnham, Desborough, and Stoke. They 
were once infested by robbers. To protect the 
inhabitants from these marauders, an officer of the 
Crown was appointed, under the name of the “Stew¬ 
ard of the Chiltern Hundreds.” The duties have 
long ceased, but the office — a sinecure with a 
nominal pay — is still retained. 

China. Is a Western corruption of Tsina, so 
called in honor of Tsin, the founder of the great 
dynasty which commenced in the Third Century 
B. C., when a knowledge of this country was first 
conveyed to the Western nations. It was this 
Tsin who built the great wall of China (or Tsin) 
to keep out the Barbarians. 

Chippewa ( chtp'-pe-wa, chip'-pe-wa). River in 
Michigan and counties in Michigan, Minnesota, and 
Wisconsin, named from an Indian tribe. The 
word ojibwa, according to some authorities, means 
“puckered mocassins.” Other explanations are 
“he overcomes,” or “he surmounts obstacles.” 

Chloe ( klo'-e). A female name derived from the 
Greek, signifying a “green bud or germ,” hence a 
“young shoot,” “blooming,” etc. The name, says 
Lempriere, is supposed to bear the same signification 
as Flava, so often applied to the goddess of corn, 
and from its signification has generally been applied 
to women possessed of beauty and simplicity. Fr., 
Chlo6; Gr., Chloe; Lat., Chloe. 

Christabel ( kris'-ta-bel ). Not an uncommon 
female name. It would seem to be derived from 
Cristobal, the Spanish form of Christopher. 

Christian ( kris'-chan ). A male and female name, 
signifying a member of Christ. The disciples were 
called Christians first at Antioch. 


Christiana ( kris-chdn'-d or kris-chi-an'-d, kris-tl- 
an'-a ). Named after Christian IV. of Sweden. 

Christina ( kris-te'-nd ). A female name; prob¬ 
ably derived from the Spanish name Cristina, 
from root of Christian. Dutch, Christina; Fr., 
Christine; Ger., Christiana; It., Cristina. 

Christmas Island. So named because Captain 
Cook set foot upon it on Christmas Day, 1777. 

Christopher {kris'-to-fer). From the Greek name 
Christophoros, signifying Christ's bearer or carrier. 
As a Christian name, this is usually given to one 
born on Good Friday. Danish, Christoffer; Dutch, 
Christophorus; Fr., Christophe; Ger., Christoph; 
Gr., Christophoros; It., Christoforo; Lat., Christo¬ 
phorus; Port., Christovao; Sp., Christoval; Sw., 
Kristofer. 

Cimarron ( se-mar-ron') River, Okla. Of Spanish 
derivation, meaning “wild,” “unruly.” 

Cincinnati (sin-sin-na'-ti). City in Ohio, laid 
out and named by Col. Israel Ludlow, in honor of 
an organization of officers formed after the Revo¬ 
lutionary War and named in honor of Cincinnatus, 
the Roman patriot. The original settlement was 
called Losantiville, which was a composite name. 
French, ville, “town,” Latin os, “mouth,” anti, 
“before,” with L (initial letter of the Licking River), 
that is, “the town before or opposite the mouth of 
Licking River.” 

Cintra ( sen'-tra ). A town in the district of Lis¬ 
bon, Portugal, fifteen miles northwest of Lisbon. 
It contains the Cork Convent, a Moorish Castle, 
the Palace of the Pena and the Royal Palace. 

Circassia ( ser-kash'-i-a). Named from the coun¬ 
try of the Tcherkes, a Tartar tribe who settled in 
the neighborhood of the river Terek. 

Circleville, Ohio. From its original location 
within one of the Indian mounds bearing the shape 
of a circle. 

Circus Maximus ( ser'-kus mak'-si-mus). An¬ 
ciently occupied the hollow between the Palatine 
and the Aventine hills. According to tradition, the 
site was already used for athletic exhibitions and 
provided with wooden seats under Tarquinius 
Priscus. Under Caesar and Augustus it was first 
largely built of stone, and splendidly adorned. It 
was rebuilt by Nero, and again by Domitian and 
Trajan, and in its final form is said to have accom¬ 
modated 385,000 spectators. 

Circus of Romulus or 3Iaxentius. A Roman 
circus built in 311 A. D., the most perfect ancient 
circus surviving. 

Clara ( klar'-a ). A modern form of Clare. Dan¬ 
ish, Clara; Dutch, Clara; Fr., Clara; Ger., Klara; 
It., Clara; Lat., Clara; Sw., Klara. 

Clare. A name probably derived from St. Clare, 
a popular saint in England, a friend of St. Francis, 
and foundress of all the Poor Clares. The name 
occurs in many medieval calendars. It is probably 
derived from Latin clarus, “bright, fair.” 

Clarissa ( kla-ris'-sa ). From the French name 
Clarisse {It., Clarice), from root of Clare. 

Clarksville, Tenn. As an honor to Gen. Geo. 
Rogers Clark, a distinguished Revolutionary 
soldier. 

Claude (klod). From the Roman name Claudius, 
another form of Clodius, Latinized from Clodio; 
from Old German, laut, “celebrated, distinguished, 
illustrious.” 

Claudia ( kld'-di-d ). Feminine of Claudius. 
Dutch, Claudia; Fr., Claudie; It., Claudia; Lat., 
Claudia; Sw., Klaudia. 

Clement {klem'-ent). Like the classical name 
Clemens, derived from the Latin clemens, “mild, 
calm, gentle.” Danish, Clemens; Fr., Clement; 
Ger., Clemens; It., Clemente; Lat., Clemens; 
Sp., Clemente. 

Clementia ( kle-men'-shi-d ). A female name 
formed from Clement. 

Cleopatra ( kle-o-pa'-tra). Found as a female 
name in the parish registers of Nottingham, Eng- 



MISCELLANY 


809 


land. So called from Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. 
It is derived from kleos, “glory, renown, fame,” 
and patra, “one’s native country,” hence, “fame of 
her fatherland.” 

Cleopatra’s Needles. A pair of Egyptian 
obelisks of pink granite which were transported 
from Heliopolis to Alexandria in the eighteenth 
year of Augustus. One of them was taken to Lon¬ 
don and set up on the Thames Embankment, in 
1878, and the other was soon after brought to New 
York and erected in Central Park. 

Cleveland, Ohio. In honor of General Moses 
Cleaveland of Connecticut, who had charge of the 
surveying of this region, acting as general agent 
for the Connecticut Land Company. No authority 
for present spelling. 

Cloaca Maxima ( klo-a'-ka mak'-sim-d). The chief 
drain of ancient Rome, built by Tarquinius Priscus 
about 600 B. C., and still serving its purpose. The 
outlet on the Tiber is an arch twelve feet high. 

Clotilda (kid-til'-dd). From the Old German 
Clothildis, name of a queen of France, signifying 
“distinguished and noble,” or “illustrious noble” 
(laut-hild). 

Cluny ( klii-ne '), Hotel de. A former palace of the 
abbots of Cluny, situated on the Boulevard St. 
Michel, Paris. 

Cochituate ( ko-chit'-u-at ), Mass. Indian word, 
meaning “land on or near falls,” or “rapid streams.” 

Cod, Cape, Mass. From the fish its name im¬ 
plies, discovered and named by Bartholomew Gos- 
nold, May 15, 1602. This was the first land in the 
United States trod by an Englishman. Tamwock, 
its Indian name, means “codfish.” 

Coeur d’Alene (ker da-lan'). Lake and town in 
Kootenai County, Idaho; named from a tribe of 
Indians. French name, meaning “needle hearts” 
or “awl hearts.” Some authorities say that this 
name was given to these Indians because the ex¬ 
pression was used by a chief of the tribe to denote 
his opinion of the Canadian trappers’ meanness. 
Rev. M. Eells says that the name was given to the 
tribe by members of the Hudson Bay Company, 
because of their sharpness in trade. 

Cohasset ( ko-has'-set ), Blass. Indian word, mean¬ 
ing “place of pines.” 

Cohoes (kd-hoz'), N. Y. Corruption of the Iro¬ 
quois word gahaoose, “shipwrecked canoe,” hav¬ 
ing reference to the falls in the Mohawk at this 
place. 

Colin (kdl'-in). From Nicolin, a diminutive of 
Nicol, from Nicolas or Nicholas. 

Colorado (kdl-d-ra'-do). From the river, a 
Spanish word meaning “ruddy or red,” the waters 
of the stream usually quite limpid and pure, but 
when swollen by heavy rains, they sweep down 
immense volumes of red sand, mud, and silicious 
pebbles. Indian name, Pashahono. 

Colorado River, Texas. Spanish word, meaning 
“red,” applied through color of its waters; when so 
named it must have been at high water, as at other 
times the water is clear; the name more appro¬ 
priately applied to the Brazos, whose waters are 
always red or muddy. 

Colosseum ( kol-os-se'-um ) or Flavian Amphi¬ 
theater. Probably so named from the colossal 
statue of Nero, which stood near it in the Via Sacra. 
An amphitheater in Rome, begun by Vespasian 
(T. Flavius Sabinus) in 72 A. D., and for 400 years 
the seat of gladiatorial shows. 

Colossus of Rhodes. A gigantic statue in com¬ 
memoration of the successful defense of Rhodes 
against Demetrius Poliorcetes in 304 B. C. It 
required twelve years for its completion, and cost 
$470,000. It represented the Rhodian sun-god, 
Helios; was over 105 feet high, and was considered 
one of the seven wonders of the Old World.. 

Columbia. So named in honor of Christopher 
Columbus. Applied through poetical justice to 
Columbus, and first used by Dr. Timothy Dwight 


(1752-1818) in a popular song written by him 
which began; 

“Columbia, Columbia, to glory arise, 

The queen of the world and the child of 
the skies.” 

Now applied to the District containing the national 
capital, to counties in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, 
New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Washington, and 
Wisconsin, and rivers in Oregon and Washington. 
The river was named by Captain Gray for the 
vessel in which he entered its mouth. 

Columbus, Ohio. A tribute to Christopher Co¬ 
lumbus; the ground when originally selected in 1812 
was for the purpose of locating homes for Cana¬ 
dians and Nova Scotian refugees, and the commit¬ 
tee, through a sentimental simile selected the name 
Columbus, “as to him we are primarily indebted 
in being able to offer the refugees a resting place.” 

Conception (kon-sep'-shun) Cape, Cal. Named 
from one of the vessels belonging to Cortez’s expe¬ 
dition. 

Concord (kong'-kurd)’. Town in Middlesex 
County, Massachusetts, so called either from the 
Christian concord among the first company, or 
from the peaceful manner of its acquisition, having 
been purchased from the Indians. 

Concord, N. H. Indian name of the land, Pen- 
nacook, of the stream Musketicook, “dead stream.” 
Early English settlers named it Rumford, after a 
Benjamin Rumford; changed to Concord to com¬ 
memorate an expression of unanimity in a land 
controversy. 

Conemaugh ( kon-e-mo ') River, Penn. Indian 
word, meaning “otter creek.” 

Coney ( ko'-ni ). Island at the extremity of Long 
Island, New York, which is said by some to have 
been so named because of the numbers of rabbits 
there. Another theory ascribes it to the winds 
having driven the sand into truncated cones. It 
appears, however, to have been originally called 
Congu, which may suggest another derivation. 

Connecticut (kon-net'-i-kut) . River and State. 
An Indian name derived from Quonoktacut, meaning, 
according to some authorities, “a river whose 
water is driven in waves by tides or winds.” Haines 
says, “land on the long tidal river.” Other inter¬ 
pretations are, “on long river,” “long river,” and 
“the long, or without end river.” It was called by 
the Dutch Versche River, “Fresh River.” 

Conrad (kon'-rad). From the Old German name 
Cunrad, which Wachter translates “quick in 
counsel.” Others render the name “gifted in 
council.” Danish, Conrad; Dutch, Konraad; Fr., 
Conrad; Ger., Conrad; It., Corrado, or Curado; 
Lat., Conradus; Sw., Konrad. 

Constance ( kon'-stanss ). From the Latin name 
Constantia, a feminine of Constantius, “constancy, 
steadfastness.” Dutch, Constantia; Fr., Constance; 
It., Costanza; Lat., Constantia; Sp., Constancia. 

Constantine (kon'-stan-tin). From the Latin 
Constantinus, “firm, resolute.” Danish, Constan¬ 
tin; Dutch, Konstantijn; Fr., Constantin; Gr., 
Konstantinos; It., Constantino. 

Constantinople ( kon-stan-ti-nd'-pl ). The Angli¬ 
cised form of Constantinopolis, “the city of Con¬ 
stantine,” the name given by Constantine to 
Byzantium when he made it the Eastern capital of 
the Empire. Stamboul, or Istambul, “at the city,” 
is the modern Turkish name. 

Cooper River, S. C. In honor of Sir Anthony 
Ashley Cooper, afterward Earl of Shaftesbury, one 
of the original charterers. The Cooper and Ashley 
uniting form the peninsula on which Charleston is 
situated. 

Cooperstown. Village in Otsego County, New 
York, named for the father of James Fenimore 
Cooper, the novelist. 

Copenhagen (ko-pen-ha'-gen) . In Danish, Kjo- 
benhavn, the capital of Denmark, is first mentioned 
in 1027, by the name Hofn, “the haven,” and in 



810 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


1043 it was still a mere fishing village. Owing to 
its position it became a great resort for merchants, 
and to distinguish it from other havens was called 
Kaupmanna hofn or Kjobmannshavn, names trans¬ 
lated by Saxo Grammaticus in the Twelfth Century 
as Portus Mercatorum, the “haven of the mer¬ 
chants. ” 

Cora. From the Greek Kore, “a girl, damsel.” 

Cordelia ( kor-de'-li-a or kor-deV-yd) . According 
to Rev. Edward Davies, from the Keltic, 
Creirdyddlydd, “jewel of the sea.” Fr., Cordelie. 

Cornelia ( kdr-ne'-li-a or kor-neV-yd) . A female 
name formed from Cornelius. 

Cornelius ( kdr-ne'-li-us or kor-nel'-yus). Latin 
name, translated by some, “horn.” Danish, 
Cornelius; Dutch, Kornelis or Cornelis; Fr., Corneille; 
It., Cornelio; Lot., Cornelius; Sp., Cornelio. 

Corniche ( kdr-nesh'), The. A celebrated coast- 
road along the Riviera of France and Italy from 
Nice to Genoa. 

Cornwall. The ancient British name of this 
country was Cernyw, a name probably received 
from the Latin cornu, “a horn.” The Romans, who 
traded here for tin, called it Cornubia, which name 
it bore until the Saxons imposed the name of 
Weales upon the British who retreated into the 
fastnesses west of the Severn and the Dee. The 
latter portion of the name Cornubia was then 
dropped, and the word Wales substituted, forming 
the name “Corn-Wales,” of which the present 
Cornwall is a corruption. 

Corsica ( kdr'-si-kd ). A Phenician word denoting 
“the wooded island.” 

Corso ( kdr'-so ). One of the principal streets of 
Rome. It extends for nearly a mile from the 
Piazza del Popolo, and is the chief scene of the 
annual carnival. 

Coshocton (ko-shok'-tun). County and village in 
Ohio, named from the Indian town of Goshocking. 
The word means, according to some authorities, 
“habitation of owls.” Heckewelder gives “forks 
of the Muskingum, or union of waters.” Others 
say “finished small harbor.” 

Cosmo ( koz'-mo ). A name originating in Italy, 
where it became famous in Milan and Florence, 
from being borne by the family of the Medici 
(Cosmo di Medici). From the Greek Kosmos, 
“order,” “the world”; so called from its regularity 
and beauty. 

Costa Rica ( kos'-ta re'-ka). Literally, Spanish 
for “rich coast.” 

Cotswold (kots'-wold) Hills. So named from the 
Anglo-Saxon cote and wold, as meaning a place 
where there are no growing woods. 

Council Bluffs. City in Pottawattamie County, 
Iowa, so called from a council held near there by 
Lewis and Clarke with the Indians. 

Covent Garden Theater. A theater in Bow 
Street, Covent Garden, London, built by John Rich, 
the famous harlequin of Lincoln’s Inn Theater, in 
1731. 

Coventry ( kuv'-^n-tri ). The name of this city is 
not derived from “convent,” as some suppose, but 
from Cune, or Coven, the name of the stream on 
which it is built. 

Cracow ( kra'-ko). The town of Krak, Duke of 
Poland. 

Creole ( kre'-ol). A creole is a person born in the 
West Indies or South America of European parents. 
The name is often erroneously applied to persons of 
mixed white and black parentage. There are 
distinct names for each degree of admixture. 

Crimea (kri-me'-d). Named from a small 
towm established in the peninsula by the Kimri, 
or Cymri, and known to the ancient Greeks as 
Kimmerikon. 

Cripplegate ( krip'-l-gat) or Crepelgate. An old 
London gate. It was the fourth from the western 
end of the wall. The original gate was probably 
built by King Alfred when he restored the walls. 


886 A. D. Stow says that in 1010, when the body 
of Edmund the Martyr, king of the East Angles, 
was borne through this gate, many lame person 
who were congregated there to beg rose upright and 
were cured by its miraculous influence. 

Cris Kingle ( kris' king'-l). Also variously 
spelled Kriss Kingle, and Kriss Kringle, has been 
corrupted from the German word, Christ-Kindel, 
meaning the “little Christ-child .” Later uses, 
especially among German peoples, have identified 
the name with that of Santa Claus and Saint 
Nicholas. 

Crown Point, N. Y. Alleged to be so named 
because scalping (“crown”) parties were sent out 
from this place by the French and Indians. The 
proper adaptation is no doubt an allusion to royalty, 
namely, “land belonging to the crown.” 

Cuba ( ku'-ba. Spanish, koo'-ba). The largest 
island of the West Indies, discovered by Columbus 
in 1492, on his first voyage. The word Cuba seems 
to have been a general term meaning “district,” 
since we learn from Las Casas that the district was 
called Cuba nacan, the “central province,” from 
cuba, a “territory,” or “province,” and nacan, 
“middle.” 

Cumberland Mountains and River. Named by 
the English (1748) in honor of the Duke of Cumber¬ 
land, at that time prime minister of England, name 
applied by Dr. Thomas Walker, an explorer. From 
Anglo-Saxon, comb, “a valley or low place,” a land 
of hollows. The North Carolina section of the 
mountains, known to the Indians as Wasioto. The 
river known as the Shawanee and Gelisipi. 

Currituck Sound, N. C. A tribe of Indians of 
that name, who lived on its shores. 

Cuzco ( kodz'-ko ). A department of Peru. It is 
from a native term, meaning the “navel,” so called 
from its central position in the realm of the Incas. 

Cynthia (sin'-thi-a). From Cynthia, a name of 
Diana; so called from Mount Cynthus, where she 
was born. 

Cyprian (sip'-ri-an). From the Latin Cypria- 
nus, “of Cyprus.” Dutch, Cypriaan; Fr., Cyprien; 
Ger., Cyprian; It., Cipriano; Port., Cypriano; Sp., 
Cipriano. 

Cyprus (si'-prus). Perhaps named from the herb 
kupros, with which it abounded; called by the 
Greeks Cerastes, “the horned.” 

Cyril, Cyrill ( sir'-U ). From the Latin name 
Cyrillus, a diminutive of Cyrus, meaning “little 
Cyrus.” Danish, Cyrillus; Dutch, Cyrillus; Fr., 
Crilley; It., Cirillo; hat.; Cyrillus. 

Cyrus (si'-rus). From Greek kuros, “the su¬ 
preme power.” According to others it has the 
same signification as Carshena, “illustrious.” Fr., 
Cyrus; Ger., Cyrus; Gr., Kuros; It., Ciro; Lat., 
Cyrus; Sp., Ciro. 

Dahlonega (da-lo-ne'-ga), Ga. From the 
Indian, taulawneca, “yellow wampum,” from the 
discovery of gold at this place. The Government 
established a mint here at one time. 

Daisy. A female name, derived from the flower, 
whose name in Anglo-Saxon signifies “day’s eye.” 

Dakota ( da-ko'-ta). Two States — North and 
South Dakota — counties in Nebraska and Minne¬ 
sota, and several small places, named for the Indian 
tribe. The name was originally spelled Dahkota or 
Dacorta, which means “friend,” “ally,” “beleagued 
or united people,” or “allied nation,” the common 
name of the confederate Sioux tribes. 

Dakota River, Dak. Named originally from the 
territory. The stream was called by the Dakotas 
chaussnsan, meaning “tumbling.” 

Dalilah. Another spelling of Delilah. 

Daniel (ddn'-yel). From the Hebrew, Daniyyel, 
which has been variously translated “judge of God,” 
“God’s judge,” one who delivers judgment in the 
name of the Lord. Danish, Daniel; Dutch, Daniel; 
Fr., Daniel; Ger., Daniel; It., Daniele; Lat., 
Daniel; Sp., Daniel. 



MISCELLANY 


811 


Dantzic ( ddnt'-sik . German, dant'-sich). Usu¬ 
ally supposed to be a corruption of Dansk-vik, 
“Dane’s town, or “Danish fort.” 

Danube ( ddn'-ub). The English name of the 
great river which the Germans call the Donau is 
derived from the Roman name Danubius or Danu- 
vius. 

Dardanelles ( dar-da-nelz'). The modern name 
of the Hellespont, is derived from two Turkish 
forts guarding the passage, called by the Italians, 
Dardandli, a name derived from the old Greek city 
of Dardanus in the Troad. 

Dauphin ( dd'-fin . French, do-fan'). A title 
formerly borne by the eldest son of the kings of 
France. In 1349, Humbert, the last of the princes 
of Dauphine, having no issue, left his dominions to 
the King of France on condition that the king’s 
eldest son should be styled the Dauphin. After the 
revolution of 1830 the title was abolished. 

# David ( da'-vid ). From the Hebrew Daviydh, 
signifying “beloved.” Danish, David; Dutch, 
David; Fr., David; Ger., David; It., Davide, or 
Davidde; Lat., David. 

Death Valley. A desert region in Inyo County, 
eastern California, near the Nevada frontier, lying 
about 160 feet below the sea-level. 

Deborah ( deb'-o-rd). From the Hebrew, D’bho- 
rah, which Jerome translates “a bee, or eloquence.” 
Dutch, Debora; Fr., Debora; It., Debora; Lat., 
Debora. 

December, the twelfth month, from the Latin, 
decern, ten. Tenth month of the Romans. 

Delaware ( del'-d-w&r ) River and Bay. The 
name Delaware, first given to the bay by Capt. 
Samuel Argali, afterward Deputy Governor of 
Virginia, who came to this country in company 
with Lord de la Ware. After landing in Virginia 
he was sent out of the Chesapeake, June 19, 1610, 
for provisions, and “caste anchor in a verie greate 
baaye,” August 27th, on which date he christened 
its waters. The bay being a widened mouth of the 
stream the name was afterward adopted to its 
source. It was also called by the English Charles 
River, in honor of the king. 

Delft {delft). This name for earthenware is 
derived from Delft, a town in Holland, where exten¬ 
sive potteries existed from A. D. 1300. 

Delhi {del'-he) or Dehli {da'-le). From the San¬ 
skrit, dahal, “a quagmire,” or from the Hind, word 
dil, an “eminence.” 

Delilah {de-li'-la). From the Hebrew D’liylah, 
signifying “weak, delicate.” 

Demetrius {de-me'-tri-us). From the Greek, 
Demetrios, “sprung from the earth,” or “from 
Ceres”; Fr., Demetrius; It., Demetrio; Lat., 
Demetrius; Russ., Dmitri. - 

Denis (den'-is) or Dionysius {di-6-nish'-i-us). 
From the Greek, “belonging to the god of wine.” 
Danish, Dionysius; Dutch, Dionysius; Fr., Denis 
or Denys; Ger., Dionys; Gr., Dionysios; It., 
Dionigio; Lat., Dionysius; Sp., Dionisio. 

Denmark {den'-mark). Called Dan-mork in the 
Sagas. In old Norse mork means a “forest,” and, as 
forests commonly formed the boundaries of tribes, 
we obtain such words as mearc in Anglo-Saxon and 
marca in Old High German, meaning a “marsh 
land” or “boundary.” But marca in Old Saxon 
means a district, and in Modern Danish mark means 
a “field,” “plain,” or “open country.” Hence, 
Denmark probably means the “forest of the Danes,” 
a name parallel to that of Holstein, which also was 
densely wooded. 

Denver, Colo. After James W. Denver, ex- 
Governor of Kansas. The name adopted upon the 
consolidation in 1860 of the towns of St. Charles 
and Aurora. 

Derrick or Dirck. A name corrupted from 
Theodoric. 

Des Moines {de-moin'). River, county, and city 
in Iowa. This name is thought to have been de¬ 


rived from the Indian word, mikonang, meaning 
“the road.” This name was applied by the Indians 
to a place in the form of Moingona, which the French 
shortened into Moin, calling the river “riviere des 
Moins.” Finally, the name became associated with 
the Trappist monks, and the river by a spurious 
etymology was called “la rivi&re des moines,” “the 
river of the monks.” 

Detroit {de-troit'), Mich. From the river or strait 
on which the city is built. Derived from two 
French words, detroit, “the narrows.” 

Deuteronomy {du-ter-on'-o-mi). From two Greek 
words meaning second and law. The fifth book of 
Moses is so named from its being mainly a repetition 
or second edition of laws previously enunciated. 

Devil. Many philologists declare that the name 
of God is derived from Good Spirit, shortened by 
long use to “good” or “god.” In the Anglo-Saxon 
the word “god” is used in the sense of “good” as 
well as to designate the Almighty, and it is only 
known by the context which is intended. By a 
similar process, Satan may have been known as the 
Evil Spirit, which shortened by usage would be¬ 
come the Evil, or th’evil, easily corrupted into Devil. 
In Anglo-Saxon the word yfel, “evil,” is suggestive 
of deoful, “the devil.” The common synonyms of 
this word, Old Nick, Old Scratch, and Old Harry are 
all derived from Norse sources. “Old Nick ” is from 
the Finnish Naeki, or North-German Nickel, both 
meaning a demon. “Old Scratch” is from Scrat or 
Schrat, a Scandinavian wood demon; and “Old 
Harry ” is from Hari, or Herra, Scandinavian terms 
identical with Baal or Beel in Beelzebub. The 
common pictorial representations of the devil are 
entirely copied or derived from Greek and Roman 
mythology. The pitchfork is the two-pronged 
scepter of Pluto, the King of Hades. The black¬ 
ness is also from Pluto, who was named Jupiter 
Niger, the black Jupiter. The horn, tail, and 
cloven feet are from the Greek satyrs. 

Dewy or Dewey. A Cornish form of David. 

Diana {di-an'-a) or Dian {di'-an). So called 
after Diana, goddess of hunting. Some derive her 
name from dia, i. e., dea, and Iana. According to 
Varro, the same as Luna, “the moon.” Danish, 
Diana; Fr., Diane; Ger., Diana; Gr., Artemis; It., 
Diana; Lat., Diana. 

Dinah. From the Hebrew Diynah, signifying 
“judged”; i. e., “acquitted, vindicated.” 

District of Columbia. See Columbia. 

Dnieper {ne’-per). From Don-ieper, “upper 
river.” Scythian, Danapris. 

Dniester {nes'-ter). From Don-iester, “lower 
river Don.” Originally from the Scythian, 
Danaster, “southern river.” 

Doge’s (dof) Palace. Formerly the palace of the 
doges of Venice, and now one of its most interesting 
architectural monuments. The present building 
was begun by Marino Falierno in 1354, but only the 
south and west fagades retain their characteristic 
pointed architecture. 

Dolores {do-lo'-res). Derived from the Spanish 
name, Dolores, signifying “sorrows,” in allusion to 
the Seven Sorrows of Mary. 

Dominic {dom'-l-nik). From the Latin, domini- 
cus, “of or belonging to a lord or master.” It 
might also translate “little lord.” Danish, Do- 
minicus; Dutch, Dominicus; Fr., Dominique; It., 
Domenico; Port., Domingos; Sp., Domingo; Sw., 
Dominicus. 

Dominica {dom-i-ne'-ka). “Sunday Island,” in¬ 
dicative of its discovery by Columbus, namely 
Sunday, November 2, 1493. 

Donald. An English form of Donghal, “brown 
stranger.” 

Dora. A female name abbreviated from Theo¬ 
dora. 

Dorcas. From the Greek name, dorkas, signi¬ 
fying “a wild goat, antelope, gazelle.” 

Dorothy {dor'd-thi). From the Greek name 



812 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Dorothea, signifying “the gift of God.” Danish, 
Dorothea; Dutch, Dorothea; Fr., Doroth^e; Ger., 
Dorothea; It., Dorotea; Lat., Dorothea; Sp., 
Dorotea; Sw., Dorothea. 

Dougall. An English form of Dughall. 

Douglas (dug'-Ids). From Gaelic dubh-ghlas, 
“dark grey.” 

Dover, Del. From the town in England of that 
name. The Anglo-Saxon word means “ferry.” 

Dowager ( dow'-d-j&r ). Strictly speaking, a dowa¬ 
ger is an endowed widow; i. e., one who has a 
“dower” from her late husband, or who has prop¬ 
erty brought by her to her husband on marriage 
(“dowry”) and settled on herself after his decease. 
In practice the name “dowager” is applied to any 
widowed lady of title, to distinguish her from the 
wife of the present holder of the title. 

Downing Street, London. So named after Sir 
George Downing, who, according to Wood, was 
“a sider with all times and changes, skilled in the 
common cant, and a preacher occasionally.” The 
street contains the Treasury Building and the 
Foreign Office, hence the name Downing Street 
has come to be used for the British Administration. 

Drury Lane. A street in London, near the 
Strand, with which it communicates through 
Wych Street. It is one of the great arteries of the 
parish of St. Clement Danes, an aristocratic part 
of London in the time of the Stuarts. It takes 
the name from Drury House, built by Sir William 
Drury, in the time of Henry VIII. Near the 
entrance of Drury Lane from the Strand, on the 
left, an old house, now a Mission House, still exists, 
which stood in the Lane with the old house of the 
Drurys, before the street was built. 

Drury Lane Theater. This famous London 
theater was originally a cockpit, which was con¬ 
verted into a theater in the time of James I. It 
was pulled down and rebuilt in 1662, burned in 
1672, and a new one built by Wren in 1674. The 
interior was rebuilt in 1775. In 1791, it was 
pulled down and rebuilt, being opened in 1794. 
It was burned down February, 1809, and replaced 
by a building, which was opened October 10, 1812. 
The latter was destroyed by fire in the early part 
of 1908, and replaced by the present structure. 

Drusilla (droo-sil'-la). A female name derived 
from the Greek name Drousille, which Bailey 
translates “dewy eyes.” The word signifies “dew, 
moisture, pure water”; and, figuratively, what is 
tender, delicate, young. Fr., Drusille; Ger. Drusille; 
It., Drusilla; Lat., Drusilla. 

Dryburgh (dri'-bur-6) Abbey. An ancient abbey, 
now in ruins, four miles southeast of Melrose, 
Scotland, whose fragments exhibit excellent Nor¬ 
man and Early English architectural details. In 
the south aisle is the tomb of Sir Walter Scott. 

Dublin. In the Irish language this is Dubh-linn, 
the meaning of which is “black pool.” The name 
has reference to the fact that the greater part of 
the site of the city was formerly a black, slimy 
expanse of mud, through which the River Liffey 
flowed sluggishly to the sea. 

Dubuque (doo-buk'). County and city in Iowa, 
named for a French trader, Julien Dubuque. 

Dugald. An English form of Dughall. 

Duluth, Minn. In honor of the French explorer, 
Daniel Greysolon du Lhut, who visited this section 
in 1679. 

Duncan. A Scottish surname. Some render 
it “powerful chieftain”; others derive it from the 
English form of Donncha. 

Dunstan. Derived from a locality signifying, 
“the stone hill,” or “the strong fortress” (dun¬ 
stan), but the Saxon compound is no doubt used 
figuratively. 

Duquesne (du-kan'). Borough in Allegheny 
County, Pennsylvania, named from old Fort Du¬ 
quesne, which was named for a distinguished 
French officer, the Marquis Abraham Duquesne. 


Easter Island. Named by Jacob Roggevin in 
consequence of his visit to its fertile shores on 
Easter Sunday, 1722; the island having been pre¬ 
viously discovered by Captain Davis in 1686. 

East River. Name applied to the body of water 
at New York, more properly a strait, connecting 
Long Island Sound with New York Bay; called a 
river no doubt from the river-like action of its 
tides; the name is used to distinguish it from 
North River, i. e., the Hudson. As the Dutch had 
the South and North Rivers to designate their ter¬ 
ritory limits, it was consistent that the stream east 
of their city of New Amsterdam should be indi¬ 
cated as Oost Rivier. 

Ebenezer (eb-e-ne'-zer). From the Hebrew Eb- 
henezer, signifying “stone of help,” name of the 
stone which Samuel set up near Mispeh, in wit¬ 
ness of the Divine assistance obtained against the 
Philistines. 

Ecuador (ek-wa-dor'. Spanish, a-kwd-dor'). Span¬ 
ish for Equator, so called by virtue of its geograph¬ 
ical position. 

Edenton, N. C. In honor of Charles Eden, ro} r al 
governor in 1720. 

Edgar. From the Anglo-Saxon name Eadgar. 
Watcher derives it from ead-gar, “author of hap¬ 
piness.” 

Edinburgh (ed'-in-bur-d). Formerly Edwines- 
burg, means ostensibly the fortress of Eadwine, 
the Northumbrian king, who was converted by 
Paulinus. He extended the Anglican dominion as 
far as the Forth, and may probably have erected 
a frontier fortress on the commanding rock on which 
Edinburgh Castle stands. 

Edith. Formerly Eadith; from Anglo-Saxon 
eadig, “happy, rich.” 

Edmund ( ed'-mund). From Anglo-Saxon ead- 
inund, “guardian or defender of happiness.” Danish, 
Edmund; Fr., Edmond; Ger., Edmund; It., Ed- 
mondo; Lat., Edmundus; Sp., Edmondo, or Ed- 
mundo. 

Edward ( ed'-ward). From Anglo-Saxon ead- 
weard, “guardian of happiness.” Danish, Eduard - ; 
Dutch, Eduard; Fr., Edouard; Ger., Eduard; It., 
Eduardo, orEdoardo; Lat., Edvardus, orEdoardus; 
Port., Duarte; Sp., Eduardo; Sw., Eduard. 

Edwin (ed'-win). From the Anglo-Saxon name 
Eadwin, from ead-winn, “happy conqueror.” 
Danish, Edwin; Lat., Edwinus. 

Eel River, Ind. From the translation of the 
Indian name, shoamague, “slippery fish” (the eel). 

Effie. A Scottish corruption of Euphemia. 

Egbert (eg'-bert). Ferguson translates this name 
“edge-bright.” It rather means, “distinguished 
in battle,” from the Anglo-Saxon, meaning “an 
edge, sword, war, battle.” Lat., Egbertus. 

Egypt. Is the Greek and not the native name 
of the country which on the monuments is called 
Kem (Ham), “the black,” probably from the dark 
alluvial soil. The meaning of the Greek name 
A5gyptos has been much disputed. It has been 
explained as the “land” (aia) of the “vulture” 
(guptos), or rather of the sacred kite of Horus, 
which is the most conspicuous animal in the country. 
Another etymology derives it from the Coptic or 
from the town of Koptos, the seat of the earliest 
dynasties, where the caravan route from the Red 
Sea reaches the Nile, and hence the place that 
would first become known to strangers from the 
East. Another derivation is that it expresses the 
Hebrew for “the land of oppression.” 

Egyptian Expedition, The. An expedition un¬ 
dertaken by the French against Egypt in 1798-1801, 
with the ultimate object of attacking the British 
Empire in India. It was commanded by Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 

Egyptian Hall. The Egyptian Hall in the 
Mansion House of the City of London was so called 
because of its exact correspondence with the 
Egyptian Hall described by Vitruvius. 




MISCELLANY 


813 


Elba ( el'-ba ). An island belonging to the prov¬ 
ince of Leghorn, Italy, situated in the Mediter¬ 
ranean, east of Corsica, and about five and one-half 
miles from Tuscany. Napoleon I. lived here in exile 
from May 4, 1814, to February 26, 1815. 

Eldred ( el'-dred ). From the Teutonic, meaning 
“all dread,” hence “terrible.” Lat., Eldredus. 

Eleanor (U'-e-a-ndr, el'-en-or). Derived from 
Helen. Danish, Eleonore; Dutch, Leonora; Fr., 
Eleonore; Ger., Eleonore; It., Eleonora; Lat., 
Eleanora; Sp., Leanor. 

Electoral Commission, The. In the United 
States History, a board of commissioners created 
by Act of Congress, approved January 29, 1877, for 
the purpose of deciding disputed cases in the presi¬ 
dential election of 1876. 

Elephanta ( el-e-fan'-ta ). An island six miles 
from Bombay, is locally called Gharipuri, the 
“place of caves.” The Portuguese name Elephanta 
is derived from the colossal figure of an elephant 
carved on the rock, guarding the entrance to a 
magnificent cave-temple, which dates from the 
Eighth Century. 

Elephantine (el-e-fan-te'-na). The Greek name 
of the island of Philse at the first cataract of the 
Nile, so called because it was the mart to which the 
Nubians brought their ivory for sale. 

Elgin (Zl'-giri) Marbles. A collection of Greek 
sculptures comprising the bulk of the surviving 
plastic decorations of the Parthenon, and a caryatid 
and column from the Erechtheum, and recognized 
as containing the finest existing productions of 
sculpture. 

Elias ( e-li'-as ). From the Greek form of Elijah, 
meaning “God the Lord.” Danish, Elias; Fr., 
Elie; Ger., Elias; It., Elia; Lat., Elias. 

Elihu ( e-li'-hu or el'-i-hu). A name derived from 
Elias. 

Elijah. See Elias. 

Elisabeth. See Elizabeth. 

Elisha ( e-lV-shd ). From the Hebrew, meaning 
“the salvation of God.” Fr., Elisee; It., Eliseo; 
Lat., Elisaeus; Port., Eliseu; Sp., Eliseo. 

Eliza ( e-li'-za ). Corrupted from Elisabeth. 
Danish, Elisa; Dutch, Elisa; Fr., Elise; Ger., 
Elisa; Lat., Eliza, or Elisa. 

Elizabeth (e-liz'-a-beth). From the Hebrew 
Eliyshebha, which St. Jerome translates “oath of 
my God”; Simonis, “oath of God”; Tregelles, “to 
whom God is the oath, who swears by God,” i. e., 
worshipper of God; and Jones, “God of the seventh 
oath of my God, of God is her oath”; from El 
“God,” shebha, “seven”; also an oath. Dapish, 
Elisabeth; Dutch, Elizabeth; Fr., Elisabeth; Ger., 
Elisabeth; It., Elisabetta; Lat., Elizabetha; Sp., 
Isabel. 

Elizabeth, N. J. Named for Elizabeth Carteret, 
wife of Sir George Carteret. 

Ellen. Some consider this the same as Helen, 
and, indeed, in Spanish Helen and Ellen are both 
represented by Elena. A correspondent of “Notes 
and Queries” says the name Ellen has no possible 
connection with Helen, which is older by a thousand 
years at least, and that Ellen is the feminine of 
Alain, Alan, or Allan. It may, however, be the 
same as Ailean. 

Ellis Island. Variously called Oyster, Bucket, 
and Gibbett Island. 

Film -a. A female name abbreviated from Guili- 
elma, a feminine formed from Gulielmus, from root 
of William. 

Elmira. City in Chemung County, New York, 
said to have been named for Elmira Teall, daughter 
of Nathan Teal, a tavern keeper. 

Elmo, Castle of Saint. A castle at Naples and a 
fort at Malta, said to be so named from Ermo, an 
Italianized corruption of Erasmus, a Syrian martyr 
of the Third Century. 

Else or Elsa. See Alice. 

Elsie. A name corrupted from Elizabeth. 


Elvira (el-vi'-rd). There are several suggestions 
as to the origin of this name, which is also found in 
the Italian. According to some it has been cor¬ 
rupted from the name Geloyra or Geluira, but 
there is no suggestion as to the origin of the latter 
name. Others think it another spelling of the 
Moorish name Elmira, a name said to be derived 
from emir. Miss Yonge seems to think it of Spanish 
origin. 

Elysee ( d-le-za'), Palace of. The official resi¬ 
dence of the President of France, in Paris. It was 
built in 1718, and, since the reign of Louis XV., has 
been the property of the state. It was used as a 
private residence by Napoleon I. and Napoleon III., 
to escape the publicity of the Tuileries. During the 
republic of 1848 it became the official residence of 
the president. 

Emerald Isle. The author of this epithet was 
Dr. William Drennan, of Belfast, who died 1820. 
It occurs in a poem entitled “Erin,” of which the 
fourth stanza runs thus; 

“Arm of Erin! prove strong, but be gentle as brave, 
And, uplifting to strike, still be ready to save, 

Not one feeling of vengeance presume to defile 
The cause, or the men of the Emerald Isle.” 

Emery (em'-e-ri). A name derived from the old 
name Amalaric, signifying “powerful without a 
blot,” or “rich in chastity.” Danish, Almerik; 
Dutch, Almerik; Fr., Emeric, or Emeri; Lat., 
Almericus; Sw., Emmerik. 

Emilia (e-mxV-%-a), or Emily (em'-i-li). A name 
corrupted from Amelia. Fr., Emilie; Ger., Emilie, 
or Emilia; It., Emilia. 

Emily. See Emilia. 

Emma. Some derive this name from Greek 
amme, “a nurse”; others from the Latin, Amata, 
signifying “loved,” name of the wife of King 
Latinus and mother of Lavinia. Fr., Emma; It., 
Emma; Lat., Emma. 

Emmanuel ( em-m&n'-u-el ), or Immanuel. From 
the Hebrew, meaning “God with us”; Fr., Em¬ 
manuel; Ger., Emanuel, or Immanuel; It., Eman- 
uele; Lat., Emmanuel; Port., Manoel; Sp., Manuel. 

Enaid or Enid. A Welsh female name signifying 
“soul, life.” 

Encyclopedists, or Encyclopaedists (en-si-klo- 
pe'-dists). The collaborators in the encyclopedia 
of Diderot and D’Alembert (1751-65). The 
Encyclopedists as a body were the exponents of the 
French skepticism of the Eighteenth Century. 

Engadine (en-ga-den') . A valley in the canton of 
Grisons, Switzerland, traversed by the Inn, noted 
for its health-resorts and high elevation. It is 
divided into the Upper and Lower Engadine, and 
is surrounded by mountains. 

England (mg'-land). When Egbert, King of the 
West-Saxons, in 829, had subjugated the other six 
Saxon kingdoms, he summoned a general council 
at Winchester, at which it was declared that hence¬ 
forth Britain should be called England, its people 
Englishmen, and himself King of England. Origi¬ 
nally the name was Englaland, the land of the 
Engles, or Angles, who came over from Sleswick, 
a province of Jutland. Engel (variously spelled), 
is an old Teutonic word, meaning “angel.” 

Enid (e'-nid). Another form of Enaid, which see. 

Enoch (e'-ndk). Derived from the Hebrew 
Hhanokh, which Simonis renders “initiated, dedi¬ 
cated— i. e., to God”; and St. Jerome, “dedi¬ 
cated,” simply. Fr., Enoch or Henoch; Lat., 
Enochus, or Henochus. 

Ephraim (e'-fra-xm). From the Hebrew Ephra- 
yim, which Tragelles translates “double-land, twin- 
land”; others “two-fold increase, very fruitful”; 
from p’riy, “fruit of the earth,” hence “fruitful.” 
Fr., Ephraim; Lat., Ephraimus. 

Epsom (ep'-sum). A market-town in the county 
of Surrey, fifteen miles southwest of London, 
chiefly celebrated now as the place near which the 
Oaks and Derby races are run. The Epsom races 



814 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF- FACTS 


are held on Epsom Downs, in the month of May 
(once in a while June). The Derby is a sweep- 
stake for three-year-old entire colts and fillies. On 
the subsequent day the Oaks, for fillies only, is 
run. 

Erasmus ( e-r&z'-mus ). The Latin name, from 
Greek Erasmos, “desirable, pleasant .” Danish, 
Erasmus; Fr., Erasme; Ger., Erasmus; Gr., 
Erasmos; It., Erasmo; Lat., Erasmus; Sp., 
Erasmo. 

Erastus (e-r&s' -tus) . Means, “beloved/' Fr., 

, Eraste; Gr., Erastos; Lat., Erastus. 

Erechtheum ( er-ek-the'-um ). An Ionic temple 
in Athens dating from the end of the Fifth Century 
B. C., remarkable for its complex plan and architect¬ 
ural variety, as well as for its technical perfec¬ 
tion. 

Eric ( er'-ik, e'-rik). The same as the old Ericus, 
name of several Danish kings. Wachter says it 
should be written Errich, which he translates, 
“powerful in war." 

Erie. The name of one of the Great Lakes, 
drained by the St. Lawrence, is an Indian word, 
which, in the form of “ Erige ” or “ Erilke, ” was the 
name of a now extinct Indian tribe of the Hurons, 
exterminated by the Iroquois. The word signifies 
“cat” or “wild-cat”; another authority gives the 
meaning as “mad.” 

Erminia (er-min'-i-d). A female name derived 
from the Roman Herminius. Latinized from 
Hermann, an Old German compound signifying 
“war-man, warrior.” It seems to have been in use 
in early times in Italy, and occurs in Tasso. 

Ernest ( er'-nest ). From Old German ernst, 
“ardent and vehement desire for study.” Danish, 
Ernst; Dutch, Ernestus; Fr., Ernest; Ger., Ernst; 
It., Ernesto; Lat., Ernestus; Sw., Ernst. 

Ernestine. A female name formed from Ernest. 

Erzeroom ( erz-room'). From Arz-er-Room, “the 
fortress of the Romans.” 

Esau (e'-sd). From the Hebrew, signifying 
“hairy, covered with hair.” Fr., Esau; Lat., 
Esavus. 

Escorial ( es-ko'-ri-al. Spanish, es-ko-re-al'). A 
celebrated building in Spain, situated twenty- 
seven miles northwest of Madrid, containing a 
monastery, palace, church, and mausoleum of the 
Spanish sovereign. Derives its name from the 
neighboring village El Escorial, from the scoria or 
cinders of some abandoned iron works. 

Espiritu Santo (as-pe'-re-tod san'-to) Bay, Texas. 
Spanish application, meaning “Bay of the holy 
Spirit.” 

Essie ( es'-si ). A female name derived from 
Esther or Hester. 

Estelle. A French name derived from Spanish 
estella, from Latin stella, a “star.” 

Esther (es'-ter). From the Persian sitarah, 
“star”; also “fortune, felicity.” Dutch, Hester; 
Fr., Esther; Ger., Esther; It., Ester; Lat., Esthera; 
Sp., Ester. 

Estremadura ( as-tra-md-dod'-ra ). From Esy- 
tema-Durii, the extreme limits of the River 
Douro. 

Ethel ( eth'-el ). From the Anglo-Saxon, signi¬ 
fying “noble.” 

Ethelbert (eth'-el-bert). From the Teutonic, 
meaning “nobly bright.” Danish, Adelbert; Dutch, 
Adelbert; Fr., Adalbert, or Adelbert; Ger., Adel¬ 
bert; Lat., Ethelbertus, or Adalbertus. 

Ethiopia, or ^Ethiopia ( e-thi-o'-pi-a ). The “land 
of the blacks,” according to the two Greek words, 
aithein, “to burn,” and ops, “the face.” 

Etna ( et'-nd ). The chief mountain in Sicily, and 
the highest volcano in Europe. The Greek name 
was Aitna, “burning mountain.” 

Eugene ( u-jen A name derived from the 
Latin, Eugenius, “nobly descended.” Dutch, 
Eugenius; Fr., Eugene; Ger., Eugen; Gr., Euge¬ 
nios; It., Eugenio; Sp., Eugenio. 


Eugenia ( u-je'-nl-d ). Feminine of the Latin 
name Eugenius. Fr., Eugenie; Gr., Eugenia. 

Eunice ( u'-nis, u-ni'-se). A female name de¬ 
rived from the Greek name, Eunike, “happy vic¬ 
tory.” Lat., Eunice. 

Euphemia ( u-fe'-mi-a ). From the Greek, Eu- 
phemia, “words of good omen, or good report.” 

Euphrates (u-fra'-tez). A name which has a long 
history. Euphrates is merely a Greek adaptation 
of the Persian name Hufrat or Ufratu. The latter 
Persian form, Phrat, or Frata, has again been con¬ 
verted by the Arabs into Farat, the “sweet water,” 
so as to make the name significant in Arabic. The 
upper course of the Euphrates is still called the 
Frat. 

Eurasian ( u-ra'-shdn ). This word, which is 
often met with in Indian newspapers, is ap¬ 
plied to persons born of European fathers and 
native mothers. The word is a contracted com¬ 
bination of the two words, “European” and 
“Asian.” 

Europe ( u'-rup ). From the Greek eurus, “broad,” 
and op, “to see,” or ops, “the face,” in allusion to 
“the broad face of the earth.” 

Eusebius (u-se'-bi-us). From the Greek, Euse - 
bes, “pious,” or “religious.” Fr., Eusebe; Gr., 
Eusebios; It., Eusebio; Lat., Eusebius; Sp., 
Eusebio. 

Eustace ( us'-tds ). From the Latin name, 
Eustathius, “standing fast, firm, constant.” Dutch, 
Eustatius; Fr., Eustache; It., Eustachio; Lat., 
Eustachius; Sp., Eustaquio. 

Euxine (uks'-in). Greek, meaning “the hos¬ 
pitable”; formerly axinos, “the inhospitable 
sea.” 

Evan (ev'-an). A Welsh name. Evan, or rather 
Evans, is merely another spelling of Jones, which 
has been corrupted from the Greek original of 
John. 

Eve. From the Hebrew haovah, “life, or causing 
life.” Arabic, Hawa, or Heva; Danish, Eva; 
Dutch, Eva; Fr., Eve; Ger., Eva; Gr., Eua, or Eva; 
It., Eva; Lat., Eva; Sp., Eva; Sw., Eva. 

Evelina (ev-e-li'-nd), Eveline (ev'-e-lin). Female 
names derived from Evelyn. Also considered 
diminutives of Eve. 

Evelyn (ev'-e-lin). From the Latin, meaning 
“hazel nut.” Lower says the surname Evelyn is 
probably an ancient personal name, corresponding 
with the German Aveling or Abeling, the ing being 
patronymic. 

Everard (ev’-er-ard). Same as the German 
names Eberhard, Eberhardt. From eberhart, 
“strong as a wild boar”; perhaps, figuratively, 
strong man. Danish, Eberhard; Dutch, Everard; 
Ger., Eberhard. 

Ezekiel (e-ze'-ki-el). From the Hebrew, meaning 
“strength of God.” Dutch, Ezechiel; Fr., Ezechiel. 

Ezra (ez'-ra). From the Hebrew, Ezra, mean¬ 
ing “a helper.” Fr., Esdras; Lat., Ezra or 
Ezdras. 

Fabian (fa'-bi-an). A name derived from the 
Roman Fabius, which, in turn, is derived from 
faba, a bean. Danish, Favian; Dutch, Fabiaan; 
Fr., Fabien; It., Fabiano; Lat., Fabianus. 

Fanny. A female name corrupted from Frances. 

Farnese (fdr-nez'. Italian, far-na'-za ) Palace. 
A celebrated palace of the Farnese in Rome, 
founded in the first part of the reign of Leo X. It 
was begun by Sangallo the younger, was continued 
by Michael Angelo, and was completed by Giacomo 
della Porta. It is adorned with frescoes by Anni¬ 
bale Caracci. 

Fear Cape, N. C. Is said to have been named 
Cape of Fear, owing to its tempestuous coast at the 
time Raleigh’s fleet was trying to find an entrance, 
June 20, 1585. See Cape Fear River. 

February (feb'-ru-a-ri). From the Latin word, 
febru, “to purify,” because the purification of 
women took place in this month. 










MISCELLANY 


815 


Federalist J£d'-er-dl-ist), The. A collection of 
essays in favor and in explanation of the United 
States Constitution, first issued in serial form, 
October, 1787,—April, 1788, in the “Independent 
Journal” of New York, where they were collected 
in book form with the title “The Federalist.” 
Many editions have since been issued. 

Felicia. A female name formed from Felix. 

Felix ( fe'-lix ). A Latin name meaning “happy.” 
Danish, Felix; Dutch, Felix; Fr., Felix; Ger., 
Felix; It., Felice; Sp., Felix. 

Ferdinand Jer'-di-n&nd). One authority de¬ 
rives, this name from the North High German name 
Ferdinand, or Fert-nand, translated, figuratively, 
“one quick of comprehension,” or “man of rare 
abilities.” Another translates it “pure peace.” 
Dutch, Ferdinand; Fr., Ferdinand; Ger., Ferdi¬ 
nand; It., Ferdinando; Lat., Ferdinandus; Port., 
Fernando, or Fernao; Sp., Fernando. 

Fergus. An English form of Frederick. 

Fernandina ( fer-nan-de'-na ), Fla. Given by the 
Spaniards in honor of their King Ferdinand. 

Fiesole Je-es'-o-le). An old Etruscan city in the 
province of Florence, Italy, four miles northeast of 
Florence;, the ancient Fsesulse. It was the head¬ 
quarters of Catiline 63-62 B. C., and was the scene 
of victory of Stilicho over the Teutonic invaders 
under Radagais about 406. 

Fifth Avenue. The principal residence street of 
New York, extending from Washington Square to 
Harlem River, a distance of about six and one-half 
miles. The lower part of the avenue is now largely 
devoted to business. 

Finland. Properly Fenland, meaning “the land 
of marches.” 

Fitchburg. City in Worcester County, Mass., 
named for John Fitch, one of the committee that 
procured the act of incorporation. 

Fitzedward. A baptismal name, son of Edward. 
Norman fitz, for filius. 

Fitzwilliam Museum. A museum at Cambridge 
University, England, founded by Richard, seventh 
and last Viscount Fitzwilliam, who bequeathed to 
the university (1816) his collection of books, 
paintings, illuminated manuscripts, engravings, etc., 
with the dividends of £100,000 South Sea annuities 
for the erection of a building, which was begun in 
1837. The collection of ancient prints is one of the 
most valuable in existence. 

Flaminian (fla-min'-i-an) Way. One of the 
oldest and most famous highways of ancient Rome. 
It extends in a direct line from Rome to Ariminum 
(Rimini) and was built by the censor Caius Fla- 
minius in 220 B. C. Its superintendence was held 
to be so honorable an office that Augustus himself 
assumed it in 27 B. C., as Julius Caesar had been 
curator of the Appian Way. Augustus restored it 
through its entire extent, in commemoration of 
which triumphal arches were erected to him over 
the road at Ariminum and at Rome. 

Fleet Street. A London street running from 
Ludgate Circus to the Strand and the West End. 
It is named from the Fleet brook. In the early 
chronicles of London many allusions are made to 
the deeds of violence done in this street. By the 
time of Elizabeth the street had become a favorite 
spot for shows of all descriptions. It is now the 
chief center of British journalism. 

Flint, Mich. From the river on which it is 
located, the name derived from translation of the 
Indian name Pewonigo, “river of flint.” The place 
first bore the name of Flint River Settlement. 

Flora ( [flo'-rd ). A female name derived from 
Flora, goddess of flowers and gardens, the same as 
the Chloris of the Greeks. Dutch, Flora; Fr., 
Flore; It., Flora; Lat., Flora. 

Florence ( fldr'-ens ). A female name, said to 
have been Anglicised from Finin or Fineen, an Irish 
name used by men, meaning “flourishing.” The 
English version is probably derived from Flora, the 


goddess of flowers. It might also mean “white,” 
or “fair.” Danish, Florenz; Dutch, Florentia; 
Fr., Florence; Ger., Florenz; It., Fiorenza; Lat., 
Florentia; Sp., Florencia; Sw., Florenz. 

Florence, Italy. This is the French form adopted 
for the city whose Italian name, formerly Fiorenza, 
is now Firenze, meaning, as the Romans seem to 
have thought, “the city of flowers.” 

Florida. So named by Ponce de Leon, a Spanish 
navigator, in honor of his discovery of the land on 
Easter Sunday, March 27, 1513, which is called by 
Spaniards Pascua Florida, “Holy day of Flowers.” 
He chose this name for two reasons: First, be¬ 
cause the country presented a pleasant aspect; 
and, second, because he landed on the festival 
referred to. The second reason is generally con¬ 
sidered to have more weight. 

Fond du Lac ( fon-du-lak'), Wis. French adapta¬ 
tion “bottom of the lake”; that is, “lower end, 
the foot.” 

Fontainebleau Jdn-tan-blo'). Originally a hunt¬ 
ing-seat called Fons Bleaudi, but now a town in the 
department of Seine-et-Marne, France, thirty- 
seven miles south-southeast of Paris. The palace 
was from the Middle Ages one of the chief resi¬ 
dences of the kings of France. 

Formosa Jor-mo'-sa ). Portuguese for “beauti¬ 
ful.” 

Fort Wayne, Ind. Named (1794) in honor of 
“Mad” Anthony Wayne, a Revolutionary general. 

Fountains Abbey. A Cistercian monastery of the 
Fourteenth Century, near Ripon, England, now 
the largest and most picturesque of English eccle¬ 
siastical ruins. 

Fox Islands, Lake Michigan. From translation 
of the Indian name Annemosine, “place of the 
young fox”; annemose, “a young fox”; ink, “a 
place.” 

Fox River, Ill. Application of its Indian name 
Meshdeke Wakpa, “river of the foxes.” 

France Jr&ns. French, frans). Country of the 
Franks, or, as the Germans call it, Frankreich, i. e., 
“Kingdom of the Franks.” All western nations 
were styled Franks by the Turks and Orientals, and 
anything brought to them from the west invariably 
merited a prenomen descriptive of its origin, as, for 
example, frankincense, by which was meant incense 
brought from the country of the Franks. 

Frances. Female name formed from Francis, 
“free.” Danish, Francisca; Dutch, Francisca; Fr., 
Francoise; Ger., Francisca; It., Francesca; Lat., 
Francesca, or Francisca; Sw., Franciska. 

Francis (Jran'-sis ). From the Latin Franciscus, 
which has been rendered, “one who had visited the 
Franks”; also, “free.” Danish, Frants, or Fran¬ 
ciscus; Dutch. Franciscus; Fr., Francois; Ger., 
Franz; It., Francesco; Port., Francisco; Sp., 
Francisco; Sw., Frans. 

Franconia Jrang-ko'-ni-d). German province 
inhabited by the Franks, so called from the franca, 
a kind of javelin which they carried. 

Frank. A baptismal name corrupted from 
Francis. 

Frankfort, Ky. Its county, Franklin, was 
named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and when 
its capital was created, a composite word further 
commemorating the honor was adopted, Frank, 
diminutive of Franklin; fort, meaning “town”; 
“town of Franklin.” 

Frascati Jras-ka'-te ). A town in the province of 
Rome, Italy, twelve miles southeast of Rome, 
celebrated for its villas. There are remains of a 
Roman amphitheater, and of a small but very 
perfect Roman theater, in which much of the stage- 
structure survives. 

Frederick Jred'-er-ik). The same as the Old 
German name Friderich, Fridorich, Fridurih. 
Junius translates the two latter “rich or powerful 
in peace.” The more probable etymology is from 
frid-reich, “powerful protector.” Danish, Fred- 



816 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


erik; Dutch, Frederik; Fr., Frederic; Ger., Fried¬ 
rich; It., Frederico, or Federigo; Lat., Fredericus; 
Port., Frederico; Sp., Frederico; Sw., Frederick. 

Fredericksburg, Va. Name adopted 1727, in 
honor of Prince Frederick, father of George III. 

French Broad. River in North Carolina, so 
named because the country west of the Blue Ridge 
was held by the French, according to some authori¬ 
ties. Others hold that the river was named by a 
party of hunters for their captain, whose name was 
French. The latter part of the name is used 
descriptively. 

Friday. So named because alloted to Frigga, 
the wife of Odin, and the goddess of marriage. 

Friendly Islands. So named on account of the 
friendly disposition of the natives. 

Fuji-yama ( [fod'-je-ya'-ma ). An extinct volcano 
and the highest mountain of Japan, situated seventy 
miles west-southwest of Tokio, and meaning “great 
mountain.” There has been no eruption since 1707. 
It is a resort of pilgrims, and figures largely in 
Japanese art and legend. 

Furness ( fer'-nes ) Abbey. The extensive ruins 
of Furness Abbey are among the most picturesque 
of English medieval remains. A large part of the 
fine church survives almost complete except the 
vaulting, and there is a beautiful early English 
chapter-house. The entrance to the ivy-draped 
cloisters is by three superb deeply recessed Norman 
arches. 

Gabriel ( ga'-bri-el ). From the Hebrew, Gab- 
riyel, “man of God,” “strength of God,” or, ac¬ 
cording to some, the “hero of God.” Arabic, 
Jabrayil, or Jabrail; Fr., Gabriel; Ger., Gabriel; It., 
Gabriele; Lat., Gabriel; Sw., Gabriel. 

Galena ( ga-le'-nd ), Ill. Name inherited from its 
mines of lead. Latin, galena, “lead ore.” 

Galilee ( gal'-i-le ). In the Roman period, the 
northernmost division of Palestine. It now be¬ 
longs to Turkey. The name means the “circuit” 
or “district of the Gentiles,” so called by the 
Hebrews because largely inhabited by Sidonians. 

Galveston ( gal'-ves-tun ). County and city in 
Texas, named for Don Jose Galvez, Spanish viceroy 
of Texas, who, in 1779, established a colony on this 
island, and, in 1797, was proclaimed king by the 
people of Mexico. 

Gamaliel ( gd-ma'-li-el ). From the Hebrew, 
Gamliyel, “the gift, or benefit of God.” 

Gambier ( gam'-her). Village in Knox County, 
Ohio, named for Lord Janies Gambier, a British 
admiral, who was a benefactor of Kenyon College, 
located at this place. 

Ganges ( gan'-jez ). The Greek transformation of 
the name of the great Indian river. Handed on to 
the Romans and then to the Portuguese, it has 
been generally adopted throughout Europe as the 
equivalent of the Indian name Ganga, which signi¬ 
fies a “stream” or “flowing water.” 

Garden of the Gods. Locality near Pike’s Peak, 
Colorado. Lewis N. Tappan and three others went 
from Denver to select a site for a town. They 
stood upon a rocky prominence and exclaimed, 
“A fit garden for the gods,” hence the name. 

Gasconade ( gas-ko-nad ') River, Mo. Adopted 
by settlers as a memento of their Gasconade of 
France. The word translated means “a boaster.” 

Gaston. A name of French origin, probably 
from the French gaston, “baton.” 

Gaul. The name by which France was known 
to the Romans. It was known to the Greeks as 
Galatia, from which the Romans derived Gallia, 
“the land of the Galli,” or Gauls. ( Keltic, Gael- 
tachd; O. Fr., Gaule.) 

Genoa ( jen'-o-d). The English form of the 
Italian Genova, probably from the same roots as 
Geneva, from the Celtic genava, “mouth ” or “jaw.” 

Geoffrey ( jef'-ri ), or Geffrey. Sometimes trans¬ 
lated “God’s peace or joyful peace.” The name 
has been corrupted from Galfrid for Walfrid; from 


Old German walt-frid, “powerful protector.” 
Danish, Galfred; Dutch, Godfried; Fr., Geoffroy; 
It., Gioffreddo; Lat., Galfridus. 

George. From the Latin name, Georgius, . “ a 
tiller of the ground, a husbandman, a vine¬ 
dresser.” Danish, Georg; Dutch, Georg; Fr., 
George or Georges; Ger., Georg; Gr., Georgios; 
It., Giorgio; Lat., Georgius; Port., Jorge; Sp., 
Jorge; Sw., Georg. 

George, Lake, N. Y. So named in honor of Eng¬ 
land’s king. 

Georgeanna, Georgiana, Georgina. Female 
names derived from George. 

Georgetown. Formerly a city, now a part of the 
District of Columbia, named for George Boone, an 
Englishman, who purchased several tracts of land 
in the neighborhood. 

Georgia. Named in honor of George II. of Eng¬ 
land, who here established a colony in 1732. 

Gerard ( jer'-ard. French, zha-rdr'). From the 
Old German name Gerhard, Gerart; from gerhart, 
“very strong.” Sometimes corrupted to Gar'ret 
and Ger'rit, i. e., “firm spear.” Danish, Gerhard; 
Dutch, Gerard; Fr., Gerard; Ger., Gerhard; It., 
Gerardo; Lat., Gerardus; Sw., Gerhard. 

German Ocean. Indicative of its geographical 
position. 

Germany. Known in ancient times as Tronges, 
the country of the Tungri, a Latin word signifying 
“speakers”; but the Romans afterward gave it 
the name of Germanus, meaning “neighbors,” 
originally bestowed by the Gauls. 

Gertrude ( ger'-trud ). From the Old German 
name Gertrude; from gerdraut, which translates 
either “very faithful,” or “very dear or beloved.” 
Another meaning is given as “true spear.” Dutch, 
Geertruida; Fr., Gertrude; Ger., Gertraud, or Ger¬ 
trud; It., Gertruda; Lat., Gertruda, Sw., Gertrud. 

Gibraltar ( jib-rdl'-tar ). Derived from Gibel el 
Tarik, “the mountain of Tarik.” Tarik was the 
leader of the Saracens when they entered Spain in 
711, and he first fortified the hill as a base of 
operations and a ready point of access from the 
Barbary coast. 

Gideon ( gid'-e-on ). From the Hebrew Gidhon, 
which Tregelles renders “cutter down,” i. e., “brave 
soldier.” Fr., Gedeon; It., Gedeone; Lat._ Gideon. 

Gila ( he'-la ) River, Ariz. Corruption of the 
Spanish word Guija, meaning “pebbly or pebble 
stone,” applied by them owing to this local charac¬ 
teristic in its waters. 

Gilbert ( gU'-bert ). From the Teutonic, Giselbert, 
“bright,” or “bright as gold.” Danish, Gilbert; 
Dutch, Gilbert; Fr., Gilbert; Ger., Gilbert; Lat., 
Gilbertus; Sw., Gilbertus. 

Giles (fdz). Probably derived from ASgidus, 
from Greek, aigidios, “a goatskin.” Fr., Gilles; 
Ger., iEgidius; It., Egidio; Lat., ^Egidius; Sp., Gil. 

Giorgio. See George. 

Giovanni. See John. 

Giulia. See Julia. 

Giuseppe. See Joseph. 

Gladys. Most probably a Welsh form of 
Claudia. It is derived irom the Welsh gwlad, 
which now means “of country,” but formerly 
signified “a prince, a sovereign,” a meaning which 
still survives in several of its derivations. 

Glasgow ( gl&s'-gd ). The second city in the 
British Isles was called Glas-gu in 1301. Numerous 
etymologies have been proposed, such as clais-dhu, 
the “black ravine,” glaise-dhu, “the black brook,” 
or glas-coed, the “gray wood,” but the most probable 
is that given by Professor Rhys, who holds that the 
name is from one of the Gaelic pet-names of St. 
Kentigern, or St. “Mungo,” around whose cell the 
place grew up. 

Glastonbury ( glds'-tun-ber-i ). A town in Somer¬ 
set, England, twenty-one miles south of Bristol. 
Its abbey, founded in Roman times, was refounded 
under Ine in the Eighth Century. Glastonbury is 



MISCELLANY 


817 


associated in legend with Joseph of Arimathea, 
who is said to have visited it, and, in sign of pos¬ 
session, planted his staff, which took root and 
became the famous Glastonbury thorn that bursts 
into leaf on Christmas eve. The Isle of Avalon, 
where King Arthur was buried, is also here. 

Godfrey ( gdd'-fri ). From the Teutonic, meaning 
“God’s peace.” Danish, Gottfried; Dutch, God- 
fried; Fr., Godefroi; Ger., Gottfried; It., Goffredo; 
Lat., Godfridus. 

Godwin (gdd'-win). From the Teutonic, meaning 
“divine friend,” or “victorious in God.” Dutch, 
Godewijn; Lat., Godwinus. 

Golconda ( gol-kon' -da ). A place in India, seven 
miles northwest of Hyderabad. It is noted for its 
fort, for the mausoleums of the ancient kings, and 
for the diamonds which were cut and polished here. 
It was the capital of a kingdom from 1512 until 
its overthrow by Aurungzebe in 1687. 

Gold Coast. That portion of Guinea on the 
west coast of Africa where gold is found. 

Golden Gate, California. Bay in California, 
named by Colonel Fremont, before the discovery 
of gold in the country, because of the brilliant 
effect of the setting sun on the cliffs and hills. 

Golden Gate, Constantinople. A gate in the wall 
of Theodosius, now walled up because of a Turkish 
tradition that the conqueror of Constantinople is 
destined to enter through it. It consists of three 
arches between two huge towers of white marble. 
The great central arch was reserved for the passage 
of the emperor. 

Golden House. Palace of the Emperor Nero in 
ancient Rome, which occupied the valley between 
the Palatine and the Esquiline, and connected the 
palaces of the Caesars with the gardens of Maecenas. 
It was built after the great fire of 64 A. D., and 
was so large that it contained porticos 2,800 feet 
long and inclosed a lake where the Colosseum now 
stands. The forecourt contained a colossus of 
Nero 120 feet high. 

Gotham ( go'-tham ). At one time the term was 
applied to a parish of Nottingham, England. The 
people here were famed for their stupidity and 
simplicity, which obtained for them the satirical 
appellation of the “wise men of Gotham.” Many 
nations have designated some particular locality 
as the paradise of fools; for example, Phrygia was 
the fools’ home in Asia, Abdera of the Thracians, 
Bceotia of the Greeks, Swabia of the modern Ger¬ 
mans, etc. To Americans it is chiefly significant 
as a colloquial term for the city of New York. 
Thus applied, it first appeared in “Salmagundi,” by 
Washington Irving and James K. Paulding, and is 
supposed to hint sarcastically at the worldly wis¬ 
dom of its inhabitants. 

Gothland {goth'-land). Indicated a settlement 
of the Goths. 

Gottlieb. See Theophilus. 

Governor’s Island. From its former Dutch 
owner, Governor Van Twiller; previously called 
Nutten Island, Indian name Paggauck. 

Grace. A feminine form of the Roman Gratius; 
from gratia, “grace, favor, good-will, kindness.” 
Dutch, Gratia; Fr., Grace; It., Grazia; Lat., 
Gratia. 

Graham ( gra'-dm , gram). From the Gaelic 
gruama, “surly, stern, morose, dark, gloomy.” 

Granada (grd-na'-dd). The capital of the 
province of Granada, Spain, situated on the Jenil, 
on spurs of the Sierra Nevada. It is famous for 
the Alhambra (which see). The name is from the 
Spanish, Granada, “pomegranate,” because the city 
is built on four hills divided somewhat like the 
divisions of a pomegranate. 

Grand Canal. The principal canal of Venice. It 
runs in the form of the letter S through the center 
of the city, from the railway station to Santa Maria 
del Salute. 

Grand Manan Islands, Me. A. compound word 


meaning “great island.” English, grand ; Indian, 
munnohan, “the island.” Also spelled Menan. 

Grand Prix (graN pre'), The. The great horse¬ 
race at Longchamps, Paris, established by Napo¬ 
leon III. (prize 20,000 francs), run by three-year- 
olds. Longchamps is a very good course situated 
in the Bois de Boulogne, first used for racing in the 
reign of Louis XVI. Races have been run here 
since 1859. The Grand Prix is run on the Sunday 
of Ascot week. 

Grand Prix de Rome (jrdN pre' du rom). A prize 
given by the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris to the 
most successful competitor in painting, sculpture, 
engraving, architecture, or music. The examina¬ 
tions are held annually, and the successful candi¬ 
dates become pensioners of the government for four 
years. They are sent to reside at Rome, where 
Louis XVI. founded the Academie de France in 
1666. 

Grasmere. One of the group of English Lakes, 
meaning “the lake of swine.” 

Great Barrington. Town in Berkshire, Mas¬ 
sachusetts, named for William, Lord Barrington. 

Great Bear Lake. So called owing to its north¬ 
ern situation, and on account of the northern con¬ 
stellation of the Great and Little Bear. 

Great Mogul. An extinct title borne by the 
chief of the Moguls of the empire founded in Hin¬ 
dustan by Baber, Fifteenth Century. 

Great Salt Lake. Received its name on account 
of the saline character of its waters. 

Great Tom. A bell, weighing about 17,000 
pounds, in the tower of the Tom Gate of Christ 
Church, Oxford. Every night at ten minutes past 
nine (closing time) it is tolled. 

Great Wall of China. A wall begun by the 
Emperor Tsin Chi-hwangti 214 B. C, and finished 
204 B. C. as a defense against northern tribes. It 
extends from Shanhaikwan along the northern 
frontiers of Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, and Kansu. 
Length about 1,500 miles. 

Greece. The modern form of the Latin Gracia, 
from the Greek Graikoi, a name originally bestowed 
upon the inhabitants of Hellas. 

Greeley. City in Colorado, county and city in 
Kansas, and county in Nebraska, named for Horace 
Greeley. 

Green Bay, Wis. Located on its shores were a 
tribe of Indians, whose mode of life was so filthy, 
when first met by the French, they designated 
them as the Puans {puans, “stinkards”). To the 
bay they gave the name of Baye de Puans, and 
transposition through pronunciation carried it to 
Grand, Bay and Grun Bay to Green Bay. 

Greenland. The name given by Eric the Red 
in 983 to the sheltered nook where he founded his 
colony from Iceland, thinking that “much people 
will go thither if the land has a pleasant name.” 
The name is not altogether unsuitable, as the place 
chosen by Eric for the settlement which he named 
Greenland is the pleasantest spot in the country, 
a smooth grassy plain at the head of Igaliko fiord, 
near the modern Julianshaab. The name was 
afterwards inappropriately extended to the whole 
ice-clad country. 

Green Mountains, Vt. Translation of the 
adaptation of the French name “ vert-monts.” 

Green River, Ky. In honor of General Nathaniel 
Greene of the Revolution. The letter e was origi¬ 
nally added to the name of the river. 

Greensboro, N. C. Compliment to General 
Nathaniel Greene, he having had a victorious 
skirmish at this locality, during his famous retreat 
in 1781. 

Green Sea. Otherwise the Persian Gulf, owing 
to a peculiar strip of green always discernible along 
the Arabian shore. 

Gregory (greg'-o-ri). From the Latin name 
Gregorius, from the Greek Gregorios, “to watch.” 
The name means “watchful.” Danish, Gregor; 



818 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Dutch, Gregorius; Fr., Gregoire; Ger., Gregor; 
Gr., Gregorios; It., Gregorio; Lat., Gregorius; Sp., 
Gregorio; Sw., Gregorius. 

Griffith. The English form of the Welsh name 
Gryffydd. Danish, Griffith; Dutch, Rufinus; Lat., 
Griffithius; Sw., Rufin. 

Grisons ( gre-zdn'). From the German Grau- 
biinden, “the gray league/’ so called from the dress 
worn by the Unionists in 1424. 

Grosvenor ( grov'-ner ) Gallery. A gallery for 
the exhibition of paintings of the modern aesthetic 
school, established by Lord Grosvenor in New 
Bond Street, in 1876. Pictures were received 
only by invitation. The exhibitions have been 
for some time discontinued. 

Grosvenor Square. A fashionable square in Lon¬ 
don, east of Hyde Park. It was laid out before 
1716 and has been the residence of many famous 
men. There is great variety of styles in its archi¬ 
tecture, and it is noted for .the old ironwork and 
flambeau extinguishers before many of the doors. 

Guatemala ( gd-te-ma'-la. Spanish, gwd-td-ma! - 
la ). Is a European rendering of the Mexican quah- 
temali, signifying “a decayed log of wood”; so 
called by the Mexican Indians who accompanied 
Alvarado into this region, because they found an 
old worm-eaten tree near the ancient palace of the 
kings, or Kachiquel, which was thought to be the 
center of the country. 

Guglielmo ( gool-yeV -mb ). See William. 

Guido ( gwe'-do ). See Guy. 

Guildhall ( gild'-hdl ). The council hall of the 
city of London, founded in 1411, and restored after 
the fire of 1666. The great hall measures 153 by 
48 feet, and is 55 feet high; it has a handsome 
open-framed roof, modern colored glass windows, 
and the two legendary colossal wooden figures of 
Gog and Magog. Along the walls are placed 
statues of famous men. The crypt, with its 
cloistered columns, is of the original construction 
and is interesting. 

Guillaume ( ge-yorn '). See William. 

Guinea (gin'-e). A native West African term, 
meaning “abounding in gold.” 

Guinea, English. The English guinea was first 
coined in 1673. It derived its name from the fact 
that the gold of which it was first composed came 
from Guinea. 

Gulf of Carpentaria. This gulf preserves the 
memory of a Dutch captain named Carpenter, who 
discovered it in 1616. 

Gulf of St. Lawrence. Was first explored, and the 
navigation of the long river of the same name 
commenced, on the Feast of St. Lawrence, 1500. 

Gustavus ( gus-ta'-vus ). From the Swedish' 
name Gustaf, which some translate “Goth’s staff”; 
others derive it from the Su-Goth God, “God” or 
“good,” and staf, “staff.” Gustaf is more probably 
corrupted from Augustus. Dutch, Gustavus; Fr., 
Gustave; Ger., Gustav; Lat., Gustavus; Sw., Gus¬ 
taf. 

Guy (gi). Probably derived from French gui, 
“mistletoe,” or from Guillaume (William), whence 
the diminutives, Guyot and Guion. Danish, Guido; 
Dutch, Guido; Fr., Guy; Ger., Veit; It., Guido; 
Lat., Guido; Sw., Guido. 

Gwendolen (gwen' -do-len). A Welsh female name. 
Sometimes translated “the lady of the bow”; 
others translate the name “white-browed.” 

Hackensack, N. J. From the river of same 
name, which is a corruption of its Indian name 
haucquansauk, “hook mouth,” from its shape near 
the mouth, from its many windings before it empties 
into Newark Bay. 

Hadrian’s ( ha'-dri-an ) Villa. Now simply an 
assemblage of ruins, about fifteen miles from Rome, 
near Tivoli, perhaps the most impressive in Italy. 
It included the Greek and Latin theaters, so called, 
an odeum, thermae, a stadium, a palace, several 
temples, spacious structures for guards and attend¬ 


ants, and many subsidiary buildings and devices. 
Of most of these there are extensive remains; and 
here were found many of the fine statues now in 
Roman museums. 

Hadrian’s Wall. One of the most noted Roman 
antiquities of Great Britain, constructed by Hadrian 
between the Solway Firth and the mouth of the 
Tyne, for purposes of defense. The work has been 
ascribed to Severus and others, “but after a long 
debate the opinion now prevails that the whole sys¬ 
tem of defense bears the impress of a single mind, 
and that the wall and its parallel earth-works, its 
camps, roads, and stations, were designed and 
constructed by Hadrian alone.” 

Hagar (ha'-gar). From the Hebrew Haghar, 
which some translate “flight”; others render the 
name “stranger,” from gur, “to tarry, to be a 
sojourner.” Arabic, Hajar, or Hagar; Fr., Agar; 
Lat., Hagar. 

Haidee { hi-de'). A female name which Ste- 
phanus renders “sempiternus,” i. e., “perpetual, 
eternal.” 

Halifax, Nova Scotia. Named for the Earl of 
Halifax. 

Hamlet. From the Old German amal-laut, “dis¬ 
tinguished for spotlessness.” According to some 
the name in Hamlet’s country was pronounced 
Amlet, and signified “madman,” but no etymology 
has been suggested for such rendering. 

Hampden. County and town in Massachusetts 
and a town in Penobscot County, Maine, named for 
the English patriot, John Hampden. 

Hampton (hamp'-tun) Court. A royal palace on 
the Thames twelve miles from Charing Cross, built 
by Cardinal Wolsey. Hampton Court is most 
intimately associated with James I. and William 
III., and was a place of imprisonment of Charles I. 

Hampton Roads. A channel connecting the 
estuary of James River with Chesapeake Bay, 
situated south of Fort Monroe, Virginia. Here, 
March 8, 1862, the Confederate ironclad “Vir¬ 
ginia” (“Merrimac”) destroyed the Federal frig¬ 
ates “Cumberland” and “Congress”; and the 
following day there was a contest between the 
“Virginia” and the ironclad “Monitor,” the former 
retiring. This was the first engagement between 
ironclads in our history. 

Hannah (han'-nd). From the Hebrew Hannah, 
which Simonis translates “gratuitous gift,” i. e., 
“grace, mercy.” Danish, Hanne or Hanna; 
Dutch, Hanna; Fr., Anna; Lat., Hanna; Sw., 
Lianna. 

Hannibal (han'-ni-bal). From the Punic, mean¬ 
ing “grace of Baal,” or, more freely, a “gracious 
lord.” Fr., Hannibal; It., Annibale; Lat., Hannibal. 

Hanover Island. In honor of the house of Han¬ 
over. 

Hanover (hdn'-o-ver) Square. A square in the 
West End of London, south of Oxford Street and 
west of Regent Street. It received its name in the 
days of the early popularity of George I. St. 
George’s, Hanover Square, is noted as a fashionable 
church for marriages in London. The square was 
built about 1731, when the place for executions 
was removed from Tyburn, lest the inhabitants 
of the “new square” should be annoyed by them. 
It contains a bronze statue of William Pitt by 
Chantrey. 

Hans. See John. 

Hapsburg (h&ps'-burg), or Habsburg. In Canton 
Aargau, the stamm-schloss of the Austrian dynasty, 
appears in an Eleventh Century document as Ha- 
bechisburc, “hawk’s castle.” According to the 
well-known legend, Radbot, an ancestor of Rudolf 
of Hapsburg, while hunting in the Aargau lost his 
favorite hawk, and found it sitting on the ridge of 
the Wulpelsberg. He was so delighted with the 
view from the spot that he chose the site for the 
erection of a castle, which he built about 1020 and 
called Habichtsburg. 



MISCELLANY 


819 


Hapsburg Castle. See Hapsburg. 

Harlem or Haarlem. In Holland, called Hara- 
letn in a Ninth Century document, is a name of 
doubtful meaning. In Old Saxon we have lemo, 
“clay” or “mud,” and hara, “an estuary,” and the 
dialect-word har or haar denotes a rising ground 
or small eminence. Harlem, now a suburb of New 
York, stands on the Harlem River, a tidal channel. 
With Brooklyn and Hoboken it is one of the few 
names surviving from the time of the Dutch occu¬ 
pancy. 

Harold ( har'-uld ). The same with the Middle 
High German names Ariold, Har hold, etc., which 
Wachter translates “powerful in battle,” “a 
champion.” Danish, Harald; Dutch, Herold; 
Fr., Harold; It., Araldo; Lat., Haroldus. 

Harper’s Ferry, Va. Robert Harper of Oxford, 
England, an architect, en route to Winchester, saw 
this pass, bought land here and formed a settle¬ 
ment in 1734. Later he established a ferry at this 
point, known as “Harper’s Ferry.” 

Harriet (hdr'-rl-et). From the German Hen- 
riette, “head of the house.” Danish, Henriette; 
Dutch, Henrietta; Fr., Henriette; It., Enrichetta; 
Sp., Enriqueta; Sw., Henrietta. 

Harrisburg, Pa. From its first settler, John 
Harris of Yorkshire, England, founded in 1785, 
subsequently changed to Louisbourg; in 1791, 
changed back to Harrisburg. 

Hartford. Name transferred from Hertford, 
England, to many places in the United States, the 
capital of Connecticut being one of these. 

Harvey. A masculine name, from Old German 
her-wig, “noble,” “noble soldier or warrior.” 

Harz (harts) or Hartz Mountains. In German 
Harzgehirge, were called in the Eighth Century 
Hart (Old Saxon hard, Old High German hart, 
“wood” or “forest”). The present spelling, Harz, 
is supposed to be due to a folk etymology which has 
made the name into Harzwald, the “forest of 
resin” (harz). The Hardt, a wooded range of hills 
near Carlsruhe, is the “wood.” 

Hatteras, Cape, N. C. Application to the head¬ 
land made by early English navigators, from a 
tribe of Indians inhabiting its shores, the Hatterask 
or ash. 

Havana (hd-vdn'-d). Capital city of Cuba, city 
in Mason County, Illinois, named for former. The 
word is Spanish, meaning “harbor.” 

Havre ( ha'-ver ). The “haven” at the mouth of 
the Seine was, before 1515, merely a fishing village 
with a chapel dedicated to Notre Dame de Grace, 
whence the official name Le Havre de Grace. The 
French havre, “a harbor,” is descended from the 
Old French havle, originally hable, which is derived 
from the Low-Latin habulum, a word of Teutonic 
origin related to the English haven. 

Hawarden (har'-den). A town in Flintshire, 
North Wales, sixteen miles south of Liverpool. 
Near it is Hawarden Castle, once the residence of 
Gladstone, the British statesman. 

Hawthornden (ho'-thorn-den). A picturesque 
glen or valley in Edinburghshire, Scotland, eight 
miles south of Edinburgh. The estate of Haw¬ 
thornden was the property of the poet William 
Drummond. 

Haymarket, The. A London market, estab¬ 
lished in 1644 on the site now partly covered by 
the Criterion restaurant and theater and Lower 
Regent Street. It was abolished in 1830. The 
place is called Haymarket Square, or the Haymarket. 

Hayti (ha'-ti. "French, a-e-te'). A native name, 
meaning “mountainous country.” 

Hebe (he'-be). A female name, derived from 
Hebe, daughter of Jupiter and Juno, or of Juno 
only; and who, being fair and always in the bloom 
of youth, was called “the goddess of youth.” 

Hebrides (heb'-ri-dez). Anciently referred to by 
Ptolemy as the Ebudce, and by Pliny as the Heb- 
udes, denoting the “Western Isles.” 


Hector (hek'-tor). From the Greek name Hektor. 
The name signifies “anchor,” literally, “what 
holds”; also translated a “defender.” Fr., 
Hector; It., Ettore; Lat., Hector. 

Heinrich (hin'-rich). See Henry. 

Helen (hel'-en), or Helena (hel'-e-na). From the 
Greek Helene, signifying “a lamp, a torch,” hence 
“brightness.” Danish, Helena; Dutch, Helena; 
Fr., Helene; Ger., Helene; It., Elena; Lat., 
Helena; Sp., Elena. 

Helena ( hel'-e-na ), Mont. From the Latinized 
Greek word Helen. John Sommerville suggested 
it at a meeting of several hundred miners, in 1864, 
as a name for the settlement. Opinions differ, 
however, as to the origin of the name, for by some 
it is supposed to be named for Helen of Troy. The 
Helena Historical Directory of 1879 says it was 
named by John Somerville, of Minnesota, St. 
Helena, from the resemblance in its location to that 
of the original St. Helena. It was then voted to 
drop the prefix Saint, and that was done. 

Heligoland (heV-i-go-land). Now a German 
island, expresses the Danish for “holy land settle¬ 
ment.” 

Helsingfors (hel-sing-fors'), in Finland. From 
the tribal name of the Helsings, and fors, “a water¬ 
fall.” We have cognate names Helsingland and 
Helsingborg in Sweden, and Helsingor in Denmark. 

Helvetia (hel-ve'-shi-a). The old Latin name of 
Switzerland; often used as a poetical appellation in 
modern literature. The country is often mentioned 
as the “Helvetian Republic,” and that is still the 
official name. 

Henderson, Ky. After the county, which re¬ 
ceived its name in honor of Col. Richard Henderson. 

Henlopen (hen-lo'-pen), Cape, Del. From a 
Dutch expression, en lofen, meaning “to run in,” as 
indicating the place of entrance to a bay. Pre¬ 
viously named Cornelius by the Dutch commander, 
Mey, after his Christian name. 

Henri (an-re'). The French form of Henry. 

Henrietta (hen-ri-et'-ta). A name formed from 
Henry. 

Henry. Usually rendered “home-ruler,” or 
“chief of the house.” The Gothic name is Heinric, 
the Anglo-Saxon Henric and Cynric, and the North 
High German, Heinrich; but all these names are 
the same as the old Hunoricus, from kunreich, 
“illustrious for strength.” The English name 
Henry, formerly also Henrie, Henri, Herry, now 
Harry, is derived from the Old French and French 
Henri. Danish, Hendrik; Dutch, Hendrik; Ger., 
Heinrich; It., Enrico, or Errico; Lat., Henricus; 
Port. Henrique; Sp., Enrique; Sw., Henrik. 

Henry, Cape, Va. Named by Admiral Newport 
in April, 1607, in honor of Henry, Prince of Wales, 
son of James I. of England. 

Herat (her-at'). Anciently Aria-Civitas, the 
town on the Arius, now the River Heri. 

Herbert (her'-bert). A name derived from the 
Alemannic Heribert, Heribret, Heripreht, Old Ger¬ 
man Aribert, which Wachter derives from aerbert, 
“illustrious lord.” Lat., Herbertus; Sw., Herbert. 

Herculaneum (her-ku-la'-ne-um). An ancient 
city of Campania, Italy, near the coast, six miles 
southeast of Naples, directly at the foot of Mount 
Vesuvius. The ancient Greek name was Herak- 
leion, “city of Hercules.” 

Hercules (her'-ku-lez). From the Greek Hera 
and Kleos, “glory or fame”; hence the “glory of 
Hera.” Fr., Hercule; Ger., Hercules; Gr., Her- 
akles; It., Ercole; Lat., Hercules. 

Herman (her'-man). From the Teutonic, mean¬ 
ing the “leader of an army.” Danish, Hermann; 
Dutch, Herman; Fr., Armand or Armant; Ger., 
Hermann; Lat., Arminius; It., Ermanno; Sw., 
Herman. 

Hermione (her-mi'-o-ne). A name derived from 
Hermione, a daughter of Mars and Venus, and who 
married Cadmus. 



820 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Hermitage, The. A palace at St. Petersburg, 
Russia, founded by Catharine II., originally in the 
form of a pavilion of moderate size, but rebuilt in 
the Nineteenth Century in a neo-Greek style of 
excellent effect, and forming one of the best-designed 
museums existing. Also the name of the home of 
President Jackson, near Nashville, Tenn. 

Hero. Female name, so called after the cele¬ 
brated Greek name Hero, “one raised or elevated.” 

Herold. See Harold. 

Hester. - See Esther. 

Hetty, Hettey. Female names derived from 
Henrietta; perhaps also from Harriet. 

Hezekiah ( hez-e-ki'-a ). From the Hebrew 
Hhizkeyyah, from hhezek-Yah, “the strength of 
Jehovah,” or “cleaving to the Lord.” Dutch, 
Hiskia; Lat., Hezekias. 

Hieronymus (hi-e-ron'-i-mus) . See Jerome. 

Highlands, The. A district in northern and 
western Scotland, of vague limits. It includes the 
Hebrides, the counties of Argyll, Inverness, Ross 
and Cromarty, Sutherland and Caithness, and 
parts of Nairn, Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen, Kincardine, 
Forfar, Perth, Stirling, Dumbarton, and Bute. 
The inhabitants are mainly of Keltic stock. The 
Highlands are celebrated for romantic scenery; 
they contain the highest mountains in Great 
Britain. 

Highlands of the Hudson. A range of hills and 
low mountains in eastern New York, in Orange, 
Putnam, Dutchess, and Rockland counties. Prom¬ 
inent points are Fishkill Mountain, Storm King, 
Crow’s Nest, Donderberg, Anthony’s Nose, and 
West Point. 

Hilary ( hU'-a-ri ). Derived from the Latin name 
Hilarius, signifying “pleasant, cheerful, merry.” 
Danish, Hilarius; Dutch, Hilarius; Fr., Hilaire; 
It., Ilario; Lat., Hilarius; Sw., Hilarius. 

Hilda. A female name abbreviated from Ever- 
hilda; or derived from the Lombardian word hild, 
“noble.” 

Hildebrand (hil'-de-brand). The same as Teu¬ 
tonic names Hildebrand and Hiltiprant. Translated 
“very fervent,” “hero,” “leader,” etc. Watcher 
claims the name to be the same as Childebrand, 
from child-brand, which might be translated either 
“distinguished youth,” or “distinguished warrior.” 

Himalaya (hi-ma'-la-ya) . From the Sanskrit, 
hima, “snow,” and alaya, “abode, dwelling.” 
Hence, “the abode of snow.” 

Hindustan {hin-do-stan', hin-do-stan'). A Per¬ 
sian term signifying the country or place of the 
Hindus or Indians. Hindu is the Persian form of 
the Sanskrit Sindhu, “a dweller on the Indus,” 
which means the river. 

Hoang-Ho ( ho-ang-ho’). In China, this is the 
“yellow river,” which borders Ho-Nan, the province 
“south of the river,” and flows into the Hoang-Hai, 
or “yellow sea,” so called because discolored by the 
yellow mud brought down by the Hoang-Ho. 

Hoboken {ho'-bo-ken). In New Jersey, opposite 
New York, often said to be a native name meaning 
“the smoked pipe,” marking the spot where the 
first colonists smoked the pipe of peace with the 
Indian chiefs. It is more likely, however, a remi¬ 
niscence of the Dutch village of Hoboken, three 
miles from Antwerp. 

Hohenzollern {ho'-en-tsbl-ern) Castle. A castle 
situated in the Swabian Alp, near Hechingen, 
southern Germany, belonging to the present Prus¬ 
sian royal family. It is the ancestral home of 
Emperor Wilhelm II. of Germany. 

Holland. Supposed to be derived from ollant, 
or holtland, “marshy ground.” Taylor gives the 
translation of holtland as “woodland,” that is, 
the forest around Dordrecht. 

Holyoke (hol'-yok). City in Hampden County, 
Mass., and mountain in same county, named for 
Rev. Edward Holyoke, an early president of Har¬ 
vard College. 


Holyrood ( hol’-x-rood ) Palace. An ancient royal 
palace of Scotland, situated in Edinburgh. It was 
originally an abbey, founded in 1128; was several 
times burned and was the scene of the murder of 
Rizzio, 1566. It was once the place of residence 
of Mary, Queen of Scots. 

Homer. An English baptismal name at the 
present time. From the classical name, in Greek, 
Homeros, signifying a “pledge, security, hostage.” 

Honduras {hon-dbo'-ras). Spanish for “deep 
water.” 

Hong Kong {hbng'-kong'). The place of fragrant 
streams. 

Honora. An Irish female name derived from the 
Latin name Honor. 

Honoria. A female name derived from the 
Roman name Honoria, the feminine of Honorius; 
from root of Honor. 

Hoosac. River in Massachusetts, New York, 
and Vermont. Derived from the Mohican Indian 
wudjoo, meaning “a mountain,” and abic, “a rock.” 
Spelled also Hoosic and Hoosick. 

Hopatcong ( ho-pat'-kbng ). Lake in New Jersey. 
An Indian name, meaning “stone over water,” 
because of an artificial causeway of stone which 
connected an island of the lake with the shore. 

Hope. Found frequently as a female name. 
From the Anglo-Saxon, meaning “expectation.” 

Horace. From the classical name, Horatius, 
which Littleton translates, “worthy to be looked 
upon, or becoming in appearance.” Danish, 
Horats; Dutch, Horatius; Fr., Horace; Ger., 
Horaz; It., Orazio; Lat., Horatius; Port., Horacio; 
Sp., Horacio. 

Horatio ( ho-rg'-shi-b ). From the root of Horace. 

Horatius ( hb-ra'-shi-us ). See Horace. 

Horse Latitudes. So called because situated 
between the trade winds and the westerly winds of 
higher latitudes, and distinguished for tedious 
calms. It received this name because it was in 
this portion of the Atlantic the old navigators 
often threw overboard the horses which they had 
undertaken to transport to the West Indies. 

Hotel des Invalides {o-tel'-da zan-va-led'). Freely 
translated, “Soldiers’ Home.” A great establish¬ 
ment founded in 1670 at Paris for disabled and 
infirm soldiers. The interior possesses halls adorned 
with interesting military paintings, and contains 
the Musee d’Artillerie, which includes a remarkable 
collection of medieval and Renaissance armor. It 
contains also the tomb of Napoleon I. 

Hotel de Ville {o-tel'-du vel), Paris. A celebrated 
building of great size, burned by the French Com¬ 
mune in 1871, but carefully restored and much 
enlarged. The exterior is richly adorned with 
sculpture. The rooms of state display splendid 
sculptures and wall-paintings by the most dis¬ 
tinguished contemporary artists. 

Hottentot. The early Dutch settlers at the Cape 
of Good Hope were much struck with the dick 
which forms such a distinct feature of the Caffre 
languages, and which sounded to them like a per¬ 
petual repetition of the syllables hot and tot. From 
these sounds they gave the natives the name of 
Hott-en-tot ; en in the Dutch language meaning 
“and.” 

Housatonic ( hob-sd-tdn'-ik ). River of Massachu¬ 
setts and Cpnnecticut. From the Indian words 
wussi, “beyond,” and adene, “mountain,” meaning 
“beyond the mountain.” According to other 
authorities from the Indian words wassa, “proud,” 
aton, “stream,” and ick, from azhubic, meaning 
“rocks,” the whole meaning “proud river flowing 
through the rocks.” 

Houston ( hus'-ton), Texas. In honor of General 
Samuel Houston, the first president of the Texan 
Republic. This name is borne by many places in 
the United States, generally given'in honor of Gen. 
Houston, among them being counties in Minnesota, 
Tennessee, and Texas; city in Chickasaw County, 



MISCELLANY 


821 


Mississippi, and the city in Texas County, Mis¬ 
souri. 

Hubert ( hu'-bert ). From the German name 
Hugobert, which Wachter derives from hug-bert, 
“distinguished for memory or prudence.” Danish, 
Hubertus; Dutch, Hubertus; Fr., Hubert; Lat., 
Hubertus; Sw., Hubertus. 

Hudson River, N. Y. Named in honor of Henry 
Hudson, an English navigator in the Dutch service 
who ascended the river in 1607. He called it “the 
Great River,” or “Great River of the Mountains,” 
from the extraordinary circumstance of such a 
body of water flowing through the mountains with¬ 
out a cataract. The Dutch gave the name of 
Mauritus River, in honor of Prince Maurice, to the 
section above New York Island. 

Hudson’s Bay and Hudson’s Strait. So 
named after their rediscovery by Captain Henry 
Hudson, while searching for the northwest passage 
in 1610. Prior to this date the Bay and the Strait 
had not been navigated since their original dis¬ 
covery by Cabot in 1512. 

Hugh ( hu ). Derived from the Teutonic hoog, 
or hugr, “high, tall, elevated”; also translated as 
“mind,” “thought.” Danish, Hugo; Dutch, Hugo; 
Fr., Hugues; It., Ugo; Lat., Hugo; Sw., Hugo. 

Hulda. A female name, from the Hebrew 
Hhuldah, signifying “a mole or weasel.” 

Humboldt {hum' -bolt. German, hoom'-bolt) 
River, Nev. Named by General John C. Fremont 
in honor of Baron von Humboldt, prior to which 
it was known as “Mary’s River,” also “Ogden 
River.” 

Humphrey {hum'-fri). The same as Cundfrid, 
which Wachter translates “illustrious protector,” 
or “support of peace.” Dutch, Humfried; Fr., 
Onfroi; It., Onofredo; Lat., Humphredus or 
Onuphrius; Sw., Humfrid. 

Hungary ( hung'-ga-ri ). Because originally in¬ 
habited by the Huns, who were first heard of in 
China, in the Third Century B. C., as Hiong-nu, 
“giants.” 

Huron ( hu'-rdn ). One of the Great Lakes of 
North America. Opinions differ as to the classifi¬ 
cation of the name, whether French or Indian, and 
to its meaning. According to some authorities it 
is a corruption of the name “Hure,” given a tribe 
of Indians by the French, the word meaning “head 
of a wild boar,” applicable on account of their 
unkempt appearance; another 'authority says it is 
derived from the Indian words Ohkwe honwe, “true 
man ”; by others to have been corrupted by the 
French from the Indian Irri roron, “cat-tribe.” 

Hyde Park. A park in Westminster, London, 
situated two and one-fourth miles south by west of 
St. Paul’s. This was originally the manor of Hyde, 
belonging to the Abbey of Westminster. It became 
Crown property at the dissolution of the monas¬ 
teries in 1539. It contains about 400 acres. 

Iceland. Was called Snceland, the “land of 
snow,” by the Viking, Naddodd, who discovered it 
in 868. On account of the ice-floes which then 
beset the northern coast, Floki, who followed him, 
called it Island, of which Iceland is the English 
translation 

Ichabod ( ik'-a-bod ). From the Hebrew Iykha- 
bhodh, which Simonis renders “inglorious.” 

Idaho. From the Indian words Edah hoe, de¬ 
scriptive of the sheen on the mountains, occasioned 
by the light on the snowy summits, expressed in 
English “gem of the mountains,” or, literally, 
the first appearance of the sun after sunrise on the 
mountain tops. 

Iddo. Male name from the Hebrew Iddo, signi¬ 
fying “love of Him,” i. e., of the Lord. 

Ignatius {ig-nd'-shi-us). From the Greek Igna- 
tios, “ardent, fiery.” Dutch, Ignatius; Fr., Ignace; 
Ger., Ignaz, or Ignatius; Gr., Ignatios; It., Ignacio; 
Lat., Ignatius; Sp., Ignacio, or Inigo. 

lie de France {el-du-frans'), “Isle of France.” 


An ancient government of France. It was the por¬ 
tion of the country about Paris that was most 
completely under the control of the kings, i. e., the 
royal domain. 

Ilium {il'-i-um). In ancient geography, a place 
in Mysia, Asia Minor, identified by the Greeks with 
the legendary Troy. It was frequently destroyed 
in prehistoric times; was rebuilt by Greek colonists 
in the Sixth Century B. C., and continued (as New 
Ilium) to late Roman times. Its site has been 
identified by Schliemann at Hissarlik, about 100 
miles north by west of Smyrna. 

Illinois ( il-lin-oi', il-lin-oiz'). State of the United 
States. One authority gives it as a combination 
of the Indian word Illini, meaning “men,” and the 
French suffix ois, meaning “tribe,” “band of men.” 

India. Means the country traversed by the 
Indus, or rather the Hindu, which name is a Per- 
sianized form of the Sanskrit Sindhu, “a great 
river,” rendered Hindos in the Greek. 

Indiana. From the word Indian, first applied 
in 1768 to a grant of land north of and near the 
Ohio River, which was obtained that year by a 
company of traders from the Indians. 

Indianapolis, Ind. Literally, the City of Indiana, 
from Indiana and polis, “city.” This name was 
proposed by Judge Jeremiah Sullivan of Jefferson 
County, Ind., being preferred to Tecumseh and 
Suwarrow, which were suggested. 

Indian Ocean. Indicative of its geographical 
position. 

Inigo ( in'-i-go ). Another spelling of Innigo or 
Enneco, and derived probably from Ignatius, or 
corrupted from Heinrich. 

Innocent {in'-no-sent). From the Latin, meaning 
“harmless.” Dutch, Innocentius; Fr., Innocent; 
Ger., Innocenz, or Innocentius; It., Innocente; 
Lat., Innocentius; Sp. Inocencio. 

Innsbruck {ins'-prook). Means “at the bridge,” 
on the River Inn. 

Inns of Court. Legal societies in London which 
have the exclusive privilege of calling candidates 
to the bar, and maintain instruction and examina¬ 
tion for that purpose; also the precincts or premises 
occupied by these societies respectively. 

Iowa. A French form of the Indian word 
Ayuhba, signifying “the drowsy or the sleepy ones.” 
Written at first Aioues, and applied to a tribe of 
Indians, would seem to be simply Ajawa, “across, 
beyond,” as if to say, “the tribe beyond the river.” 

Ira {i'-rd). A male name, from the Hebrew, Ira, 
“watchful.” 

Ireland. Was the Roman Hibernia, the Greek 
Ierne, and the Keltic Erin. The usual explanation 
of the name is from the Keltic iar, “behind,” and 
hence “to the west,” or “western isle.” 

Irene {i-re'-ne, or i-ren'). A female name. 
From the Greek Eirene, “goddess of peace,” liter¬ 
ally, peace. Fr., Irene; Ger., Irene; It., Irene. 

Irish Sea. So named from its geographical 
position. 

Irmgard or Ermgard {irm'-gard). Anglicised 
form of the Teutonic Ermengarde or Irmgarde, 
meaning a “public benefactor.” 

Isaac {i'-zak). From the Hebrew Yitschhak, 
which some translate “laughing”; others “sport¬ 
ing.” Arabic, Ishak; Danish, Isak; Dutch, 
Izaak; Fr., Isaac; - Ger., Isaak; Hungarian, Izsak; 
It., Isacco; Lat., Isaacus; Polish, Izaak; Sw., Isak. 

Isabel {iz'-a-bel), Isabella {iz-a-bel'-Id). Accord¬ 
ing to some this name is the same as Jezebel, which 
Tregelles thinks may mean “without cohabita¬ 
tion,” i. e., “chaste,” “modest.” Another deriva¬ 
tion is that it is the same as Elizabeth; but Isabella 
is rather from Isabel, the Spanish rendering of 
Elizabeth. Dutch, Isabelle; Fr., Isabelle; Ger., 
Isabelle; It., Isabella; Lat., Isabella; Sp., Isabel; 
Sw., Isabella. 

Isaiah {i-za'-yd). From the Hebrew Y’sha- 
yahu; from yesha-Yahu, “the salvation of Jehovah.” 



822 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Danish, Isaias; Dutch, Jezajas; Fr., Isaie; Ger., 
Esaias; It., Isaia; Lot., Esaias; Port., Isaias; Sp., 
Isaias. 

Ischl ( ish'l). A famous watering-place in Upper 
Austria, situated at the junction of the rivers Ischl 
and Traun, twenty-seven miles east by south of 
Salzburg. It is the favorite resort of the Austrian 
royal family and nobility, and contains salt and 
other baths. It is the central point in the Salzkam- 
mergut. 

Ishmael ( xsh'-ma-el ). Hebrew for “God hath 
heard.” Arabic, Ismaeel, or Ismail; Fr., Ismael; 
It., Ismaele; Lat., Ishmael. 

Isidore ( iz'-i-dor ). From the Latin, Isidorus, 
which some translate “strong gift.” The name 
signifies “gift of Isis.” Dutch, Isidorus; Fr., 
Isidore; Gr., Isodoras; It., Isidoro; Lot., Isidorus. 

Island of Desolation. Was so designated by 
Captain Cook owing to the absence of all signs of 
life. 

Isle of Bourbon (boor'-bun. Fr. boor-bon'). When 
settled by the French, it was so named for the 
Bourbon family. 

Isle of Man. Is the modern designation of 
Mona Island, by which was meant, agreeably to 
the Keltic maen, “a stone,” rocky island. 

Isle of St. Helena (hel'-e-nd). Discovered on the 
Feast of St. Helena, 1502. 

Isle of Wight (wit). It originally denoted the 
island of the Wyts, or Jutes. 

Israel (iz'-ra-el). From the Hebrew, meaning 
“prevailing with God.” Fr., Israel; Ger., Israel; 
Lat., Israel. 

Italy. Was so called after Italus, one of the 
early kings of the country. 

Itasca. County and Lake in Minnesota, into 
which flows the head waters of the Mississippi, and 
named on this account, Itasca, from the tw*o Latin 
words veritas caput, “the true head.” Schoolcraft 
notes derivation from ia, “to be,” and totosh, “the 
female breast,” signifying source of the river. 

Ithaca (ith'-d-ka). City in Tompkins County, 
New York, and village in Gratiot County, Michigan, 
named for one of the Ionian Islands, supposed to be 
the one celebrated in the Homeric poems as the 
Kingdom of Ulysses. 

Ivan (e-van'). See John. 

Jahez. From the Hebrew Yabets, which Simonis 
renders, “he will cause pain,” i. e., to his mother. 

Jackson, Miss. So named in honor of General 
Andrew Jackson. 

Jacksonville, Fla. In honor of President An¬ 
drew Jackson, named in 1822. 

Jacob (ja'-kob). From the Hebrew, Yaakob, 
which Tregelles translates,“taking hold of the heel, 
supplanter, layer of snares.” Arabic, Yakoob, or 
Ya’kub; Danish, Jakob; Dutch, Jacob, or Jakob; 
Fr., Jacob; Ger., Jakob; Hungarian, Jakob; It., 
Giacobbe; Lat., Jacobus, or Jacob; Polish, Jakob; 
Siv., Jakob. 

Jaffa (jaf'-fd, yaf'-fa) or Joppa (jop'-pd). From 
the Semetic, Yapho, “beauty.” 

Jamaica (jd-ma'-kd). A corruption of Xaymaco, 
a native West Indian name signifying “the country 
abounding in springs.” 

James. A name corrupted from Jacobus. 
Danish, Jakob; Dutch, Jacobus; Fr., Jacques; 
Ger., Jakob; Hungarian, Jakab; It., Giacomo; 
Lat., Jacobus; Polish, Jakub; Port., Diogo, or 
Jacobo; Russ., Yakof; Sp., Jaime; Sw., Jakob 
See Jacob. 

James* Bay. Named in honor of the memory 
of James I., in whose reign it was completely 
explored. 

James River, Va. In honor of James I. of 
England, prior to which it was named the River of 
the Holy Ghost. The Indian name was pawathanne, 
“river of pregnancy.” To this stream Captain John 
Smith _gave the spelling of “Powhattan,” stating 
the chief took his name from the stream. 


Jamestown. Town in James City County, Vir¬ 
ginia, named for King James I., and the first 
English settlement in America. 

Jan (Dutch, yan). An Anglo-Norman form of 
John. 

Jane. From the French name Jeanne, from 
root of John. Dutch, Hanna; Fr., Jeanne; Ger., 
Johanna; It., Giovanna; Lat., Johanna, or Joan- 
etta; Sp., Juana; Sw., Johanna. . 

Janesville. Town in Lassen County, California, 
and city in Rock County, Wisconsin, named for 
Henry F. Janes. 

Janet (jan'-et, or ja-net'). A diminutive of Jane. 

Janiculum (jan-ik'-yu-lum), or Mons Janiculus 
(monz ja-nik'-u-lus). Highest of the hills of Rome; 
situated on the right bank of the Tiber, extends 
south from the Vatican, and is opposite the Capi- 
toline and the Aventine. 

January. In honor of Janus, a deity who pre¬ 
sided over the beginning of everything. 

Japan. A European modification, brought 
about through the Portuguese Gepuen, or Japao, of 
the native Nippon, or Niphon, compounded of ni, 
“sun, fire,” and pon, “land,” literally “sun-land,” 
or “land of the rising sun,” and signifying “the 
fountain of light.” 

Jaqueline (jak'-we-lin). The feminine of James. 
Fr., Jacqueline (zhak-len'); Ger., Jakobine; It., 
Giacomina, or Giacobba. 

Jasper (jas'-per). A male name derived from the 
Arabic yashm, or Persian yashb, the precious stone 
jasper; hence, “treasure master.” Danish, Jes- 
per; Dutch, Jasper, or Kasper; Fr., Gaspard; Ger., 
Caspar, or Kaspar; It., Gasparo; Lat., Gaspar; 
Port., Gaspar; Sp., Gaspar; Sw., Kasper. 

Java. A native Malay word signifying “the 
land of nutmegs.” 

Jean. A female name derived from the French 
name Jeanne, the feminine form of Jean; from 
root of John. 

Jeanne. See Jane. 

Jeannette (je-net'). See Jenet. 

Jedidiah (jed-e-di'-a). The Hebrew Y’dhiyd- 

hyah, from yadhaydh, “beloved of Jehovah.” 

Jefferson City, 3Io. In honor of President 
Thomas Jefferson. 

Jenet (je-net'). The diminutive of Jane. Fr., 
Jeannette; It., Giovannetta; Lat., Joanetta. 

Jephthah (jef'-tha). From the Hebrew, mean¬ 
ing, a “discoverer.” Fr., Jephte; Lat., Jephtha. 

Jeremiah (jer-e-mV-a), or Jeremy (jer'-e-mi). 
From the Hebrew Yirm-Yah, which Simonis renders 
“elevated of the Lord.” Danish, de remias; Dutch, 
Jeremias; Fr., Jeremie; Ger., Jeremias; It., 
Geremia; Lat., Jeremias; Sw., Jeremias. 

Jerome (jer'-om or je-rom'). A name cor¬ 
rupted from Hieronymus, “holy law,” or “sa¬ 
cred name.” Danish, Jeronymus; Dutch, Hier¬ 
onymus; Fr., Jerome; Ger., Hieronymus; It., 
Geronimo, or Girolamo; Lat., Hieronymus; 
Port., Hieronimo; Sp., Geronimo; Sw., Hierony¬ 
mus. 

Jerry. A male name, corrupted from Jeremiah. 

Jersey. Was originally Czar-ey, meaning 
“Uesar’s Island,” so called by the Romans in 
honor of Julius Caesar. 

Jersey City, N. J. Originally incorporated, 1829, 
and named after the State as the “City of Jersey.” 
In 1851, under a new charter, the name was trans¬ 
posed. 

Jerusalem (je-ru'-sa-lem). This name means, 
“foundation of peace.” It is derived from the 
Hebrew, yarah, “a foundation,” and shalaim, or 
shalem, “peace, perfect, whole.” 

Jesse (jes'-se). From the Hebrew Yishay, from 
yesh, “wealth.” Others render the name “graft.” 
If so, it comes from yash, “being, existence.” 

Jessica. A female name, probably a diminutive 
of Jessie. 

Jessie. A female name. Like the French 




MISCELLANY 


823 


masculine name Joan, formerly from root of 
John. 

Job (job). From the Hebrew Iyyobh, “the per¬ 
secuted” (man), hence, “sorrowing.” Arabic, 
Aiyoob, or Ayyub; Fr., Job; Ger., Hiob; Gr., lob; 
It., Giobbe ; Lat., Job, or Jobus; Sw., Job. 

Joel (jo'-el). Means, “acquiescing.” Fr., Joel; 
hat., Joel. 

Johanna. A female name derived from John. 

John. From the Hebrew, Y’hohhanan, variously 
translated, “the Lord gave graciously”; “whom 
Jehovah gave”; “whom Jehovah bestowed.” 
Danish, Johann, or Hans; Dutch, Jan; Fr., Jean; 
Ger., Johann (familiarly Hans, a contraction of 
Johannes); Gr., Ioannes; Hungarian, Janos; It., 
Giovanni; Lat., Joannes, or Johannes; Pol., Jan; 
Port., Joao; Russ., Ivan; Sp., Juan; Sw., Johan, 
or Hans. 

Johnstown, Pa. City and borough in Cambria 
County, Pennsylvania, named for an early settler, 
Joseph Jahns or Yahns. 

Johnstown, N. Y. City in Fulton County, New 
York, named for its founder, Sir William Johnson. 

Joliet ( jo'-li-et ), Ill. Named after the French 
explorer, Louis Joliet. 

Jonah (jd'-nd), or Jonas ( jo'-nas). From the 
Hebrew Yonah, “a dove” ; perhaps given as a term 
of endearment. Fr., Jonas; Ger., Jonas; Lat., 
Jonas. 

Jonathan (jon'-a-than). From the Hebrew 
Y’honathan,, “the Lord gave, or given by Jehovah.” 
Fr., Jonathan; Lat., Jonathan. 

Jordan. The Hebrew name is yarden, which 
Robinson translates “the flowing,” “the river,” 
like the German, Rhein, from rinnen. 

Joseph (jo'-sef). From the Hebrew Yosheph, 
signifying “he shall add.” Fr., Joseph; Ger., 
Joseph; Hungarian, Jozsef; It., Giuseppe; Lat., 
Josephus; Polish, Jozef; Port., Jose; Sp., Jose; 
Arabic, Yusuf. 

Josephine (jo'-zef-in). The feminine of Joseph. 
Fr., Josephe, or Josephine; Ger., Josephe, or 
Josephine; It., Giuseppa, or Giuseppina; Lat., 
Josepha. 

Joshua (josh'-u-a). From the Hebrew Y’hoshua, 
“w T hose help or salvation is Jehovah,” hence, a 
“saviour.” Dutch, Josua; Fr., Josue; Ger., 
Josua; It., Giosue; Lat., Josua; Sw., Josua. 

Josiah (jo-si'-a), or Josias (jo-si'-as). From the 
Hebrew Y’shiyyahu, “whom the Lord gives.” 
Danish, Josias; Dutch, Jozias; Fr., Josias; It., 
Giosiade; Lat., Josias. 

Juan (ju-an'. Spanish, hoo-an'). See John. 

Juan de Fuca (ju'-an de fu'-kd), Strait of, Wash. 
After Juan de Fuca, an old Greek sailor who navi¬ 
gated its waters in 1592; name applied by Apostu- 
lus Valerianos. 

Juan Fernandez (ju'-ctn fer-nan'-dez. Spanish, 
hoo-an' -fer-nan'-deth). Also known as Selkirk’s 
Island, after Alexander Selkirk, its solitary inhabit¬ 
ant from September, 1704, to February, 1707; 
perpetuates the name of its discoverer in the year 
1567. 

Judah (ju'-dd), Judas (ju'-das), Jude (jud). 
Hebrew, meaning “confession.” Fr., Juda, or 
Jude; Ger., Judas; Hungarian, Juda; It., Giuda; 
Lat., Judas; Polish, Judas; Sw., Judas. 

Judith (ju'-dith). From the Hebrew Y’hudhiyth, 
“in the Jewish tongue,” also, “praising.” It., 
Giuditta; Lat., Juditha. 

Julia (ju'-li-d or jul'-ya). The feminine of Julius. 
Dutch, Julia; Fr., Julie; Ger., Julie; It., Giulia; 
Lat., Julia; Sp., Julia; Sw., Julia. 

Julian' (ju'-li-an or jul'-yan). A name derived from 
the Latin Julianus, formed from Julius. Julian 
is a feminine as well as a masculine name. Dutch, 
Julianus; Fr., Julien; Ger., Julian; It., Giuliano; 
Lat., Julianus; Port., Juliao; Sp., Julian, or Juliano; 
Sw., Julian. 

Juliana (ju-li-dn'-d). A female name derived 


from Julian. Dutch, Juliana; Fr., Julienne; Ger., 
Juliane; It., Giuliana; Lat., Julian^; Port., Juliana; 
Sp., Juliana; Sw., Juliana. 

Julien. See Julian. 

Julienne. See Julia. 

Juliet (ju'-li-et ). A diminutive formed from 
Julia. 

Julius (ju'-li-us). The Roman name, said to be 
derived from Julius or lulus, “sprung from lulus.” 
Dutch, Julius; Fr., Jules; Ger., Julius; It., Giulio; 
Lat., Julius; Port., Julio; Sp., Julio. 

July. The name given to this month by Marc 
Antony in honor of Julius Caesar, who was born in it. 

June. From Juno, the queen goddess. 

Jungfrau (ydong'-frow) Mountain. A noted Al¬ 
pine peak, “the maiden, or the fair one,” so called 
from its spotless white. 

Juniata (ju-ni-at'-a) River, Penn. Named from 
a tribe of Indians inhabiting its banks, extinguished 
by the Iroquois. The root of the word means “a 
stone.” Onajutta-haga, “the Juniata people,” is 
the name found on early maps. 

Justin (jus'-tin). A masculine name derived 
from the Roman, Justinus, formed from Justus. 

Justina (jus-ti'-na). A feminine name formed 
from Justin. 

Jutland. Means the land of the Jutes. 

Kaaba, or Caaba (ka'-d-bd). A cube-shaped, 
flat-roofed building in the center of the Great 
Mosque at Mecca: the most sacred shrine of the 
Mohammedans. 

Kaffraria (kdf-fra'-ri-d). Country of the Kaffirs, 
or “unbelievers.” 

Kalamazoo (kal-d-md-zoo'). City, river, and 
county in Michigan. According to one authority, 
derived from the Indian word Negikanamazo, 
meaning, “otter-tail”; “beautiful water” and 
“boiling water” are other versions. 

Kanawha (kd-no'-wa) River, W. Va. From a 
tribe of Indians (branch of the Nanticokes), evolut- 
ing in its spelling through Conoys, Conoise, Cana- 
wese, Cohnawas, Canaways, to Kanawha. The 
stream is called “the Great Conoway or Wood’s 
River” in Wyman’s map of the British Empire, 
1770. 

Kansas. From its principal river, adopted in 
1854. The river named from a tribe of Indians, 
formerly in that locality, known as the Konsos or 
Kows, the word meaning “smoky water.” 

Kansas City, Mo. The. name given in the spring 
of 1839, at a meeting of the “Town Company,” an 
organization for starting towns and locating steam¬ 
boat landings on the Missouri River; the name for 
adoption was considered in connection with the 
Kaws or Kansas tribe of Indians. When first 
adopted the name was City of Kansas. 

Kamak (kar'-nak). A village in Egypt, on the 
eastern bank of the Nile, on the site of Thebes, 
famous for its remains of antiquity. 

Katahdin (ka-ta'-din). Mountain in Maine. 
An Indian word, Ktaadn or Katahdu, meaning, 
according to different authorities, “highest land,” 
“big mountain,” “greatest or chief mountain.” 

Kathleen (kdth-len'). An Irish diminutive of 
Catharine. 

Kearsarge (ker'-sarj), Mt. Corruption of the 
Indian keas, “high,” auke, “a place,” “a high 
place”; another derivation traces it from the 
Indian Koowassadchu, “pine or peaked mountain.” 

Kenilworth (ken'-U-werth). A town in Warwick¬ 
shire, England, five miles north of Warwick. The 
castle is one of the most admired of English feudal 
monuments, and was long of note as a royal resi¬ 
dence. It has been immortalized by Sir Walter 
Scott. 

Kennebec (ken-e-bek') River, Me. From the 
Indian quinninippiohke, “long place of water.” 
This was the Indian name of Moosehead Lake. 

Kennebunk (ken-e-bunk'), Me. Similar to Ken¬ 
nebec, an adaptation of another pronunciation. 



824 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Kenneth ( ken'-neth ). The English form of the 
Gaelic name Coinneach; perhaps from caoin-neach, 
a “kind, gentle, or mild man.” 

Kenosha (ke-no'-shd) , Wis. Algonquin deriva¬ 
tion from kenose, “long,” meaning “a long fish” 
(the pike). 

Kensington ( ken'-sing-tun ). The town of the 
Kensings, the old form of which was the proper 
name Cynesige. 

Kent. This is probably derived from the 
ancient British word chent or cant, “a corner,” 
because, says Camden, “England at this point 
stretched itself out in a corner to the northeast.” 
The Roman name was Cantium. 

Kentucky. From its principal river, adopted in 
1782. Derived from an Indian word, Kain-tuk-ee, 
“at the head of the river.” 

Keokuk ( ke'-o-kuk ). City and county in Iowa, 
named for an Indian chief, the word meaning 
“running or watchful fox.” 

Kew (ku ). The name of this place has under¬ 
gone many transitions. In a court roll of the 
manor of Richmond, in the reign of Henry VII., 
it is written Kayhough, and in subsequent entries 
it is varied to Kayhowe, Kayhoo, Keyhowe, Keye, 
Kayo, and Kewe. The name is probably derived 
from the word quay, a landing place. 

Keweenaw ( ke'-we-no ) Point, Mich. So named 
from a portage called by the Indians Kewauenau, 
meaning the “place where we cross by land carrying 
the canoe.” 

Kew Observatory. The central meteorological 
observatory of Great Britain. It is at Old Rich¬ 
mond Park, between Kew and Richmond, and was 
built by George III. for the observation of the 
transit of Venus in 1769, and called the “King’s 
Observatory.” In 1842, it was handed over to the 
British Association, under the name of “Kew 
Observatory.” In 1871, it became the central 
station of the British meteorological office. 

Key West. City in Monroe County, Florida. 
A corruption of Cayo Hueso, a Spanish word, 
meaning “a bone reef or island”; the place was 
so named because of the number of bones found 
upon the reef. 

Keziah ( ke-zi'-a ). A feminine name derived 
from Kezia, daughter of Job, from the Hebrew, 
Kt’siya, signifying “cassia,” a bark similar to 
cinnamon. 

Khedive ( ka-dev'). This word, from the Persian 
Khidiw, according to the best authorities, means 
“Prince.” 

Kjskiminetas ( kis-ke-min'-e-tas ) River, Pa. From 
an Indian phrase, Kithanne, translated,“place of the 
largest stream.” 

Kittatinny (kit'-ta-tin-ni) Mountains, Pa. The 
Indian word Kitadini, that is, “largest mountain.” 

Kittery ( kit'-ter-i ) Point, Me. From the small 
hamlet of Kittery, England. Kittery Point was 
settled in 1623, and it is claimed was the first set¬ 
tled and the oldest town in the State. 

Knoxville, Tenn. After Gen. Henry Knox of 
Massachusetts, secretary of war during Washing¬ 
ton’s administration. First applied as Fort Knox, 
subsequently to the settlement. 

Kokomo ( ko'-ko-mo ), Ind. An Indian word 
meaning “a young grandmother.” 

Konrad. See Conrad. 

Kremlin ( krem'-lin ). A citadel of Moscow, 
Russia. A highly picturesque and interesting 
inclosure, about one and one-half miles in circuit, 
fortified with battlemented walls from which pro¬ 
ject cylindrical and square towers, many of them 
terminating in spires behind which rise the multi¬ 
form domes and belfries of the churches, brilliant 
with gold and colors. It was walled in 1492. 

Kurdistan, or Koordistan (koor-dis-tan'). Means 
the country of the Koords. 

Kyrlo ( kerl). A masculine name derived from 
Karl or Carl, from root of Charles. 


Laban (la'-ban). A masculine name, from the 
Hebrew Labhan, signifying “white.” 

Labrador (lab-ra-dor') . Bears a name which is 
believed to testify to the early maritime enterprise 
of the Portuguese. Hence the country seems to 
have acquired the name of Terra de Lavradores, the 
“land of the laborers.” According to another 
explanation, Bradore Bay, formerly called Labrador 
Bay, acquired that name from the visit of a Basque 
whaler called the LabradS, the name of the bay 
being subsequently extended to the whole coast. 

Labyrinth ( lab'-i-rinth ). From the Greek laby- 
rinthos, “a maze of intricate passages”; especially, 
a subterranean structure having many intricate 
passages. Several, such mazes were famous in 
antiquity. The greatest was that which lay near 
Lake Mceris, in the Fayum, Egypt, and was proba¬ 
bly built by Amenemhat III., about 2300 B. C. 
According to Herodotus, it had 3,000 halls and 
chambers, half of them above ground and half 
below, and twelve covered courts. 

Lackawanna ( lak-d-won'-nd ) Creek, Pa. From 
the Delaware Indian words lechau-hanne, “the 
stream that forks.” 

La Crosse (la krds'). City and county in Wis¬ 
consin. A French name given to the town because 
before its settlement the ground was a favorite 
place for ball playing with the Indians, the game 
being called by the French “la crosse.” 

Ladrone ( la-dron') Islands. So designated from 
the circumstance that when Magellan touched upon 
one of the lesser isles of the group, in 1520, the 
natives stole some of his goods; whereupon he 
called the islands the Ladrones, which is Spanish 
for “thieves.” 

Lake District, English. A region in Westmore¬ 
land and Cumberland, England, which abounds in 
lakes inclosed by mountains. The district is a 
celebrated tourist center, and is associated with the 
poetry of Wordsworth. The lakes include Winder- 
mere, Ullswater, Derwentwater, and Bassenthwaite 
Water; and Skiddaw, Helvellyn, and Scafell Pike 
are the principal mountains. 

Lake Huron. See Huron. 

Lake Michigan. See Michigan. 

Lake of the Woods. Lake in Minnesota. Origi¬ 
nally named Lac des Bois by the French, “lake of 
the woods,” because of the heavily wooded islands 
in the lake. 

Lake Ontario. See Ontario. 

Lake Superior. Denotes the uppermost and 
chief of the Great Lakes. 

Lake Winnipeg. See Winnipeg. 

Lambert ( lam'-bert ). Corrupted from the Old 
German name Lamdbert, Lantprecht; from land- 
brecht, “one distinguished among the people.” 
Dutch, Lambert, or Lambertus; Fr., Lambert; 
Ger., Lambert; Lat., Lambertus. 

Lambeth ( lam'-beth ) Palace. The London resi¬ 
dence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, situated in 
Lambeth, near the Thames, one and one-half miles 
southwest of St. Paul’s. It was acquired by the 
archbishops in 1197. The present building was 
commenced in the Thirteenth Century. It contains 
a valuable library. 

La Moille (Id moil') River, Vt. Discovered and 
named by Champlain as la mouette, “the mew or 
gull,” they having been seen in great numbers on 
its waters. The present spelling, a corruption 
easily traceable to not crossing the t’s and absence 
of a perfect e. 

Lancelot (lan'-se-lot). Sometimes rendered “ser¬ 
vant,” or “little lance”; if so, the bearer was so 
called from carrying a lance or pike. The name 
seems to be a diminutive formed from Latin 
lancea, “a lance, javelin,” a word which Varro 
thinks of Spanish origin. Fr., Lancelot; Lat., 
Lancelottus. 

Languedoc ( lan'-gwe-ddk . French, lax'-gu-ddk). 
An ancient government of southern France. It 



MISCELLANY 


825 


was named from the language of the South of 
France; the langue d’oc, or Provencal. 

Lansing ( lan'-sing), Mich. In honor of Abram 
Jacob Lansing of Rensselaer County, New York, a 
large landholder of this section. Originally called 
Michigan. 

Laporte (la-port'). County in Indiana. A French 
word meaning “door” or “opening” between two 
stretches of forest connecting two prairies. 

Las Vegas (las va'-gds). City in San Miguel 
County, New Mexico. A Spanish name meaning 
“the plains,” or the “meadows,” and given this 
city on account of its situation in the midst of a 
fertile meadow. 

Lateran ( Idt'-er-dn), The. Now an ecclesiastical 
palace in the eastern part of Rome. The present 
edifice dates from the Sixteenth to Eighteenth 
Centuries. The palace was originally named from 
the Roman family, Lateranus, to which, until the 
time of Nero, it belonged. Nero put the last owner, 
Plautius Lateranus, to death, and appropriated the 
palace. It was given by Constantine (who also 
built a church in its precincts) to the Bishop of 
Rome. 

Latitudinarians. The name applied by con¬ 
temporaries to a school of theologians within the 
English Church in the latter half of the Seventeenth 
Century. It grew out of the earlier movement in 
favor of a more liberal constitution for the Church. 

Launcelot. Another spelling of Lancelot. 

Laura ( l6'-rd ). A feminine name derived from 
Latin laurus, “a laurel or baytree,” dedicated to 
Apollo, used in triumphs, and worn by emperors 
and poets in garlands. Laura corresponds to the 
Greek name Daphne. 

Laurence, Lawrence. From the Latin name 
Laurentius, formed from laureo, “to crown with 
laurel.” Danish, Lorenz; Dutch, Laurens; Fr., 
Laurent; Ger., Laurenz, Lorenz, and Laurentius; 
It., Lorenzo. 

Lauterbrunnen (lou'-ter-brodn-nen). A valley and 
parish in the Bernese Oberland, Switzerland, 
thirty-three miles southeast of Bern. It is noted 
for the Staubbach, Trummelbach, and other falls. 

Lavinia (la-mn'-i-a). Formed as a feminine 
name from Latinus, mythical Roman King. 

Lawrence. See Laurence. 

Lazarus (laz'-a-rus). From the Hebrew El- 
azar, “God aids,” i. e., whom God aids. Fr., 
Lazare; Gr., Lazaros; It., Lazzaro; Lot., Laza¬ 
rus. 

Leadenhall Street, London. Leadenhall is a 
corruption of Leather Hall, from a large market 
for leather which formerly existed there. There 
are still some remains of the leather market. 

Leah (le'-d). From the Hebrew Leah, signify¬ 
ing “wearied.” 

Leander ( le-dn'-der ). From the Greek Leiandros, 
translated “man of renown.” 

Leavenworth, Kan. In 1820, a fort was estab¬ 
lished at this place by the United States Govern¬ 
ment under the charge of Col. Henry H. Leaven¬ 
worth of the 3d U. S. Regiment, and named Fort 
Leavenworth, about which a town formed and the 
fort’s name was applied. 

Leech Lake, Minn. Applied from the meaning 
of its Indian name gahsuhgusgwah, chemakang, 
“the place of leeches.” 

Lehigh River, Pa. Corruption of the Delaware 
word lechau, “a fork,” a reference to this stream 
being one of the forks of the Delaware; also trace¬ 
able as applied to the forked piece of land over 
which the Indians made a portage when coming 
down the river. 

Lemuel (lem'-u-el). From the Hebrew L’muel, 
from Vmu-El, “by God,” i. e., created by God. 

Leo (le'-o), or Leon (le'-dn). Latin, “a lion.” 
Fr., L6on; It., Leone; Lat., Leo. 

Leonard (len'-ard). From the Old German name 
Leonhard, “as strong as a lion.” Dutch, Leonard; 


Fr., Leonard; Ger., Leonhard; It., Leonardo, or 
Lionardo; Lat., Leonardus. 

Leonora. See Eleanor. 

Leopold (le'-b-pold). Wachter renders this name 
“bold as a lion.” It is doubtless the same name as 
the Old German Leopold, Leupold, Leodpold, 
Luitpold. Fr., Leopold; Ger., Leopold; It., Leo- 
poldo; Lat., Leopoldus. 

Letitia (le-tish'-i-a or le-tish'-d), or Lettice (let'-tis). 
A feminine name derived from Latin, Icetitia, “joy, 
gladness, mirth.” Danish, Lsetitia; Dutch, Leetitia; 
Old Fr., Letice; Lat., Lsetitia. 

Levant (le-vant'). Levant means simply “the 
east,” though it is generally confined in its use 
to the eastern parts of the Mediterranean, as the 
coasts of Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. The word 
is Italian, and signifies rising, alluding to the sun 
rising in the east. 

Lewellin (le-wel'-lin). Means “like a lion.” 
Lat., Leolinus. 

Lewis or Louis (loo'-is). Like the French 
name, Louis, corrupted from Ludovicus, from the 
Old German name Ludwig, “illustrious warrior,” 
or the “fortress or defence of the people.” Dutch, 
Lodewijk; Fr., Louis; Ger., Ludwig; It., Luigi or 
Lodovico, or Ludo dco; Lat., Ludovicus; Sp., 
Luis; Sw., Ludwig. 

Liberia (li-be'-n-d). Means “the country of the 
free.” It was colonized by emancipated slaves. 

Licking, Ky. An application of the translation 
of its Indian name mahonink, “the place of the lick,” 
referring to buffalo licks on its banks, now the 
noted Blue Lick Springs. 

Light Brigade, Charge of the. A celebrated 
charge made by the Light Brigade of 670 men, 
under Lord Cardigan, the British commander, on a 
Russian battery at Balaklava, October 25, 1854. 

Lillian. A feminine name, from the Latin 
lilium, “a lily.” 

Lima (IV-md. Spanish, le'-ma). Probably from 
Lomnech, “a barren spot.” Taylor says it is a cor¬ 
ruption of Rimac, the Indian name of the plain on 
which the city stands. 

Limoges (le-mozh'). From Lemovicum, “the 
dwelling of the Lemovici,” or “dwellers among the 
elms.” 

Lina. A feminine name derived from some name 
ending in lina, as Carolina, Catalina, Paulina; and 
perhaps sometimes from the Italian name Madalena, 
or the Spanish Madelena. 

Lincoln, Neb. At the time it was made the 
capital city it received the name Lincoln as a com¬ 
pliment to President Abraham Lincoln, having 
been previously named Lancaster. 

Lincoln’s Inn Fields. > The largest square in 
London. It is near the junction of High Holborn 
and Chancery Lane, and is surrounded by lawyers’ 
offices, Lincoln’s Inn, the Royal College of Surgeons, 
and the Soane Museum. It was laid out by Inigo 
Jones, the celebrated architect. 

Linda. A feminine name — abbreviated from 
Belinda. 

Lionardo. Same as Leonardo. See Leonard. 

Lionel (li'-o-nel). A name formed from a word, 
leonellus, a diminutive of the Latin leo, “a lion.” 

Lion of Lucerne (Idb-sern'). A famous piece of 
sculpture, by Thorwaldsen, commemorating the 
heroism and devotion of nearly 800 Swiss guards 
who died to save Louis XVI., in the attack on the 
Tuileries, August 10, 1792. The colossal figure of 
the crouching lion, transfixed and dying but still 
faithfully defending the lilied shield of France, is 
carved in the round in a recess in the face of an 
upright, vine-draped rock, in a little park in Lucerne, 
Switzerland. 

Lisbon (liz'-bun). In Portuguese, Lisboa, is 
derived from the old name Olisipo, supposed to 
contain the Phenician word hippo, a “fortress,” 
or “walled town.” 

Little Rock, Ark. A local application from the 



826 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


town occupying the top of a rocky cliff, which is 
much more conspicuous than the other cliffs of the 
river bank; also said to be traceable from an igneous 
slate rock in the river bed at this point, visible only 
at low stages of the water. 

Li via ( liv'-i-a ). From the Roman Livia. Fr., 
Livie; It., Livia; Lat., Livia. 

Llano Estacado (la'-no as-ta-ka'-do) . An ele¬ 
vated plateau in northwest Texas and New Mexico. 
Spanish words meaning “staked plain/' applied to 
this plateau on account of the stake-like boles of the 
yucca plant which grows there. 

Llewellyn (lu-el'-lin). From the Keltic, mean¬ 
ing “lightning.'' 

Lloyd’s ( loidz ). A London Underwriters’ Asso¬ 
ciation for the furtherance of commerce, especially 
for marine insurance and the publication of shipping 
news. It originated in meetings at Lloyd’s Coffee 
House about 1688. 

Lodovico or Lodovic. See Lewis. 

Lombard ( Idm'-bard ) Street. The name of a 
street in the city of London, often used figuratively 
to mean the banking or financial world. It is the 
quarter wherein the money-lenders from Lombardy 
settled. The Lombards were an eminently com¬ 
mercial and financial people, and competed with the 
Jews in the Middle Ages as capitalists and pawn¬ 
brokers. 

Lombardy (lom'-bar-di). The country of the 
Longobardi, so called from a kind of weapon which 
they used. 

London. The origin of this name cannot be 
ascertained with any certainty. Its most probable 
derivation is from Llyn-Din, the “town on the lake.” 
It was the capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, 
and was known in the time of the Heptarchy as 
Lundenceaster. 

Long Island, N. T. Name applied by the Dutch 
in reference to its long and narrow conformation, 
“ Lange Eylandt.” During Governor Fletcher’s 
administration, by act of General Assembly of New 
York, 1693, the name of Nassau was decreed as a 
Dutch compliment to Prince Maurice of Nassau. 
It was not favorably received by the settlers and 
by common consent they used Long Island. 

Long Island Sound. From Long Island. 

Lookout, Cape, N. C. Traceable to coast cap¬ 
tains, that when this land was seen, to be on the 
“look-out” for the stormy Cape Hatteras and its 
long shoals. 

Lora. A form of Laura, which occurs as early 
as 1208. 

Lorenz or Lorenzo. See Laurence. 

Loretta. A diminutive of Lora. 

Los Angeles (Ids an'-jel-ez. Spanish, Ids dng'- 
hel-es ). Originally called by the Spaniards Pueblo 
de la Reina de los Angeles (The town of the Queen 
of the Angels), hence Los Angeles, “the angels.” 

Lotty. A feminine name corrupted from Char¬ 
lotte. 

Louis. See Lewis. 

Louisa ( lod-e/-za ). A comparatively modern 
name formed from Lewis. Fr.) Louise; Ger., 
Luise; It., Luigia; Lat., Luisa; Sp., Luisa; Sw., 
Ludovika. 

Louise ( lob-ez'). A French name formed from 
Louis. 

Louisiana ( loo-e-ze-a'-nd, loo-e-ze-dn'-d). Named 
by La Salle in honor of Louis XIV., king of France. 

Louisville (Ibb'-i-vil, Ido'-is-vU), Ky. Name given 
by act of the Virginian Legislature in 1780, in honor 
of Louis XVI. of France, then assisting the Ameri¬ 
can colonies in their revolutionary struggle. 

Louvre ( lob'-vru ). A castle, in Paris, of the kings 
of France from or before the Thirteenth Century, 
and the chief royal palace until Louis XIV. built 
Versailles. The existing palace was begun by 
Francis I. in 1541, and has been greatly extended 
until it now forms one ofcthe most extensive and 
historically interesting buildings in the world. 


A great part of the interior has been occupied since 
1793 by the famous museum, and successive gov¬ 
ernments have employed the best artists at their 
command for its decoration. 

Lowell (Id'-el), Mass. From. Francis Cabot 
Lowell of Boston, who was distinguished by his 
successful efforts in introducing the cotton manu¬ 
facture into the States. Indian name of locality, 
Wamasit. 

Lucerne (lod-sern'). Named from a lighthouse or 
beacon, lucerna, formerly placed on a tower in the 
middle of the River Rheus. 

Lucian (lu'-shl-an or lii'-shan). From the Latin, 
meaning “light.” Fr., Lucien; It., Luciano; Lat., 
Lucianus. 

Lucile (lu-sel'). A feminine name formed from 
Lucilius, name of the celebrated Roman satirist; 
derived no doubt, from Lucius. 

Lucius (lu'-shi-us). The Roman name is said to 
be derived from lux, lucis, “light.” Fr., Luce or 
Lucius; Ger., Lucious; It., Lucio; Lat., Lucius. 

Lucknow (luk'-now. Pop., luk'-nd). From the 
native name Laksneanauti, “the fortunate.” 

Lucretia (lu-kre'-shi-a), or Lucrece (lu'-kres). 
A name derived from Lucretia, a celebrated Roman 
lady, daughter of Lucretius, and wife of Tarquinius 
Collatinus; a feminine form of Lucretius, derived 
from lucrum, “gain, profit, advantage.” Fr., 
Lucrdce; Ger., Lucretia; It., Lucrezia; Lat., 
Lucretia; Sp., Lucrecia. 

Lucy or Lucie (lie'-si). The feminine of Lucius. 
Dutch, Lucie; Fr., Lucie; Ger., Lucie; It., Lucia; 
Lat., Lucia; Sp., Lucia. 

Ludovico or Ludivicus. See Lewis. 

Ludwig. See Lewis. 

Luigi. See Lewis. 

Luise. See Louisa. 

Luke. From the Latin name Lucas, meaning a 
“light.” Some maintain that the original name 
was Lucius. Danish, Lucas; Dutch, Lucas; Fr., 
Luc; Ger., Lucas; Hungarian, Lucats; It., Luca; 
Lat., Lucas; Sw., Lucas. 

Luxembourg (licks'-em-burg; Dutch, licks'-em-burg), 
Palace of the. A palace in Paris, built by De- 
brosse (1615-20) for Maria de’ Medici. Since the 
Revolution this former royal palace has served as 
the House of Peers or of the Senate, and has long 
contained a museum of art. 

Luxor (licks'-or, looks'-or). From El-Kasur, 
“the palaces.” A village in Upper Egypt, situated 
on the Nile, on part of the site of the ancient Thebes. 
It is celebrated for its antiquities. 

Lycoming (li-kom'-ing) River, Pa. Adaptation 
of the Indian name legaui-hanne, i. e., “sandy 
stream.” 

Lydia (lid'-i-a). A Latin name mentioned in 
Horace; so called as coming from Lydia, in Asia 
Minor. Danish, Lydia; Dutch, Lydia; Fr., Lydie; 
Gr., Ludia; It., Lidia; Lat., Lydia. 

Lynchburg, Va. From the original patentee, 
John Lynch, brother of Charles Lynch, the reputed 
originator of what is known as “Lynch Law.” 

Lynch Law. The practice of punishing men for 
crimes or offences by private, unauthorized persons, 
without a legal trial. The term is said to be 
derived from a Virginia planter named Lynch, who 
thus took the law into his own hands. 

Lynn, Mass. From an English town of the same 
name. The Anglo-Saxon meant, originally, “deep 
pool.” 

Mabel, Mabell (ma'-bel). A feminine name 
derived from Mabilia, Latinized from Amabel, a 
corruption of the French aimable, “ lovely.” 
Lat., Mabilia, or Amabilis. 

Macao (ma-ka'-o, ma-kow'). A Portuguese city 
in China. Anciently there was a temple here 
sacred to an idol named Ama. The Portuguese 
made it Amagoa, the bay of Ama, corrupted first to 
Amacao and then to Macao. 

Mackinac. County in Michigan and town in 



MISCELLANY 


827 


same county. Derived from the Indian word 
‘‘michili mack mac meaning “island of the great 
turtle,” or in other dialects, “island of the giant 
fairies.” 

Mackinaw Straits, Midi. Derived from the 
same origin as Mackinac. 

Macon ( ma'-kun ), Ga. In honor of Hon. Na¬ 
thaniel Macon of North Carolina. 

Madagascar. Properly Malagasy, the Island of 
the Malagese, because the natives belong to the 
Malay race. 

Madeira (md-de’-rd. Portuguese, ma-da'-e-ra). y A 
Portuguese term signifying “timber ” ; the inference 
being that this island was formerly covered by an 
immense forest. 

Madeline. A feminine name softened down from 
Magdalen. 

Madge. A feminine baptismal name derived 
from Margaret. 

Madrid (md-drid'. Spanish, md-dreth'). Capital 
of Spain since 1560. The name is usually explained 
from the Arabic madarat, a “town.” But the early 
form Mazerit or Magerit, given in the Chronicle of 
Sampiro, points to materita, a “small wood” or 
“copse,” a_diminutive of materia, as the true 
etymology. 

31aelstrom (mal r -strum). A celebrated whirlpool 
or violent current in the Arctic Ocean, near the 
western coast of Norway, between the islands 
Moskenaso and Varo, formerly supposed to suck in 
and destroy anything that approached it at any 
time, but now known not to be dangerous except 
under certain conditions. Etymologically it is the 
“grinding stream,” from the Norwegian, male, “to 
grind.” 

Magdalen ( mag'-da-len ), or Magdalene. A name 
derived from Mary Magdalen, meaning “of Mag- 
dala,” a place in Palestine. Dutch, Magdalena; 
Fr., Madeleine or Madelene; Ger., Magdalena; It., 
Maddalena or Madalena; Lat., Magdalena; Sp., 
Magdalena. 

Magna Charta, or Magna Carta ( mag'-nd kar'-ta. 
Pop., char'-ta). The great charter of the liberties 
(Magna Charta Libertatum) of England, granted 
and sealed by King John in a conference between 
him and his barons at Runnymede, June 15, 1215. 

Mahony ( ma-ho'-nl), of Mahoning River, Pa. 
Derived from the Delaware Indian word, Mahonink, 
“at the lick.” 

Maiden Lane. A street in London, between 
Covent Garden and the Strand. Andrew Marvell, 
Turner, the landscape painter, and Voltaire lived 
here at different times. The name is said to have 
been given from an image of the Virgin which once 
stood there. 

31aine. A State in the Union said to be named 
for the private estate of Henrietta Maria, in Maine, 
a province of France; or, according to another 
authority, so called because the fishermen of the 
islands along the coast referred to the mainland 
as the “main,” and in some early documents it was 
spelled “Mayn.” 

31alakoff (md-ld-kof). The Malakoff, near Se¬ 
bastopol, which was so hotly contested in the 
Crimean War, was so called from the name of an 
innkeeper who built a liquor shop on the hill, in 
1831. His house was “MalakofFs Inn,” and the 
suburb which arose also received the name, which 
has since become historical. 

Malcolm ( mal'-kum ). Derived from the Gaelic 
Maol-Cholum, “the servant of Columba.” Maol 
signifies literally, “the brow of a rock, a bald 
head”; then “a shorn head, a monk.” 

31alta (mdl'-td. Italian, mal'-ta). Was an¬ 
ciently Melita, “the place of refuge.” 

31alvina ( mal-vi'-na ). A feminine name derived 
from Malmhin, name of the daughter of Toscar;. 
from maol-mhin, “smooth brow.” 

Mamaroneck (ma-mar'-6-nek), N. Y. From the 
name of an Indian chief called Mamaronock. 


31anayunk ( man-a-yungk '), Pa. From the Dela¬ 
ware Indian meneiunk, “place of drinking liquor,” 
which was also the Indian name of the Schuylkill 
River. 

Manchester ( man'-ches-ter ). This name is de¬ 
rived from the Celtic maen, “a stone or rock,” and 
the Anglo-Saxon ceastre or Chester, “a castle or 
fortification.” The name signifies “the fortified 
rock.” 

31anchester, N. H. From a manufacturing town 
of the same name in England. 

Manchuria (jndn-choo' -ri-d) . The European 
name of the region inhabited by the Manchua, a 
Tungusic tribe, who furnished the dynasty which 
has ruled China for the last three centuries. Ac¬ 
cording to Prof. Douglas, Manchu means “pure,” a 
name chosen by the founder as a suitable designa¬ 
tion for his family. The Mantzu, a wild race on the 
Upper Kiang, bear a Chinese name meaning, ac¬ 
cording to Colonel Yule, “sons of the barbarians.” 

3Iandalay ( man'-da-la ) or Mandale. The capital 
of Upper Burma, founded in 1860. The usual 
etymology is from the Pali mandala, a “flat plain,” 
but, according to Colonel Yule, the name was that 
of an isolated conical hill, rising high above the 
alluvial plain of the Irawadi, and crowned by a 
gilt pagoda. The name of the hill represents, he 
thinks, that of the sacred mountain called Man- 
dara, which in the Hindu mythology served the 
gods as a churning-staff at the churning of the sea. 

31anhattan. An island in New York. An 
Indian word, said by some authorities to mean 
“little island”; by others, “the people of the 
whirlpool,” referring to Hell Gate; another au¬ 
thority gives its origin from the word Manna-ha-ta, 
“place of drunkenness,” Henry Hudson, as the 
story goes, in 1609, having taken some chiefs into 
his cabin and made them drunk. 

Manila ( md-nil'-a. Spanish, ma-ne'-la). The 
capital of the Philippines, was founded in 1571, by 
Legaspi, the site of a native village of the same 
name, which is derived from a shrub called nila, 
Manila thus meaning, “Nila is,” or “here is Nila.” 

3Ianitoba (rndn-i-td-ba', man-i-td'-ba) . The cen¬ 
tral province of the Canadian Dominion, formerly 
called the Red River Settlement, takes its name 
from Lake Manitoba, whose islands were believed 
by the natives to be the habitation of the Manito 
or great spirit. In the Algonquin language, manito, 
manitu, or Manitou, means a “spirit, a ghost, or 
anything supernatural.” The last syllable of 
Manito-ba is a fragment of the Cree word, waban, a 
“strait.” 

3Ianitou ( man'-i-tod ). County in Michigan, 
river in Wisconsin, and town in El Paso County, 
Colorado. An Indian name given to any object of 
religious reference. It signifies “spirit.” (See 
Manitoba.) 

Mankato ( man-ka'-to ) River, 31inn. A Sioux 
Indian word signifying “green earth.” 

3Iansfleld. City in Richland County, Ohio, 
named for Col. Jared Mansfield, at one time sur¬ 
veyor-general of the United States. 

31arathon ( mdr'-a-thon ). A place abounding in 
fennel, marathos. 

3Iarc. See Mark. 

Marcellus (mar-seV-lus). From the Latin, mean¬ 
ing “of Mars.” Fr., Marcellus; It., Marcello; 
Lat., Marcellus. 

March. Named after Mars, the god of War. 

Marcus. See Mark. 

Marcy, Mount, N. Y. Compliment to Governor 
W. L. Marcy of New York. The Indian name is 
Tahawas, “he splits the sky,” an allusion to its 
great height, compared with its neighbors. 

Margaret ( mar'-gd-ret ). From the Greek, mean¬ 
ing “a pearl.” Dutch, Margaretha; Fr., Mar¬ 
guerite; Ger., Margarethe; Gr., Margarites; It., 
Margarita; Lat., Margarita. 

3Iargaretta. Formed from Margaret. 




828 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Margery. A baptismal name from Margaret. 

Maria. A name derived from one of the Greek 
forms of Miriam. Maria is found as a masculine 
name as well as a feminine name. 

Marian ( ma'-ri-an ). A diminutive of Mary. 

Marianne ( ma-ri-an '). Sometimes corrupted 

from Marian; at other times from Mary Anne. 

Marie ( ma-re '). The French form of Mary. 

Marietta {ma-rx-et'-ta), Ohio. A composite word, 
from Marie Antoinette, queen of Louis XVI. of 
France, in whose honor it was named. 

Marion ( mdr’-x-on ). A masculine form of Mary. 

Mark. Derived from Mars, meaning “of Mars.” 
Danish, Marcus; Dutch, Marcus; Fr., Marc; Ger., 
Marcus; Gr., Markos; Hungarian, Mark; It., 
Marco; Lat., Marcus; Sp., Marcos; Sw., Markus. 

Mark, St., Basilica of. A famous basilica of 
Venice, founded in 830 to receive the relics of the 
evangelist brought from Alexandria, rebuilt in 976, 
and given its definite form in 1052. It is the most 
famed Byzantine structure of western Europe. 

Marmaduke. From Anglo-Saxon mara-mihtig, 
“very mighty or powerful.” 

Marmora {mar'-mo-ra), Sea of. Named from an 
adjacent island celebrated for its marble, marmor. 

Martha {mar'-tha). Littleton derives this name 
from a Syriac word signifying “lad}'”’ (domina). 
Dutch, Martha; Fr., Marthe; Ger., Martha; Gr., 
Martha; It., Marta; Lat., Martha; Sp., Marta; 
Sw., Martha. 

Martha’s Vineyard, Mass. Named by Bartholo¬ 
mew Gosnold, on one of his voyages, but for whose 
particular honor it is not known. The Indian name 
was Capawac. 

Martin {mar'-tin). From the Latin name, Mar- 
tinus ; from Martius; from Mars, “warlike.” 
Dutch, Martinus; Fr., Martin; Ger., Martin; It., 
Martino; Lat., Martinus; Sp., Martin; Sw., Martin. 

Martinez {mar-te'-neth) . Spanish, meaning “the 
son of Martin.” 

Martinsburg. Town in Berkeley County, West 
Virginia, named for Col. Tom Martin, a nephew of 
Lord Fairfax, a wealthy landowner. 

Mary. From the Hebrew, meaning “bitter.” 
Danish, Marie; Dutch, Maria; Fr., Marie; Ger., 
Maria or Marie; Gr., Maria; Hungarian, Maria; 
It., Maria; Lat., Maria; Polish, Marya; Port., 
Maria; Sp., Maria; Sw., Maria. 

Maryland. It was intended that the country 
granted by the charter of Charles I. in his patent to 
Lord Baltimore, June 30, 1632, should be called 
“Crescentia,” but when presented to the king for 
signature, in conformity to his wishes, the name of 
the province was changed to that of Terra Marise, 
“Mary’s land,” in honor of his queen, Henrietta 
Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. 

Massachusetts. Natick Indian word Masasuset, 
contraction of Massa, “great,” adchu, “mountain,” 
et, “near,” “the place of the great hills” (reference 
to the Blue Hills). Roger Williams writes “I have 
learned the Massachusetts were so called from the 
Blue Hills.” 

Matanzas ( ma-tan'-zas . Spanish, ma-tan'-thas) 
Inlet, Fla. From the Spanish, meaning, “mas¬ 
sacre,” applied by Menendes to commemorate his 
destruction of Ribaut and his followers. 

Mathilde ( ma-teld '). A French form of Matilda. 

Matilda ( md-txl'-da ), or Maud. From the Old 
German magd-hild, “noble virgin or maid.” Danish, 
Mathilde; Dutch, Mathilda; Fr., Mathilde; It., 
Matilda; Lat., Mathilda; Sp., Matilde; Sw., Ma¬ 
tilda. 

Matterhorn. The most precipitous peak in the 
Alps, derives its lowly name from the meadow 
{matt) at its base, on which the village of Zermatt, 
“at the meadow,” is situated. The Piedmontese 
name, Mont Cervin, is due to its resemblance to a 
stag’s horn. 

Matthew {mdth'-u). From the Hebrew mattah- 
Yah, “the gift of Jehovah.” Danish, Matthaeus; 


Dutch, Mattheus; Fr., Mathieu; Gr., Matthaios; 
Hungarian, Mate; It., Matteo; Lat., Matthaeus; 
Polish, Mateusz; Sp., Mateo; Sw., Matthaus. 

Matthias ( mdth-x'-ds). Originally the same as 
Matthew. Dutch, Matthijs; Fr., Matthias; Ger., 
Mathias; It., Mattia; Lat., Matthias; Sp., Matias. 

Mauch Chunk {mok chungk'). Borough and river 
in Carbon County, Pennsylvania. An Indian word, 
meaning, according to different authorities, “on the 
mountain,” or “bear’s cave.” 

Maud, Maude. Corrupted from Matilda. 

Maurice {md'-rxs. French, mo-res'). Some 
derive this name from Amalric, others from Mauri- 
ties, but it is rather the reverse, for the island had 
its name from Prince Maurice. The name is 
probably from French du marais, “from the marsh.” 
Danish, Moritz; Dutch, Maurits or Mauritius; Fr., 
Maurice; Ger., Moritz; It., Maurizio or Maurisio; 
Lat., Mauritius or Mauricius; Sp., Mauricio; Sw., 
Moritz. 

Mauritius ( mo-rxsh'-x-us). Named for Maurice, 
Prince of Orange. 

Maximilian {maks-x-mxl'-yan, maks-x-mil'-i-dn). 
A name said to be compounded of maximus, “great¬ 
est,” and the name yEmilianus. Dutch, Maximili- 
anus; Fr., Maximilien; Ger., Maximilian; It., 
Massimiliano; Lat., Maximilianus; Sp., Maximiliano; 
Sw., Maximilian. 

Maximus ( mak'-sx-mus). Latin, meaning “great¬ 
est.” Fr., Maxime; It., Massimo; Lat., Maximus; 
Sp., Maximo. 

May. After Maia, the mother of Mercury, to 
whom sacrifices were offered on the first day of this 
month. 

Mayfair {ma'-fdr). A fashionable locality in 
London, east of Hyde Park. All streets north of 
Piccadilly now lead into the district of Mayfair, 
which takes its name from a fair which used to be 
held in Shepherd’s Market and its surrounding 
streets. 

Medina ( ma-de'-na). A city in Fledjaz, Arabia, 
the second holy city of the Mohammedans. It is 
celebrated as the place where Mohammed took 
refuge at the flight, 622 A. D., and where he died 
and was buried. The Great Mosque contains Mo¬ 
hammed’s tomb. 

Mediterranean Sea. Expresses the Latin medius, 
“middle,” and terra, “earth,” for the sea between 
two continents, viz, Europe and Africa. 

Melbourne {mel'-burn). Named after Lord Mel¬ 
bourne in 1837. 

3Iemphis {mem'-fis). In ancient geography, the 
early capital of Egypt. It was on the western 
bank of the Nile, south of Cairo. It is said to have 
been built by Menes. From Ma-m-Phthah, “the 
place of the Egyptian god Phthah.” 

Memphis, Tenn. An adoption from the ancient 
name of Memphis; not from any local similar¬ 
ity. 

Memphremagog {mem-fre-ma'-gog), Lake, Vt. An 
application of the Algonquin name mem-plow- 
bouque, “a large expanse of water.” 

Menasha, Wis. An Indian word meaning “a 
thorn.” 

Mendocino ( men-do-se’-no ), Cape, Cal. So named 
by Cabrillo in 1542 (Cabo Mendocino), in honor of 
the Viceroy of Spain, who had employed him. 

Mendota {men-do'-ta) , Minn. From a tribe of 
Indians, mendota, meaning “the mouth,” alluding 
to their dwelling at the mouth of the Minnesota 
River. 

Menominee {me-ndm'-i-ne) River, Wis. From 
an Indian tribe, the Malominees or Menominees, 
their derivative name being Monomonick, “wild 
rice,” or Monomoniking, “in the place of wild rice.” 
The early French called the tribe Folles Avoines, 
“wild oats,” from the Indian derivative. 

Meredith ( mer'-e-dith ). The English form of the 
Welsh name Meredydd. 

Merlin ( mer'-lin ). The English form of the 



MISCELLANY 


829 


British name Merddhin. Probably derived through 
the French. 

Merrimack ( mer'-ri-mdk ). River, county, and 
town in Hillsboro County, New Hampshire. From 
the Indian, meaning “sturgeon,” or “swift water.” 

Merthyr-Tydvil ( mer'-ther tid'-vil). Named after 
the daughter of an ancient British king. 

Methuselah ( me-thu'-se-ld ). Hebrew, “driving 
away death.” Fr., Mathusalem; Lat., Methusela. 

Metz. Named from the Meomatrici, a tribe. 

Mexico. The modern Spanish spelling is Mejico. 
It took its name from a temple of Mexitl, the Aztec 
war-god. 

Mexico, Gulf of. From the name of the Aztec 
god of war, Mexitl. 

Miami {mi-a' -mi, mi-am'-i). Counties in Indiana, 
Kansas, and Ohio, cities in Dade County, Florida, 
and Saline County, Missouri, town in Ottawa Reser¬ 
vation, Indian Territory, and rivers in Florida and 
Ohio. The French orthography of the Indian word 
“Maumee,” meaning “mother”; or, according to 
another authority, “pigeon.” 

Michael ( mi'-kel, mi'-ka-el). From the Hebrew, 
Miykhael, from miy-k’-El, “who is like God.” Fr., 
Michel; Ger., Michael; Hungarian, Mihaly; It., 
Michele; Lat., Michael; Polish, Michal; Port., 
Miguel; Russ., Mikhail; Sp., Miguel. 

Michigan ( mish'-i-gan ). From the lake on its 
western border, the Indian word, signifying “a 
weir of fish,” given the lake from its fancied re¬ 
semblance to a fish-trap. In the Ottawa dialect is 
the word Mitchikan, originally given to Mackinac, 
and meaning “fences,” as if the island were lying 
fence-like before the upper lake. 

Milan (mil'-an, mil-an'). The French and Eng¬ 
lish form of the Italian Milano, called Mailand in 
German, is a corruption of the Celto-Roman name 
Mediolanum, the capital of the Insubrian Gauls, 
which signified the town in the “middle of the 
plain,” lanum being the equivalent of the Latin 
planum. 

Mildred (mil'-dred). A female name, from Anglo- 
Saxon mild-red, “mild in counsel.” Lat., Mildreda. 

Miles. From Milesius, Latinized from the Irish 
mile, milead, “a soldier, a champion.” Gaelic, 
milidh, “a hero, a renowned person.” 

Milicent. A feminine name, which in Latin is 
found written Melicentia, Melissa, and Mellitta. 
It comes from the Greek, which signifies both a 
“bee” and “honey.” 

Milledgeville, Georgia. After Governor Milledge, 
a soldier of the Revolution. 

Milwaukee (mil-wd'-ke), Wis. From the river, 
called by the Algonquins Minnwaukee, or Me-ne- 
wau-kee, “good earth, good country, rich or beau¬ 
tiful country.” The name is also said to be derived 
from Man-a-wau-kee, the Indian name of the 
medicinal root mannoan growing on the river banks. 

Mina. Abbreviated from Wilhelmina, or from 
the English form, Williamina. 

Mincing Lane. A street in London connecting 
Fenchurch Street with Great Tower Street; the 
center of colonial (wholesale) trade. It received 
its name from the “minchens ” (nuns) of St. Helen’s, 
a part of whose domain it once was. 

Minerva (mi-ner'-vd) . So named from Minerva, 
goddess of wisdom, war, and all the liberal arts. 

Minneapolis, Minn. Dakota Indian words, 
Minni, “water,” ha, “curling,” and the Greek word 
polis, “a city,” namely “city of the curling water,” 
alluding to the falls of St. Anthony. 

Minnehaha (min-ne-ha'-ha) River, Minn. A Da¬ 
kota Indian compound word Minne, “water,” rara, 
“to laugh,” Minnerara. Hennepin, in 1680, from 
a false pronunciation, gave the present ending, 
“haha.” 

Minnesota ( min-ne-so'-ta ). From the St. Peter’s 
River, the Indian name of which was Minnisotah, 
minni, “water,” sotah, “muddy or slightly tur¬ 
bid/' 


Minorca ( mi-n6r f -kd ) Island. In accordance 
with the Latin minor, the Lesser Island. 

Mira. See Myra. 

Miriam ( mir’-i-am ). From the Hebrew Miry am, 

the etymology of which is doubtful. 

Mississippi. State of the Union, counties in 
Arkansas and Missouri, and river, one of the largest 
in the United States. An Indian word, meaning 
“great water,” or “gathering in of all the waters,” 
and “an almost endless river spread out.” 

Missoula {mi-zoo'-la). County, river, and city in 
Montana. The name is said to mean the same as 
Missouri, “muddy water.” 

Missouri ( mis-soo'-ri, miz-zoo'-ri. Pop., miz-oo'- 
rd). From river of the same name. Mis¬ 
souri, compound word, from two very different 
languages — mis (Algonquin), “great,” souri (Da¬ 
kota, commonly called Sioux), meaning “muddy”; 
in best English, “big muddy.” 

Mobile {md-beV). A town in Alabama from 
which Mobile Bay takes its name. When, in 1539, 
Fernando de Soto landed in Florida, and made his 
wonderful march to the Mississippi, he had a 
desperate fight with the Creek Indians at a palisaded 
village called Mauvila or Maubila (probably the 
name of the tribe), at the junction of the Tombigbee 
and Alabama rivers. From this village the united 
stream acquired the name which in French became 
the River Mobile, at whose mouth the town of 
Mobile was built. 

Mohawk. River, township, and village in Herki¬ 
mer County, New York, said by one authority to 
have been named for a tribe of Indians, the word 
meaning “eats what lives,” indicating that they 
were cannibals; but another authority states that 
it is a corruption of Maquaas, “muskrat.” 

Mohegan (md-he'-gan) Lake, N. Y. From a tribe of 
Indians whose name was from maingan, “a wolf.” 

Moldavia ( mdl-da’-vi-d ). The country traversed 
by the Moldau. 

Molly. A baptismal name derived from Mary. 

Monadnock ( mo-nad'-nok ). A mountain in New 
Hampshire. An Indian word, meaning “spirit 
place,” or, possibly, “bad,” as signifying the diffi¬ 
culty of the ascent. Another authority gives the 
interpretation “at the silver mountain.” 

Monday. Means the “day of the moon.” It 
was so called from its Latin name, dies lunce. 

Money. The first silver money was coined at 
Rome, A. U. C. 482. The mint was in the temple 
of June Moneta, and this circumstance occasioned 
the origin of our word “money.” 

Monica {mon'-e-ka) A feminine name. It may 
be from Italian monaca, “a nun,” or a feminine 
formed from its root, Latin, monachus, “a monk.” 

Monocacy (mo-nok'-d-si) River, Md. From the 
Indian name menagassi, “creek of many bends.” 

Monongahela {mo-ndn-gd-he'-la) River, Pa. From 
the Indian name menawngihella, “falling-in bank,” 
“a river without islands.” 

Montana (mdn-ta'-na). Spanish. Montana, “a 
mountain,” literally a hilly country. Name pre¬ 
sented to Hon. James M. Ashley in 1864, who was 
chairman of the Committee on Territories — sug¬ 
gested to the proposer owing to the territory 
embracing such a large portion of the Rocky 
Mountains and its spurs. 

Montauk ( mon-tok') Point, N. Y. From the 
Indian manati-auke, manati, “country,” auke, 
“island,” “the island country.” 

Mont Blanc (mon W&n'). Means, “white moun¬ 
tain.” The highest mountain of the Alps, situated 
on the frontiers of France and Italy, eternally 
covered with snow. 

Monterey ( mon-te-ra'), Cal. An honor by 
Vizcaino, in 1603, to Monte Rey, viceroy of Spain, 
who had dispatched the expedition under Vizcaino. 

Monte Rosa {mon’-te ro'-sa). Meaning “rosy 
mountain.” The highest mountain of the Alps, 
next to Mont Blanc. 



830 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Montgomery ( mdnt-gum'-er-i ), Ala. After Gen¬ 
eral Richard Montgomery, who was killed at 
Quebec, Canada, 1775. 

Montpelier (mdnt-pe'-li-er), Vt. From the French, 
translated a “little or lesser mountain,” probably 
suggested from Montpellier, a town in France. 

Montreal {mont-re-dl') . In 1535, Jacques Cartier, 
on his second voyage, ascended the St. Law¬ 
rence as far as Quebec, where he left his ship, 
and reached an Iroquois village called Hochelaga, 
perched on an eminence, which from its splendid 
position he called Mont Royal, the “royal mount,” 
now Montreal. 

Moosehead Lake, Me. Indian name Kennebec, 
meaning “long lake,” also Seboomook, meaning 
“shape of the moose’s head.” 

Moravia ( mo-ra'-vi-a ). The country traversed 
by the Morava. 

Mordecai ( mor'-de-kd ). From the Hebrew, Mord'- 
khay, which Tregelles derived from the Persian, 
meaning “little man,” or from Merodach, “wor¬ 
shiper of Mars.” 

Morgan. Some translate this name “by the 
sea,” or “sea-dweller,” or “seaman”; doubtless 
from Welsh mor, “the sea,” gan, “bringing forth.” 

Moritz. See Maurice. 

Morocco ( mo-rok'-kd ). More correctly Marocco. 
The European name of the North African Sultanate 
called by the natives Maghrib el Aksa, “the furthest 
west,” or El Gharb, “the west.” 

Moscow ( mds'-ko ). Derived from Muscovea or 
Muscovy, an old name for Russia, now called in 
Russian Moskva, from the small River Moskva on 
which it stands. The name of the river is probably 
Finnic, signifying a “place for washing.” 

Moses (jno'-zez). From the Greek Mosheh, “out- 
drawer, deliverer.” Salmasius derives the name 
from the Coptic moousi, moou, “water,” si, “from,” 
or “to take or draw.” Hones translates the name 
from the Egyptian moo, “water,” and ouie, 
“taken or saved out of.” Arabic, Moosa or Musa; 
Dutch, Moses; Fr., Moise; Gr., Moses; Hungarian, 
Mozes; It., Moise; Lat., Moses; Polish, Moyzesz; 
Sp., Moyses; Sw., Moses. 

Mosquito ( mos-ke'-to) Coast, Nicaragua. Owes 
its name to the troublesome insects (Spanish mosca), 
from the Latin musca, “a fly,” which infest this 
neighborhood. 

Mount Desert ( mownt de-zert') Island, Me. Named 
by Champlain Isle de Monts Deserts, owing to bar¬ 
renness of its craggy heights. The Indians called 
it Pemetig, “head, or the place which is at the head.” 

Mount Vernon. Residence of Gen. George Wash¬ 
ington, and city in Lawrence County, Missouri, 
named for the foregoing, which was originally 
built by Lawrence Washington for Admiral Vernon, 
for whom it was named. 

Mount Zion ( zi'-on ), or Sion ( si'-on ). A hill on 
which was situated the old city of Jerusalem; the 
“city of David.” The name has been applied to 
Jerusalem as a whole, and symbolically to the 
Christian church and heaven. 

Muncy, Pa. From the creek on which it is lo¬ 
cated, the water taking the name from the Minsi 
Indians. Minsink, “dwelling place of the Minsi.” 

Munich ( mu'-nik ). The English name of the 
capital of Bavaria, which is called Miinchen in Ger¬ 
man. Both forms have been independently 
obtained from the old name Munichen, found in 
1058, which is from Old High German munich, 
“a monk,” the towrn having been built on lands be¬ 
longing to the monks of the convent of Schaftlarn. 

Murfreesboro ( mur'-frez-bur-o ). City in Ruther¬ 
ford County, Tennessee, and town in Hertford 
County, North Carolina, named for Col. Hardy 
Murfree, an officer of the Revolution. 

Muriel, Meriel. From the Greek Myron, 
“myrrh.” 

Muskegon ( mus-ke'-gun ) River, Mich. From the 
Indian name, meaning “plenty of fish.” 


Muskingum {miXs-king r -gum). River and county 
in Ohio. An Indian word meaning “moose-eye 
river,” so called because of the number of moose 
and elk which inhabited the country. 

Myles. Another spelling of Miles. 

Myra ( mi'-rd ). A feminine name. The termi¬ 
nation of some other Christian name; or from the 
Greek, Myron, “myrrh.” 

Nahant {na-hant', na-hant ). Town and watering- 
place in Essex County, Massachusetts. According 
to different authorities an Indian word meaning 
“at the point,” or “two things united,” the latter 
meaning given because the town is formed of two 
islands connected by a beach. 

Nancy (nan'-si. French, ndn-se'). Name formed 
from Nan for Ann. 

Nantucket. Island and county in Massachusetts. 
This name appeared upon the maps in 1630, as 
Natocko, and some authorities state that it is 
derived from an Indian word meaning “far away” ; 
others that its present form is a direct derivation of 
the Indian Nantuck, which means that the sandy, 
sterile soil tempted no one. 

Naomi ( na-o'-mi, na'-o-mi ), From the Hebrew 
Naomi, signifying “my pleasantness.” 

Naples ( na'-plz ). A French corruption of the 
Italian Napoli, which preserves, with little change, 
the old Greek name Neapolis, “the new city,” 
which in spite of its name is one of the oldest cities 
in Italy, having been founded by colonists from the 
still older settlement at Cumee. 

Napoleon ( na-po'-le-on. French, na-pd-la-6n'). 
From the French name Napoleone, which has been 
translated “of the new city.” 

Narcissus ( nar-sis'-us ). From the Greek, mean¬ 
ing a “daffodil.” Fr., Narcisse; It., Narcisso; 
Fat., Narcissus. 

Narragansett ( ndr-ra-gan'-set ). Summer resort 
in Washington County, Rhode Island. An angli- 
cization of the Indian name of a tribe, Naiagansett, 
which in their language means “people of the 
point.” 

Nashua (ndsh'-u-a), N. H. From the river, its 
Indian name meaning “between.” 

Nashville, Tenn. First named, as a settlement, 
Nashborough, in honor of Francis Nash of North 
Carolina, a brigadier-general in the Continental 
Army. In June, 1784, changed to Nashville. 

Natal ( 'na-tal'). Received its name from Vasco 
da Gama, because he discovered it on the Feast of 
the Nativity. 

Natchez ( nach'-ez ). City in Adams County, 
Mississippi, named for the Indian tribe, the word 
meaning “hurrying men,” or “one running to war.” 

Nathan ( na'-than ). From the Hebrew Nathan, 
signifying “given.” Fr., Nathan; Ger., Nathan; 
Lat., Nathan; Sp., Natan. 

Nathanael or Nathaniel ( na-than'-a-el or na-than'- 
%-el). From the Hebrew, meaning the “gift of 
God.” Dutch, Nathaniel; Fr., Nathaniel; Ger., 
Nathaniel; Lat., Nathanael; Sp., Natanael. 

Naugatuck ( no'-ga-tuk ), Conn. Indian word 
expressive of “form of the rivers,” “point between 
two rivers.” Another source gives the word as 
neguttugk, meaning “one tree.” 

Nauvoo ( no-vod '). City in Hancock County, 
Illinois, named in obedience to a “revelation” 
made to Joseph Smith, one of its Mormon founders. 

Nebraska. State and river in the United States. 
An Indian word meaning “shallow, or broad 
water.” 

Nehemiah {ne-he-mV-a). From the Hebrew 
N’hhemyah, from n’hhem-yah, “whom Jehovah 
comforts” — that is, “aids.” Danish, Nehemias; 
It., Neemia; Lat., Nehemias; Sp., Nehemias. 

Nellie, Nelly. Names derived from Ellen, and 
sometimes from Helen. 

Netherlands. Which means “low lands,” is the 
English name of the Dutch Kingdom at the mouth 
of the Rhine which the French call Les Pays Bas. 



MISCELLANY 


831 


Komngrijk der Nederlanden is the official Dutch 
name of the kingdom as constituted after the war 
of 1830, when the Belgians acquired their independ¬ 
ence. 

t Nevada ( ne-vd'-da ). State of the Union, coun¬ 
ties in Arkansas and California. From the moun¬ 
tain range running through the division, the Sierra 
Nevada. Spanish words Serrado, “serrated or 
saw-toothed,” Nevada, “snowy,” i. e., “snowy 
mountains,” the application to the mountains taken 
from the Sierra Nevada Mountains of Granada. 

Neversink Highlands, N. J. So called by the 
sailors of outgoing craft, from the circumstance of 
their being the highest seashore elevations. They 
remain above the horizon of their vision a long time 
after the other shores have disappeared, hence the 
query, “Will it never sink?” and the consequent 
application. 

Neversink River, N. Y. From the Indian Ne- 
wa-sink,' “mad river,” also stated to be a local 
application, because the stream is less affected by 
drought than others. 

Nevskii Prospekt (nef'-ski-i pros-pekt'). The 
finest and most important street in St. Petersburg, 
noted for its fine buildings. Length, about three 
and one-half miles. 

Newark ( nii'-erk ), N. J. Suggested by the settle¬ 
ment’s first minister, Rev. Abraham Pierson, from 
Newark-on-Trent, England, where he was “Episco- 
ally ordained.” Previously called Milford, this 
eing given in 1666, by a band of Puritans from 
Milford, Connecticut. 

New Bedford. City in Bristol County, Massa¬ 
chusetts. The name of the owner of the town site 
being Russell, the family name of the Duke of 
Bedford. 

New Berne, or Newbern, N. C. From Berne, 
Switzerland, the native place of Christopher, Baron 
de Graafewidt, who in 1720 emigrated to and 
settled near this place. 

New Brunswick (brunz'-wik ). Received its name 
in compliment to the House of Brunswick. 

New England. “ That part of America in the 
ocean sea opposite Nova Albion in the South Sea, 
discovered by the ever-memorable Sir Francis 
Drake in his voyage about the world, in regard 
whereof this is styled New England, being in the 
same latitude.” 

Newfoundland (nu'-fund-land). The earliest of 
the colonial possessions of Great Britain. The 
name originally applied to the regions discovered 
by the two Cabots, and included a great portion 
of the North American coast. The island to 
which the name is now restricted is believed to 
have been the Island of St. John, so called because 
discovered by John Cabot on St. John’s Day, June 
24, 1497. 

New Hampshire. Name given to the State, in 
1629, by John Mason, in compliment to his native 
county in England. 

New Harmony. Town in Posey County, Indiana, 
settled by the “Harmonists,” and named for their 
sect. 

New Haven. County and town in same county, 
in Connecticut, settled by parties from Boston, who 
called it a “new haven.” Originally Quinnippac, 
from the Indian name of the river Quinnepyooghq, 
“long water place.” The present name substi¬ 
tuted “by the court,” September 5, 1640. 

New Holland. The name given to Australia 
previous to its settlement by the British. 

New Jersey. In compliment to Cartaret, who 
had defended the Isle of Jersey (Csesarea, one of the 
Channel Islands,) against the long parliament. 
Originally called New Sweden (when a Dutch pos¬ 
session). 

New London. City and county in Connecticut, 
and town in Stanly County, North Carolina, named 
for the city in England. 

New Mexico. A distinguishing name from u old ” 


Mexico, it having been a former possession of Mexico; 
Mexico from the Aztec god, “Mexitli.” The terri¬ 
tory was called Nova Mexicana by Antonio de 
Espejo at the time of the settlement of Santa FA 

New Orleans (nu dr'-le-anz ), La. Translation 
of the French name Nouvelle Orleans, given by 
them in honor of the Due d’Orleans, then Regent 
of France. 

Newport, R. I. In honor of the English admiral 
Christopher Newport (under James I.). 

News. This word is made up of the first letter 
of each point of the compass: North, East, West, 
South. This, therefore, is usually given as the 
origin of the term news, which comes from all 
points of the compass. 

New York (State). Denominated in honor of 
James, Duke of York, afterwards James II. 

New York City. Named from the State. The 
island on which the city is mainly located, known 
as Manhattan Island. (See Manhattan.) 

New Zealand ( ze'-land ). Name given by Dutch 
navigators, the word Zeeland denoting “sea-land,” 
being significant of the low countries. 

Niagara ( ni-dg'-d-ra ). From the Indian word 
Neagara, meaning “across the neck,” an allusion 
to a strip of land between lakes Erie and Ontario. 
The name has passed through many changes in 
spelling in the last two hundred years. Another 
derivation given is from Oniawgarah, “the thun¬ 
der of waters.” 

Nice ( nes ). A town on the Riviera, is the French 
form of the Italian Nizza. 

Nicholas ( nxk'-o-las ). From the Latin name, 
Nicolaus, signifying “conqueror of the people.” 
Dutch, Nicolaas (more frequently Klaas); Fr., 
Nicolas; Ger., Nicolaus; Gr., Nikolaos; Hun,, 
Miklos; It., Niccolo or Nicolo; Lat., Nicolaus; 
Port., Nicolao; Russ., Nikolai or Nikolas; Sp., 
Nicolas; Sw., Nils. 

Nicodemus ( nik-o-de'-mus ). From the Greek, 
meaning, “victory of the people,” or the “con¬ 
queror of the people.” Fr., Nicodeme; Gr., Niko- 
demos; Lat., Nicodemus. 

Niel ( net ). An Anglo-Saxon form of Nigel. 

Nigel ( ni'-gel ). A name derived from the Latin 
nigellus, “somewhat black”; a diminutive of 
niger, “black.” 

Nile. Called in Old Egyptian either Hapi or 
P-iero, “the river,” of which Nehar Misraim, “the 
river of Egypt,” or simply Nahal, “the valley” or 
“stream,” were Semitic translations. The Greek 
name Nilus was probably a corruption of the 
Phenician name Nahal. The Arabs now call it 
Bahr, “the sea,” the two Niles being distinguished 
as Bahr-el-Azrak, “the turbid” or Blue Nile, and 
Bahr-el-Abyad, the “clear” or White Nile. The 
Nile was also called Sihor, the “blue” or “dark” 
river, of which Nilus might conceivably be an 
Aryan translation, like the Nilab or “blue water” 
in the Punjab. 

Niobrara ( ni-o-brd' -ra ) River, Neb. From the 
Indian ni, “water,” abrara, “wide,” “the broad 
water.” 

Nita ( ne'-td ). A feminine name derived from 
Annita, a diminutive of Ann. 

Noah (no'-a). From the Hebrew, Noah, signi¬ 
fying “rest.” Arabic, Nooh or Nuh; Dutch, Noach 
or Noak; Fr., N6e; Ger., Noah; Gr., Noe; Sw., 
Noa. 

Noel (no'-el). From the French name, Noel, so 
named from Noel, “Christmas,” from being born on 
the day of that festival. Fr., Noel; Lat., Natalis 
or Noelius. 

Nora, Norah (no'-rd). Irish feminine names 
corrupted from Onora, from the English name 
Honora. As an English name Nora may some¬ 
times be an abbreviation of Leonora. 

Norfolk, Va. From the county in England of 
that name. (Anglo-Saxon, north “fork.”) 

Norman (nor'-man). Means “born in Nor- 



832 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


mandy,” or ‘'of Norman extraction.” Lot., Nor- 
mannus. 

Normandy (n6r'-man-di). Called Normandie in 
French. The province was occupied early in the 
Tenth Century by the Northmen, whose name on 
French soil gradually changed to Normans. A 
former government of France. 

North Carolina ( kar-o-li'-na ). North and South 
Carolina were originally Carolina. The name was 
given in 1564, at the time of the first colonization 
by the Huguenots in the reign of Charles IX. of 
France. The English later preserved the name in 
honor of Charles II. of England. 

North Sea. Indicative of its position geographi¬ 
cally. 

Norwalk, Conn. From the Indian nayaug, “the 
middle land,” “a tract between two rivers.” 

Nova Scotia ( no'-va sko'-shi-a ) or “New 
Scptland,” was the pedantic name given by James 
I. to the French colony of Acadia, when he granted 
it by patent to Sir William Alexander, a Scotch¬ 
man, on the pretext of its having been discovered 
by Cabot in the reign of Henry VII. 

Nova Zembla ( no'-va zem'-bla). A mixture of the 
Latin and Slavonic, literally “new land.” 

November. The ninth month in the Roman cal¬ 
endar. From the Latin novem, nine. 

Obadiah (o-ba-di'-a) . From the Hebrew Obha- 

dhyah, “servant or worshiper of Jehovah.” 

Oberlin (d'-ber-lin). Village in Lorain County, 
Ohio, named for Jean Frederick Oberlin, a philan¬ 
thropist. 

Ocklawaha ( dk-la-wa'-ha ) River, Fla. The 
Seminole Indian name, meaning “muddy place.” 

Ocklockonee (ok-lok'-d-ne) River, Fla. From the 
Indian (Seminole), meaning “yellow water.” 

Ocmulgee ( ok-mul'-ge ) River, Ga. From the 
Creek Indian name, Oko-mulgi, “the turbulent 
stream.” 

Oconee (o-ko'-ne) River, Ga. From the Semi¬ 
nole Indian word eknoni, “a water course,” “a 
small river.” 

Octave. See Octavius. 

Octavia (ok-ta'-vi-a). Feminine of Octavius. 
Fr., Octavie; It., Octavia; Lat., Octavia. 

Octavius (ok-ta'-vi-us). Latin name, signifying 
“the eighth,” i. e., the eighth son in order of birth. 
Fr., Octave; It., Octavio; Lat., Octavius; Sp., Oc¬ 
tavio. 

October. Means “the eighth month.” From 
the Latin octo, eight. 

Odd Fellows. A fanciful name assumed by the 
original founders of the society. 

Ogdensburg, N. T. Named from Samuel Ogden, 
the first proprietor. 

Ohio. State in the Union, river and counties in 
Indiana, Kentucky, and West Virginia. An Indian 
word meaning “the beautiful river.” 

Okeechobee ( o-ke-cho'-be ) Lake, Fla. Seminole 
Indian word meaning “grassy lake,” also spelled 
Okitchobi. 

Okefinokee (b-ke-jxn-o' -ke) Swamp, Ga. A 
Choctaw word, okefinocau “quivering water.” 

Oklahoma (ok-la-ho'-ma). A Choctaw word 
signifying “red people,” okla, “people,” homa, 
“red.” Another word is given meaning “home 
for all Indians.” 

Old Bailey, The. The principal criminal court 
of England, situated on the street named Old 
Bailey, which runs from Newgate to Ludgate Hill, 
not far from St. Paul’s, London. It was the site 
of the Roman vallum, forming part of the city’s 
fortifications external to the Wall, hence Ballium 
and Bailey. A vallum was a rampart of palisades, 
so called from vallus, a stake, and was planted on 
the top of the agger, or mound, thrown up for the 
purposes of defense. 

Old Dominion (db-mxn'-yun). A name popularly 
given to the State of Virginia. Its origin is vari¬ 
ously explained. Perhaps the best account is that 


Captain John Smith called Virginia “Old Virginia” 
to distinguish it from “New Virginia,” as the New 
England colony was called. The colony of Vir¬ 
ginia was alluded to in documents as “the colony 
and dominion of Virginia”; hence the phrase, 
“the Old Dominion.” 

Old Jewry. One of the localities allotted in olden 
times as a residence for the Jews. The terminal ry 
is the Old English ru or ra, having a collective sig¬ 
nification, as in rookery, eyry (eggery), poultry, etc. 

Old Point Comfort. Town in Elizabeth County, 
Virginia, so named by Capt. Christopher Newport, 
because he found it a safe haven after a severe 
storm; the “Old” added to distinguish it from 
New Point Comfort a few miles away. 

Olive. Derived, perhaps, through the French, 
from the Latin olivia, the “olive tree,” an emblem 
of peace. 

Oliver ( ol'-x-ver ). From French olivier, an olive- 
tree, from the Latin olivia. Dutch, Olivier; Fr., 
Olivier; It., Oliviero or Uliviero; Lat., Olivarus or 
Olivarius; Sp., Oliverio; Sw., Olivier. 

Olivia (d-liv'-i-a). The feminine of Oliver. 
Danish, Olivia; Dutch, Olivia; Fr., Olivie; Ger., 
Olivia; Sw., Olivia. 

Olympia (d-lim'-pi-d). In ancient geography, a 
valley in Elis, Peloponnesus, Greece, situated on 
the Alpheus. It is famous as the seat of a cele¬ 
brated sanctuary of Zeus and the Olympic Games, 
the most important of the great public games of 
classical antiquity. 

Olympia (b-lim'-pi-d), or Olympias (d-lim'-pi-as). 
From the Greek, meaning “belonging to Olympus,” 
“divine.” Fr., Olympe; Gr., Olympias; Lat., 
Olympias or Olympia. 

Omaha ( o'-ma-ho ). City in Douglas County, 
Nebraska. An Indian word, meaning “up-stream,” 
also the name of a tribe designated as “upstream 
people.” 

Oneida ( o-ni'-da ) Lake, N. Y. The name of an 
Indian tribe, the word signifying “the people of 
the beacon stone,” so named from a tradition con¬ 
cerning a certain stone which followed them in 
their wanderings, finally resting on the summit of 
one of their highest hills, from which their beacon 
fires could be seen the greatest distance, and upon 
which they afterwards assembled to hold council 
or prepare for war. 

Onondaga (dn-on-dd'-ga) Lake, N. Y. From a 
tribe of Indians, the On-ti-ah-an-taque, the word 
meaning “the place of the hills,” also translated 
as “the marsh at the foot of the hill.” 

Ontario (on-ta'-rx-o). One of the Great Lakes, 
county in New York, and a village in Vernon 
County, Wisconsin. An Indian word, said by one 
authority to mean “beautiful lake”; by another, 
“beautiful prospect of rocks, hills, and water.” 
Still another derives the word from the native 
Onontac, “the village on the mountain,” and chief 
seat of the Onandagas. 

Opelika (op-e-li'-kd), Ala. Taken from the 
swamp’s name, the Seminole name of which was 
opilualaikata, “a large swamp.” 

Ophelia (o-fe'-lx-a, d-fel'-yd). From the Greek, 
meaning “help,” “usefulness.” Fr., Ophelie; Gr., 
Ophelia; Lat., Ophelia. 

Orange Free State. So called because the origi¬ 
nal settlers were emigrants from the principality of 
Orange, in Holland. Now called Orange River 
Colony. 

Orangemen (or'-enj-men). Irish Protestants. 
The name was given about the end of the Seven¬ 
teenth Century by Roman Catholics to the 
Protestants of Ireland, on account of their support 
of the cause of William III. of England, prince of 
Orange. 

Oregon (or'-e-gon). State of the Union, and a 
county in Missouri. The name said to have been 
derived from Origanum, a species of wild sage 
found along the coast in the State, but another 




MISCELLANY 


833 


authority states that it is derived from the Spanish 
Oregones, which name was given the Indian tribes 
inhabiting that region, by a Jesuit priest, the word 
meaning “big-eared men.” 

Origen ( dr'-i-jen ). Meaning, “descended from 
Horus,” an Egyptian deity. Fr., Origene; Gr., 
Origenes; Lat., Origenes. 

Orkney ( drk'-ne ) Isles. Expresses the Gaelic for 
the “isles of whales, or porpoises.” 

Orlando ( or-lan'-do ). A form of Roland. It., 
Orlando; Lat., Orlandus. 

Orleans ( 6r'-le-&nz. French, or-la-aN r ). Means 
“Aurelian’s city,” from Aurelianum, named after 
the Emperor Aurelian. 

Orson. A masculine name, derived, like the 
Italian Orso, from the Latin ursus, “a bear.” 

Osage ( d-saf, o'-saj) River, Mo. From the 
Indian, translated “the strong.” 

Osawattoinie ( ds-a-wot'-d-me ), Kan. A composite 
word, Osa and Wottomie, formed from the names of 
the rivers Osage and Pottawottomie. 

Oscar. From the Old German name Oskar, 
“very renowned.” 

Oskaloosa ( os-ka-ldo'-sa ) Kan. A compound 
word, Oska, name of an Indian chief, Loosa, his 
wife. 

Osmund. Some translate this name “house- 
peace.” Wachter renders it “excellent, gallant, 
brave man.” 

Oswald ( oz'wald ). From Old German os-walt, 
“illustrious magistrate, prefect or administrator.” 

Oswego ( ds-we'-gd ), N. Y. From the river, the 
Iroquois name being oswageh,- “flowing out.” 

Otho ( o'-tho ), or Otto (dt'-td). Some translate 
Otho “happy,” and Otto “rich,” but they would 
seem to be the same name. It comes from Old 
German od, “excelling, happy, fortunate.” Dutch, 
Otto; Fr., Othon; Ger., Otto; It., Ottone; Lat., 
Otho; Sp., Otonio; Sw., Otto. 

Ottawa ( ot'-a-wa ). The capital of the Dominion 
of Canada, stands on the River Ottawa, which pre¬ 
serves the name of the Ottawa or Otaua tribe, an 
Algonquin term meaning “traders,” literally, “he 
trades.” 

Ottoman ( dt'-td-man ) Empire. The official title 
of the realm subject to the Sultan, takes its name 
from Othman, the Emir under whom the Turks 
first advanced into Europe. Othman is the Tartar 
word ataman, which we have in the title of the 
Hetman of the Don Cossacks, and means a “com¬ 
mander of horse,” at, “a horse.” 

Ovid (dv'-id). From the Latin, meaning “goat,” 
or “sheep,” or both. Dutch, Ovidius; Fr., Ovide; 
Ger., Ovidius; It., Ovidio; Lat., Ovidius. 

Owego ( d-we'-gd ), N. Y. Delaware Indian word, 
ahwaga, “where the valley widens.” 

Owen. Probably from the Irish name Eogan, 
signifying “youth.” 

Oxford. Anglo-Saxon Oxnaford, the “ford of the 
oxen,” is a name of the same class as Shefford, the 
“sheep ford,” Hertford and Swinford in England, 
or Ochsenfurt and Schweinfurt in Germany. 

Ozark ( o-zark '). County and city in Christian 
County, Missouri, and village in Dale County, 
Alabama. A corruption of the French name 
auxarcs, meaning “with bows,” a term descriptive 
of the Indians who inhabited the country. It is 
also claimed, especially for the mountains, that the 
name is a provincial composite of the river Osage 
and Arkansas, lying between the Oz and Ark, i. e., 
osark. 

Pacific Ocean. Is the English translation of 
Mar Pacifico, or Oceano Pacifico, the somewhat 
inappropriate name bestowed by Magellan, in 
1521, on the great ocean which he was the first to 
traverse. 

Paducah ( pa-du'-kd ), Ky. From the name of 
an Indian chief, “Paducah.” 

Palestine (p&l'-2s-tiri). From the Greek Palces- 
tina, a name indicating that the Greek mariners 


first knew Canaan as the land of the Philistines 
inhabiting the coast. The latter arrived, probably 
from Cyprus, after the Hebrew conquest and before 
the time of Rameses III., on whose monuments 
they appear as Pulista. 

Palisades ( p&l-i-sadz'), The. A basaltic bluff 
extending along the western shore of the Hudson 
in the States of New Jersey and New York. It 
commences opposite the northern part of New 
York City, and continues northward about eighteen 
miles. Height, 200-500 feet. 

Pall Mall ( pel-mel' ). A fine street in London, 
leading from Trafalgar Square to the Green Park. 
Its name is a modern spelling of paille maille, the 
title of a French game of ball somewhat similar to 
croquet, first played in this London thoroughfare 
about 1621. 

Palo Alto ( pa!-Id al'-to). Town in Santa Clara 
County, California. A Spanish phrase meaning 
“high stick.” 

Pamlico ( pam'-lik-d ) Sound, N. C. From a tribe 
of Indians called the Pamlicoes. 

Pamphlet. This word is derived from the 
name of a Greek authoress, Pamphylia, who com¬ 
piled a history of the world in thirty-five little 
books. 

Panama ( pan-d-ma'. Spanish, pa-na-ma'). Was 
the native name of a village on the Pacific Coast of 
the Gulf and Isthmus of Panama. Here, in 1518, 
Davila founded the oldest existing city in America. 
Panama is believed to be a Guarani word meaning 
a “butterfly,” and also, according to Wullerstorf, 
signifying a “mudfish,” perhaps because the flaps 
of the mudfish resemble the wings of a butterfly. 
From the town of Panama the name was extended 
to the Isthmus and Gulf. 

Panama Bay. The bay of “mudfish.” 

Paolo. See Paul. 

Papua (pa'-poo-a). A Portuguese term for 
“frizzled,” in alluding to the enormous frizzled 
heads of hair worn by the natives. 

Paraguay ( par'-a-gwa ). River and republic of 
South America, meaning “the river of waters,” 
referring to its numerous tributaries. 

Paris {par'-Is. French, pa-re'). From the 
name of the Keltic tribe Parisii. It was called by 
the Romans Lutetia Parisiorum, the “bright city of 
the Parisii,” from the white stone used in building. 

Parkersburg. City in Wood County, West Vir¬ 
ginia, named for Alexander Parker of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

Parnell ( par'-net ). A feminine name corrupted 
from Petronilla. 

Parry Islands. Named for the famous Arctic 
navigator, Sir W. E. Parry, to whom their discovery 
was due. 

Pasadena ( pds-a-de'-na ). City in Los Angeles 
County, California. An Indian word meaning 
“crown of the valley.” 

Paschal ( pas’-kal. French, pas-kal'). Means 
“belonging to Easter,” or “born at Easter.” Gr., 
Pascal; It., Pasquale; Lat., Paschalis; Sw., Pas- 
cual. 

Passaic ( pas-sa'-ik ). County, city, and river in 
New Jersey; derived either from the Indian word 
Passaic or Passajeek, “a valley,” or from the 
Indian equivalent of “peace.” 

Passamaquoddy (pas-sa-ma-kwod'-di) . Bay on 
coast of Maine. An Indian word meaning “pollock 
ground,” or “pollock-plenty space.” 

Passumpsic (pas-sump'-sik) River, Vt. Indian 
word meaning “much clear river.” 

Patagonia ( pat-d-go'-ni-a ). So styled by Ma¬ 
gellan in accordance with the Spanish word patagon, 
meaning a “large, clumsy foot.” It was from the 
fact of seeing the impressions of the large shoes of 
the aborigines that he at once concluded the coun¬ 
try must be inhabited by giants. 

Patapsco (pa-taps'-ko) River, Md. From the 
Indian name patapsqui, “black water.” 



834 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Paternoster Row {pa'-ter nos'-tSr ro). A street 
in London, north of St. Paul’s, long famous as a 
center of book publishing. It is said to be so 
named from the prayer books or rosaries sold in it. 

Paterson. City in Passaic County, New Jersey, 
named for William Patterson, an early governor. 

Patience. Found as a masculine as well as a 
feminine name. The name explains itself. 

Patrick ( p&t'-rik ). From the Latin Patricias, 
meaning “patrician,” “noble.” Dutch, Patricius; 
Fr., Patrice; It., Patrizio; Lat., Patricius; Sp., 
Patricio. 

Paul ( pol . French, pol. German, powl). A 
name derived from the Hebrew, signifying “small 
in stature.” Danish, Paul or Paulus; Dutch, 
Paulus; Fr., Paul; Ger., Paul; Gr., Paulos; Hun¬ 
garian, Pal; It., Paolo; Lat., Paulus; Polish, 
Pawel; Port., Paulo; Russ., Pavel; Sp., Pablo; 
Sw., Paul. 

Paulina ( po-le'-na, po-li'-na). The feminine of 
Paul. Fr., Pauline; Ger., Pauline; It., Paolina; 
Lat., Paulina. 

Pauline {pd-len'. French, po-len'). A French 

name derived from the Roman name Paulina. 

Payette ( pa-et') River, Idaho. Named by a 
French trapper, Jose Payette. 

Peabody Institute. An institute at Baltimore, 
founded by George Peabody, and containing a 
library, conservatory of music, art gallery, etc. 

Pearl River, Miss. The Indian name was 
Tallahatchie, signifying “river of pearls,” of river 
stones, obtained from a peculiar shell taken from 
the bottom of the canoes; supposed to be a kind 
of oyster. 

Pecos ( pa'-kos ) River, Tex. Named by the 
Spaniards, from pecoso, “freckled,” a local sug¬ 
gestion in the appearance of its waters. 

Pedro. See Peter. 

Peekskill. Village in Westchester County, New 
York, named for Jan Peek, a Dutch mariner of the 
Seventeenth Century. 

Pekin ( pe-kin'), or Peking (pe-king'), Chinese, Peh- 
king. The “north court” or “northern capital,” 
has been so called since 1421, when the third Ming 
Emperor transferred hither the residence of the 
court from Nanking, the “southern court.” 

Pembina {pem'-be-na) , Dak. Contraction of 
Ojibway Indian word anepeminan, a red berry 
growing in that vicinity, which Michaux regards as 
a variety of the cranberry of the East. 

Pend Oreille ( pend-6-reV ) Lake, Idaho. From the 
French, meaning “ear-ring,” suggested by its 
shape. 

Penelope {pe-neV-o-pe) . The Greek name which 
some render “female weaver”; others define it 
“a web,” and “a garment,” because the wife of 
Ulysses was the best weaveress. Fr., P6n61ope; 
Gr., Penelope; Lat., Penelope. 

Pennsylvania. William Penn originally de¬ 
signed calling the territory “New Wales,” but 
afterward suggested the word Sylvania, as suitable 
for a land covered with forests. The King of 
England, in 1681, prefixed the word “Penn” in 
honor of William Penn; literal translation, “Penn’s 
woods.” 

Pennsylvania Ave. The principal avenue of 
Washington, D. C. Its most important section 
lies between the capitol and the treasury. 

Penobscot ( pe-nob'-skot ). Derived from the 
Indian word penobskeag, meaning “rocky place,” 
or “river of rocks.” Also said to be the name of 
an Indian tribe. 

Pensacola ( pen-sa-ko'-la ). Bay and city in 
Escambia County, Florida. Said to be derived 
from the Indian word Pan-sha-okla, meaning “hair 
people.” The French gave to the bay the name 
of Port-de-Aucloss, also Bai de St. Mariette. 

Peoria ( pe-d'-ri-d ). County and city in Illinois 
and nation in Indian Territory. An Indian word 
meaning “place where there are fat beasts.” 


Percival {per'-si-val). An old masculine bap¬ 
tismal name, derived from a local name in Nor¬ 
mandy. It probably means “companion of the 
chalice.” 

Percy. A name derived from Perci, a parish and 
canton near St. Lo, in Normandy. 

Peregrine {per'-e-grin). From the Latin, mean¬ 
ing “foreign,” “pilgrim,” “traveler.” Danish, 
Peregrinus; Dutch, Peregrinus; It., Peregrino; 
Lat., Peregrinus; Sui., Peregrinus. 

Pere-la-Chaise or Pere Lachaise {par la-shaz'). 
The Persian cemetery so named is the site of a 
great monastery founded by Louis XIV., of which 
Pere la Chaise, a favorite confessor of that luxuri¬ 
ous monarch, was the first superior. He died in 
1709. After the Revolution, the grounds were laid 
out for a cemetery. 

Pernambuco (per-nam-bdo'-ko). An important 
city of Brazil. Means “the mouth of hell,” in 
allusion to the violent surf always distinguished 
at the mouth of its chief river, the Ama¬ 
zon. 

Persepolis {per-sep'-o-lis). In ancient geography, 
one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, situated 
not far from the Kur, about thirty-five miles north¬ 
east of the modern Shiraz. 

Persia {per'-shi-a, per'-sha, per'-zhd). Name 
given by the Greeks to the region, the capital of 
which was Persepolis, originally overrun by a wild 
branch of the Ayrian race called the Parsa, meaning 
in the native tongue “the tigers.” The Persian 
name for the country is Iran. 

Perth Amboy, N. J. One of its landed proprie¬ 
tors was James Drummond, the Earl of Perth, who 
named the original settlement Towne of Perth; the 
point of land at the mouth of the Raritan was 
known as Ambo Point, and early attachment or 
consolidation gave its present name. 

Peru {pe-rod'). Received its name from its 
principal river, the Rio Paro, upon which stands 
the ancient city of Paruru. The Brazilian term 
Para, however modified, is at all times suggestive 
of a river. 

Peter {pe'-ter). From the Greek, signifying a 
“rock,” properly, a “stone.” Danish, Peder; 
Dutch, Pieter; Fr., Pierre; Ger., Peter; Gr., Petros; 
Hungarian, Peter; It., Pietro; Lat., Petrus; 
Polish, Piotr; Port., Pedro; Russ., Piotr; Sjj., 
Pedro; Sw., Peter. 

Petersburg or St. Petersburg. Properly Peter- 
burg or St. Peterburg, the capital of Russia, was 
founded by Peter the Great, who, having in 1702 
taken the Swedish forts on the Neva, in the fol¬ 
lowing year laid the foundations of a fort which he 
called Peterburg (Fort Peter), on an island in the 
Neva, the nucleus and now the most densely popu¬ 
lated portion of the city. 

Petersburg, Va. Originally named Peter’s Point, 
after the trader Peter Jones, who opened a depot 
here. 

Pharaoh {fa'-ro, fa'-rd-o). A title given to the 
Egyptian kings. From the Hebrew Paroh, which 
has been variously translated “son of the sun,” 
“mouth of the sun,” “voice of God,” and “sun” 
only. The proper meaning of the word is “the 
king” or “great house.” 

Phebe. See Phoebe. 

Philadelphia {fil-d-del'-fx-a), Pa. From two 
Greek words meaning “loved or friendly,” and 
“brother,” applied as “brotherly love.” The 
Indian name of the locality was Coaquannok, 
“grove of tall pine trees.” 

Philemon {fi-le'-mon). Means “saluting.” Fr., 
Philemon; Gr., Philemon; It., Filemone; Lat., 
Philemon. 

Philetus {fi-le'-tus). From the Greek, meaning 
“beloved.” Gr., Philetos; It., Fileto; Lat., 
Philetus. 

Philibert {fil'-e-bert), or Philebert. From the 
Teutonic, signifying “famously bright.” Danish, 



MISCELLANY 


835 


Philibert; Fr., Philibert; It ., Filiberto; Lat., 
Philebertus. 

Philip (fil'-ip). From the Greek name signi¬ 
fying, “fond of horses.” Dutch, Philippus; Fr., 
Philippe; Ger., Philipp; Gr., Philippos; Hungarian, 
Filep; It., Filippo; Lat., Philippus; Polish, Filip; 
Port., Felippe; Russ., Philipp or Filip; Sp., Felipe; 
Sw., Filip. 

Philippa (fi-lip'-pa ). A feminine name formed 
from Philip. Dutch, Philippa; Ger., Philippine; 
Gr., Philippa; It., Filippa; Lat., Philippa; Sp., 
Felipa; Sw., Filippina. 

Philippi (jil-ip'-i). Named after Philip of Mace- 
don. 

Philippines ( fil'-ip-inz ). Were discovered by 
Magellan on the Feast of St. Lazarus, 1521, and 
hence called by him Archipelago de San Lazaro, 
a name changed in 1542 to Islas Filipinas in honor 
of Philip II., in whose reign the Spanish coloniza¬ 
tion of the islands was begun. 

Phillis. Derived from the Greek Phyllis, name 
of a country woman introduced in Virgil’s Eclogues, 
and of a nurse of Lycurgus, King of Thrace, and of 
a nurse of the Emperor Domitian. It means “a 
green branch covered with leaves, a leaf, foliage, 
a heap of leaves.”* 

Phineas ( fin'-e-as ). From the Hebrew 
Piynhhas, “mouth of brass.” Fr., Phineas; It., 
Fineo; Lat., Phineas; Sp., Phinees. 

Phoebe (fe'-be ). From the Greek name, meaning 
“clear, pure, bright.” Fr., Pheb6; Gr., Phoibe; 
It., Febe; Lat., Phoebe. 

Phyllis. See Phillis. 

Piccadilly ( pik'-ka-dil-li ). The great thoroughfare 
in London between Hyde Park Corner and the 
Haymarket. The street was named from a house 
of entertainment (Piccadilly House) which stood in 
the Haymarket in the time of Charles I. The name 
originally comes from the picardils or small stiff 
collars once worn by English gallants. 

Pierre. See Peter. 

Pieter. See Peter. 

Pietermaritzburg ( pe-ter-rndr'-its-burg ). Named 
after two Boer leaders. 

Pietro. See Peter. 

Pike’s Peak. One of the highest summits of the 
Rocky Mountains, situated in Colorado, seventy 
miles south by west of Denver. It was discovered 
and ascended in 1806, by Lieutenant (afterwards 
General) Zebulon Montgomery Pike, a surveying 
officer of the United States, for whom it was named. 

Pillars of Hercules. In ancient geography, the 
two opposite promontories Calpe (Gibraltar) in 
Europe and Abyla in Africa, situated at the eastern 
extremity of the Strait of Gibraltar, sentinels, as 
it were, at the outlet from the Mediterranean into 
the unknown Atlantic. 

Pincian {pin’-chan) Hill. A hill in the northern 
part of Rome, extending in a long ridge east from 
the Tiber. One of the famous “Seven Hills.” 

Pin Money. Catharine Howard, wife of Henry 
VIII., introduced pins into England from France. 
As they were expensive at first, a separate sum for 
this luxury was granted to the ladies by their hus¬ 
bands. Hence the expression “pin-money.” 

Piscataqua ( pis-kat'-a-kwa ) River, N. H. From 
the Indian Piscataquanke, “a great deer place.” 

Pittsburg. In Pennsylvania, was originally 
called Fort Du Quesne, after a French Governor of 
Canada, and afterward, in 1758, when the French 
had been driven out by Washington, it was renamed 
Fort Pitt, after William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, 
the name Pittsburg being adopted in 1769. 

Pius. From the Latin, meaning “pious.” Fr., 
Pie; Ger., Pius; It., Pio; Lat., Pius. 

Plantagenet (plan-taj'-e-net), House of. A line 
of English kings (1154-1399) founded by Henry II., 
son of Geoffrey, count of Anjou, and Matilda, 
daughter of Henry I. of England. It is said to 
have been assumed by the first count of that name 


from his having caused himself to be scourged with 
branches of broom ( planta genesta ) as penance for 
some crime he had committed. 

Plata, Rio de la (re'-6 da la pld'-ta). Literally, 
“river of the silver,” was named by Sebastian Cabot, 
in 1526, by reason of a few gold and silver orna¬ 
ments, the earnest of the wealth of Peru, which he 
obtained by barter from the natives, and which he 
hoped were an indication of an El Dorado in the 
interior. 

Platte (plat). River in Nebraska, Colorado, and 
Wyoming. A French word meaning “dull, flat, 
shallow,” singularly applicable to this stream. 

Pliny (plin'-t). From the Roman naturalist 
Caius Plinius. Fr., Pline; Ger., Plinius; It., Plinio; 
Lat., Plinius. 

Plymouth (plim'-uth). Town in Plymouth 
County, Massachusetts, the landing place of the 
Pilgrims, which was named for the town in England 
where they were most hospitably entertained before 
sailing for America. The English town was so 
called because built at the mouth of the River 
Plym. 

Pocomoke (po'-ko-mok) River, Md. From its 
Indian name pockhammokik, “broken by knobs, 
small hill.” 

Poets* Corner. A space in the east side of the 
south transept of Westminster Abbey, containing 
the tablets, statues, busts, or monuments of 
Shakespere, Ben Jonson, Chaucer, Milton, Spenser, 
and other British poets, actors, divines, and great 
men. Some of them are buried near or under their 
monuments. 

Point Comfort, Va. Given to the locality in 
1607 by the first colonists on their voyage of ex¬ 
ploration up the James River, called “Poynt Comfort 
on accounte of the goode channel and safe anchorage 
it offered.” 

Point Judith, R. I. From Judith Quincy, wife 
of John Hull, the coiner of the rare old pine-tree 
shillings of 1652. 

Point Pinos (pe'-nos), Cal. Named Pinta de 
Pinos by Vizcaino, in 1603, from the prevalence of 
the pine-tree. 

Point Reyes (point ra'-es), Cal. From Tres 
Reyes, name of the vessel commanded by Aguilar 
of Vizcaino’s Spanish expedition, 1603. 

Poitiers or Poictiers (poi-terz' . French, pwa-ti-a') . 
Town in France, so named from the Pictones, or 
Pictavi, a Keltic people. 

Poland. An inversion of Land-Pole, the Slavonic 
for “men of the plains,” who first overran this 
territory. It is called Polen or Pohlen in German, 
Pologne in French, and Polska in Polish. 

Pompey ( pom'-pi ).* From the Latin meaning 
“of Pompeii,” i. e., the city of Pompeii. Danish, 
Pompejus; Dutch, Pompejus; Fr., Pompee; It., 
Pompeo; Lat., Pompeius. 

Pompey’s Pillar. A Corinthian column of beau¬ 
tifully polished red granite at Alexandria, standing 
on a pedestal or foundation of masonry. 

Pontchartrain (pdnt-char-trdn') . Lake in Louisi¬ 
ana, named for a French count who was an ^arly 
explorer of the Mississippi Valley. 

Ponte Vecchio (pon'-te vek'-ke-d). A bridge in 
Florence, over the Arno; a picturesque structure 
with three wide arches, rebuilt in 1345. The 
roadway is bordered on both sides by quaint little 
shops, except over the middle arch, where there is 
an opening. Over the south row of shops is carried 
a gallery, built by Vascari, connecting the Pitti 
Palace with the Uffizi and the Palazzo Vecchio. 

Popocatepetl (po-pb-kd-ta-pet'l). The loftiest 
volcano in Mexico, means the “smoking mountain.” 
From the Aztec popoca, “he smokes,” and tepetl, 
a “mountain.” 

Porta Maggiore (por'-ta mad-jd'-r&). The finest 
and most imposing ancient gate in the walls of 
Rome. 

Portland, Me. In 1786, “an act for erecting that 



836 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


art of the Town of Falmouth in the County of 
umberiand commonly known as the Neck into a 
town by the name of Portland.” The name was 
recommended from its being the oldest English 
name in that section, given to a large island in the 
harbor, the name of the main channel (Portland 
Sound) and the mainland opposite (Portland Head). 

Portland, Oregon. Named in compliment to 
Portland, Me. F. W. Pettygrove and Gen. A. L. 
Lovejoy, in 1843, were the purchasers of what was 
afterward Portland, and of which ground they were 
the first occupants. As a native of Maine, Petty¬ 
grove desired to compliment Maine in naming the 
locality, and similar motives prompted his partner 
to call it Boston (his native place). The contro¬ 
versy settled by tossing an old American red cent; 
the one who threw the most heads in three flips 
should name the town. The score is recorded; 
Lovejoy, tails, two, heads, one; Pettygrove, heads, 
two; and so we have Portland instead of Boston, 
Oregon. 

Portland Vase. A famous urn of blue trans¬ 
parent cameo-cut glass, ten inches high. It was 
discovered about 1630 in a sarcophagus in a tomb 
in the Monte del Grano, near Rome. It is so called 
from its possessors, the Portland family. 

Porto Rico {por'-to re'-kb). Spanish for “rich 
port.” 

Port Royal, S. C. From the bay, called Royale 
by Ribaut, “because of the fairnesse and largnesse 
thereof” of its waters. 

Portsmouth, N. H. From Portsmouth, England; 
the governor of which, Captain John Mason, was 
the original proprietor of its namesake. 

Portugal ( por'-tu-gal . Portuguese, por-too-gal'). 
The Portus Gallice of the Romans, literally, '“the 
gates of Gaul,” as approached from the Mediter¬ 
ranean and Atlantic Seas. 

Potomac ( po-to'-mak ). River forming the boun¬ 
dary line between Maryland, Virginia, and West 
Virginia. Indian Patowmek or Potowmak, “they 
are coming by water ”; another translation, “place 
of the burning pine,” allusion to a council fire. 

Potsdam {pots'-dam. German, pots'-dam). Prus¬ 
sian city situated at the junction of the Nuthe with 
the Havel, sixteen miles southwest of Berlin. It is 
an imperial residence, and contains many palaces. 
The name is a corruption of the Slavonic Pod- 
dubami, “under the oaks.” 

Poughkeepsie {pd-kip'-si). City in Dutchess 
County, New York. Derived from the Delaware 
Indian word, apokeepsingk, meaning “safe and 
pleasant harbor,” or “shallow inlet, safe harbor for 
small boats.” 

Prado {pra'-do). The chief fashionable prome¬ 
nade of Madrid. 

Prague {prag). The capital of Bohemia, is the 
English form of the German Prag, or Praha, which 
in Czech means the “threshold,” referring, it is 
supposed, to a reef of rocks in the bed of the 
Moldau. The suburb of Warsaw on the right 
bank of the Vistula similarly goes by the name of 
Praga, the “threshold.” 

Prairie du Chien {pra'-re dii shen. French, pra- 
re' du she-a n'), la. French words, translated “dog 
prairie”; from the local habitations of the prairie 
dogs. 

Prater {pra'-ter). A noted public park in Vienna. 

Prescott, Ariz. In compliment to the American 
historian, William H. Prescott. 

Pretoria {pre-to' -ri-d). The capital of the 
Transvaal, was named in honor of Andries Pre- 
torius, a Boer leader, whose son became the first 
President of the Republic. 

Prince Edward Island. In the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
rence, was formerly called St. John’s Island. In 
1798, the local legislature passed an Act, confirmed 
in 1799 by the king in council, changing the name 
to Prince Edward Island, in compliment to Prince 
Edward, afterward Duke of Kent, and father of 


Queen Victoria, who was then commander of the 
forces in British North America. 

Prince of Wales Island. Named after the Prince 
Regent, afterwards George IV. of England. 

Printer’s Devil. The youngest apprentice in a 
printing-office, whose duty it is to do all the dirty 
jobs. The early printers were by many believed 
to practise the black art; Aldus Manutius had a 
negro boy for a body servant, and the superstitious 
townsfolk nicknamed this boy “the devil.” 

Priscilla {pris-sW-la). A diminutive of the Latin 
prisons, “old, ancient.” Dutch, Priscilla; Fr., 
Priscille; It., Priscilla; Lat., Priscilla. 

Protestant. The second Diet of Spires, in 1529, 
decided that the religious differences could only be 
decided by an ecclesiastical council, thus disallowing 
the right of private judgment. A solemn protest 
was made against this decision by the Lutheran 
princes of Germany, April 19, 1529, in consequence 
of which the members of the Reformed Churches 
have since been known as Protestants. The protest 
was drawn up by Luther and Melanchthon. 

Provence {pro-vaNs'). An ancient government 
of southeastern France. The Provencia of Caesar, 
a name reminding us that it was the first province 
acquired by Rome beyond the Alps. 

Providence, R. I. Given by Roger Williams in 
recognition of “God’s merciful providence to me in 
my distress.” The Indian name of the locality was 
Mooshansick. 

Prudence. A feminine name given by Puritans 
From the Latin prudentia, “wisdom, prudence, 
discretion, knowledge.” 

Prussia. Is the Latinized form of the German 
name Preussen, itself a corruption of an older Lithu¬ 
anian name. Old Prussia was the Duphy formed 
in the eastern corner of the modern kingdom out of 
the possessions of the Teutonic knights, whose 
inhabitants in the Tenth Century were called 
Prutheni or Pruzzi, which, according to Zeuss, is a 
Lettish name meaning “neighbors.” 

Ptolemy {tbl'-e-mi). From the Greek, meaning 
“war-like,” or “mighty in war.” Dutch, Ptole- 
meus; Fr., Ptolemee; Ger., Ptolemaus; Gr., 
Ptolemaios; It., Tolomeo; Lat., Ptolemaeus. 

Pueblo {pweb'-lo). County and important man- . 
ufacturing city, in same county, in Colorado. A 
Spanish word meaning “a collection of people, a 
town or village.” 

Punch and Judy. A contraction for Pontius and 
Judas. It is a relic of an old miracle play in which 
the actors were Pontius Pilate and Judas Iscariot. 

Punjab or Punjaub {pun-jab'). This great north¬ 
west Indian territory derives its name from two 
Persian words, signifying “five rivers.” The five 
affluents of the Indus which give rise to the name 
are the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and 
the Sutlej. 

Pyrenees {pir'-e-nez). The chain separating 
France from Spain is the Mons Pyrenceus of the 
Greek and Roman geographers. The name first 
appears in Herodotus, who supposed Pyrene was 
the name of the place where the Danube flowed. 
The etymology is unknown, being probably pre- 
Aryan. Many guesses have been made from 
Basque, Keltic, and Greek sources, explaining the 
name as the “high,” “steep,” “pine-clad,” or 
“burnt” mountains. The most probable deriva¬ 
tion is from biren or pyren, a local word, doubtless 
ultimately Basque or Iberian, which signifies a 
“summit” or “ridge.” 

Quakers. This name was originally applied by 
a Derby, England, magistrate to the members of 
the Society of Friends, because George Fox, the 
founder, admonished him and those present to 
tremble at the name of the Lord. 

Quebec {kwe-bek'). The former capital of 
Canada, arose around a blockhouse built by Cham¬ 
plain in 1608. The name is believed to refer 
to the “narrowing” of the river at this point 



MISCELLANY 


837 


to which Champlain alludes. Another account says 
it was named after Quebesq in Brittany, “the vil¬ 
lage on the point”; while a third derives it from 
an Algonquin term signifying “take care of the 
rock.” 

Queen Charlotte Island. Named in compliment 
to the Queen of George III. 

Queensland and Queenstown. Both named after 
Queen Victoria. 

Quentin. See Quintin. 

Quinsigamond (kwin-sig'-d-mond) Lake, Mass. 
Indian word meaning “fishing place for pickerel.” 

Quintin, Quintyne ( kwin'-tin ). From the Latin 
name Quintinus, formed from the name Quintus. 

Quintus ( kwin'-tus ). The Roman name signi¬ 
fying “the fifth,” i. e., the fifth son in order of 
birth. 

Quirinal ( kwxr'-xn-al or kwxr-x'-nal). The farthest 
north and the highest of the seven hills of ancient 
Rome, lying northeast of the Capitoline and north¬ 
west of the Viminal. It has its name from an old 
Sabine sanctuary of Quirinus (Mars). On the hill 
stands the palace of the Quirinal, the former 
summer palace of the pope. 

Quiz. It is said that Daly, the manager of a 
Dublin play-house, laid a wager that a new word 
of no meaning should be the common talk and 
puzzle of the city in twenty-four hours. In conse¬ 
quence of this the letters quiz were chalked by 
him on all the walls of Dublin, with an effect that 
won the wager. 

Rachel ( ra'-chel ). From the Hebrew Rahhel, 
usually translated “a ewe.” Fuerstius translates 
the name “mutterschaft,” i. e., motherhood, ma¬ 
ternity. Fr., Rachel; Ger., Rahel or Rachel; It., 
Rachele; Lat., Rachel; Sp., Raquel; Sw., Rachel. 

Rafael. See Raphael. 

Rafaele or Raffaelle. See Raphael. 

Rahway ( rd'-wa ), N. J. From the river; its 
name traditionally traced to a Raritan chief named 
Rahwack, who had his habitation near the river’s 
mouth. 

Rainier ( ra'-ner ). Town in Columbia County, 
Oregon, and mountain in Washington, named for 
Rear-Admiral Rainier. 

Raleigh ( ro'-li ), N. C. In honor of Sir Walter 
Raleigh, who located a colony on Roanoke Island, 
July 23, 1587. 

Ralph. From the Teutonic, meaning “warrior- 
wolf.” Dutch, Rudolf; Fr., Raoul; It., Raolfo; 
Lat., Radulphus; Sp., Rodolfo; Sw., Rudolf. 

Randolph. Properly Radolph, the same as the 
German names Radulph, Radolf, Rudolph; from 
Old German rad-ulph, “help or counsel.” 

Rangeley. Town and plantation in Franklin 
County, Maine, and one of the Androscoggin 
lakes in the same State, named for an Englishman, 
an early settler and large landowner. 

Rangoon ( ran-goon'). The chief town and port 
of Burmah is called in Burmese Ran-kun, the “end 
of the war,” literally, enmity exhausted. A name 
given in 1763, by Alompra, the founder of the 
Burmese dynasty, who, after the destruction of the 
city of Pegu, established the capital of the kingdom 
near the famous golden pagoda called Shwe Da- 
gon, with which Ran-kun may probably be con¬ 
nected by assonance. 

Raoul. See Ralph. 

Raphael ( r&f'-a-el, ra'-fa-el, ra'-fd-el). From the 
Hebrew R’phael, “healed of God, or whom God 
healed.” Fr., Raphael; Ger., Raphael; It., 
Rafaele or Raffaelle; Lat., Raphael; Sp., Rafael. 

Rapidan ( rap-x-ddn ') River, N. C. Corruption of 
Rapid Anne. The suffix being given in honor of 
Queen Ann of England. 

Rappahannock ( rap-pa-hdn'-nuk ) River, Va. In¬ 
dian lappihanne, “river of quick, rising water,” also 
noted as toppehannock. 

Raritan ( rdr'-i-tan ) River, N. J. From a local 
tribe of Indians, the Raritans. 


Raymond. A name derived from the Teutonic, 
ram-mund, “a strong man.” Fr., Raymond; It., 
Raimondo; Lat., Raymundus; Sp., Raymundo or 
Ramon. 

Rebecca, Rebekah ( re-bek'-ka ). From the He¬ 
brew Ribhkah, signifying a “rope with a noose”; 
from Arabic rabkat, which Tregelles says means 
“one who ensnares men by her beauty.” Fr., 
Rebecca; It., Rebecca; Lat., Rebecca; Sp., Re- 
beca. 

Red-letter Day. A day that is fortunate or 
auspicious; so called in allusion to the custom 
of marking holy days, or saints’ days, in the old 
calendars with red letters. 

Red River. From the color of its waters it was 
called by the French Riviere Rouge, “Red River”; 
called by the Spaniards Rio Roxo de Natchitoches. 

Red Sea. Translates the unexplained classical 
names Erythrasan Sea and Mare Rubrum. To the 
early Portuguese mariners the name Mar V ermelho 
seemed to be appropriate, because of the red streaks 
of water, due probably to floating infusoria! 

Regents ( re'-jents) Park. One of the largest 
parks of London, situated in the northwestern part 
of the city. It is 472 acres in extent, and contains 
the Zoological Gardens. 

Regent Street. One of the principal streets of 
the West End of London, extending from Portland 
Place to Waterloo Place. 

Regina ( re-ji'-na ). A feminine name, probably 
signifying “queen,” from the Latin. Arthur 
translates it “queenlike.” 

Reginald ( rej'-i-nald ). From the Old German 
name reginald, “noble hero.” 

Reims or Rheiins ( remz . French, raNs). A 
famous French city, was named for the Remi, a 
tribe. 

Reinhold. See Reynold. 

Rene ( re-na'). From the French. Like the 
Italian name Renato, derived from the Latin, 
renatus, “renewed, born, risen or begun again.” 
Fr., Rene; It., Renato; Lat., Renatus. 

Renee. Feminine of Rene. Sometimes Angli¬ 
cised in pronunciation as ren'ne. Fr., Renee; It., 
Renata; Lat., Renata. 

Retta. A feminine name derived from Mar- 
garetta. 

Reuben ( fu'-ben ). From the Hebrew, R’ubhen, 
which St. Jerome translates “son of vision”; 
Tregelles, “see”; i. e., “behold a son.” 

Reynold (ren'-dld). From the Teutonic, meaning 
“power of Judgment.” Danish, Reinhold; Dutch, 
Remold; Fr., Renaud; Ger., Reinhold; Lat., 
Reynaldus or Reginaldus; Sp., Reynaldo; Sw., 
Reinhold. 

Rhine (jin). Is the English spelling of the Ger¬ 
man name Rhein, which was the Latin Rhenus 
and the Keltic Renos. It means, to “flow.” 

Rhoda ( ro'-da ). A feminine name derived 
from the Latin rhoda, “a rose.” Gr., Rhode; Lat., 
Rhoda. 

Rhode (rod) Island. One of the original Thir¬ 
teen States, said to have received its name from a 
small island in Narragansett Bay named Roode 
Eylandt, “red island”; according to another 
authority, named for the island of Rhodes. 

Rhodes (rodz). Means an “island of roses,” in 
conformity with the Greek rhodon, a “rose.” 

Richard. From the Teutonic reich-hart, “very 
powerful, strong, or rich.” Dutch, Richard; Fr., 
Richard; Ger., Richard or Reichard; It., Ricardo; 
Lat., Richardus; Port., Ricardo; Sp., Ricardo. 

Richmond, Va. From Richmond-on-the-Thames, 
a suburb of London; the name suggested owing to 
analogy in situation. 

Rio Grande (rx'-o-grdnd. Spanish, re'-6 gran'-da). 
River rising in the Rocky Mountains and emptying 
into the Gulf which gives name to a county in 
Colorado. A Spanish phrase meaning “great 
river.” 




838 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Bita ( re'-td ). A feminine name of Italian origin; 
abbreviated from Margarita. 

Roanoke ( ro-a-nok'). County and city in same 
county in Virginia, river in Virginia and North 
Carolina, town in Huntington County, Indiana, and 
village in Woodford County, Ill. From the island 
of same name, Roenoke or Rawnoke, equivalent to 
peag , “sea-shell,” or “wampum.” 

Robert. Is red-beard, from ru or ro, “red,” and 
bert or hart, a “beard.” Dr. R. S. Maitland gives 
no fewer than two hundred different methods of 
spelling this name. Rupert and Robert are identi¬ 
cal, and were used occasionally for the same person. 
Danish, Robert; Dutch, Robert; Ger., Robert; It., 
Roberto; Lat., Robertus; Sp., Roberto; Sw., 
Robert. 

Robertina. A feminine name derived from 
Robert. 

Robin. A diminutive of Rob, the nickname of 
Robert. 

Rochester. A city in the State of New York, 
derives its name from Colonel Nathaniel Rochester, 
who projected the settlement in 1818. 

Rockaway, N. Y. Named from the Indian 
ackewek, “bushy.” 

Rocky Mountains. Were first called Montagues 
de Pierres Brilliantes, “mountains of brilliant 
stones,” from the sparkling of the summits in the 
sunshine. Then came the more prosaic Montagues 
Rocheuses, or “ Rocky Mountains ” ; and our present 
still more prosaic “The Rockies.” 

Roderick ( rdd'-er-ik ). From the Old German 
name Roderic or Roderich, from rad-reich, “rich 
or powerful in counsel.” Fr., Rodrigue; Ger., 
Roderich; It., Rodrigo; Lat., Rodericus; Russ., 
Rurik; Sp., Rodrigo, Roderigo, or Ruy. 

Rodrigo. See Roderick. 

Rodriguez (Spanish, ro-dre'-geth). The “son of 
Roderick.” 

Roger ( roj'-er ). Some translate this name 
“spear of fame,” others “spear-red.” It comes 
from rat-gar, “a war councillor,” or ratgar, “prompt 
in counsel.” Dutch, Rutger; Fr., Roger; It., 
Rugiero; Lat., Rogerus; Sp., Rogerio. 

Roland or Rowland ( r o'-land. French, rd-laTS*). 
Derived from the old Frankish name signifying 
“illustrious countryman.” Danish, Roland; Dutch, 
Rceland; Fr., Roland; Ger., Roland; It., Orlando 
or Rolando; Lat., Rolandus; Port., Rolando; Sp., 
Rolando. 

Romanoff ( ro-ma'-nof ) Cape, Alaska. Compli¬ 
ment to the prominent Russian statesman Ro¬ 
manoff. 

Rome. The French name of the city called 
Roma in Latin and Italian. Among the various 
guesses as to the meaning of the name, the most 
probable refers it to the word gruma or groma, 
“cross roads,” spreading themselves at their 
junction into a sort of forum. 

Rosa. See Rose. 

Rosalia. A feminine name formed from the 
name Rose. 

Rosalin (rdz'-d-lin ), Rosalind ( rdz'-a-lind ). A 
feminine diminutive formed from the name 
Rose. 

Rosamond ( rdz'-a-mund ). Probably from rosa 
mundi, “rose of the world,” corrupted to “rose of 
peace.” Dutch, Rozamond; Fr., Rosemonde; 
It., Rosmonda; Lat., Rosamunda. 

Rose. A feminine name derived from the 
Latin rosa, a “rose.” The Romans sometimes 
called their sweethearts “rose mea.” Danish, 
Rosa; Dutch, Rosa; Fr., Rose; Ger., Rose; It., 
Rosa; Lat., Rosa; Sp., Rosa; Sw., Rosa or Rosina. 

Rosemary. A feminine name formed from the 
Latin rosmarinus, “dew of the sea.” 

Rosetta ( rd-set'-td ). A diminutive derived from 
the name Rose, or from the Italian form Rosa. 

Ross. Either as a name of a place by itself, or 
as a portion of a name, always means “a headland.” 


It is a Celtic word, and is frequent in Scotland, as 
in Rosslyn, Culross, Rossberg, Ardrossan, etc. 

Rotten Row. The popular name corrupted from 
Route en Roi, “the way of the king,” for a famous 
driveway and promenade in Hyde Park, London, 
much frequented by fashionables during the season. 

Roumania ( rod-ma'-ni-d). A modern kingdom 
on the Lower Danube, comprising the former 
Turkish principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. 
The kingdom was so named because the people, who 
speak a Neo-Latin dialect derived from the colonists 
settled by Trajan in Dacia, designate themselves as 
Rumeni or Romani (Romans). 

Rouse’s Point, N. Y. From Jacques Rouse, a 
Canadian who settled on this point in 1783. 

Rowena ( ro-e'-na ). A feminine name, which 
some consider to be of Saxon origin. Mr. Arthur 
derives it from D. rouw, “peace”; Anglo-Saxon 
rinnan, “to acquire”; others derive it from the 
Welsh rhonwen, “white shirt.” 

Ruben. See Reuben. 

Rudolph ( ru'-dolf). From root of Randolph 
and Radolph. Dutch, Rudolf; Fr., Rodolphe; Ger., 
Rudolf; It., Rodolfo or Ridolfo; Lat., Rudolphus. 

Rufus ( ru'-fus ). From the Latin, meaning 
“reddish,” “having red hair.” Lat., Rufus. 

Rupert ( ru'-pert ). Etymologically the same 
name as Robert. Ger., Ruprecht; Lat., Rupertus. 

Rurik. See Roderick. 

Russia ( rush'-d, roo'-sha). Named from the 
Roosi, or Russ, a tribe of Norsemen in the Ninth 
Century. 

Ruth. From the Hebrew Ruth, from r’tith, 
“appearance, vision, fig, beauty.” 

Sabina ( sa-bi'-na ). A feminine name derived 
from Sabina, wife of Adrian, celebrated for her 
private as well as her public virtues; one as chaste 
as a Sabine. Dutch, Sabine; Fr., Sabine; It., 
Sabina; Lat., Sabina; Sp., Sabina; Sw., Sabina. 

Sabine ( sa-ben') River, La. Some allege that it 
was so named by French voyagers, who applied the 
name Sabine because of a lively skirmish with the 
Indians on its banks, for wives. More likely it 
means “cypress,” from the French word. 

Saco ( so'-ko ). River, and city in York County, 
Maine. Derived from an Indian word sohk or 
sauk, “pouring out”; hence the outlet or discharge 
of a river or lake. 

Sacramento ( sak-ra-men'-to ). River, city, and 
county in California, named by the Spaniards) the 
word meaning “the sacrament.” 

Sag Harbor. Village in Suffolk County, New 
York. Derived from the Indian word saggaponack, 
“place where the ground nuts grow.” 

Saginaw ( s&g'-i-no). River, county, bay, and 
city in Michigan. Said to derive its meaning from 
an Indian word, sauk-sahcoon, “pouring out at the 
mouth,” or “an outlet.” 

Sahara ( sa-ha'-ra ). Is simply an Arabic term 
for “desert.” 

St. Anthony, Minn. Named St. Anthony by 
Hennepin in July, 1680; a reference to his being a 
Recollet of the Province of St. Anthony in Artois, 
France. Indian name, Owahmenah, “falling water.” 

St. Augustine ( sdnt o'-gus-ten). A town in 
Florida, is the oldest European settlement in the 
United States. Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles, 
sent by Philip II. of Spain in 1565 to drive out the 
French Protestant refugees, who, three years before, 
had reached Albemarle Sound, arrived off the 
coast of Florida on St. Augustine’s Day, August 
28th, and gave the name of the Saint to the city 
which he founded shortly afterwards. 

St. Bernard ( sdnt ber-nard'), Great. An Alpine 
pass leading from Martigny, Valais, Switzerland, to 
Aosta, Italy, and connecting the valleys of the 
Rhone and the Dora Baltea. It was traversed by 
armies in Roman and medieval times. The pas¬ 
sage by the French army under Napoleon in May, 
1800, is especially noteworthy. 



MISCELLANY 


839 


St. Clair River ( sant kldr'), Mich. Also the 
lake, was named in honor of the founder of the 
Franciscan nuns, from the fact that La Salle reached 
it on the day consecrated to her (August 12tli). 
He, therefore, named it Sainte Claire (St. 
Clara). 

St. Croix ( sant kroi') River, Me. Means “Holy 
Cross,” and was named by De Monts, from a cir¬ 
cumstance in the two rivers of its mouth forming a 
cross. 

St. Croix River, Wis. Le Seur says, it was origi¬ 
nally named Madelaine after Madelaine Radisson; 
then changed to St. Croix, after Monsieur St. Croix, 
who was drowned at its mouth, while exploring, 
about 1700. Indian name hogan-wauke-kim, “the 
place where the fish lies.” 

Saint Elias. Mountain in Alaska, named for 
the saint upon whose day it was discovered. 

St. George’s Channel. Named after the patron 
saint of England 

St. Helena ( sant he-le'-na). An island in the 
South Atlantic belonging to Great Britain. Napo¬ 
leon was exiled there, and resided at Longwood from 
1815 until his death in 1821. 

St. James’s Palace. A palace in London, adapt¬ 
ed as a royal residence by Henry VIII., enlarged by 
Charles I., damaged by fire in 1809, and since re¬ 
stored. Though no longer occupied by the sover¬ 
eign, it gives its name officially to the British 
court. 

St. John River, Me. Given by Pierre de Monts; 
Indian name looshtook, “long river.” 

Saint Johnsbury. Town in Caledonia County, 
Vermont, named for St. John de Creve-coeur, 
French consul at New York, and a benefactor of 
Vermont. 

St. John’s River, Fla. Indian name, Yeacas or 
Walaka, “river of many lakes.” French named 
the stream Riviere Mai, Ribaut having entered its 
waters in that month. The Spaniard, Francisco 
Gordillo, called it Rio San Juan, having reached it 
on June 24, 1521, “the day as set apart to honor 
the precursor of Christ.” The word was afterward 
anglicized by the English to St. John’s River. 

St. Lawrence River, N. Y. Named from the 
gulf; which received its name St. Lawrent or St. 
Lawrence from the French navigator Jacques 
Cartier, who entered its water August 10, 1535 
(St. Lawrence’s Day). 

St.. Louis ( sant loo'-is or lob'-i), Mo. In honor of 
Louis XV. of France; the name originally applied 
to a depot established at this point February 15, 
1764, by Pierre Laclede Siguest. 

St. Marie, Sault ( soo sant ma'-ri. French, so 
s&TSit rna-re'), Mich. The French call a cascade, 
says Schoolcraft, a leap or sault, but sault alone 
would not be distinctive; therefore, in conformity 
with their general usage, they added the name of a 
patron saint to the term by calling it Sault de 
Sainte Marie, that is, “Leap of St. Marie,” to dis¬ 
tinguish it from other leaps or saults. 

St. Paul. From the Chapel of St. Paul, a log 
chapel erected here by Roman Catholics. Prior 
to the adoption of St. Paul, it was known as Pig’s 
Eye, from the nickname applied to a corpulent 
“one-eyed” Frenchman who located a “saloon- 
shanty” at this point. Indian name, imnijaska, 
“white rock,” a reference to the sandstone bluff on 
which the city stands. 

St. Petersburg. See Petersburg. 

Salem ( sa'-lem ). City in Essex County, Mas¬ 
sachusetts, so named by its early settlers because 
they hoped to enjoy peaceful security there. An 
Indian word meaning “peace.” 

Salome ( sa-lom', sa-lo'-me). A feminine name, 
from the Hebrew Solomon, “peaceful.” 

Salt Lake. County and city in same county, in 
Utah, named for the famous lake of that State. 

Samson or Sampson ( sam'-son or s&mp'-sdn). 
From the Hebrew Shimshon, “illustrious sun; 


solar, like the sun; one who resembles the sun.” 
Danish, Samson; Dutch, Samson; Fr., Samson; Lat., 
Samson; Port., Sansao; Sp., Sanson; Sw., Simson. 

Samuel ( sdm'-u-el ). From the Hebrew sh'mu - 
El, “heard of God.” Danish, Samuel; Dutch, 
Samuel; Fr., Samuel; Hungarian, Samuel; It., 
Samuele; Lat., Samuel; Sp., Samuel. 

San Antonio ( san an-tb'-ni-o). City in Bexar 
County, Texas, named for the Roman Catholic 
mission, San Antonio de Velero, otherwise the 
Alamo. 

San Diego ( san de-a'-go ), Cal. From the bay, 
which was named by Sebastian Vizcaino, Spanish 
navigator, who entered it November 12, 1603, in 
honor of the day saint, San Diego d’Alcala. A 
coincidence being that Vizcaino’s vessel also was 
named San Diego. 

Sandusky ( san-dus'-ki ). Town in Illinois, county, 
river, and city in Ohio, whose name by some au¬ 
thorities is said to be derived from the Indian word 
Outsandouke, “there is pure water here”; or Sa- 
anduste, “large bodies or pools of water.” Another 
authority states that it was named for Jonathan 
Sandousky, a Polish trader of the vicinity. 

Sandwich Islands. Named by Captain Cook in 
compliment to Lord Sandwich, First Lord of the 
Admiralty. 

Sandy. A Scottish name corrupted from Alex¬ 
ander. 

Sandy Hook, N. Y. Namely, “sandy point,” 
Hook being applied from the Dutch haak, “point.” 

San Francisco. Bay, county, and city in same 
county, in California, said by some to have been 
named for the old Spanish mission of San Francisco 
de Assisi, by others to have been named for the 
founder of the order to which Father Junipero, the 
discoverer of the bay, belonged. 

San Joaquin ( san ho-a-ken'). County and river 
in California. A Spanish phrase meaning “whom 
Jehovah has appointed.” 

San Jose ( san ho-sa'). City in Santa Clara 
County, California, named for the patron saint of 
Mexico, St. Joseph. 

San Salvador ( san sal-va-dor'). Means “Holy 
Saviour.” This was the first land sighted by 
Columbus (October 11, 1492); he, therefore, gave it 
this name as a token of thanksgiving. 

Sanskrit ( s&n'-skrit ). From the Sanskrit sarn- 
skrta, “polished,” the learned language of the 
Hindustan and of the Brahmins, which was current 
at the time of Solomon. It is the parent of most 
modern languages. It contains the roots of Greek, 
Latin, Celtic, Slavonic, and German, and as it 
contains no exotic terms must be one of the primi¬ 
tive tongues. 

Santa Barbara. County and city in same 
county, in California, named for an old Spanish 
mission, which, in turn, probably received its name 
from the Santa Barbara Channel, designated by 
Vizcaino as Canal de Santa Barbara, he having 
sailed through its water, December 4, 1603, the 
day being St. Barbara’s. 

Santa Claus ( san'-ta kldz ) or Santa Klaus. A 
modern adaptation of the Dutch, Sant Nikolaas 
(St. Nicholas). As is now very well known, St. 
Nicholas was the patron saint of children and dis¬ 
pensed gifts to them on Christmas eve. 

Santa Cruz ( san'-ta kroos'). Counties in Arizona 
and California, city and island in the latter State. 
A Spanish word meaning “holy cross.” 

Santa Fe ( san'-ta fa'). County and city in same 
county, in New Mexico; and city in Haskell County, 
Kansas, and town in Monroe County, Missouri. 
A Spanish phrase meaning “holy faith.” The 
name originally given by Antonio de Espejo, in 
1582, was La Ciudad de la Santa Fe de San Fran¬ 
cisco, “the City of the Holy Faith of St. Francis.” 

Santiago ( san-te-a’-go ). The capital of Chile, 
was founded in 1541 by Pedro de Valdivia, and 
placed under the protection of the patron saint of 



840 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Spain. lago is a form of Jacobus, and Santiago 
of Spain was St. James the Great, the elder brother 
of St. John. 

Sara. A feminine name derived from the 
Italian form of Sarah. 

Saracen ( s&r'-d-sen ). Is a term loosely used by 
Medieval writers to denote the Moslem races, and 
especially the foes of the Crusaders. It is a Greek 
corruption of the Arabic sharqln, “eastern” peo¬ 
ple, as opposed to the maghrabl or “western” 
people. 

Saragossa ( sa-rd-gds'-sa ). From Caesarea Au¬ 
gusta; its Basque name was Scduba, “the sheeps’ 
ford.” 

Sarah or Sara ( sa'-rd ). From the Hebrew 
Sarah, variously rendered “female ruler, governor” ; 
“princess, noble lady”; “leader, commander.” 
Dutch, Sara; Fr., Sara; Ger., Sara; It., Sara; 
Lat., Sara; Port., Sara; Sp., Sara; Sw., Sarah. 

Saranac ( sar'-d-nak ) Lake. Village in Franklin 
County, New York. An Indian word meaning 
“river that flows under a rock.” 

Saratoga ( s&r-a-to'-gd ), N. Y. Uncertain. Ter¬ 
mination oga or aga said to signify “place,” the 
first part of the word thought by some to imply 
“hillside”; by others, a reference to the springs, 
soragh in some Indian dialects being the name for 
“salt”; seitake is given, meaning “on the heel,” 
but no reason further than a probable corruption in 
pronunciation of the word. Assarat, “sparkling,” 
oga, “place,” is mentioned by Schoolcraft. 

Sarawak ( sa-ra'-wdk ). Malay Sarakaw, “the 

cove,” or bay. 

Sardinia ( sar-din'-i-d ). Italian, Sardegna. Bears 
the name of the Sardi, its early inhabitants, who 
may possibly be identified with the Shardina, or 
Shardana, one of the northern races who attacked 
Egypt in the reign of Meneptah. Another view is 
that it expresses the “land of the Sardonion,” a 
Greek term for a plant indigenous to this island. 

Saskatchewan (sas-kach'-e-won). A river in 
British North America. The name is derived from 
the Indian, meaning “swift river.” 

Saturday. The day of Saturn, one of the planets 
of the solar system. 

Saugatuck ( sd'-ga-tuk ), Conn. Indian Sauke- 
tuck, “at the mouth of the stream with tides.” 

Saul. From the Hebrew Shaul, which Simonis 
translates “exoratus,” i. e., obtained by entreaty; 
and others, “asked for, or desired.” Fr., Saul; 
Lat., Saulus. 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. See St. Marie Sault. 

Savannah ( sd-van'-na). Town in Wayne County, 
New York, and city and river in Georgia. The 
name derived from the Spanish word savanne, 
meaning “grassy plain.” 

Saxon. Comes from the word saex — a short 
crooked sword; and so “the men of the sword.” 
We can readily understand how, with sword in 
hand, they became invincible in arms, and how 
they spread dread and destruction all along the 
shores which they frequented. By the terror of 
their name they compelled the Gauls to include 
in their litany a new petition, “Deliver us, O Lord, 
from the fury of the Northmen.” How could it be 
otherwise than that the men who affected such 
grim appellations as “Bloody-ax,” “Skull-cleaver,” 
“Death’s-head,”—and whose deeds did not belie 
their names, should inspire a natural horror. 

Saxony ( s&ks'-un-i ). A modern German kingdom, 
called Sachsen in German, is the country of the 
Saxons; derived from the Seax, or short crooked 
knife with which they armed themselves. 

Scandinavia ( skan-di-na'-vi-a ). A convenient 
name for the Swedish and Norwegian Peninsula, 
adopted from a passage in Pliny where the cor¬ 
rect reading is probably Scadinavia, which Mr. 
Bradley refers to the Teutonic shadino, “dark.” 
Scadinavia, the “land of darkness,” was possibly 
at first a mythical name for the dark North, which 


was afterwards applied to the Swedish Penin¬ 
sula. 

Schenectady ( sken-ek'-ta-di ), N. Y. Originally 
spelled Schenectada, from the Indian Schaunaugh- 
tada, “river valley through or beyond the pine- 
trees,” there being a portage across the woodland 
neck, from the present site of Albany to the 
Mohawk River at this point. 

Schohai’ie ( slco-h&r'-i ), N. Y. Corruption^ of the 
Indian to-wos-sho'-her, “drift-wood,” from the 
collecting at this point, where the Line Kil and 
Little Schoharie flowed into the main stream. 

Schonbrunn ( shon'-brobn ). Near Vienna, the 
suburban residence of the Austrian Emperors, so 
called from a “beautiful spring” in the grounds of 
the palace, was erected in 1744 by Maria Theresa 
on the site of a former hunting-seat. 

Schroon ( skroon ) Lake, N. Y. Said to be a corrup¬ 
tion of Scharon, and to have been applied in honor 
of the Duchess of Scharon, favorite of Louis XIV. 
Others advise from an Adirondack Indian word 
signifying “a child or daughter of the mountain.” 

Schuylkill (skool'-kU) River, Pa. From the 
Dutch schuylen-kill, “hidden creek.” The Swedes 
called it Skierkillen. Indian name was ganshowe- 
hanne, “the roaring stream.” 

Scioto ( si-o'-to ) River, Ohio. Shawnoese Indian 
word meaning “hairy,” its waters at flood in the 
spring being filled with hairs, attributed ' to the 
herds of deer drinking or bathing in the water at 
the season of shedding their coats. 

Scotland. Originally Caledonia, meaning, liter¬ 
ally, the hilly country of the Caels, or Gaels, signi¬ 
fying “a hidden rover.” 

Scotland Yard. A short street in London, near 
Trafalgar Square. Here formerly were the head¬ 
quarters of the Metropolitan police, now removed to 
New Scotland Yard on the Thames embankment, 
near Westminster Bridge. 

Scutari ( skoo'-ta-re ). In Turkey, from Uskudar, 
“a messenger,” having been in remote periods, 
what it is to this day, a station for Asiatic couriers. 

Seattle ( se-at'-t'l ). City in King County, Wash¬ 
ington, named for the chief of the Duwamish tribe 
of Indians, See-aa-thl. 

Sebago ( se-ba'-go ) Pond, Me. From the Indian, 
meaning “great water,” or “place or region of. 
river lake.” 

Sebastian ( se-bas'-chan. Spanish, sa-bas-te-an '). 
From the Greek rendering of Augustus, and signi¬ 
fying “to be venerated or reverenced, venerable.” 
Dutch, Sebastiaan; Fr., Sebastien; It., Sebastiano; 
Lat., Sebastianus; Port., Sebastiao; Russ., Sevas¬ 
tian; Sp., Sebastian; Sw., Sebastian. 

Sebastopol {se-bas'-to-pol). The “august” or 
“imperial city,” was founded and named by 
Potemkin soon after the conquest of the Crimea 
in 1783. 

Selali. A masculine name derived from the 
Hebrew Shelah, signifying a “weapon,” “missile.” 

Seneca ( sen'-e-ka ) Lake, N. Y. From a tribe of 
Indians, the Senecas; known as the “great hill peo¬ 
ple” from a tradition that they broke out of the 
earth from a large mountain, on Canandaigua Lake, 
known as Ge-nun-de-wah or “great hill.” 

Senegambia ( sen-e-gdm'-bi-a ). So named be¬ 
cause of its situation between the Senegal and 
Gambia rivers. 

September. The seventh month of the Old 
Roman Calendar, counted from March, which 
commenced the year previous to the addition of 
January and February by Numa in the year 713 
B. C. 

Serena. A feminine name derived perhaps from 
Serena, a daughter of Theodosius; from the Latin 
serenus, “cheerful, quiet, calm.” 

Servia ( ser'-vi-d ). Known by the Romans as 
Suedia, district peopled by the Suevi, who after¬ 
wards settled in the territory now called Sweden. 

Seth. From the Hebrew Sheth, signifying “ap- 



MISCELLANY 


841 


pointed.” Fuerstius writes the name S’et, and ren¬ 
ders it "war bustle or noise.” 

Sevres ( savr ). Named from the two rivers 
which traverse it; anciently called Villa Savara. 

Sheboygan (she-boi'-gan) River, Mich. From 
the Indian showbwawaygum, “the stream that 
comes from the ground.” 

Shenandoah ( shen-an-do'-d ). County and river 
in Virginia, city in Page County, Iowa, borough in 
Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, and town in 
Page County, Virginia. An Indian word said by 
some to mean “the sprucy stream”; by others, 
“a river flowing alongside of high hills and moun¬ 
tains”; and still another authority states that it 
means “daughter of the stars.” 

Sherwood Forest. A forest in Nottinghamshire, 
England, fourteen miles north of Nottingham. It 
was formerly of large extent. It is the principal 
scene of the legendary exploits of Robin Hood. 

Shetland Isles. The Norse for the “Viking 
Island,” conformably with their native prenomen 
Hyalti, “a Viking.” The term Viking, meaning 

{ )irate, derived from the Vik, or creek, in which he 
ay concealed. 

Shiraz ( she'-raz ), Persia. Signifies “ lion’s 
paunch,” because at one time, like the lion, it con¬ 
sumed much but produced nothing. 

Shirvan {shir-van'). River and district of Persia, 
said to have been named after Nieshirvan, a king 
of Persia. 

Shrewsbury ( shruz'-ber-i ) River, N. J. From a 
town of England. Anglo-Saxon scrobbes, “of a 
bush,” buhr, “a fortress,” literally, “a fortress near 
which were many shrubs.” 

Siam ( si-dm', se-am'). The European corruption 
of the Malay Siyam, which is identical with the 
name Shian or Shan given by the Burmese to their 
eastern neighbors. 

Siberia (si-be'-ri-a). In Russian, Sibir, is so 
called from Sibir or Ssibir, a town on the Irtish near 
Tobolsk, which no longer exists. Sibir was the 
capital of a Tartar khanate of the same name, which 
was conquered in the Sixteenth Century by Yer- 
mak, the Hetman of the Don Cossacks. 

Sibyl ( sib'-U ). From the Latin, meaning “wise 
old woman.” Dutch, Sibylla; Fr., Sibylle; Gr., 
Sibulla; Lat.. Sibylla. 

Sicily ( sis'-i-li ). The English form of Sicilia, 
so called from the Siculi, who possessed a great 
part of the island when the Greek colonists arrived. 

Sierra (se-er'-rd). This is a Spanish word signi¬ 
fying “a saw.” Its application to ranges of moun¬ 
tains, whose peaks rising in succession, as do those 
of the Sierra Nevada, resemble the teeth of a saw, 
is peculiarly picturesque and poetical. 

Sierra Nevada ( se-er'-rd ne-va'-da. Spanish, se- 
er'-rd na-va'-thd ) Mountains. Spanish words Ser- 
rado, “serrated or saw-toothed,” Nevada, “snowy,” 
i. e., “snowy mountains,” the application taken 
from the Sierra Nevada Mountains of Grenada. 

Sigismund (sij'-is-mund). A masculine name, 
from sieg-mund, “man of victory, triumphant man.” 
Dutch, Sigismundus; Fr., Sigismond; Ger., Sigis¬ 
mund or Sigmund; Lat., Sigismundus; Sp., Sigis- 
mundo; Sw., Sigismund. 

Silas ( si'-las ). A name corrupted from Silvanus. 
Silesia ( sU-e'-shi-d ). From Zlezia, “the bad 
land.” 

Silvanus ( sil-va'-nus ). From the Roman name 
Silvanus or Sylvanus; also the appellation of a god 
of forests and fields; from silva, sylva, “a forest, 
wood” Dutch, Silvanus; Fr., Sylvain or Silvain; 
It., Silvano; Lat., Silvanus; Sp., Silvano. 

Silvester, Sylvester ( sil-ves'-ter ). A masculine 
name derived fropi the Latin silvester, wild, 
found in a wood”; from silva, “a wood.” 
Fr., Silvestre; It., Silvestro; Lat., Silvester; Sp., 
Silvestre. 

Silvia. See Sylvia. 

Simeon ( sim'-e-dn). From the Hebrew shama, 


meaning “obedient,” or “hearing with acceptance.” 
Fr:, Simeon; Ger., ^Simeon; It., Simeone; Lat., 
Simeon; Port., Simeao; Sp., Simeon. 

Simon ( si'-mon ). Originally the same as Simeon. 
Dutch, Simon; Fr., Simon; Ger., Simon; Hunga¬ 
rian, Simon; It., Simone; Lat., Simon; Sp., 
Simon; Sw., Simon. 

Sinai ( si'-na, si'-na-i, si'-ni). Is usually sup¬ 
posed to have been named from the Hebrew seneh, 
the “acacia tree,” but is more probably the moun¬ 
tain of Sin, the moon-god of the Babylonians. 

Singapore (sing-ga-por') . The name of an island 
and city in the Straits Settlements, means the 
“lion city.” The form Singapore was adopted 
by Sir Stamford Raffles for the city which 
he founded in 1819 on an island which since the 
Middle Ages had been called Sinhapura, from a town 
of that name built in the Fourteenth Century by 
Malay or Javanese settlers. 

Sing Sing, N. Y. Mohegan Indian word Sin-Sing 
or Sink-Sink, said to signify “stone upon stone.” 

Sioux (sod). Many places in the United States 
bear the name of this tribe of Indians, among them 
the counties in Iowa and Nebraska. The word 
means a “species of snake,” the appellation of the 
tribe being “enemies.” 

Sirloin of Beef. There is a laughable tradition 
current in Lancashire, England, that King James I., 
in one of his visits there, knighted at a banquet a 
loin of beef, which part ever since has been called 
the Sir-loin. 

Sistine ( sis'-tin ), or Sixtine (siks'-tin) Chapel. 
The papal private chapel in the Vatican constructed 
by Pope Sixtus IV. Whence the name. 

Sitka, Alaska. From a tribe of Indians, the 
Sitkayans. 

Skager Rack (skag-er-rak', skag'-er-rak). The 
channel between Norway and Jutland, means “cape 
strait.” The word rack denotes a crooked channel, 
and the Skager Rack is so called from the town 
of Skagen, situated on Cape Skagen (skagi, a 
“promontory”), the Skaw of English sailors 
which forms the northern point of Jutland. 

Skaneateles ( skan-e-at'-lez). Lake, town, and 
village in Onondaga County, New York. An 
Indian word meaning “long lake.” 

Skowhegan (skou-he'-gan), Me. Indian word 
meaning “spearing.” 

Snake River, Idaho. Suggested from its wind¬ 
ings and given to a tribe of Indians on its banks. 

Society Islands. Received their name from Cap¬ 
tain Cook in honor of the Royal Society. 

Sofia. See Sophia. 

Soissons (swa-sd n'). Town in France, was so 
named from the Suessiones, a Belgic tribe. 

Solomon (sol'-d-mon). From the Hebrew Sh’lo- 
moh, signifying “peaceable.” Arabic, Soliman or 
Suleyman; Dutch, Salomo; Fr., Salomon; Ger., 
Salomon; Gr., Solomon; Hungarian, Salamon; 
It., Salomone; Lat., Salomon; Polish, Salomon; 
Port., Salomao; Sp., Salomon. 

Sophia (so-fi'-a). A name derived from the 
Greek sophos, “knowledge, wisdom, prudence.” 
Danish, Sophie; Dutch, Sophie; Fr., Sophie; Ger., 
Sophie; Gr., Sophia; 77., Sofia; Lat., Sophia; Russ., 
Sofia; Sp., Sofia; Sw., Sofia. 

Sophie. The French form of Sophia. 

Sophronia (so-fro'-ni-d). A feminine of Sophro- 
nius, formed from Sophron; means “sober modest, 
discreet.” 

Sorbonne (sor-bon'). A famous Parisian school, 
named from Robert de Sorbonne, almoner of St. 
Louis. 

Soudan (soo-dan'). From the Arabic Belad-ez- 
Suden, the “district of the blacks.” 

South Carolina. As provinces the two divisions 
of Carolina were one tract originally. 

South Sea Bubble. A financial scheme which 
originated in England about 1711 and collapsed 
in 1720. 




842 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Spain. The English of Hispania, founded upon 
the Punic span, “a rabbit,” owing to the number of 
wild rabbits found in trhis country. 

Spanish Main. The southern banks of the West 
India Islands, and the water extending for some 
distance into the Caribbean Sea, so called from the 
fact that the Spaniards confined their buccaneering 
enterprises to this locality. 

Spires ( splrz ) or Speyer ( splr ). An historic place 
in Bavaria, Germany, so named from the River 
Speyerbach. 

Spitzbergen ( spits-berg'-en ). Literal Dutch for 
“sharp-pointed mountains,” referring to the 
granite peaks of the mountains, which are so 
characteristic of this group of islands. 

Spottsylvania. County in Virginia, named for 
Alexander Spotswood, early lieutenant-governor. 

Springfield, Mass. In honor of the English 
residence of its founder, William Pynchon (1640). 
Indian name Agawam. 

Spuyten Duyvil ( spi'-ten di'-vU). Channel con¬ 
necting the Hudson and Harlem rivers. So named 
on account of the oath sworn by a Dutch ship¬ 
master that he would pass the mouth of the creek 
“in spite of the devil.” 

Stanislaus (stan'-is-los). From the Slavonic 
slawa, signifying “the place of glory or fame.” 
The Bohemian form of the name is Stanislaw. 

Staten ( stat'-n ) Island, N. T. Named by Henry 
Hudson Stadten Nylanclt, that is, “island of the 
State,” in compliment to the-States-General under 
whose flag he was sailing. The Indian name was 
Monachnong, “place of the bad woods.” 

State of Franklin. An old name of Tennessee, 
under which it was organized in 1785. 

States General. The name given to the legisla¬ 
tive assemblies of France before the Revolution of 
1789, and to those of the Netherlands. 

Stella. A feminine name, from the Latin, signi¬ 
fying “a star.” 

Stephen ( ste'-ven ). From the Greek name signi¬ 
fying “a crown or garland.” Danish, Stephan; 
Dutch, Steven or Stephanus; Fr., Etienne; Ger., 
Stephan; Gr., Stephanos; Hungarian, Istvan; 
Lat., Stephanus; Polish, Sczepan; Port., Estevao; 
Russ., Stepan or Stefan; Sp., Esteban; Sw., 
Stefan. 

Stettin ( stet-en '). From Zytyn, “the place of 
green corn.” 

Stirling. From Estrevelyn, “the town of the 
Easterlings, from Flanders.” 

Stockholm ( stdk'-holm ). The capital of Sweden 
is often said to have been so called because built 
like Venice on stocks or piles. According to the 
local legend, a stock or log floating up the Malar 
Lake from Sigtuma guided the first settlers to the 
granite rocks on which Stockholm is built. The 
older form Stakholm explains the name as a holm 
or “island,” in a stale or “sound.” 

Stockton. Cities in California and Missouri and 
town in Chautauqua County, New York, named 
for Commodore R. F. Stockton, who took part in 
the conquest of California. 

Stonington, Conn. From an English town. 
Ston, “stone,” ing, “field,” ton, “town,” “a town 
situated in a field of stone.” It was first called 
Southerton. 

Strait of Gibraltar. See Gibraltar. 

Sublime Porte ( sub-lim' port). The synonym by 
which is designated the government of the Sultan 
of Turkey. It is the French equivalent of Bab-i- 
Humayoon, “the high gate.” The term contains 
an allusion to the Oriental custom of transacting 
public business at the principal gate of the city or 
palace, and from this practice the Sultan’s govern¬ 
ment is popularly styled in Turkey “the Sultan’s 
gate.” 

Suez ( soo'-ez, sbd-ez'). Is a Portuguese corrup¬ 
tion of Bir Suweis, the Arabic name of a fortified 
well of brackish water about an hour’s journey 


from the town, where the pilgrims waited to em¬ 
bark for Mecca. From this well, by a curious 
accident, the Gulf and Isthmus of Suez and the 
Suez Canal take their names. 

Sumatra ( soo-ma'-tra ). A corruption of Trima- 
tara, which means “the happy land.” 

Sunapee ( sun'-a-pe ). Lake in New Hampshire, 
for which a town in Sullivan County and mountain 
in the same State are named. From an Indian 
word, shehunknippe, “wild goose pond.” 

Sunday. Signifying the day upon which the sun 
was worshiped. 

Superior. See Lake Superior. 

Susa ( soo'-sa ). A city of ancient Persia, so called 
from the lilies in the neighborhood; name derived 
from susa, “a lily.” 

Susan (su'-zan ), or Susanna (su-z&n'-na). The 
Hebrew word, derived from the Arabic susan, “a 
lily.” Danish, Susanna; Dutch, Susanna; Fr., 
Susanne; Ger., Susanne; It., Susanna; Lat., 
Susanna; Sp.. Susana; Sw., Susanna. 

Susannah. See Susan. 

Susquehanna. River, county, and borough in 
Pennsylvania. From an Indian word, suckahanne, 
“water.” 

Suwanee (sic-wo'-ne). County, town, and river 
in Florida, creek and town in Gwinnett County, 
Georgia. Interpretations of this Indian word are 
various; some stating that it is from Shawnee, the 
tribe, while others give its derivation as from 
sawani, meaning “echo,” or “echo river”; others 
give it as a corruption of the name San Juanita, 
applied by the Spaniards to the stream, meaning 
“little St. John,” in contradistinction to St. John 
on the eastern coast. 

Sweden (swe'-den). A modern term made up 
of the Latin Suedia, signifying the land of the 
Suevi, a warlike tribe of the Goths, and the Anglo- 
Saxon den, testifying to its occupation by the Danes. 

Switzerland (swif-zer-land). An anglicized form 
of the native Schweitz, the name of the three forest 
cantons whose people asserted their independence 
of Austria, afterwards applied to the whole country. 

Sybil ( sib'-il ). An old name corrupted from 
Isabella. 

Sydney. The capital of New South Wales, was 
founded on January 26, 1788, and so named by 
Captain Phillip after Thomas Townshend, first 
Lord Sydney, who, as Home Secretary, drew up, in 
1786, a scheme for the transportation of convicts 
to New South Wales. 

Sydney. A personal name corrupted from St. 
Denis, pronounced in French St. Nie. 

Sylvanus. See Silvanus. 

Sylvester. See Silvester. 

Sylvia or Silvia ( sil'-vi-a ). A Roman name, 
feminine of Sylvius. Fr., Silvie; It., Silvia; Sp., 
Silvia. 

Sylvius (sil'-vi-us). A Roman name, from 
sylva, “a wood.” Sylvius was the name of the 
brother of Ascanius, so called from being born in 
the woods. 

Syracuse {sir r -d-kus). The greatest Greek colony 
in Sicily, is believed to have replaced an older 
Phenician trading post which obtained its name 
from a marsh at the mouth of the Anapus called 
Syraco, “to stink.” 

Syracuse. City in Onondaga County, New 
York, named for the ancient city of Sicily, after 
passing through the names of Bogardus Corners, 
Milan, South Salina, Cossitt’s Corners, and Corinth. 
In 1820, its present name was adopted at the sug¬ 
gestion of John Wilkinson, its first postmaster. 

Syria (sir'-i-d). Now called Suristan by the 
Turks and Persians, is the classical name which 
replaced the older name Aram, “the highlands.” 
The name Syria first appears in Herodotus, and is 
doubtless a modification of the name Assyria, 
adopted by the Greeks at the time when Aram was 
included in the Assyrian Empire. Assyria was 






MISCELLANY 


843 


thought to be the land of the deity Assur or Asshur, 
but it is now believed to have taken its name from 
the former capital Assur, a city on the Tigris, an 
Accadian name meaning “the water bank.” 

Tabitha ( tdb'-i-tha). A female name, from 
Tabitha, the Aramsean name of a Christian female, 
Hebrew zebia, “a gazelle.” Calmet, who translates 
the name “wild goat or kid,” says the Syriac word 
tabitha signifies “clear sighted.” Lat., Tabitha. 

Tabriz ( ta-brez'). The commercial capital of 
Persia, was the classical and medieval Tauris, “the 
mountain town.” 

Tacoma {td-ko'-md). City in Washington. From 
the Indian word Tahoma, meaning “the highest,” 
“near heaven.” 

Tagus {ta'-gus) or Tejo ( ta'-zhoo). Name of the 
longest river in the Spanish peninsula, means “the 
fish river.” 

Tahlequah ( ta-le-kwa'). Former capital of Indian 
Territory, is a Cherokee Indian word and properly 
spelled according to their pronunciation is Talikwa. 
The word as it stands probably means “place of 
two large towns.” 

Taj Mahal (taj ma-hcd') or Taj Mehal (taj me- 
hal'). The famous mausoleum erected at Agra, 
India, by Shah Jehan for his favorite wife. It 
literally means “gem of buildings.” 

Talladega ( tal-la-de'-ga ), Ala. A Creek Indian 
word, italua-atigi, “the border town.” 

Tallahassee ( tdl-ld-has'-se ). City in Florida, so 
named because it is supposed to have been the site 
of Indian cornfields in remote times. An Indian 
word meaning “old town.” 

Tallahatchie ( tal-la-hach'-e ). County in Missis¬ 
sippi, named from the principal branch of the 
Yazoo River in the same State. An Indian word 
meaning “river of the rock.” * 

Tallapoosa {tal-ld-poo'-sd) . River in Georgia and 
Alabama, giving name to a county in Alabama and 
a city in Haraldon County, Georgia. An Indian 
word meaning “swift current,” or, according to 
some authorities, “stranger,” “newcomer.” 

Tampa (tarn'-pa). Bay and city on the west 
coast of Florida. From the Indian word Itimpi, 
“close to it, near it.” It was called by De Soto 
Espiritu Santo, “Holy Ghost.” 

Tarragona ( tdr-ra-go'-na ). Name of an impor¬ 
tant Spanish city, is derived from the ancient Tar- 
raco, “The citadel or palace.” 

Tarry town. Village in Westchester County, 
New York. Modification of its former name of 
Terwen, “wheat town,” given on account of its 
large crops of that cereal. 

Tartary ( tar'-ta-ri ). The old name, now falling 
into disuse, for Turkistan, the parts of Central 
Asia which are inhabited by the Nomands of 
Turkic race called Tartars or Tatars. The name is 
said to have arisen out of the designation Tha-ta, 
“robbers,” applied by the Chinese to the mongols. 

Tasmania ( taz-ma'-ni-d ). Named after Abel 
Tasman, who discovered it in 1642. It was called 
Van Diemen’s Land in honor of the Governor- 
General of the Dutch East India Company. The 
change of title was effected in 1853. 

Tay (ta ). The largest river of Scotland, flows 
from Loch Tay, where, probably, was the Tamia 
or Ptolemy, a name explained by the Gaelic tamh, 
“tranquil,” or “smooth,” the equivalent of the 
Pictish tau and the Cymric taw, of which an oblique 
case may be the source of the name Tava, given by 
Tacitus to the Firth of Taj^. 

Teneriffe ( ten-er-if' ). One of the Canaries, is 
a Portuguese corruption of Chinerfe or Tinerfe, the 
name of the last Guanche chief. From its snow- 
clad peak, the Romans called it Nivaria, the 
“snowy ” 

Tennessee. Tributary of the Ohio River, which 
gives name to a State of the Union. Three dif¬ 
ferent derivations are given the name. From 
Tanase, the name of the most important village of 


the Cherokee Indians; from an Indian word mean¬ 
ing “a curved spoon”; or from Taensa, an Indian 
tribe of the Watchesan family. 

Tenochtitlan {ten-och-tet-lan'). The chief city of 
the Aztecs, occupying the site of the modern city 
of Mexico. 

Terence ( ter'-ens ). From the Latin name Teren- 
tius. Macrobius says the name of the Terentia 
Gens is derived by Varro from the Sabine word 
terenus, soft. 

Teresa. See Theresa. 

Terre Haute ( ter'-e hot. French, tdr-hot'). City 
in Indiana, built upon a bank sixty feet above the 
river. French words meaning “high land.” 

Terry. A masculine name derived, like the 
French name Thierry, from Theodoric. 

Texas. From a small tribe of Indians that 
inhabited a village called Tehas, meaning “friendly.” 
Also, “the place of protection,” in reference to the 
fact that a colony of French refugees were afforded 
protection here by General Lallemont in 1817. 

Thadeus, Thaddeus ( thad'-e-us, thad-e'-us). 
From the Latin Thaddeus, in turn from the Hebrew, 
“one who praises and confesses.” It., Taddeo; 
Lat., Thaddeus; Sp., Tadeo. 

Thames. River in England and America. (Amer¬ 
ican, thamz. English, temz.) The Tamesis of Caesar, 
is a Celtic name meaning the “tranquil” or 
“smooth” river. 

Thebes ( thebz ). In Boeotia, the Greek Thebae, 
is now Pheba or Phiba. The site of the acropolis 
was a small hill, and we learn from Varro that teba 
meant a “hill.” In the name of the Egyptian 
Thebes we have a Greek corruption of the popular 
Egyptian designation of the city, which was called 
t’ape, “the capital.” 

Theobald {the' -6-bold, tib'-ald). From the Old 
German teut-bald, “strong or bold leader.” 
Danish, Theobald; Dutch, Tiebout; Fr., Thibaut; 
Ger., Theobald; It., Teobaldo; Lat., Theobaldus; 
Sp., Teobaldo; Sw., Theobald. 

Theodora ( the-o-do'-ra ). A feminine name de¬ 
rived from Theodore. 

Theodore {the'-6-dor). From the Greek name 
Theodorus, signifying “the gift of God.” Danish, 
Theodor; Dutch, Theodorus; Fr., Theodore; Gr., 
Theodorus; It., Teodoro; Lat., Theodorus; Port., 
Theodoro; Russ., Feodor; Sp., Teodorio; Sw., 
Theodor. 

Theodoric {the-dd'-o-rik) or Tlieoderick. An Old 
German name from teut-reich, “powerful lord.” 
Dutch, Diederick; Fr., Theodoric; Ger., Theodo- 
rich or Dietrich; It., Teodorico; Lat., Theodoricus 
Sp., Teodorico. 

Theodosia {the-o-do'-shi-d). Feminine of Theo¬ 
dosius. Gr., Theodosie; It., Teodosia; Lat., 
Theodosia. 

Theodosius {the-o-do'-slii-us). From the Greek, 
meaning “given by God.” Fr., Theodose; It., 
Teodosio; Lat., Theodosius; Sp., Teodosio. 

Theophilus {the-of -U-us) . From the Greek name 
signifying “a friend of God.” Danish, Gottlieb; 
Dutch, Theophilus; Fr., Theophile; It., Teofilo; 
Lai., Theophilus; Port., Theophilo; Sp., Teofilo. 

Theresa {the-re'-sa). Probably from the Greek 
Theriso, “to reap or gather in the crop.” Dutch, 
Theresia; Fr., Therese; Ger., Therese; It., 
Teresa; Lat., Theresa; Sp., Teresa; Sw., The¬ 
resa. 

Thermopylae {ther-mop'-U-e). It means “the 
defile of the warm springs.” 

Thian-shan {te-an'-shan'). Chinese, meaning 
“the celestial mountains.” 

Thibet or Tibet {tib'-et, tl-bet'), Supposed to be a 
corruption of Thupo, “high country,” the country 
of the Thou, a people who founded an empire there 
in the Sixth Century. 

Thirty, Battle of the. A fight between thirty 
Bretons and thirty Englishmen, pitted by Jean de 
Beaumanoir and Bemborough, an Englishman, 




844 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


against each other, to decide a contest. The fight 
is said to have taken place between the castles of 
Josselin and Ploermel in France in 1351. The 
English were beaten. 

Thomas ( tdm'-as ). From an Aramaic word, 
meaning “a twin.” Danish, Thomas; Dutch, 
Thomas; Gr., Thomas; Ger., Thomas; Fr., Thomas; 
Hungarian, Tamas; It., Tommaso; Lat., Thomas; 
Polish, Tomasz; Port., Thomas or Thomar; 
Sp., Tomas; Sw., Thomas. 

Thrace. From the Greek trachus, meaning “the 
rough land.” 

Thursday. Thd day of Thor, the son of Odin 
(or Wodin) and the God of Thunder. 

Tiber (ti'-ber. Italian, Tevere). Was the Roman 
Tiberis. From the name of the river was derived 
the Roman name Tiberius. 

Tiberius (ti-be'-ri-us). Means “of the Tiber.” 
Fr., Tibere; It., Tiberio; Lat., Tiberius. 

Ticonderoga ( ti-kdn-der-o'-ga ), N. T. Indian 
Cheonderaga, signifying “brawling water,” from the 
noise of the rapids in the outlet of Lake George as 
it falls into Lake Champlain. 

Tierra del Fuego ( te-er'-rd del fwa'-go). Spanish 
for “land of fire.” 

Tigris ( ti'-gris ). A name rightly explained by 
Strabo, who says that it was so called from its 
“swiftness,” for among the Medes tigris means “an 
arrow.” 

Timothy ( tim'-o-thi ). From the Greek name 
signifying “honoring or worshiping God.” Danish, 
Timotheus; Dutch, Timotheus; Fr., Timothee; 
Ger., Timotheus; Gr., Timotheos; It., Timoteo; 
Lat., Timotheus; Port., Timotheo; Sp., Tumoteo; 
Sw., Timotheus. 

Tippecanoe ( tip-pe-ka-ndd ') River, Ind. From the 
Indian name given to a fish living in this stream, 
“the long-lipped pike,” or “buffalo fish.” 

Titicaca ( tit-e-ka'-ka ). An island and lake near 
the peninsula of Copacabana, South America. It 
was a sacred place of the Incas, and “the birth¬ 
place of the Sun,” according to one of their legends. 

Titus ( ti'-tus ). From the Greek name signifying 
“honored.” Fr., Tite; Ger., Titus; It., Tito; 
Lot., Titus; Sp., Tito. 

Tobago ( to-ba'-go) Island. So called by Colum¬ 
bus from its fancied resemblance to the Tobaco, or 
inhaling tube of the aborigines, whence the word 
tobacco has been derived. 

Tobias ( to-bi'-as or Toby ( td'-bi ). From the 
Hebrew tobh-mah, which has been variously ren¬ 
dered “God’s goodness” and “distinguished of the 
Lord.” Danish, Tobias; Dutch, Tobias; Fr., 
Tobie; Ger., Tobias; It., Tobia; Lat., Tobias; Sp., 
Tobias. 

Tokio or Tokyo ( to'-ke-o ). The capital of Japan, 
is the “Eastern Capital,” in contra-distinction to 
Saikio, the “Western Capital.” Formerly called 
Yeddo. 

Toledo ( to-le'-db. Spanish, to-la'-tho). The capi¬ 
tal of Gothic Spain, was the Roman Toletum, a 
name of unknown etj^mology, wildly supposed to 
be of Phenician origin, meaning the city of “gener¬ 
ations.” 

Tomas. See Thomas. 

Tombigbee River, Fla. From the Choctaw 
Indian word itumbibikpi; the literal translation 
would be “an undertaker,” it being a name given 
to the old men of the tribe who were employed in 
preparing their dead for the “bonehouses.” 

Tommaso. See Thomas. 

Tom, Mount, Mass. In honor of a neighboring 
resident, Rowland Thomas, probably familiarly 
known as “Tom.” 

Ton quin ( tdn-ken' ). Chinese Tang-king, the 
eastern capital. 

Topeka ( to-pe'-ka ), Kansas. An Indian word, 
Topeakae, “a good place to dig potatoes.” 

Toronto ( to-rdn'-to ). Many towns and cities in 
the United States bear this Indian name, meaning 


“oak tree rising from the lake,” which has been 
transferred to them from the city in Canada, which 
see. 

Toronto, Canada. Now the capital of the Cana¬ 
dian province of Ontario. The name at first de¬ 
noted the country of the Huron tribe to which the 
Bay of Toronto gives access. Here a French trad¬ 
ing post was built on the site of the present city, and 
called Fort Toronto. In 1793, the name was 
changed to York in honor of the Duke of York, but 
in 1834, the old name Toronto was revived. 

Torres ( tor'-rez ) Strait. Owes its designation to 
its position near the equator, the word torres, from 
the Latin toridus, signifying “parched.” 

Tortugas (tor-tod'-gaz) Islands, Fla. Spanish 
word meaning “tortoise,” the name given by the 
Spaniards from the number of tortoise found on 
them. 

Toulon (too'-ldn. French, tod-16 n'). French city, 
is from the ancient Telonium or Telo Martius, 
named after its founder. 

Toynbee (toin'-be) Hall. An institution in 
Whitechapel, London, founded in 1885, as the 
outcome of plans set on foot by the members of 
Oxford and Cambridge universities “to provide 
education and the means of recreation and enjoy¬ 
ment for the people of the poor districts of London,” 
etc. 

Trafalgar (traf-al'-gar) Square. One of the prin¬ 
cipal squares in Londfin, about one and one-half 
miles west by south of St. Paul’s. It contains the 
Nelson monument, and the site of Charing Cross 
and the National Gallery faces on it. 

Transvaal ( trans-val' ). That territory beyond 
the River Vaal. 

Traverse Bay, Mich. Named by Marquette 
Petit Traverse and Grand Traverse, little, small, 
and large breadth or crossings; applied to it being 
nearer to cross the bay than follow along the shores. 

Trebizond ( treb-x-zond '). From the Greek tra- 
pezus, “the table,” so called from its form. 

Trenton, N. J. First called Trent Town, so named 
from Col. William Trent of Philadelphia, a speaker 
of the house of assembly in 1720. 

Trianon, Grand (grrdN tre-d-ndn'). A small palace 
at Versailles of only one story but considerable 
length, built by Louis XIV. for Mme. de Maintenon, 
and since used by successive French sovereigns as 
a private residence. 

Trianon, Petit (pte tre-a-ndN'). A graceful, 
neo-classical villa in the park at Versailles, built by 
Louis XV., and closely associated with the memory 
of Marie Antoinette, whose favorite abode it was. 

Trinidad (trin-i-dad'. Spanish, tre-ne-thathf ). So 
named by Columbus from its three peaks, emble¬ 
matic of the Holy Trinity. 

Tristram (trIs'-tram). From the Latin, meaning 
“sorrowful.” Lat., Tristramus; Port., Tristao. 

Troy, N. T. Prior to present name known as 
Vanderheyden’s ; the name Troy adopted at a town 
meeting, January 5, 1789, on the suggestion of 
Christopher Hutton. 

Tsarskoe Selo (tsdr'-sko-ye sye-ld'). A town in the 
government of St. Petersburg, Russia, about fifteen 
miles south of St. Petersburg. It contains a famous 
imperial palace, a favorite summer residence of the 
court. 

Tucson ( tu-son ' or tuk'-sun), Arizona. From the 
Pima dialect, meaning “black spring.” 

Tuesday. Devoted to Tiw, the god of war. 

Tulare (too-ldr'. Spanish, too-la'-ra) Lake, Cal. 
Called by the Spaniards Lagana Grande de los 
Tulares, from a dense growth of “tule” found in its 
waters and on the shores. 

Tunis ( tu'-nis ). Anciently known as Tunentum, 
“the land of the Tunes.” 

Turanian ( tu-ra'-ni-an). A legendary ancestor 
of the Turks. The word is loosely and indefinitely 
used to designate a family of languages and also 
an ethnological group. 




MISCELLANY 


845 


Turin (tu -riri). It., Torino. Anciently Augusta- 
T aurinorum, named from theTaurini, i. e., “dwellers 
among hills.” 

Turkestan ( tdor-kes-tdn'). The country of the 
Turks. See Turkey. 

Turkey. The English name of the Ottoman 
Empire, appears to have been derived from Turcia, 
the Latinized form of the Arabic name Al-Turkiyah, 
the “land of the Turks.” Turkestan in Central 
Asia is a Persian form Of the same name, denoting 
the land occupied by the Usbeks, the Kirghis, the 
Turcomans, and other Turkic races. The name 
Turk has been supposed to be a corruption of the 
name Tu-kiu of the Chinese historians, or from the 
Arabic turkur, “robbers.” It is probably a Tartar 
word meaning “brave.” 

Tuscaloosa (tus-ka-ldo'-sa). County and city in 
Alabama named for an Indian chief, the name 
meaning “black warrior.” 

Tuscany ( tus'-kd-ni. It., Toscana). Bears the 
name of its ancient inhabitants the Tusci or Etrusci. 
The Etruscans were called Tyrrheni by the Greeks, 
whence the name Tyrrhenian Sea, given to that 
part of the Mediterranean which lies between the 
mainland and the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, 
the Greeks of Cumee and of Sicily encountering 
them by sea and the Romans by land. 

Tuskegee ( tus-ke'-ge ). Town in Macon County, 
Alabama. Probably derived from the Indian word 
taskialgi, “warriors.” 

Tuxedo ( tuks-e'-do ). A few places in the United 
States bear this Indian name, which undoubtedly 
is derived from P’tauk-seet-tough, meaning “the 
place of bears.” 

Ulysses ( yu-lis'-ez ). A masculine baptismal 
name, the Latin form of the Greek Odysseus, “to 
cause pain.” Fr., Ulysse; Gr., Odysseus; It., 
Ulisse; Lot., Ulysses or Ulyxes. 

Umatilla ( u-md-til'-la ). River and county in 
Oregon, said by some to be named for a tribe of 
Indians. Others state that it is derived from 
U-a-tal-la, meaning “the sand blew bare in heaps,” 
this part of the country having ridges of sand 
alternating with bare ground. 

Umbagog ( um-bd'-gdg ). Lake lying partly in 
New Hampshire and partly in Maine. An Indian 
word, said to mean “doubled up.” Other authori¬ 
ties favor “clear lake, shallow,” or “great waters 
near another.” 

Una ( u'-na ). A Gaelic feminine name, corrupted 
from Winifred. 

Unter den Linden (odn'-ter d&n lin'-den). A 
famous street in Berlin which extends from the 
Brandenburg Gate eastward about three-fifths of a 
mile. Bordering it are the imperial and princely 
palaces, the university, the academy, the statue of 
Frederick the Great, etc. It literally means “under 
the lindens.” 

Ural ( yu'-ral ). The chain dividing Europe 
from Asia, means the “girdle” or “belt,” 
ural-tau, being a Turkic word meaning a “moun¬ 
tain chain,” while urr means a “chain” in Ostiah. 
The Russians call the Ural Mountains by the 
translated name Poyas, the “girdle.” The moun¬ 
tains have given their name to the River Ural, 
which flows from them into the Caspian. 

Urban ( ur'-ban ). From the Latin urbanus, signi¬ 
fying “civil, courteous, polite, refined”; literally, 
of or belonging to a city (urbs). Danish, Urban; 
Dutch, Urbanus or Urbaan; Fr., Urbain; Ger., 
Urban; It., Urbano; Lat., Urbanus; Sp., Urbano; 
Sw., Urban. 

Uriah ( u-ri'-a ). From the Hebrew, meaning 
“light of Jehovah,” or “fire of the Lord.” Fr., 
Urie; Ger., Urias; It., Uria; Lat., Urias. 

Ursula (dr'-su-ld). A feminine name derived 
from the Latin ursula, “a young or small she-bear.” 
Dutch, Ursula; Fr., Ursule; Ger., Ursula; It., 
Ursula; Lat., Ursula; Sp Jf Ursula; £w.,_Ursula. 

Uruguay (yu'-roo-gwa. Spanish, oo-roo-gwi'). 


Name of a river in South America, meaning “the 
golden water.” 

Utah (yu'-ta, yu'-to). State in the Union, county 
and lake in same State, named for the Ute Indians, 
the word meaning “home, or location, on the 
mountain top.” 

Utica (u'-ti-ka). City in New York, named for 
the ancient city in Africa; towns in Livingston 
County, Missouri, and Hinds County, Mississippi, 
and village in Macomb County, Michigan, named 
for the above. 

Uzziah (uz-zi'-a). From the Hebrew, signifying 
the “strength of the Lord.” Lat., Uzzias. 

Valencia ( va-len'-shi-a. Spanish, vd-ldn'-the-a). 
City in Spain, was the ancient Valentia, “the 
powerful.” 

Valenciennes (vd-len-sl-bnz'. French, va-ldN-se¬ 
en'), also Valenza and Valence. Said to have 
been named after the western Roman emperor, 
Valentinian. 

Valentina (vdl-en-ti'-nd). Feminine name de¬ 
rived from Valentine. 

Valentine (vdl'-en-tin). A name derived from 
St. Valentine, from the Latin Valentinus, of or 
belonging to Valentia, one of the ancient names of 
Rome; also of towns in Spain, Italy, and Sardinia, 
and the appellation of a goddess worshiped at 
Oriculum in Italy; originally from valens, “puissant, 
mighty, strong.” Danish, Valentin; Dutch, Val- 
entijn; Fr., Valentin; Ger., Valentin; It., Valen¬ 
tino; Lat., Valentinus; Port., Valentim; Sp., 
Valentin; Sw., Valentin. 

Valeria (va-le'-ri-a). The feminine of Valerius. 
Fr., Valerie; It., Valeria; Lat., Valeria. 

Valerian (va-le'-ri-an). From the Latin Valere, 
“to be strong, healthy.” Dutch, Valerianus; Fr., 
Valerien; It., Valeriano; Lat., Valerianus. 

Valerie. See Valeria. 

Valley Forge. Village in Chester County, 
Pennsylvania, so named because situated at the 
mouth of Valley Creek, where a forge was erected 
in the days antedating the Revolution, by Isaac 
Potts. 

Vancouver (vdn-kdb'-ver). A rising city which 
forms the western terminus of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway, bears the name of Captain George Van¬ 
couver, R. N., who, as a midshipman in Cook’s 
last voyage, visited the coast in 1776, and surveyed 
it in 1792. 

Vancouver Island. In memory of Captain Van¬ 
couver, a midshipman under Captain Cook, who 
discovered it in 1792, while cruising about in search 
of a river on the west coast of North America. 

Vashti (vash'-ti). Feminine name, so called from 
Vashti, wife of Ahasuerus, signifying “beauty, 
goodness.” 

Vasili or Vasilii. See Basil. 

Vatican (vat'-i-kan). A hill of Rome, on the 
right bank of the Tiber, opposite the Pincian. On 
it stands St. Peter’s and the Vatican Palace. 

Venezuela (ven-ez-we'-la. Spanish, vd-neth-wd'-la). 
Expresses the Spanish for “Little Venice,” which 
designation was given to this country owing to the 
discovery of some Indian villages built upon piles 
after the manner of the “Silent City” on the 
Adriatic Sea. 

Venice (ven'-is). It., Venezia, Ger., Venedig. 
Is the French name for the city founded by fugi¬ 
tives from the Roman province of Venetia. The 
word means “blessed.” 

Vermont. When the French were in possession 
of the St. Lawrence valley they called the moun¬ 
tains of the southern section Vertmont, vert, “greeb,” 
mont, “mountain,” and the inhabitants of that 
section in their Declaration of Independence, Janu¬ 
ary 16, 1777, adopted the name for the State. 

Veronica (ver-b-ni'-kd or ver-dn'-ik-d). From 
the Greek word meaning, “true picture.” Fr., 
Veronique; It., Veronica. 

Versailles (ver-salzf. French, ver-sd'-yu), Palace 



846 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


of. A famous royal palace in the French city of the 
same name, a great part of which is now occupied 
by the Museum of French History, consisting 
chiefly of paintings; but some of the apartments 
are still preserved with the fittings of a royal resi¬ 
dence. 

Vesuvius ( ve-su'-vx-us ), Mt. The only active 
volcano on the continent of Europe, and the most 
noted one in the world, situated on the Bay of 
Naples, Italy. The Italian form is Vesuvio, and 
the French form Vesuve, the word originally meant 
“emitter of smoke.” 

Vicksburg. City in Mississippi, named for 
Neivitt Vick, its founder. 

Victoria ( vlk-to'-rx-d ). From the Latin, meaning 
“victory.” Fr., Victoire; It., Vittoria; Lat., 
Victoria; Sp., Vitoria. 

Vienna ( vx-en'-a). Ger., Wien; Fr., Vienne. 
Capital of Austro-Hungary. Originally, Vindo- 
bona, a name probably of Keltic origin, meaning 
either “white castle,” or “town of the Wends.” 

Vincennes ( vxn-senz'. French, van-sen'). City 
in Indiana, named from the fort built by Sieur de 
Vincennes. 

Vincent (vin'-sent). From the Latin name, 
Vincentius, from vincere, “to conquer.” Dutch, 
Vincentius; Fr., Vincent; It., Vincente; Lat., Vin¬ 
centius; Port., Vicente; Sp., Vicente or Vincente. 

Viola ( vx'-d-ld. Italian, ve-o'-la). A feminine 
name derived from the Latin viola, “a violet.” 

Violante. A feminine name derived from the 
name Violet. 

Violet. A feminine name derived from French 
violetie, from the Latin, viola. 

Violetta. A diminutive of the name Violet, or 
direct from Italian Violetta. 

Virgil ( ver'-jil ). Derived, like the surname Ver¬ 
gil, from the bard of Mantua. Angelus Politianus 
writes the poet’s name Vergilius; Pierius, Virgilius. 
The name has been variously derived from Ver- 
giliae, the stars called the Pleiades, and from virga, 
“a garland or laurel.” 

Virginia {ver-jxn'-x-d). A Roman name, feminine 
of Virginius, from root of virgo, “a virgin.” Dutch, 
Virginie; Fr., Virginie; Ger., Virginia; It., Vir¬ 
ginia; Lat., Virginia. 

Vittoria or Vitoria. See Victoria. 

Vivian, Vyvian {vxv'-x-an). A Cornish name 
derived from locality, from vy-vian, “the small 
water.” Fr., Vivien; Lat., Vivianus. 

Volga ( vdl'-ga ). The greatest European river, 
bears a name which is from the Old Slavonic wolkoi 
or wolkoia, “great.” 

Wabash (wo'-bash). Counties in Indiana and 
Illinois, river flowing through both States, and city 
in Indiana. From the Indian word Uuabache, 
“cloud borne by an equinoctial wind,” or, according 
to another authority, “white water.” 

Wales. Derived from Wealas, “foreigners,” or 
“Welsh,” a name given by the Anglo-Saxon invad¬ 
ers to the natives of Britain. Wales is a plural 
form denoting the people, which afterwards ac¬ 
quired a territorial significance. 

Walla Walla ( wdl'-ld wdl'-ld), Washington. The 
Indian walawala means “waving, throwing up 
waves, ripples.” 

Wall of Antoninus. A rampart erected in the 
southern part of Scotland, in the reign of Antoni¬ 
nus Pius, to check the barbarians in the north of 
Britain. It extended from the Firth of Fourth to 
the Firth of Clyde. 

Walloons ( wdl-loonz '). A people found chiefly in 
southern and southeastern Belgium, also in the 
neighboring parts of France, and in a few places in 
Rheinish Prussia near Malmedy. They are de¬ 
scended from the ancient Belgse, mixed with Ger¬ 
manic and Roman elements. 

Wall Street. A street in the lower part of New 
York Citv which extends from Broadway, opposite 
Trinity Church, to the East River, famous as a 


financial and speculative center. A figurative 
term for the money power of the country. 

Walter. From the German, walt-her, “powerful 
lord”; literally, a “wood-master.” Dutch, Wou- 
ter; Fr., Gautier; Ger., Walter; It., Gualterio; 
Lat., Gualterus; Port., Gualter; Sp., Gualterio; 
Sw., Walter. 

Warsaw. Formerly Varsovia (Polish, Wars¬ 
zawa), takes its Slavonic name from a “castle,” or 
“fortified place,” built in the Ninth Century by 
Conrad, Duke of the surrounding palatinate of 
Mazovia. Here originated the mazurek, a dance 
of the Polish peasantry, which we call the mazurka. 

Washington. The name of two places in Eng¬ 
land, one in Durham the other in Sussex (Anglo- 
Saxon Hwessingatun and Wassingaturx) which 
signifies the tun, or “town,” of the Hwessings or 
Wassings. From the Durham village the ancestors 
of George Washington, the first President of the 
United States (1789-1797), are believed to have 
derived their territorial surname. In his honor the 
city of Georgetown, in Maryland, selected in 1790 
for the Federal capital, was renamed Washington. 

Watervliet ( wo-ter-vlet' ). City on the Hudson, 
in Albany County, New York. From the Dutch, 
meaning “flowing stream.” 

Wednesday. Set apart for the worship of Odin, 
or Wodin, sometimes called the god of magic and 
the inventor of the arts. 

Weehawken {we-ho'-ken), N. J. From the Dela¬ 
ware Indian name weachin, “maize lands.” 

Wellsburg, W. Va. In honor of Alexander 
Wells, an early settler. 

Western Reserve, The. When, by the treaty of 
1783, Great Britain relinquished the territory south 
of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi 
River, disputes arose among the States of Virginia, 
New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut as to 
the right of occupancy in that locality. The dif¬ 
ficulty was finally settled by the cession of the 
whole to the Federal Government, but Connecticut 
reserved a tract of nearly 4,000,000 acres on Lake 
Erie. That State finally disposed of this in small 
lots to colonists, and so accumulated a magnificent 
school-fund. 

Westminster Hall. A structure adjoining the 
British Houses of Parliament on the west, forming 
part of the ancient palace of Westminster 

Westminster Palace, London. The Houses of 
Parliament. A palace is supposed to have existed 
at Westminster in the reign of Canute (1017-35). 
Its importance, however, begins with Edward the 
Confessor (1042-66), and the name has been con¬ 
ferred upon the great legislative edifice of the 
British Empire. 

West Virginia. See “Virginia” for the word 
Virginia; the Western division of Virginia sepa¬ 
rated from the eastern, owing to civil war issues, 
as provided in Amnesty Proclamation of President 
Lincoln, December 8, 1863, affecting section of 
States in rebellion. Proposed at one time to call 
the State Kanawha, from its principal river. 

Wetter horn {yet’-ter-horn). A mountain of the 
Bernese Alps, canton of Bern, Switzerland, situated 
near Grindelwald, fourteen miles east-southeast of 
Interlaken. Means, literally, “ storm peak.” 

Wettin {vet-ten'). A town in the province of 
Saxony, Prussia, situated on the Saale, thirty-two 
miles northwest of Leipsic. It contains the ances¬ 
tral castle of the Saxon line of Wettin from which 
King Edward VII. of England is descended. 

Wheeling. City in West Virginia, so named 
because the Indians placed the head of a white 
victim on a pole and gave the place the name of 
weal-ink, “a place of a human head.” The present 
name of the place is a corruption of the Indian 
name. 

Whitechapel. A quarter in the eastern part of 
London, named from a certain chapel from which 
distances out of London used to be measured. 



MISCELLANY 


847 


Whitehall. In modern London, the main 
thoroughfare between Trafalgar Square and the 
houses of Parliament. 

Whitehall Palace. A palace in London, Eng¬ 
land, originally built by Hubert de Burgh in the 
reign of Henry III. 

White House, The. The official residence of the 
President of the United States in Washington. It 
is a handsome mansion in the English Renaissance. 
Its classical details are sober and well designed, 
both outside and inside. 

White Mountains, N. H. Named from the color 
of its tops; being covered with snow (white), this 
has always been the groundword of various appella¬ 
tions. The first English explorers (1632) called 
them The Crystal Hills. The Indian name was 
W aumbckket. 

White Sea. So called from its proximity to the 
sterile regions of snow and ice. 

Whitney. Loftiest peak of the Sierra Nevadas, 
named for Prof. J. D. Whitney, State geologist of 
California. 

Wilford. A name corrupted from Wilfred. 

Wilfred, Wilfrid. This name has been translated 
“much peace,” or “resolute peace,” but the name 
is rather from viel-frid, “powerful protector.” 

Wilhelm. See William. 

Wilhelmina (vU-hel-me/-no) . A feminine name 
derived from the German name Wilhelmine, from 
Wilhelm. 

Wilhelmine (vnV-hel-rnen'. German, vil-hel-me'- 
ne). A feminine name derived from Wilhelm. It., 
Guglielma. 

Wilkesbarre ( wilks'-bar-i ). City in Luzerne 
County, Pennsylvania, named for two members of 
the British Parliament, American sympathizers, 
John Wilkes and Colonel Barre. 

William. A name corrupted from the Old Ger¬ 
man name Wilhelm, derived from weil-helm, “pro¬ 
tector of rest, defender of tranquility,” or vil-helm, 
“strong protector.” Danish, Wilhelm; Dutch, 
Willem; Fr., Guillaume; Ger., Wilhelm; It., 
Guglielmo; Lat., Gulielmus, Wilhelmus, or Williel- 
mus; Sp., Guillermo; Sw., Wilhelm. 

Williamette (wll-a' -met). River in Oregon. 
Indian word said to have originally been Wallamet, 
derived from the same root as Walla Walla and 
Wallula; when applied to water, meaning “run¬ 
ning.” Another authority gives its definition as 
“the long and beautiful river.” 

Willimantic ( wil-li-man'-tik ). River, and a city 
in Windham County, Connecticut. Indian word, 
meaning a “good lookout,” or, according to another 
authority, “good cedar swamps.” 

Wilmington. City in Delaware, the present 
name a corruption of the name Willington, given it 
in honor of Thomas Willing. 

Wilmington, N. C. In honor of the Earl of 
Wilmington, England; originally called Newton. 

Windsor ( win'-zdr ). A contraction of the 
Anglo-Saxon name Windlesofra, Windlesora, W en- 
dlesore, or Windelesore, is usually explained as the 
place by the “winding shore.” 

Windsor Castle. A famous royal residence, 
founded by William the Conqueror, extended by 
his successors, especially by Edward III., and 
recently restored by Queen Victoria as a memorial 
of her husband. The interior is decorated in so 
lavish a manner that it forms one of the most 
remarkable existing examples of such work. 

Winifred ( win’-i-fred ). A feminine name, which 
some consider a Saxon compound signifying “win¬ 
ning peace ”; it comes rather from the Old German 
win-frid, “beloved protector.” Dutch, Winfried; 
Fr., Winifred; Lat., Winfreda; Sw., Winfrid. 

Winnepesaukee (win-e-pe-sd'-ke). Lake in New 
Hampshire. Indian word winnepesaukee, meaning 
“good water discharge,” or “the beautiful lake of 
the highland.” 

Winnipeg ( win'-i-peg ) City. The capital of the 


Canadian province of Manitoba, is built on a spit 
at the junction of the Red River and the Assini- 
boine, whose united waters after a course of forty- 
five miles reach Lake Winnipeg, which bears an 
Algonquin name meaning “the muddy water,” 
the water being discolored by the Saskatchewan, 
which brings down much clay in solution. 

Winona ( wi-no'-na ), Minn. A Dakota name 
applied to the first born, if a daughter, hence, 
“first born.” If a boy, he is spoken of as Chaske. 

Winooski (wi-nobs'-ki) River, Vt. Composed of 
two Algonquin words meaning “land of onions.” 
The stream is often called the Onion River, also 
French River, the latter term from the circum¬ 
stance of this valley being the line of travel of the 
French and Indians (1755). 

Winter Palace. An imperial palace at St. Peters¬ 
burg, Russia. The interior is remarkable for its 
series of Russian historical paintings and portraits, 
and for the splendid state apartments. The crown 
jewels are kept in this palace. 

Wisby or Visby ( ves'-biX ). A famous old town 
on the west coast of the Island of Gotland, Sweden. 
It contains a cathedral and ruined churches, 
towers, and walls. 

Wisconsin ( wis-kdn'-sin ). From its principal 
river named by Marquette as Masconsin, “wild 
rushing channel,” changed to Ouisconsin, then to 
Wisconsin. Present spelling from a misprint; all 
the early French documents have Ouisconsing or 
Misconsing. 

Wissahickon ( wis-sd-hik'-on ) Creek, Pa. From 
the Delaware Indian word, misamekhan, “catfish 
stream.” 

Witenagemot (wit'-e-nd-ge-mot). In Anglo-Saxon 
history, the great Saxon council or parliament, con¬ 
sisting of the king with his dependents and friends 
and sometimes the members of his family, the earl- 
dormen, and the bishops and other ecclesiastics. 

Worcester (woos'-ter), England. From the 
ancient Huic-wara-ceaster, “the camp of the 
Huieci, or Hwiccas,” a Celtic tribe. 

Worcester ( woos'-ter, woos'-ter), Mass. County 
and city in Massachusetts, named for the county in 
England. 

Wouter. See Walter. 

Wyoming (wi-d'-ming). Name carried to the 
West by emigrants from the Wyoming Valley of 
Eastern Pennsylvania in its native location, the 
word derived from the Delaware expression, 
Maughwauwame, meaning “the large plains.” 

Yadkin (yad'-kin). County in North Carolina, 
said to be named for a tribe of Indians, though 
some authorities favor the idea that it was named 
for an early settler. 

Yang-tse-Kiang (yang-tse-ki-ang') River. “The 
son of the great water.” 

Yankee. This word is believed to have been de¬ 
rived from the manner in which the Indians en¬ 
deavored to pronounce the word English, which 
they rendered “Yenghees,” whence the word 
Yankee 

Yankton (ydngk'-tun), South Dakota. From the 
Dakotah Indian word, eyank-ton-wah, “people of 
the sacred or spirit lake.” 

Yazoo (yaz'-do). County and river in Mississippi, 
named for a tribe of Indians, the name said to mean 
“to blow on an instrument”; another definition is 
given as “the ruins.” 

Yellow Sea. From the color of the water caused 
by the nature of its muddy soil. 

Yellowstone. River in Montana and Wyoming. 
Name derived from its original French name, Roche 
jaune, “yellow rock or stone,” though by some said 
to be from the Indian mi-tsi-a-da-zi, “rock yellow 
river.” 

Yemassee ( yem-a-se') River, Ga. From a tribe 
of Indians, Yamassi, signifying “peaceable.” 

Yenisei (yen-e-sa'-e). The great river of Siberia, 
also written Jenissy, Geniseia, or Gelissy, has been 



848 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


explained as “the water which flows down,” or 
the river which “brings down ice.” 

Yokohama (yd-kd-ha'-md). Now the chief port 
in Japan, was before 1854 a small fishing village. 
The name is believed to mean the “cross shore.” 

Yonkers ( ybngk’-erz ). City in New York, named 
for a manor house built by the Dutch, the word 
meaning “young lord,” and first applied in this 
country to Adrien Van der Douck, a patentee. 

York River, Va. After the Duke of York; prior 
to this it was noted on the maps as Salt River. 
The Indian name was Pamawnkee or Pamaunk. 

Yosemite ( yd-s&m'-it-e ). An Anglicized or cor¬ 
rupted form of the Indian A-hom-e-ta, meaning 
“grizzly bear”; supposed to have been the title of 
a chief, and generally applied to a tribe that inhab¬ 
ited the region. 

Yougliiogheny ( yo-hd-ga'-ni ) River, Penn. From 
the Indian yukwiakhanna, “a stream taking a 
roundabout course.” 


Ohio, named for John 
City in Michigan, named 
A compound Indian 


Youngstown. City in 
Young, an early resident. 

Ypsilanti {ip-sil-an'-tl). 
for a Greek prince. 

Yucatan ( yob-ka-tan '). 
word meaning “what do you say?” which was the 
only answer the Spaniards could obtain from the 
natives to their inquiries concerning a description 
of the country. 

Yukon ( yoo’-kon ) River, Alaska. Named from 
the Yakuts, a Tartar tribe. 

Yuste ( yoos'-ta ). A convent in Spain, east of 
Plasencia. It is noted as the place of retirement 
of the Emperor Charles V. after his abdication. 

Zaccheus ( zak-e'-us ). From the Hebrew Zak- 
kav, “pure, innocent.” Others render it “pure of 
the Lord,” making the last letter stand for Yah. 
Fr., Zacchee; It., Zacheo; Lai., Zaccheus. 

Zachariah {zak-a-rV-a) . From the Hebrew 
Zakhar-Yah, meaning “remembering the Lord.” 
Danish, Zacharias; Dutch, Zacharias; Fr., Zach- 
arie; Ger., Zacharias; It., Zaccaria; Lat., Zacharias; 
Sp., Zacarias; Sw., Zacharias. 

Zachary ( zdk'-a-ri ). Same derivation as Zacha¬ 
riah. 


Zadok ( za'-ddk ). Means “righteous.” Fr., Zadoc; 
Lat., Zadocus. 

Zambezi ( zam-ba'-ze, Pop., zdm-be'-zl). Is the 
“great river” of Eastern Africa, w r hose upper 
waters and chief affluents are called Jambaji and 
Luambezi, dialectic forms of the same name. 

Zanesville (zanz'-vU). City in Ohio, named for 
Ebenezer Zane, who, with John Mclntire, founded 
the city. 

Zanzibar ( zdn-zi-bar'). The name of an East’ 
African island, was used before the Fifteenth Cen¬ 
tury in a more general sense to denote the East 
African coast south of the River Jubb. Zanzibar 
is a Portuguese form of the Arabic Zanjebar, which 
is itself a corruption of the Persian Zangibar, or 
Zenquebar, which means the coast or “region of the 
blacks,” the name being formed like Hindubar, the 
land of the Hindus, or Malebar, the land of the 
mountains. 

Zealand ( ze'-land ). In Netherlands, “land sur¬ 
rounded by the sea.” 

Zebulon (zeb'-u-lon). From the Hebrew, mean¬ 
ing “dwelling.” Fr., Zabulon; Lat., Zabulon. 

Zeno (ze'-nd). From the Greek Zeus. Fr., 
Zenon; Gr., Zenon; It., Zenone. 

Zenobia {ze-no'-bi-a). Feminine form of Zeus. 
Fr., Zenobie; Ger., Zenobia; It., Zenobia; Lat., 
Zenobia. 

Zion • {zx’-bix), or Sion ( si'-bn ) Mount. A hill on 
which was situated the old city of Jerusalem; the 
“city of David.” Now used symbolically of the 
Christian church and of heaven. 

Zoe ( zo'-e or zo). From the Greek name, signi¬ 
fying “life.” 

Zululand {zoo'-Loo-land). The country of Zulus. 

Zurich {zob'-rik). From the ancient Thiouricum, 
“the town of the Thuricii,” who built it after it 
had been destroyed by Attila. 

Zuyder Zee ( zi'-der ze. Dutch, zoi'-der-za). Ex¬ 
presses the Dutch for the “South Sea,” in relation 
to the North Sea or German Ocean. 

Zwinger {tsmng'-er). A famous museum in Dres¬ 
den. Its picture-gallery contains about 2,500 
paintings, also collections of drawings, casts, etc. 


NAVIES OF THE WORLD 


POWER3 


Great Britain, . 
Germany, . . . 
United States, . 

France. 

Japan,. 

Russia, .... 

Italy,. 

Austria-Hungary, 

Brazil,. 

Argentina, . . . 

Sweden. 

Netherlands, . . 
Norway, .... 

Chile,. 

Denmark, . . . 
Spain, ..... 
Portugal, . . . 
Greece, .... 

Turkey. 

China,. 

Mexico, .... 
Siam. 


Modern Battleships 

Cruiser Battleships 

Older Battleships 

First Class Cruisers 

Second Class Cruisers 

Third Class Cruisers 

Gunboats 

Monitors 

Destroyers 

Torpedo Boats 

r 

Submarines 

43 

9 

15 

42 

38 

36 



173 

54 

67 

31 

5 

5 

9 

6 

34 

47 

. • 

89 

48 

8 

26 


9 

15 

3 

14 

21 

10 

50 

32 

34 

15 


9 

15 

12 

21 

14 


65 

191 

61 

11 

i 

4 

13 

7 

13 

6 


58 

48 

12 

11 


3 

6 

8 

2 

8 


97 

32 

31 

10 


2 

7 

3 

15 

13 


21 

43 

7 

9 


3 

8 

5 


4 


9 

18 


2 


2 

1 

1 

3 

5 





2 


2 

5 

2 

2 

2 

• • 

4 

8 




12 

1 

. . 


5 

11 

6 

51 

io 



9 

7 

. . 

. . 

1 

1 


50 

l 



4 




3 

2 


29 


2 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

, # 

6 

14 

2 



1 

. . 

, , 

, . 

4 

3 


13 




1 

8 

, , 

, . 

. . 


5 

6 




. . 

6 

. . 

. , 

19 


2 

4 

2 



. . 

. . 

, . 

, . 

8 

3 


12 




2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

8 




. . 

1 

3 









. . 

. . 

. , 

5 



2 







1 








j 

e o 
z z 
z < 

§ 5 
E H 

tu « 
E 

fa 

o 


*134,000 
+35,500 
t53,375 
30,599 
** 0,000 
60,000 
30,000 
12,899 
8,000 
5,000 
4,000 
8,575 
1,130 
10,000 
4,000 
5,000 
6,000 
4,000 
30,000 

* 1,200 

5,100 


*Na% al Reserve seamen, 24,700. fNaval militia, 7,035 men. ^Reserve of 110,000 men. **Reserve of 114,000 men. 














































































MISCELLANY 


849 


Parcel Post. A general parcel post for the 
U. S. was provided for in the act of August 24, 
1912, to take effect on January 1, 1913. This 
extends the fourth class of mail matter to 
embrace all not in the first, second, or third 
class. It now includes all farm, factory and 
other products, except printed matter, in parcels 
not exceeding 11 pounds in weight or 72 inches 
in combined length and girth. Explosives, 
poisons, obscene matter and certain other objec¬ 
tionable classes are excluded. 

The rate on parcels not over 4 ounces is one 
cent per ounce or fraction thereof, regardless 
of distance. On parcels over 4 ounces, the 
rates are determined on the basis of eight zones 
of distance from the point of mailing, in accord¬ 
ance with the following table:— 



First 

Pound. 

Each 

Additional 

Eleven 

Pounds. 

Rural route and city 

Pound. 


delivery. 

$0.05 

$0.01 

$0.15 

50-mile zone,. . . 

.05 

.03 

.35 

150-mile zone,. . . 

.06 

.04 

.46 

300-mile zone,. . . 

.07 

.05 

.57 

600-mile zone,. . . 

.08 

.06 

.68 

1,000-mile zone,. . . 

.09 

.07 

.79 

1,400-mile zone,. . . 

.10 

.09 

1.00 

1,800-mile zone,. . . 

.11 

.10 

1.11 

Over 1,800 miles, . . 

.12 

.12 

1.32 


All parcels must be carried to the post office 
for mailing and postage must be fully prepaid 
in the form of special stamps affixed. If ordi¬ 
nary stamps are used on parcels, they will be 
detained and marked “Held for postage.” 
Parcels must be wrapped according to pre¬ 
scribed conditions to avoid injury to the mails 
or mail clerks and to admit of easy inspection. 
The inclusion of matter of a higher rate subjects 
the whole to that rate and may result in other 
penalties. Parcels may be insured for their 
value up to $50 for a fee of 10 cents. 

For some years past, a modified form of 
parcel post has been extended to exporters and 
other users of the foreign mails by special con¬ 
vention with the principal nations. This is 
the only means of exporting small parcels other 
than the payment of first class postage and has 
proved very popular. The rate to most coun¬ 
tries is 12c for each pound or fraction thereof. 
The weight of parcels thus mailed from the 
U. S. was 1,824,623 pounds in 1911, an increase 
of 22.4% over the preceding year. 

The parcel post not only reaches every town 
and city served by any express company, but 
also 20,000,000 persons heretofore without any 
such service. The rates are in some instances 
higher and in others lower than those of the 
express companies. Present regulations will 
doubtless require modification as the result of 
experience. Congress in the act of August 24, 
1912, appointed a joint commission to investigate 
the subject further. 

Postal Savings System. Congress, by 
the act of June 25,1910, created a board of trustees 
to control, supervise and administer a postal 
savings system, and authorized one depository 
in each state and territory for experimental 
purposes. These were opened Januaiy 3, 1911. 
After four months’ trial the system was gradually , 
extended until, in 1912, it embraced 12,812 post 
offices, 300,000 depositors, and $28,000,000 m 
deposits. Certificates are issued to depositors 


and their accounts are kept at the post offices. 

Deposits by individuals are limited to $100 
in any one month or $500 in all; they can, how¬ 
ever, be applied to purchase U. S. bonds which 
the trustees will repurchase at their face value 
on request. In 1912 a total of $1,314,400 had 
been so applied. All deposits are required by 
law to be redeposited in state and national banks. 
In 1912, 7,357 banks shared these deposits and 
had placed $54,000,000 in bonds with the U. S. 
treasurer to protect them. This has afforded 
a broad market for municipal bonds. With 
annual deposits of $50,000,000 or more, the 
system will be self-supporting. The deposits 
are mostly hoardings which thus get back into 
general circulation. 

Pawnbroker’s Sign. This sign, popularly 
known as “three balls,” was taken from that of 
the Italian bankers, generally called Lombards, 
who were the first to open pawnshops in England 
for the relief of temporary distress. The greatest 
of the Lombards were the celebrated and eventu¬ 
ally princely house of the Medici of Florence. 
They bore pills on their shields (and those pills, 
as was usual then, were gilded), in allusion to 
the professional origin from which they had 
obtained the name of Medici. Whence their 
agents in England and other countries placed 
their armorial bearings over their doors, and 
others adopted the sign. 

Seven Wonders of the World. In 
ancient times this description was assigned 
the Pyramids of Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of 
Semiramis at Babylon, the Temple of Diana at 
Ephesus, the Statue of Jupiter at Athens by 
Phidias, the Mausoleum, the Colossus at Rhodes, 
and the Pharos of Alexandria. This cycle of 
seven wonders originated among the Greeks 
after the time of Alexander the Great. 

Signature of the Cross. The mark 
which persons who are unable to write are 
required to make, instead of their signature, is in 
the form of a cross (X), and this practice, 
having been followed formerly by kings and 
nobles, is constantly referred to as an instance 
of the deplorable ignorance of ancient times. 
Anciently, the use of this mark was not confined 
to illiterate persons; for, among the Saxons, 
the mark of the cross, as an attestation of good 
faith of the person signing, was required to be 
attached to the signature of those who could 
write, as well as to stand in the place of the 
signature of those who could not write. The 
ancient use of the cross was, therefore, universal 
by those who could and those who could not 
write. It was, indeed, the symbol of an oath 
from its holy associations. 

Solid South, Solid North. The phrase 
“Solid South” denotes a political solidarity 
dominated by the Democratic party such as 
obtained in ante-bellum days. The expression 
came into vogue about ten years after the close 
| of the war, and was given a political significance 
by a portion of the newspaper press which 
opposed it with a “Solid North” based on a 
survival of the old war feeling. John Singleton 
Mosby, American soldier, but who also served in 
the Confederate army, was the first to use the 
phrase “Solid South,” in .a letter to the New 
York Herald, in 1876. 







850 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Places 

When It Is 12 O’Clock Noon 

According To 

At 

Eastern 

Central 

Mountain 

Pacific 

London 

Paris 

Standard Time 

in the United States 


IT IS 

AT 














Aden,. 

. . Arabia 

8.00 P. 

M. 

9.00 P. 

M. 

10.00 P. 

M. 

11.00 

P. 

M. 

3.00 P. 

M. 

2.51 P. 

M. 

Amsterdam, . . 

. . Holland 

5.20 P. 

M. 

6.20 P. 

M. 

7.20 P. 

M. 

8.20 

P. 

M. 

12.20 P. 

M. 

12.10 P. 

M. 

Athens, . . . . 

. . Greece 

6.35 P. M. 

7.35 P. 

M. 

8.35 P. 

M. 

9.35 

P. 

M. 

1.35 P. 

M. 

1.26 P. 

M. 

Berlin, . . . . 

Germany 

5.54 P. 

M. 

6.54 P. 

M. 

7.54 P. 

M. 

8.54 

P. 

M. 

12.54 P. 

M. 

12.45 P. 

M. 

Bombay, . . . 

. . . India 

9.51 P. 

M. 

10.51 P. 

M. 

11.51 P. 

M. 

12.51 

A. 

M. 

4.51 P. 

M. 

4.42 P. 

M. 

Bremen, . . . . 

Germany 

5.33 P. 

M. 

6.33 P. 

M. 

7.33 P. 

M. 

8.33 

P. 

M. 

12.33 P. 

M. 

12.23 P. 

M. 

Central Time, 

United States 

11.00 A. 

M. 



1.00 P. 

M. 

2.00 

P. 

M. 

6.00 A. 

M. 

5.51 A. 

M. 

Constantinople, 

. . Turkey 

6.56 P. 

M. 

7.56 P. 

M. 

8.56 P. 

M. 

9.56 

P. 

M. 

1.56 P. 

M. 

1.47 P. 

M. 

Copenhagen, . . 

Denmark 

5.50 P. 

M. 

6.50 P. 

M. 

7.50 P. 

M. 

8.50 

P. 

M. 

12.50 P. 

M. 

12.41 P. 

M. 

Dublin, . . . 

. . Ireland 

4.34 P. 

M. 

5.35 P. 

M. 

6.35 P. 

M. 

7.35 

P. 

M. 

11.35 A. 

M. 

11.26 A. 

M. 

Eastern Time, 

United States 



1.00 P. 

M. 

2.00 P. 

M. 

3.00 

P. 

M. 

7.00 A. 

M. 

6.51 A. 

M. 

Hamburg, . . 

Germany 

5.10 P. 

M. 

6.40 P. 

M. 

7.40 P. 

M. 

8.40 

P. 

M. 

12.40 P. 

M. 

12.31 P. 

M. 

Havre, . . . . 

. . France 

5.00 P. 

M. 

6.00 P. 

M. 

7.00 P. 

M. 

8.00 

P. 

M. 

12 noon 

11.51 A. 

M. 

Hong Kong, . . 

. . . China 

12.37 A. 

M.* 

1.37 A. 

M * 

2.37 A. 

M* 

3.37 

A. 

M.* 

7.37 P. 

M. 

7.27 P. 

M. 

Honolulu, . . . 

. . Hawaii 

6.29 A. 

M. 

7.29 A. 

M. 

8.29 A. 

M. 

9.29 

A. 

M. 

1.29 A. 

M. 

1.19 A. 

M. 

Liverpool, . . 


4.48 P. 

M. 

5.48 P. 

M. 

6.48 P. 

M. 

7.48 

P. 

M. 

11.48 A. 

M. 

11.39 A. 

M. 

London, . . . . 


5.00 P. 

M. 

6.00 P. 

M. 

7.00 P. 

M. 

8.00 

P. 

M. 


. . • 

11.51 A. 

M. 

Madrid, . . . . 


4.45 P. 

M. 

5.45 P. 

M. 

6.45 P. 

M. 

7.45 

P. 

M. 

ii.45 A. 

M. 

11.36 A. 

M. 

Manila, . . Philippine Islands 

1.04 A. 

M * 

2.04 A. 

M * 

3.04 A. 

M* 

4.04 

A. 

M * 

8.04 P. 

M. 

7.54 P, 

M. 

Melbourne, . . 

Australia 

2.40 A. 

M.* 

3.40 A. 

M.* 

4.40 A. 

M.* 

5.40 

A. 

M * 

9.40 P. M. 

9.31 P. 

M. 

Mountain Time, 

United States 

10.00 A. 

M. 

11.00 A. 

M. 



1.00 

P. 

M. 

5.00 A. M. 

4.51 A. 

M. 

Pacific Time, . 

United States 

9.00 A. 

M. 

10.00 A. 

M. 

11.00 A. 

M. 




4.00 A. 

M. 

3.51 A. 

M. 

Paris,. 


5.09 P. 

M. 

6.09 P. 

M. 

7.09 P. 

M. 

8.09 

P. 

M. 

12.09 P. 

M. 

....... 


Rome, . . . . 

. . . Italy 

5.50 P. 

M. 

6.50 P. 

M. 

7.50 P. 

M. 

8.50 

P. 

M. 

12.50 P. 

M. 

12.41 P. 

M. 

Stockholm, . . . 

. i Sweden 

6.12 P. 

M. 

7.12 P. 

M. 

8.12 P. 

M. 

9.12 

P. 

M. 

1.12 P. 

M. 

1.03 P. 

M. 

St. Petersburg, . 

. . Russia 

7.01 P. 

M. 

8.01 P. 

M. 

9.01 P. 

M. 

10.01 

P. 

M. 

2.01 P. 

M. 

1.52 P. 

M. 

Vienna, . . . . 


6.06 P. 

M. 

7.06 P. 

M. 

8.06 P. 

M. 

9.06 

P. 

M. 

1.06 P. 

M. 

12.57 P. 

M. 

Yokohama, . . 

. . . Japan 

2.19 A. 

M * 

3.19 A. 

M * 

4.19 A. 

M * 

5.19 

A. 

M.* 

9.19 P. 

M. 

9.09 P. 

M. 


* The time noted is in the morning of the following day. 


STATES, MOTTOES, AND POPULAR NAMES 


State 

Alabama. 

Arizona .... 
Arkansas. 

California. . . . 
Colorado. 

Connecticut. . . 
Delaware. . . . 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Idaho. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. , . . . 
Kentucky. . . . 

Louisiana. . . . 
Maine. 


Motto 


Here we rest. 
Ditat Deus. 


Mercy, justice. Regnant 
populi. 

Eureka. . 

Nil sine numine. . . . 

Qui transtulit sustinet. . 


Liberty and Independ¬ 
ence. 


In God is our trust. 


Obverse: Wisdom, jus¬ 
tice, moderation. 
Reverse: Agriculture and 
commerce. 


Salve. 

National Union, State 
Sovereignty. 


None. 

Our liberties we prize 
and our rights we will 
maintain. 


Ad astra per aspera. . . 

United we stand, divided 
we fall. 


Union, justice, and con¬ 
fidence. 


Dirigo. 


Translation 


God enriches. 


The people rule. 


I have found it. 

Nothing without Provi¬ 
dence. 

He who transplanted 
still sustains. 


Hail. 


To the stars through all 
difficulties. 


I direct. 


Popular Name 
of State 


Bear. 

Golden. 

Centennial. . . . 

Land of Steady 
Habits. Nutmeg. 


Blue Hen. 
mond.. 


Dia- 


Flower. 


Empire State of 
the South. . . 


Prairie. . 
Hoosier. 

Hawkeye. 


Blue Grass. Dark 
and Bloody 
Ground. . . . 

Creole* Pelican. 

Pine Tree. Lumber. 


Popular Name 
of People 


Lizards. 

Toothpicks. 

Gold Hunters. 
Rovers. 

Wooden Nutmeg3. 

Blue Hens. Chick¬ 
ens. Muskrats. 

Fly-up-the-C reeks. 


Buzzards. 

Suckers. 

Hoosiers. 

Hawkeyes. 

Jayhawkers. 

Corncrackers. 

Creoles. 

Foxes. 



\ 



























































































MISCELLANY 


851 


STATES, MOTTOES, AND POPULAR NAMES —Continued 


State 

Motto 

Translation 

Popular Name 
of State 

Popular Name 
of People 

Maryland. . . . 

Fatti maschii parole fern- 





ine. 

Manly deeds, womanly 




[At one time the seal 

words. 

Old Line .... 

Crawthumpers 


was mislaid, and the new 
die carried the motto, 

[Seal originally pend- 

- 

. 


“ Crescite et Multipli- 

ant, for wax, when screw 




camini.” Grow or in- 

introduced the reverse 




crease and multiply.] 

was abandoned.] 




Coronasti nos scuto bonse 

You have crowned us 




voluntatis tuse .... 

with the shield of your 
good will. 



Massachusetts. 

Ense petit placidam sub 





libertate quietem. . . 

With the sword she seeks 





quiet peace under lib- 



Michigan. . . . 


erty. 

Bay. 

Beaneaters. 

Si quaeris peninsulam 



amaenam circumspice. 

If thou seekest a beauti- 




ful peninsula, behold it 
here. 

Wolverine. 

Wolverines. 


Minnesota. . . . 

L’etoile du nord. 

The Star of the North. . 

North Star. Go- 


Mississippi. . . . 



pher. 

Gophers. 

None. 


Bayou. 

Tadpoles. 

Missouri. 

Salus populi suprema lex 

esto. 

United we stand, divided 

The welfare of the people 




we fall. 

is the supreme law. . 

Bullion. 

Pukes. 

Montana. 

Oro y plata. 

Gold and silver. 

Mountain. 

Bug-eaters. 

Nebraska. 

Equality before the law. 
All for our country. . . 


Tree-planter. 

Nevada. 


Silver. 

Sage Hens. 

New Hampshire. 

None. 


Granite. 

Granite Boys. 

New Jersey. . . 

None. 



Jersey Blues. Clam- 




catchers. 

New Mexico . . 

Crescit eundo .... 

It increases by going . . 



New York. . . . 

Excelsior. 

Higher, more elevated. . 

Empire. 

Knickerbockers. 

North Carolina. . 

Esse quam videri . . . 

To be rather than to seem 

Old North. Tur- 




pentine. 

Tar heels. 

North Dakota. 

Liberty and union, one 
and inseparable now 



Tuckoes. 


and forever. 


Sioux. 

Ohio. 

None. 


Buckeye. 

Buckeyes. 

Oklahoma. 

Labor omnia vincit. . . 

Labor conquers all things 


Web feet. 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania. . . 

The Union. 

Obverse: None. 

[The State “Coat of 

Beaver, Sunset. . 


Reverse: Both can’t sur- 

Arms ” carries the mot- 




vive. 

to, “Virtue, Liberty, 
and Independence.”] . 

Keystone. 

Pennanites. Leath- 



er-heads. 

Rhode Island. . . 

Hope. 


Little Rhody. . . 

Gun-flints. 

South Carolina. . 

Animis opibusque parati. 

Prepared in mind and re¬ 
sources; ready to give 
life and property. 




Dum spiro, spero. Spes. 

While I breathe I hope. 


Weasels. 


Hope. .. 

Palmetto. 

South Dakota.. . 

Under God the people 




rule. 


Coyote. 


Tennessee. . . . 

Agriculture, Commerce.. 


Volunteer. 

Butternuts. Whelps. 

Texas. 

None. 


Lone Star. 

Beef-heads. 

Utah. 

None. 



Green Mountain 

Vermont. 

Freedom and unity. . . 


Green Mountain. . 



Boys. 

Virginia. 

Obverse: Sic semper ty- 




rannis. 

Ever so to tyrants. 


Beadies. 


Reverse: Perseverando. 

By perseverance. . . . 

Old Dominion. . . 

Washington. . . 

Al-Ki. 

Bye-bye. 

Evergreen. 


West Virginia. 

Obverse: Montani sem- 




per liberi. 

Mountaineers are always 




free men. 




Reverse: Libertas et 



Panhandlers. 


fidelitas. 

Liberty and fidelity. . . 

Panhandle. . . . 

Wisconsin. . . . 

Forward. 


Badger. 

Badgers. 

Wyoming. . . . 

Cedant arma togae. . . 

Let arms yield to the 




gown. 






































































852 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


State Flowers. 

The following are “State Flowers,” as adopted in 
most instances by the vote of the public school scholars of 
the respective States: 


Alabama, . . 
Alaska, . . . 
Arkansas, . . 
California, . . 
Colorado, . . 
Connecticut, . 
Delaware, . . 
Florida, . . 
Idaho, . . . 
Illinois, . . . 
Iowa, .... 
Kansas,. . . 
Kentucky, 
Louisiana, . . 
Maine, . . . 
Maryland, . . 
Michigan, . . 
Minnesota, 
Mississippi, . 
Missouri, . . 
Montana, . . 
Nebraska, . . 
New Mexico, 
New York, . . 
North Dakota, 

Ohio . 

Oklahoma, 
Oregon, . . . 
Rhode Island, 
South Dakota, 
Texas, , . . 
Vermont, . . 
Washington, . 
West Virginia, 
Wisconsin, 
Wyoming, . . 


.... Golden Rod 
. . Forget-me-not 
. . Apple Blossom 
. . Golden Poppy 
.... Columbine 
Mountain Laurel 
. . Peach Blossom 
. . Orange Blossom 

. Syringa 

. Violet 

.... Golden Rod 

. Sunflower 

. . . . Golden Rod 

. Magnolia 

Pine Cone and Tassel 
. Black Eyed Susan 
. . Apple Blossom 

.Moccasin 

.Magnolia 

. . . Golden Rod 
.... Bitter Root 
.... Golden Rod 

.Cactus 

.... Golden Rod 
.... Wild Rose 
Scarlet Carnation 

. Mistletoe 

. . . Oregon Grape 

. Violet 

. . Anemone Patens 
. . . Blue Bonnet 
.... Red Clover 
. . Rhododendron 
. . Rhododendron 

. Violet 

.Gentian 


Statistics of the Earth. 


Continental 

Divisions 

Area in 
Square Miles 

Inhabitants 

Number 

Per Sq. 
Mile 

Africa, . . . 
America, N., . 
America, S., . 
Asia, .... 
Australasia, . 
Europe, . . . 
Polar Region, 

11,513,579 

8,037,714 

6,851,306 

17,057,666 

3,456,290 

3,754,282 

4,970,265 

127,000,000 

115,000,000 

45,000,000 

850,000,000 

5,200,000 

380,200,000 

300,000 

11.03 
14.31 
6.57 
49 .‘83 
1.5 

101.27 

0.06 

Total, . . . 

55,641,102 

1,522,700,000 

27.37 


Thanksgiving Day. This holiday, in 
the United States, is named by the president, 
and usually by the governors of the various 
States, to be kept as a thanksgiving for the 
mercies of the year, and to be observed on the 
last Thursday of November. The festival is 
essentially a harvest thanksgiving, and its 
earliest observance can be traced to the Pilgrim 
Fathers. The summer of 1621, following the 
landing at Plymouth, yielded but a scanty har¬ 
vest, and unless speedy supplies came from 
Europe the sturdy colonists foresaw that they 
would be reduced to the point of starvation. 
Yet, amid such surroundings as these, we learn 
from the old chronicles that Governor Bradford, 
“the harvest being gotten in, sent four men out 
on fowling, so that we might, after a more 
special manner, rejoice together after we had 
gathered the fruit of our labor.” And thus, 

“ While sickness lurked, and death assailed, 

And foes beset on every hand,” 

the first governor of New England instituted the 
American Harvest Home. 

During the Revolution, Thanksgiving Day was 
a national institution, being annually recom¬ 
mended by Congress; but after the general 


thanksgiving for peace, in 1784, there was no 
national appointment until 1789, when Washing¬ 
ton, by request of Congress, recommended a 
day of thanksgiving for the adoption of the 
Constitution. Washington issued a second proc¬ 
lamation of thanksgiving, in 1795, on account of 
the suppression of insurrection. President Madi¬ 
son, by request of Congress, recommended a 
thanksgiving for peace, in 1815. But the official 
recommendation of a day for the giving of 
thanks was mainly confined to New England 
until the year 1817. During the Civil War, in 
1863 and 1864, President Lincoln issued procla¬ 
mations recommending annual thanksgivings. 
Since then a proclamation has been issued 
annually, as indicated above. 

Uncle Sam. This term is used in refer¬ 
ence to America exactly in the same way as 
“John Bull” is applied to England. It arose 
at the time of the last war between England 
and America. At Troy, N. Y., on the Hud¬ 
son, a commissariat contractor named Elbert 
Anderson, of New York, had a store yard. 
A government inspector named Samuel Wilson, 
who was always called “Uncle Sam,” super¬ 
intended the examination of the provisions, 
and when they were passed, each cask or 
package was marked “EA-US,” the initials 
of the contractor and of the United States. 
The man whose duty it was to mark the 
casks, who was a facetious fellow, being asked 
what the letters meant, replied that they stood 
for Elbert Anderson and Uncle Sam. The 
joke soon became known, and was heartily 
entered into by Uncle Sam himself. It soon 
got into print, and long before the war was 
over was known throughout the United States. 
Mr. Wilson, the original “Uncle Sam,” died 
at Troy, in 1854, aged eighty-four years. 

Union Jack. The national flag of Eng^ 
land was originally the banner of St. George — 
white with a red cross. It was called simply the 
“Jack.” When James I. came to the throne of 
both kingdoms, the banner of St. Andrew, blue 
with a white diagonal cross, was added. The 
word “ Jack” is supposed to be corrupted from 
the French Jaque, a jacket, and was applied to 
the early flags because the cross of St. George was 
embroidered on the j ackets of the English infantry. 

Valentine Day, or, more properly, St. 
Valentine’s Day, is celebrated on the 14th of 
February, usually by the sending of valentines 
or other gifts. The old idea was that the birds 
began to mate on that day; hence the practice 
of young people choosing their “valentines” on 
that day by sending missives of an amatory or 
satirical nature, generally anonymously. The 
early form of the valentine was a ridiculous, 
colored caricature of a male or female figure, with 
a few burlesque verses below. More recently the 
print is of an artistic or sentimental kind, and even 
extends to the form of a book. St. Valentine was a 
bishop of Rome during the Third Century. He was 
of a most amiable nature, and possessed remark¬ 
able gifts of eloquence, and was so very successful 
in converting the pagan Romans to Christianity 
that he incurred the displeasure of the emperor, and 
was martyred by his order, February 14, A. D. 
270. When the saint came to be placed in the cal¬ 
endar, his name was given to the day of his death. 























































MISCELLANY 


853 


Arithmetical Principles, 
Measurements, Weights, and 
Distances 

Among the many subjects covered in com¬ 
mon school work, there is, perhaps, none that 
is more perplexing to the average pupil than 
that of Arithmetic. Moreover, it seems that 
these principles, rules, and formulas, even when 
once mastered, are very readily forgotten unless 
they are put to constant use. 

The material covered on the following pages 
is in no sense intended to be complete, nor is it 
in any measure to take the place of the regular 
text book. Want of space has also precluded 
the idea of detailed analysis. On the contrary, 
the object has been to bring together and to sim¬ 
plify, if possible, the essentials and fundamentals. 
It is believed that a careful examination of this 
section will not only give one an excellent grasp 
of the leading principles at the outset, but that 
the material will also be found valuable both for 
review and for reference purposes. 

Percentage 

Percentage and per cent are terms 
derived from Latin per and centum, mean¬ 
ing by the hundred. 

Percentage is one or more hundredths of 
the whole. 

Hundredths are decimal expressions occupying 
the first two places on the right of the decimal 
point. Since percentage and per cent signify 
hundredths, it is clear that they can be expressed 
by decimals; as, 1% = 1/100 = .01. 

Base is the number on which percentage is 
reckoned. 

Rate is the number of hundredths to be taken. 

Amount is the base + the percentage. 

Difference is the base — the percentage. 

1. Find percentage when base and 

rate are given. 

A man had $480 in a bank and drew out 30% 
of it. How much did he draw out? 

$480 X .30 = $144 Sum drawn out (Per¬ 
centage) . 

Percentage = Base x Rate. 

2. Find base when rate and per¬ 

centage are given. 

A man rented a house for $60 a month. The 
yearly rent of the house was 16#% of its value. 
What was the value of the house? 

$60 X 12 = $720 rent for 1 yr. (Per- 

$720 -s- g .16# = $4320 Value 

of house (Base). 

Base = Percentage -r- Rate. 

3. Find rate when base and per¬ 

centage are given. 

A farmer had 550 sheep and sold 319 sheep. 
What per cent of his flock did he sell? 

319 550 = .58 = 58% Rate. 

Rate = Percentage -r- Base. 


4. Find base when amount^or dif¬ 
ference and rate are given. 

This year’s income is $900, which is 12#% 
more than last year’s. What was last year’s 
income? 

100% + 12#% = 112#% = 1.125 
$900 -r- 1.125 = $800 Income (Base). 

Base = Amount -r- (100% + Rate). 

A clerk receives $170 a month which is 15% less 
than his friend’s salary. How much salary does 
his friend receive? 

100% - 15% = 85% = .85 
$170 -7- .85 = $200 Friend’s salary (Base). 
Base = Difference -h (100% — Rate). 

The terms used in Interest, Discount, Profit 
and Loss, Commission, Insurance, Taxes, Duties, 
and Stocks and Bonds may be expressed in terms 
equivalent to the terms of Percentage, and the 
same principles apply. 

Interest 

Interest is the sum paid for the use of 
money. 

Principal is the sum lent. . 

Amount is the sum of principal and interest. 

Rate is the per cent paid per annum and is 
established by law. 

Usury is a higher rate of interest than is 
allowed by law. 

Simple interest is interest on the princi¬ 
pal only. 

Compound interest is interest on the 
principal and the unpaid interest combined at 
stated intervals. 

Exact interest is interest computed on 
the basis of 365 days to a common year. 

Simple Interest 

1. Find the interest on $600 for 3 yr. 4 mo. 
10 da. at 6%. What is the amount? Find the 
interest and the amount at 4%. 

At 6% the interest on $1 
For 1 yr. is $ .06 
“ 1 mo. “ .005 

“ Ida. “ .000# 

3 yr. @ 6% = $ .18 
4 mo. (# yr.) @ “ = .02 
10 da. (# mo.) @ “ = .001# 

$ .201# inter¬ 
est on $1 for 3 yr. 4 mo. 10 da. @ 6% 

$ .201# X 600 = $121 Interest. 

$600 -f $121 = $721 Amount. 

Interest = Principal x Rate x Time. 
Amount = Principal -f Interest. 

$.201# = interest on $1 for 3 yr. 4 mo. 
10 da. @ 6% 

1% = # of $ .201# = $ .033m 8 
4% = $ .033H4s X 4 = $ .134% interest on 
$1 for 3 yr. 4 mo. 10 da. @ 4% 

$ .134y 0 X 600 = $80.66% Interest. 

$600 -f $80.66% = $680.66% Amount. 

Any per cent may be determined by dividing the 
interest at 6% by 6 (to get 1%) and multiplying by the 
required per cent. „ 




854 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Bankers’ Six Per Cent Method (60 
day method) 

A short method of computing interest at 6% 
is reckoned on the basis of 360 days to a year or 
12 months of 30 days each. 

The interest on any principal for 60 days or 2 
months at 6% is 1% of the principal. 

Find the interest on $350 for 5 mo. 13 da. at 6%. 
$3.50 - interest for 60 da. or 2 mo. 

.350 = interest for 6 da. 

5 mo. = 2)4 times 2 mo. 

12 da. = Vo of 60 da. 

1 da. = Vq of 6 da. 

$3.50 X 2)4 = $8.75 interest for 5 mo. 

Y> of $3.50 = .70 “ “ 12 da. 

Ye of .350 = .058^ “ “ 1 da. 

$9,508)4 interest for 

5 mo. 13 da. 

OR, 

To find the interest on any number of dollars 
for six days, move the decimal point three places 
to the left; for sixty days, move the decimal 
point two places to the left; for six hundred 
days, move the decimal point one place to the 
left. 

What is the interest on $350 for 5 mo. 13 da.? 

5 mo. 13 da. = 163 da. 

$3.50 X 2 =$7.00 interest for 120 da. 

$3.50 -4-2 = 1.75 “ “ 30 da. 

$.350 X 2 = .70 “ “ 12 da. 

$.350 - 7 - 6 = .058)4 “ “ 1 da. 

$9,508)4 interest for 

5 mo. 13 da. 

2. What principal (sum of money) will pro¬ 
duce $44.80 in 2 yr. 8 mo. at 6% ? 

2 vr. 8 mo. = 2J4 yr. 

6% X 2%i - 16% = .16 
$44.80 -5- .16 = $280 Principal. 

Principal = Interest-h (Time x Rate). 

3. What sum of money in 2 yr. 6 mo. at 7% 
will amount to $135.7125, and what will be the 
interest? 

2 yr. 6 mo. = 2 )4 yr. 

$ .07 X 2)^ = $ .175 
$14-$ .175 = $1,175 amount of $1 for 
2 yr. 6 mo. @ 7% 

$135.7125 -4- 1.175 = $115.50 Principal. 
$135.7125 - $115.50 = $20.2125 Interest. 

Principal = Amount -4- Amount of 
$1 for given time and rate. 

4. At what rate of interest will $280 produce 
$44.80 in 2 yr. 8 mo.? 

$44.80 -r- 2% = $16.80 interest for 1 yr. 
$16.80 -T- $280 = .06 =6% Rate of interest. 

Rate = (Interest- 7 -Time) -4- Principal. 

5. In what time will $280 produce $44.80 at 

6 %? 

$280 X .06 = $16.80 interest for 1 yr. 
$44.80 -4- $16.80 = 2% = 2 yr. 8 mo. Time. 

Time = Interest -4- (Principal x Rate). 


interest 

$1200 4- $48 

cipal 

$1248 X .04 

interest 

$1248 + $49.92 

cipal 

$1297.92 X .02 

6 mo. 

$1297.92 4- $25,958 

$1323.878 — $1200 
Interest. 


$48 first year’s 

$1248 second prin- 

$49.92 second year’s 

$1297.92 third prin- 

$25,958 interest for 

$1323.878 amount 
$123,878 Compound 


Compound Interest 

Find the compound interest on $1200 for 2 yr. 
6 mo. at 4%. 

$1200 X .04 


Exact Interest 

Find the exact interest on $360 for 90 da. at 5%. 
$360 X .05 = $18 interest for 1 yr. 

$18 -4- 365 = $ .0493 interest for 1 da. 

$ .0493 X 90 = $4,437 Exact Interest. 


Discount 

Discount is a deduction made from a gross 
sum on any account whatever. 

Cash discount is a reduction made for 
the cash payment of a bill of goods sold on time. 

Time discount is the reduction made 
from the list or catalogue price within a specified 
limit. 

Commercial discount is a reduction 
allowed on the list or fixed price of an article. 

Net price is the list price less the discount 
or the discounts. 

Bank discount is the sum charged by a 
bank for cashing a note or a time draft. 

Proceeds is the difference between the face 
of the note and the bank discount. 

Term of discount is the time from date 
of discount of a note to its maturity. Notes 
may contain a promise of interest, which will be 
reckoned from the date of the note unless some 
other time is specified. 

Face of a note is the sum for which the 
note is drawn. 

Protest is a formal declaration in writing, 
made by a notary public, at the request of the 
holder of a note, notifying the maker and the 
indorsers of its non-payment. 

True discount is the interest which added 
to a principal (called Present Worth) will equal 
the face of the note. 

Present Worth of a debt payable at some 
future time without interest is that sum which, 
being put at legal interest, will amount to the 
debt at the time it becomes due. 

Commercial Discount 

1. Find net price of a piano listed at $400, 
sold at 20% and 5% off. 

$400 X .20 = $80 first discount 
$400 — $80 = $320 first net price 
$320 X .05 = $16 second discount 
$320 — $16 = $304 Net Price. 







MISCELLANY 


855 


2. Find the net price of a bill of goods 
amounting to $320, discount 10% and 12%. 
Find one discount which will be equal to these 
two discounts. 

$320 X .10 = $32 first discount 
$320 — $32 = $288 first net amount 

$288 X .12 = $34.56 second discount 
$288 — $34.56 = $253.44 Second net 
amount. 

$320 - $253.44 = $66.56 
$66.56 -r- $320 = .208 - 20%% Rate of 
discount. 

Bank Discount 

1. Given face of note, time, and rate 

to find bank discount and pro¬ 
ceeds. 

A note for $500 payable in 2 mo. is discounted 
by a bank. What is the bank discount and 
what are the proceeds, money being worth 5%? 
$500 X .05 = $25 interest for 1 yr. 
2 mo. = % yr. 

% of $25 = $4.16% Bank Discount. 

$500 - $4.16% = $495.83%’ Proceeds. 

Bank discount = Face of note x Rate 
X Time. 

Proceeds = Face of note — Bank dis¬ 
count. 

A note for $600, bearing interest at 6%, dated 
Sept. 20, 1909, and payable in 6 mo., was dis¬ 
counted at 7%, February 12, 1910. What were 
the proceeds and the bank discount? 

Date of maturity is March 20, 1910 
Term of discount = 36 da. (number of 
days from Feb. 12 to Mar. 20, 1910) 

6 mo. (% yr.) @ 6% = $ .03 
1 da. @ 6% = .000% 

$ .03 X 600 = $18 interest for 6 mo. 

$600 + $18 = $618 amount 
$ .000% X 36 = $ .006 interest on $1 for 
36 da. @ 6% 

1% = % of $ .006 = $ .001 
7% = $ .001 X 7 = $ .007 
$ .007 X 618 = $4,326 Bank Discount. 
$618 - $4,326 = $613,674 Proceeds. 

When an interest-bearing note is discounted, the dis¬ 
count must be computed on the amount due at maturity. 

2. Given proceeds, time, and rate 

to find face of note. 

For what sum must a note be drawn for 60 da. 
to obtain $2975 in cash if the rate of discount is 
5 %? 

60 da. = 2 mo. = % yr. 

% of $ .05 = $ .00% interest on $1 for 
60 da. @ 5% 

$1.00 — .00% = $ .99% proceeds of $1 
$2975 -r* .99% = $3000 Face of note. 

Face of note = Proceeds -r- Proceeds 
of $1. 

True Discount 

A man owes $260 payable in 8 mo., money 
being worth 6%. What is the present worth of 
the debt? The true discount? 

$1 @ 6% for 8 mo. will amount to $1.04 
$260 -5- $1.04 = $250 Present Worth. 

$260 - $250 - $10 True Discount. 


Profit and Loss 

Profit and Loss in commerce signify the 
sum gained or lost in ordinary business transac¬ 
tions. They are reckoned at a certain per cent 
on the purchase price, or sum paid for articles 
under consideration. 

Cost is the sum paid. 

Selling Price is the sum received. 
Profit or Loss is the difference between 
cost and selling price. 

1. Find gain in dollars when cost 

and gain or loss per cent are 
given. 

A man bought a lot for $2560 and sold it at a 
gain of 20%. How much did he gain? What 
was the selling price? 

$2560 X .20 = $512 Gain. 

$2560 -f- $512 = $3072 Selling Price. 

Gain or Loss = Cost x Rate. 
Selling Price = Cost 4- Gain or 
Cost — Loss. 

2. Find per. cent of profit or loss 

when cost and selling price 
are given. 

A farm was bought for $5600 and sold for 
$6300. What per cent was gained? 

$6300 — $5600 = $700 gain 
$700 —t— $5600 = .12% = 12% Per cent 
gained. 

Rate per cent = Gain or Loss h- Cost. 

3. Find cost of an article when 

gain in dollars and gain per 
cent are given. 

A man sold a watch at a profit of $24 and 
gained 16%%. Find cost of the watch? 

$24 -T- .16% = $144 Cost. 

Cost = Gain or Loss -i- Rate. 

4. Find cost of an article when 

selling price and per cent of 
gain or loss are given. 

A bicycle dealer sold a wheel for $60 and 
gained 20% on the cost. Find the cost of the 
wheel. 

100% 4- 20% = 120% = 1.20 (selling price 
of $1 is $1.20) 

$60 -T- 1.20 = $50 Cost. 

Cost = Selling price (100% 4- Rate 
of gain). 

A bicycle dealer sold a wheel for $60 and lost 
20% on the cost. Find the cost of the wheel. 

100% - 20% - 80% = .80 (selling price of 
$1 is $ .80) 

$60 -i- .80 = $75 Cost. 

Cost = Selling price (100% — Rate 
of loss). 

Commission 

Commission is the percentage allowed an 
agent for his services. 

Consignment is the merchandise for¬ 
warded to the agent. 





856 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Consignor is the person who sends the 
merchandise. 

Consignee is the person to whom the 
merchandise is sent. 

Gross Proceeds is the whole amount for 
which the merchandise is sold. 

Net Proceeds is the sum remaining after 
all charges have been deducted. 

1. A lawyer collected a debt of $720 and 
charged 16^% for his services. What was the 
lawyer’s fee? 

$720 X .16^ = $120 Commission. 

2. A grain dealer bought 24,000 bushels of 
wheat at 60^ a bushel. He charged 5% com¬ 
mission. How much money must be sent to 
cover cost of grain and commission? 

$ .60 X 24,000 = $14,400 cost of wheat 

$14,400 X .05 = $720 commission 

$14,400 -K $720 = $15,120 Sum sent. 

3. A broker sold cotton at a commission of 
2^6%, and received $750 commission. What 
amount of cotton did he sell? 

$750 -r- .025 = $30,000 Cotton sold. 

4. An agent charged 12^% for selling a 
consignment of bicycles. His commission was 
$250. What are the net proceeds due the con¬ 
signor? 

$250 -7- .125 = $2000 selling price 

$2000 — $250 - $1750 Net Proceeds. 

5. A man bought 200 acres of land at $25 
an acre. His commission was $100. What rate 
of commission did he charge? 

$25 X 200 = $5000 cost of land 

$100-r-$5000 = .02 - 2% Rate of com¬ 
mission. 

6. A real estate agent demanded $38,291.40 
for an investment in land, including 5% commis¬ 
sion. What was his commission? How many 
acres did he purchase at $18 per acre? 

100% + 5% = 105% = 1.05 (every dollar 
invested cost $1.05) 

$38,291.40 -i- 1.05 = $36,468 investment 

$38,291.40 - $36,468 = $1823.40 Com¬ 
mission. 

$36,468 -T- $18 - 2026 (Acres). 

Insurance 

Insurance is a guaranteed security against 
loss or damage. There are two kinds of insur¬ 
ance, property and life. 

Property insurance includes fire, marine, 
plate glass, tornado, boiler, and burglar insurance. 

Life insurance includes four general kinds of 
policies: Straight Life, Limited Life, Endow¬ 
ment, and Term policies. 

(There are also accident and health policies.) 

Policy is the written contract between the 
party insured and the insurance company, or 
underwriters. 

Face of the policy is the amount of 
insurance. 

Premium is the sum paid for insurance. 

Rate is the cost of $1 of insurance for the 
term of the policy. 


Property Insurance 

1. Given face of policy and rate to 

find premium. 

A merchant insured his house for $1500 at 
annual premium. Find the premium. 
$1500 X .005 = $7.50 Premium. 

Premium = Face of policy x Rate. 

2. Given face of policy and premium 

to find rate. 

A store is insured for $9000 and the annual 
premium is $300. Find the rate. 

$300 -r- $9000 = .03^ = 3>^% Rate. 

Rate = Premium -f- Face of policy. 

3. Given premium and rate to find 

face of policy. 

A man paid $9 for insuring an automobile at 
%%. Find face of policy or amount insured. 

$9 -T- .0075 = $1200 Face of policy. 

Face of policy = Premium -t- Rate. 

4. Given value of property and rate 

to find face of policy. 

For what sum must a store and contents valued 
at $29,400 be insured to cover entire loss by fire 
and premium 2%? 

$1.00 — .02 = $ .98 value of $1 

$29,400 -f- .98 = $30,000 Face of policy. 
Face of policy = Value of property 
(100% - Rate). 

Taxes 

Tax is a sum of money levied on property 
for public purposes and is usually a certain per 
cent of the assessed valuation. 

Poll tax is a tax levied on male citizens. 
Assessed Value is the value placed upon 
property by the assessor. 

Rate of taxation is a certain per cent 
on each dollar or one hundred dollars of the as¬ 
sessed valuation of the property. 

There are two kinds of property—real estate 
and personal property. 

Real Estate is immovable property; as, 
houses, lands, etc. 

Personal Property is movable property; 
as, money, notes, household goods, cattle, etc. 

1. Given assessed valuation and 

rate to find tax. 

The assessed valuation of a certain county is 
$4,246,600 and the rate of taxation for public 
schools is .0045. What is the school tax? 

$4,246,600 X .0045 - $19,109.70 School 
Tax. 

Tax = Assessed valuation x Rate. 

2. Given tax and rate to find as¬ 

sessed valuation. 

A man pays a tax of $125 on his property at 
the rate of 1)4%* What is the assessed valua¬ 
tion of his property? 

$125 -7- .0125 = $10,000 Assessed Valua¬ 
tion. 

Assessed valuation = Tax -j- Rate, 





MISCELLANY 


857 


3. Given assessed valuation and tax 
to be raised to find rate. 

The assessed valuation of property in a cer¬ 
tain village is $2,340,000 and the tax to be raised 
is $11,700. What is the rate of taxation? Find 
A's tax whose property is valued at $3750 and 
who pays for 4 polls at 50^ each. 

$11,700 -7- $2,340,000 - .005 = %%> Rate. 

Rate = Tax -r- Assessed valuation. 

$3750 X .005 = $18.75 tax on property 

$ .50 X 4 = $2.00 poll tax 

$18.75 + $2.00 = $20.75 A’s Tax. 

Duties or Customs 

Duties, or Customs, are taxes levied 
on imported goods, to support the government 
and protect home industry. 

Duties are of two kinds—Ad Valorem and 
Specific. 

Ad Valorem duties are taxes computed 
on the net cost of the goods in the country from 
which they were imported. 

Specific duties are taxes computed on 
goods without regard to their cost. 

Invoice is a bill showing quantity and 
price of the goods. 

Before computing the duties on certain classes of mer¬ 
chandise, allowances are made for tare, or the weight of 
the box, bag, etc., for leakage, breakage, etc. 

1. A dealer imported 1200 bushels of grain at 
85^ a bushel. What was the duty at 30% ? 

$ .85 X 1200 = $1020 cost 

$1020 X .30 = $306 Ad Valorem duty. 

2. A merchant imported 3000 lb. of cheese. 
Allowing 5% tare, what was the duty at 50 a 
pound? 

3000 X .05 = 150 pounds tare 

3000 — 150 = 2850 pounds left for duty 

$ .05 X 2850 = $142.50 Specific duty. 

3. The specific duty on barley is 300 per 
bushel. If a grain dealer paid $2040 duty, how 
many bushels did he import? 

$2040 -i- $ .30 = 6800 (bushels) 

4. The duty on an invoice of $3500 worth of 
merchandise amounted to $630. What was the 
rate of duty? 

$630 -r- $3500 = .18 = 18% Rate of duty. 

Stocks and Bonds 

Capital, or Stock, is the money contrib¬ 
uted and employed to carry on the business of 
an individual corporation, company, or firm. 

Share is one of the equal parts into which 
capital stock is divided. A share is valued at 
$100 unless otherwise specified. 

Par Value of stock is the face value. 

Market Value of stock is the sum for 
which it will sell. 

Stock is at a premium when it sells for 
more than the par value; stock is at a discount 
when it sells for less than the par value. 

Dividend is a sum paid to stockholders 
from the profits of the business. 

Brokerage is the fee or compensation of a 
broker. 


When a broker buys stock for a customer, the 
brokerage must be added to the quoted price; 
when a broker sells for a customer, the brokerage 
must be subtracted from the quoted price. 

1. To find cost of shares at a given 

quotation. 

Find the cost of 500 shares of railroad stock 
at 127%, brokerage %%, par value of stock $50 
a share. 

$50 X 500 = $25,000 par value of stock 
127%% + %% = 128% ($l’s worth of 
stock will cost $1.28) 

$1.28 X 25,000 = $32,000 Cost of 500 shares. 

2. To find how much stock can be 

purchased for a given sum. 

How many shares of N. Y. C. stock at 61% 
can be bought for $6874, brokerage %%? 

61%% + %% = 61%% = .61375 ($1 in¬ 
vested costs $ .61375) 

$6874 -7- .61375 = $11,200 stock 
$11,200 -T- $100 = 112 (Shares). 

3. To find what income any invest¬ 

ment will produce. 

What will be the annual income from investing 
$3427.50 in 5% stock, purchased at 57, allowing 
%% brokerage? 

57% + %% = 57%% = .57125 ($1 in¬ 
vested costs $ .57125) 

$3427.50-;-.57125 = $6000 stock purchased 
$6000 X .05 = $300 Income. 

4. To find what sum must be 

invested to obtain a given 
income. 

How much must I invest in canal stock at 142, 
brokerage %%, to secure an income of $1600 if 
the stock pays a dividend of 8%? 

$1600 -r- .08 = $20,000 stock required 
142% + %% = 142%% = 1.42% ($1.42% 
is market price of $1) 

$20,000 X 1.42% = $28,425 Sum to be 
invested. 

5. To find what per cent the income 

is of the investment, when 
stock is purchased at a given 
price. 

What per cent income on my investment will 
I receive if I buy 6% stock at 25% premium? 
If I buy 6% stock at 25% discount? 

100% +25% = 125% = 1.25 ($1 of stock 
will cost $1.25) 

.06 -h 1.25 = .048 = 4%% Rate. 

100% — 25% = 75% = .75 ($1 of stock 
will cost $ .75) 

.06 -7- .75 =. .08 = 8% Rate. 

6. To find the price at which stock 

must be purchased to obtain a 
given rate upon the invest¬ 
ment. 

What must I pay for 5% stock that my invest¬ 
ment may yield 6%? 

.05 -7- .06 = .83% ($1 of stock will cost 
S .83%) 

$ .83% X 100 = $83% Purchase price of 
one share. 



858 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


7. To find the amount of dividend. 

A stock company declares a dividend of 5%. 
What does A receive who owns 57 shares? 

$100 X 57 = $5700 stock 
$5700 X .05 = $285 Dividend. 

8. To find the rate of dividend or 

installment to be paid. 

The capital of a company is $500,000. The 
receipts for one year are $67,000 and the expenses 
are $103,000. If stockholders are assessed, what 
will be the rate of assessment? 

$103,000 - $67,000 = $36,000 
$36,000 -7- $500,000 = .072 = 7Rate. 


two windows, each 7 ft. by 3 ft., and two doors, 
each 8 ft. by 4% ft. 

16 + 16 + 14% + 14% = 61% ft. (per¬ 
imeter of room) 

61% ft. X 10 = 615 sq.ft, (all sides before 
deductions) 

16 X 14% = 236 sq. ft. (ceiling) 

7 X 3 X 2 = 42 sq. ft. (windows) 

8 X 4% X 2 = 72 sq. ft. (doors) 

72 4- 42 = 114 sq. ft. (deductions) 

615 4- 236 = 851 sq. ft. 

851 - 114 = 737 sq. ft. 

737 sq. ft. -4- 9 = 81% sq. yd. (surface to 
be plastered) 

$ .45 X 81% = $36.85 Cost. 


Measurements 

Linear Measure 

Linear Measure, or Long Measure, 

is used to measure length; as, buying goods by 
the yard, measuring distances, etc. 

Table 

12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.) 

3 feet = 1 yard (yd.) 

5% yd. .or 16% ft. = 1 rod (rd.) 

320 rd. or 5280 ft. = 1 mile (mi.) 

How many times will a wheel 9 ft. in circum¬ 
ference revolve in going a distance of 3 mi. 4 rd. 
2 ft.? 

320 rd. X 3 = 960 rd. 

960 4- 4 = 964 rd. 

16% ft. X 964 = 15,906 ft. 

15,906 + 2 = 15,908 ft. 

15,908 ft. -4- 9 = 1767% number of times 
wheel will revolve. 

Square Measure 

Square Measure is used to measure sur¬ 
face, or that which has length and breadth; as 
floors, walls, land, etc. 

Table 

144 square inches (sq. in.) = 1 square foot (sq. ft.) 

9 square feet = 1 square yard (sq.yd.) 
30% square yards = 1 square rod (sq. rd.) 
160 square rods = 1 acre (A.) 

640 acres = 1 square mile (sq.mi.) 


Papering 

Wall paper is sold in single rolls 8 yd. long, or 
in double rolls 16 yd. long. Each roll is % yd. 
or 18 in. wide. 

A single roll 8 yd. long and % yd. wide con¬ 
tains 4 sq. yd., and a double roll contains 8 sq. yd. 

Find the cost of papering the above dining 
room, walls and ceiling, at 50^ a single roll. 

The surface to be papered is the same as 
the surface to be plastered = 81% sq. yd. 
81% sq. yd. -j- 4 = 20 1 %8, or 21 rolls 
(Dealers do not sell part of a roll) 

$ .50 X 21 = $10.50 Cost. 


Carpeting 

1. How many strips of carpeting 1 yd. wide 
will be required for a room 18 ft. long by 15 ft. 
wide if the strips are laid lengthwise? How 
many yards in each strip? How many yards 
will be required for the room? What will be the 
cost at $1.25 a yard? 



18 FT. 


15 ft. -f-3 = 5 Strips 
18 ft. -7- 3 = 6 Yd. 
(length of each 
strip) 

6 yd. X 5 = 30 Yd. 

(carpet required) 
$1.25 X 30 = $37.50 
Cost. 


A surface 1 ft. long and 1 ft. 
wide contains 1 sq. ft. or 144 sq. 
in. 

Surface = Length x 
Breadth. 


How many sq. in. are 
there in the surface of a 
table 26 in. long and 18 in. 
wide? 

26 X 18 = 468 sq. in. 

Plastering 

What will be the cost of plastering a dining 
room 16 ft. long, 14% ft. wide, 10 ft. high above 
base board, at 45^ a sq. yd.? The room has 


Z 468 SQ. IN. 


1 8Q. IN. 

26 IN. 


1 6Q. FT. 
OR 

144 SQ. IN. 


2. At $2.35 a yard, how much will it cost to 
carpet a room 16 ft. by 12 ft. with Brussels car¬ 
pet (27 in. wide) if the strips run lengthwise, 9 
in. being allowed on each strip except the first 
for matching the figures? 



16 FT. 


12 ft. = 4 yd. 

4 yd.% = 5%, or 6 
strips 

16 ft. —j— 3 = 5% yd 
(length of each strip) 

6% yd. X 6 = 32 yd. 

9 in. X 5 = 45 in. = 1 % 
yd. (allowance for 
matching) 

32 yd. 4-1% yd. = 33% 
yd. (carpet required) 

$2.35 X 33% = $78.13% 
Cost. 
















MISCELLANY 


859 


3. Find the cost of carpeting the room if the 
strips run crosswise. 

16 ft. -T- 3 = 5% yd. 

5% yd- -r- % = 7%, or 

—__ 8 strips 

12 ft. —i- 3 = 4 yd. 

(length of each strip) 

►: 4 yd. X 8 = 32 yd. 

« 9 in. X 7 = 63 in. = 1% 

yd. (allowance for 
matching) 

1 32yd. 4-1% yd. = 33% 

16 FT> yd. (carpet required) 

$2.35 X 33% = $79.31)4 
Cost. 

Width of room width of carpet 
number of strips when strips run 
lengthwise. 

Length of room -r- width of carpet 
= number of strips when strips run 
crosswise. 

Paving 

40 __ A man wishes to put a 5-foot 

10 --1 concrete sidewalk on two sides 

of his corner lot. The lot is 
75 ft. long and 40 ft. wide. How much 
will it cost at 75^ per square yard? 

75 -f- 5 + 40 = 120 ft. (length of walk) 
120 X 5 = 600 sq. ft. 

600 sq. ft. -r- 9 = 66% sq. yd. 

$.75 X 66% = $50 Cost. 

Shingling 

At $1 per bundle of 250 shingles, what will be 
the cost of the shingles for a double roof, each 
half measuring 50 ft. by 25 ft., assuming that a 
shingle covers 5 in. by 4 in., and adding % 2 of 
the number for waste? 

50 X 25 X 2 - 2500 sq. ft. 

144 X 2500 = 360,000 sq. in. 

5 X 4 = 20 sq. in. 

360,000 -r- 20 = 18,000 shingles 
%2 of 18,000 = 1500 shingles 
18,000 -b 1500 = 19,500 shingles 
19,500 -r- 250 = 78 bundles 
$1 X 78 = $78 Cost. 


Cubic Measure 

Cubic Measure, or Solid Measure, is used 
to measure the volume or solid contents of regu¬ 
lar bodies. The solid contents of irregular bodies 
is determined by weight. 

Table 

1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) = 1 cubic foot (cu. ft.) 

27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard (cu. yd.) 
16 cubic feet = 1 cord foot (cd. ft.) 

'128 cubfrffeet \ = *-d of wood (Cd.) 

(perch of) 

24% cubic feet = 1 K stone or y (Pch.) 

{masonry) 



8 FT. 


A cube 3 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, 
and 3 ft. thick contains 
27 cu. ft. 

Cubic contents = 
Length x breadth x 
thickness. 


Digging cellar 

Find the cost of digging the cellar of a house 
whose length is 41 ft. 3 in., width 33 ft., depth 
8 ft., the cost of excavating being 500 a load. 

41% X 33 X 8 = 10,890 cu. ft. 

10,890 cu. ft. -T- 27 = 403 X cu. yd. 

(1 cu. yd. of earth is called 1 load) 

$ .50 X 403% = $201.66% Cost of dig¬ 
ging cellar. 

Masonry 

In estimating material allowance is made for 
doors, windows, and corners. 

In estimating the work masons measure each 
wall on the outside, and ordinarily no allowance 
is made for doors, windows, and corners; but 
sometimes an allowance of one half is made, this 
being, however, a matter of contract . 


Material 


1. How many cubic feet of masonry in the 
walls of a cellar 30 ft. long, 20 ft. wide, outside 
measurement, the walls to be 9 ft. high and 18 
in. thick, deducting 250 cu. ft. for openings? 


30 


17 


30 + 30 + 17 + 17 = 
94 ft. (perimeter, 
allowing for corners) 
94 X 9 X 1% = 1269 cu. 

ft. before deductions 
1269 - 250 = 1019 cu. 
ft. of masonry. 


Labor 

2. Find the cost at $4 a perch of building 
the walls of the above cellar. 


30 4- 30 + 20 + 20 = 
100 ft. (perimeter) 

100 X 9 X 1% = 1350 cu. 

ft. before deductions 
1350 - 250 = 1100 cu. 

ft. in all walls 
1100 cu. ft. -f- 24% = 
44% perches 
$4 X 44% = $177.77% 
Cost. 


Bricks Required for a Building 

8" X 4" X 2 // = 64 cu. in. in average brick. 

1728 cu. in. = 1 cu. ft. 

1728 cu. in. 64 = 27 bricks in 1 cu. ft. 

In laying bricks X is allowed for mortar, or 4% 
out of every 27, leaving 22% actual bricks for 
each cubic foot. 

How many bricks will be required for the 
walls of a flat-roofed building 90 ft. long, 50 ft. 
wide and 22 ft. high, if the walls are 1% ft. thick, 
allowing 600 cu. ft. for doors and windows? 

90 4- 90 4- 47 4- 47 = 274 ft. (perimeter, 
allowing for corners) 

274 X 22 X 1% = 9042 cu. ft. before 
deductions 

9042 — 600 = 8442 cu. ft. in all walls 

22% X 8442 = 189,945 Bricks required. 




































860 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Capacity of Bins 

How many bushels of grain will a bin hold 
that is 6 ft. long, 3)4 ft. wide and 7 ft. high? 

Stricken Measure 

2150.42 cu. in. = 1 bushel (stricken 
measure) 

6 X 3)4 X 7 = 147 cu. ft. 

1728 cu. in. X 147 = 254,016 cu. in. in bin 
254,016 cu. in. H- 2150.42 = 118.123 + 
Bushels of grain. 

Heap Measure 

How many bushels of apples will the above 
bin hold? 

2747.7167 cu. in. = 1 bushel (heap 
measure) 

254,016 cu. in. -4- 2747.7167 ='92.446 + 
Bushels of apples. 

A vat that will hold 5000 gallons of water will 
hold how many bushels of corn in the ear ? 

231 cu. in. = 1 gal. (liquid measure) 

231 cu. in. X 5000 = 1,155,000 cu. in. 
1,155,000 cu. in. -42747.7167 = 420.349 + 
Bushels of com in ear. 

The standard bushel contains 2150.42 cu. in. In 
measuring grain, seeds, or small fruits, the measure must 
be even full or stricken. In measuring large fruits or 
coarse vegetables, corn in the ear, etc., the measure must 
be heaped. Many articles are sold by weight, hence 
stricken and heap measure are little used except to ascer¬ 
tain capacities. 

Tons of Coal in a Bin 

1. How many tons of anthracite coal will a bin 
hold that is 14 ft. long, 12 ft. wide, 6 ft. high? 

1 cu. ft. of anthracite coal = about 54 lb. 
14 X 12 X 6 = 1008 cu. ft. in bin 
54 lb. X 1008 = 54,432 lb. 

54,432 lb. -4 2000 = 27.216 Tons. 

2. How many tons of bituminous coal in the 
above bin? 

1 cu. ft. of bituminous coal = about 50 lb. 
50 lb. X 1008 = 50,400 lb. 

50,400 lb. -4 2000 = 25.2 Tons. 

Capacity of Cisterns 

1. A cistern is 5 ft. square and 6 ft. deep. 
How many gallons of water will it hold? 

5X5X6= 150 cu. ft. 

1728 cu. in. X 150 = 259,200 cu. in. in 
cistern 

231 cu. in. = 1 gal. (liquid measure) 
259,200 cu. in. -4 231 = 1122.077 + Gal. 

2. How many barrels will the above cistern 
hold? How many hogsheads? 

31)4 gal. = lbbl. 

63 gal. = 1 hhd. 

1122.077 gal. -4 31)4 = 35.621 + Ebl. 
1122.077 gal. -4 63 = 17.810 + Hhd. 


Circular Cisterns 

1. How many gallons of water will a cistern 
hold that is 5 ft. in diameter and 8 ft. deep? 

Circumference = Diameter 
X 3.1416. 

Diameter = Circumference 
-4 3.1416. 

Area of base = Circumfer- 
t ence X 34 of diameter. 

“ Contents = Area of base X 
depth. 

5 X 3.1416 = 15.708 cir¬ 
cumference 

15.708 XIM = 19.635 area 
of base 

19.635 X 8 = 157.08 cu. ft. contents 

1728 cu. in. X 157.08 = 271,434.24 cu. in. 

271,434.24 cu. in. -4- 231 = 1175.04 Gal. 

2. The diameter of a cistern is 8 ft. What 
must be its depth to contain 75 hhd. of water? 

63 gal. X 75 = 4725 gal. 

231 cu. in. X 4725 = 1,091,475 cu. in. 

8 X 3.1416 = 25.1328 circumference of base 

25.1328 X 2 = 50.2656 area of base 

1728 cu. in. X 50.2656 = 86,858.9568 cu. in. 

1,091,475 -4 86,858.9568 = 12.566 + Ft. 

Cords in a pile of wood 

How many cords in a pile of wood 28 ft. long, 
6 ft. wide, 7 ft. high? 

128 cu. ft. = 1 cord of wood. 

28 X 6 X 7 = 1176 cu. ft. 

1176 cu. ft. -4 128 = 9 3 A 6 Cords. 

Board or Lumber Measure 

Board measure is used to measure lumber. 

A board foot is a square foot 1 inch or less 
thick. 

1. How many board feet are there in 2 joists 
15 ft. long, 8 in. wide and 3 in. thick? 

Multiply length in feet by width in feet by 
thickness in inches. 

15 X ^ X 3 X 2 = 60 Board feet. 

2. How many board feet are there in a stick of 
timber 32 ft. long, 8 in. thick, 12 in. wide at one 
end and 9 in. wide at the other end? 

12 + 9 = 21-4-2 = 10)4 i Q - average width 

32 X ^ x 8 = 224 Board feet * 

Lumber is usually sold by the thousand or hundred 
feet. By placing the decimal point after the thousands’ 
order, or after the hundreds’ order, the number of thou¬ 
sand feet or of hundred feet is obtained. 

Round Logs 

How many feet of lumber will a log 18 in. in 
diameter at the smaller end and 14 ft. long yield? 

1. Express the diameter of the smaller end in 
inches. 

2. Subtract 4 from this number. 

3. The square of the remainder will express 
the number of board feet that a log 16 ft. in 
length will yield. 

18 — 4 = 14 14 X 14 = 196 

14 ft. = Hi« = %. 

J4 of 196 = 171)4 Board feet. 















MISCELLANY 


861 


Weights and Pleasures. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 


Drachm. dr. = 271 _grains 27-34375). 

Ounce.oz. =16 diacfams, 437-5 grsins- 

r:.:: . )•:. = II _ : I dr 7 VS. gmini. 

Legal Stone, . ... id. =14 Its. 

Quarter Eng. , . . gn =28 lbs. 

Quarter '.Car.. .. . . qr. =25 lbs. 

Cental or Quintal. . cent. = 100 lbs. 

Hundredwei’t Eng. , cut. = 4 qr?.. 112 lbs. 

Him Ared«w ’t (Gan.), at = 4 qre., 100 lbs. 

Ton (Eog), . ... T. =20 m.. 2.240 lbs. 

Ton ;Can.), . ... T. =20 cwt., 2,000 its. 

TROY WEIGHT 

Carat. = 3.17 grains. 

Pennyweight. . . . diet. = 24 grains. 

Ounce,.oz. = 20 dwts., 480 grains. 

Pound,. lb. =12 oz., 240 dvta, 5,760 grs. 

Hundredweight, . . act = 100 lbs. 


Troy is the weight used by g nMsmn hs and jewelers. 
The ^grants liny. Apothecaries', and Avoirdupois are 
equal, at t the same in England. France, the United 
States. Hollar I. and in meet other countries. 

The oz. Troy and Apotheeaiies’= 1.09714 oz. avoirdii- 
tut tat it. _r:y tat it Aptchet-srtes = tnly 
0.52256 lb. avoirdupois; wine 175 lb. Troy and Apothe¬ 
caries’ = 144 lb. avoirdupois. 

APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT 


Scruple 0 = 20 Grains.= 20 grains. 

. ~t' 7 = : i: art . . = t*. grams. 

L'tmt-e 5 = 5 _ tt: tats .. . = 4>c grains 

Pound lb = 12 Ounces. = 5,760 grains. 


BRITISH LIQUID MEASURE 
Ene Gill contains 5.665 cubic mches. 

I ne Pint contatr.s 4 gills or 34.660 cubic inches. 

Quart = 2 pints = 5 gths. 

Gah: n = 4 quarts = 32 gt as. 

APOTHECARIES’ FLUID MEASURE 

ItiES ilD 

60 Minims. M. (drops), = 1 Fhnd Drachm,.f$| 

5 _ at: mat = 1 itta.: f 

16 Ounces,.=1 Pint,.. Oj 

S_rmtt . . _ =1 hah:a ... 7. :: mug 

1 Drachm = 1 ieaspoonfuL 

2 Drachms = 1 D esserts poonful 
4 Drachms = 1 I ablespoonfaL 

2 Ounces = 1 WinegiussiuL 

3 Ounces = 1 TesctrpfuL 

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE 
Cubic Foot = 1.72S Cubic lathes. 

Cubic Yard = 27 Coble Feet. 21.033 bushels. 

Coni of Wood = 128 Coble Feet. 

Shipping _ion = 41* Curie Feet merchandise. 

Shipping Ton = 42 Cubic Feet or timber. 

Ton of dSap Lmw m m t of a Ship = 35 Cubic Feet. 


LINEAR measure 


3 barleycorns, or, 
12 hues, or, . . . 
72 points, or. . . 
: hi’i mils mi. . . . 

3 inches. .... 

4 inches. .... 

9 Inches. 

12 inches. .... 
IS inches. 

3 feet,. 

2? feet, .... 

5 feet. 

2 yards, .... 
5j yards. .... 
66 feet, or, . . . 

4 rods,. 

40 poles, or, . . - 

220 yards. 

5 furlongs, or. . 

1,760 turds, or,. . . 

5,280 feet. 

3 miles. .... 


»1 inch (in.). 

1 palm. 

1 hand. 

1 span. 

1 foot (ft.). 

1 cubic. 

1 yard (uL). 

1 military pace. 

1 geometrical pace. 

1 fathom. 

1 rod, pole, or perch. 
1 Gunter's chain. 

(1 furlong .fur.). 


1 mile. 

..1 league. 


The hand is used to measure boras' height. The 
military pace :s the lergth of the ordinary step of a man. 
One thousand geometrical paces were reasoned to amide. 


EAS'D MEASURE LINEAR) 

7.92 inches. ..1 link. 

100 links, or,.' 

66 ieet, or . , i chain (eE). 

22 yards, or,. 

4 poles,. J 

10 chains..1 furlong (fur.). 

*2 WEST.:::::::: h- 3 * 


LAND MEASURE SQUARE; 


144 sq. inches. . . . . 

9 square feet. ... 
30| square yards. . . 
16 square poles. . . . 
40 square poles, or, 
1.210 square yards. . . 

4 roods, or, . . . 

10 square chains, or, 
160 square poles, or. 
42540 square yards, or, 
43,560 square feet. . . 
640 acres, or,.... 
3.097.600 square vans. . . 

30 acres.. 

100 acres. 

40 hides.. 


. 1 square foot sq. ft.). 

. 1 square yard (sq. yd.). 
. 1 sq. pole. rod. or perch. 
. 1 square chair, sq. eh. . 

; 1 square rood. 

) 1 acre. 

-1 square mile. 

. 1 yard of land, 

. 1 hide of land. 

. 1 barony. 


GEOGRAPHICAL AND NAUTICAL MEASURE 


6086.44 feet. or.. 

' SR :::: • " 

1.1525 statute miles. . . . . J 

1 nautical mile. =1 knot. 

60 nautical mites, or. . . ) _, 

67.165 statute miles. f — 1 ae ^ ree *^ 

360 degrees, .=1 circumference 

of the earth at the equator, 
nurtiral miles. ... =1 league 

120 fathoms. .=1 cable's length. 


DRY MEASURE. UNITED STATES 

Cu. Ire. 


2 pints.. . . 

4 quarts. . . 
2 gallons, or. 

5 quarts. . . 
4 pecks, . . 


1 quart qth = 67.20 

1 gallon gal. = 288-50 

11 peek = 537.60 

. 1 struck bushel = 2150.42 


LIQUID MEASURE. UNITED STATES 


Cr. Is. 

4 gills,.1 pint (O.) = 25575 

2 prats,.1 quart (qt.) = -57.75 

4 quarts..1 gallon gal. =231. 

63 gallons. ....... 1 hogshead hbd.). 

2 hogsheads.1 pipe or butt. 

2 pips..71 tun. 


HOUSEHOLD MEASURES 


120 drops water.^. 

60 drops thick fluid, . . . 

2 teaspoons.. 

3 teaspoons.. 

16 tablespoons,. 

1 cup. 

1 cap water,. 

4 tablespoons flour. . . . 

2 tablespoons butter,. . . 

3 teaspoons soda. .... 

4 teaspoons baking powder. 
2 cups granulated sugar. . 
2-j cups confectioners sugar. 
2| cups wheat flour, . . . 
3| cups whcle wheat flour. 
2> cups buckwheat floor, . 

-5 § cups coffee.. 

6§ cups res. 

2 caps rice,. 

2 cups lard,. 

2 cups butter,. 

2 cups graham flour. ... 

2 cups rye flour.. 

2 cups com meal . 

2 cups railed oats. 

2 cups powdered sugar. . . 

2 cups brown sugar. ... 

2 cups raisins. . 

2 cups cniranss . 

2 cups bread crumbs. . . . 

9 eggs. . 


= 1 teaspoon, 

= 1 teaspoon, 

- 1 dessert spoon. 
= 1 tablespoon, 

= 1 cup. 


= 1 oz. 
= 2 oz. 

= § oz. 

= 1 lb. 
= 1 IE 
= 1 Eb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 IE 
= 1 IE 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 IE 
= 1 IE 
= 1 IE 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 
= 1 lb. 















































































































LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL 

(from bureau of standards, department of commerce and labor) 


862 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 




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Tha figures in this table are taken from the “Offloial Table of Distances” used by the War DepartmentoftheU. 8. Government, except the distances to cities marked with an asterisk (*), which are computed along the best routes of travel. All distances are in STATUTE MILES. 






































































































864 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 




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K, via Kiel CanaL S, via Suez Canal. C, via Cape of Good Hope. M, via Strait of Magellan. H, via Cape Horn. T, via Torres Strait. 



























































WORLD TRAVEL DISTANCES — (Continued) 


MISCELLANY 


865 



K, via Kiel CaaaL 8 , via Suez Canal. C, via Cape Town. M, via Strait of Magellan. H, via Cape Horn. T, via Torres Strait. 


























































CANADIAN TRAVEL DISTANCES IN ENGLISH STATUTE MILES 


866 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 



























































































































































INDEX 


Note. In addition to the general index on the following pages — which in itself will usually be found 
sufficient a large number of alphabetical lists are to be found in the body of the book, and they should be 
carefully consulted in connection with the general index, if necessary. For example, American Battles, page 
11; Treaties, Coalitions, Conventions, and Leagues, page 163; Right Use of Some Common Words, page 191; 
Abbreviations, Contractions, and Degrees, page 202; Words and Phrases from the Classic and Modern Lang¬ 
uages, page 255; Modern Languages, page 263; Words Often Mispronounced, page 267; Pen Names of Noted 
Writers, page 321; Mythology, page 323; Names in Fiction, Literary Plots, and Allusions, page 343; Famous 
Poems, Author and First Line, page 387; Biography, page 393; Cities, Population of, page 582; Canals, page 
653; College Fraternities, page 697; Colleges and Universities, page 698; Notable Bridges, page 779; Cities, 
Popular Names of, page 782; Names and Name Origins, page 797. 


PAGE 


Aaron,.393 

Abbey, Edwin A., . . . 393 

Abbot, Ezra,.393 

Abbott, Lyman, . . 305,393 
Abbreviations, . 188, 202-208 

Abdallah,.343 

Abdication,. 9 

Abdul-Hamid II., . . . 393 
Abelard, Pierre, .... 393 

Abou Hassan,.343 

Abraham, ..393 

Abraxas,.343 

Abruzzi, Duke of, ... 393 
Absolute, Captain, . . . 343 

Sir Anthony,.343 

Abu Bekr, .393 

Abydos, .128 

Abyssinia,.9, 585 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Emperor,.605 

Government, .... 585 

History, . 9 

Abyssinian War, ... . 9 

Acadia,.343 

Accounts, Open.667 

Acetic Acid,.683 

Acetylene, .683 

Acetylene Gas,.669 

Achsean, League. 9 

War,. 9 

Acheron,.324 

Achilles,.324 

Acid,.683 

Acetic,.. . 683 

Ackerman, Amos T., . . 638 

Acoustics,.683 

Acre, Battle of, .... 74 

Acres, Bob.343 

Acropolis,.515 

Acrostic,.343 

Actseon.324 

Actiac War,. 9 

Actium, Battle of, . . . 63 

Adams, Charles F., . . . 393 

Henry,.393 

John, .... 101, 144, 393 
J. Q., . . . . 102, 144,393 

Maude,.394 

Oscar F.,.394 

Samuel,.394 

Addams, Jane,.394 

Addison, Joseph, . . 296, 394 
Address: 


Correct forms in letters, 


216-19 

Of letters,.214 

Addresses, .200 

Adelphi College, .... 698 

Adler, Felix,.394 

Adonis,.324 

Adrastus,.324 

Adrianople, Treaty of . . 163 

Adulteration,.645 

Egeus,.324 

.Eneas,. 324,343 

Eneid,.343 

Eolus, ..324 

Aerial Navigation, . . . 645 

Aerolite,.683 

Aeronautics,.646 

Aeroplane,.646 

Eschines,.394 

Eschylus. 282, 394 


PAGE 

Esculapius,. 324 

Esop, ...... 282,394 

Fables,.283 

Etolian Confederacy, . . • 10 

Etolian League.10 

Afghanistan, ... 10,585 

Ameer, the,.585 

Army,.585 

Government, .... 585 

Provinces,.5 85 

Afghan War,.10 

Africa: 

Animals, ...*.. 507 

British.508 

Bushmen,.507 

Cape Colony, .... 522 
Civilization of, ... . 508 

Congo,.508 

Countries, area of, . . 508 
Countries, population of,508 
Description of, ... . 507 

Egypt,.508 

French,.508 

German,.508 

Hottentots,.507 

Italian,.508 

Kaffirs,.507 

Lake Nyassa, .... 550 

Morocco,.546 

Nile, the,.549 

Political divisions, . . 507 

Population,.507 

Portuguese,.508 

Races,.507 

Spanish,.508 

Turkish,.508 

Union of South, . . . 570 

Vegetation,.507 

Victoria Nyanza, . . . 576 

Zambezi,.581 

Africa and Europe, ... 54 

African War,.10 

Agamemnon,.324 

Agassiz, Alexander, . . 394 

Louis J. R. . 394 

Agate,.759 

Agincourt, Battle of, . . 78 

Agrarian Agitation, . . 11 

Agricola. 64, 394 

Agricultural College of 

Utah.704 

Agricultural Colleges, . . 683 
First established, ... 104 

Landscript.684 

Agricultural Implements 

and Machinery.647 

Agricultural and Mechan¬ 
ical College.704 

Agriculture.646-50 

Colleges of.683 

Department of, ... 639 

Early,. 646 

In Britain,.647 

In Rome,.646 

In United States, . . 647 
Minor products, . . . 650 
Statistics of, ... . 648-50 

Agrigentum,.128 

Aguecheek, Sir Andrew, . 343 
Aguesseau, Henri, . . . 394 

Aguinaldo. 142, 394 

Capture of.96 

Foments War.108 

Ahmed, Prince, .... 343 


PAGE 


Ahriman,.324 

Air, Liquid.715 

Air brake,.671 

Air pump, .... 84, 650 

Airship,.672 

Airships,. 645,646 

Aix-La-Chapelle, Treaties 

of.164 

Ajax. 324 

Akbar, Emperor of India, 83 

Alabama,.11,585 

Agricultural statistics of, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital.626 

Con. Female College, . 703 
Electoral vote, .... 627 
Exemption Laws, . . 667 

Government.585 

Governor’s salary, . . 626 
Interest, Laws of, . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, . . . 862 
Legislative statistics, . 627 
Metropolis, . . . . . 625 
Polytechnic Institute, . 704 

Population,.625 

Property valuation, . 627 
Statutes of limitation, 667 
Suffrage requirements, 626 

Tax rate.627 

Voting population, . . 627 
Alabama Claims, .... 177 

Aladdin,.344 

Alamo,.11 

Massacre at,.103 

Alaric,.394 

Alaska,.508 

Area,.625 

Capital.624 

Gold in, .508 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Purchase of,.508 

Transferred to U. S., . 105 
Yukon River, .... 581 

Albania,.344 

Albemarle, Battle of, . . 11 

Albert I.,.605 

Albertus Magnus,.... 395 

Albion College,.698 

Albright College.698 

Albumen,.684 

Albuquerque, Alfonso d’, 395 

Alcestis, .324 

Alchemy.684 

Alcibiades,.395 

Alcohol, .650 

Properties,.651 

Alcorn A. and M. College, 704 
Alcott, Louisa M., . 305, 395 
Alcuin, ........ 395 

Aldine Edition, .... 344 

Aldrich, Nelson W., . . 395 

Thomas Bailey,. . 305, 395 

Alemanni,.11 

Alembert, Jean, .... 395 

Alembic,.684 

Alexander: 

Conquers Persia, . . .116 
To Birth of Christ, . . 60 

Alexander I., ... 58,395 

Alexander II., . . . 95,395 

Alexander III., .... 395 
Death of,.95 


PAGE 

Alexander VIII.395 

Alexander Nevski, St., . 395 
Alexander the Great, 59, 141 

Alexandria,.128 

Alexandrian Codex, . . 344 
Alexandrian Library, 63, 684 

Alexandrite.759 

Alexis, Mikhailovitch, . . 395 
Alfieri, Vittorio, .... 395 

Alfonso I.,.395 

Alfonso X.,.395 

Alfonso XIII., . . . .97,395 
Attempted assassina¬ 
tion of,.97 

Marriage of,.97 

Alfred the Great, . . 295, 395 

Born.70 

Defeats Danes, ... 70 

Alfred University, . . . 698 
Alger, Russell A., . . 395, 637 

Algerian War,.102 

Algiers,.508 

Alhambra, The, .... 77 

Alice Brand, . . . . . 344 
Alimentary Canal, . . . 684 
Alison, Sir Archibald, . . 396 

Alkaloids.685 

Allegheny College, . . . 698 

Allegories, .199 

Allen, Ethan.396 

James Lane,.396 

Viola,.396 

Allen College,.698 

Allentown College, . . . 703 

Alligator.729 

Allison, William B., . . 396 

Allusions, Literary, . . . 343 

Allworthy,.344 

Alma College,.698 

Almandine,.759 

Almanzor, .396 

Alma-Tadema,.396 

Alphabet,.55 

Alpine Vegetation, . . . 509 

Alps,.508 

Carnic,.509 

Cottian, .508 

Dinaric, .509 

Graian,.508 

Lepontine, ..... 509 

Maritime.508 

Noric,.509 

Pennine,.508 

Rhsetian.509 

Scenery,.509 

Alsace-Lorraine, .... 532 
Alstroemer, Jonas, . . . 396 
Aluminium, .... 685, 694 

Alva, Duke of,.396 

Alvarado, Alonzo, . . . 396 

Pedro d’,.396 

Amadis de Gaul, .... 344 
Amaral, Antonio, .... 396 

Amasis,.396 

Amaziah,.396 

Amazon River, . . . 509, 564 

Amazons,.324 

Amboise, George d’, . . 396 

Ambrose, St.,.396 

Ambrosia.324 

Ameer of Afghanistan, . 5§5 
America: 


Discovered by Columbus, 81 
Discovery of, .... 98 















































































































































































868 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

America — Con.: 

Historical Outline of, . 98 

Period of Authentic 

History,.98 

Semi-historical period, 98 
American: 

Architecture, . . . .513 

Authors,.304 

Battles,.11 

Civil War.139 

Languages,.183 

American Literature, . . 304 
Colonial period, . . . 306 
Modern fiction, . . . 308 
New England School, . 307 

Orators. 307 

Period of the Republic, 307 

Periods of,.306 

Poetry,.304 

Prose,.304 

Representative works, 304 
Revolutionary period, 307 
Southern Writers, . . 308 
Western Writers, . . 308 
American International 


College,.698 

American Revolution, . 169 
Aid of France, .... 87 

American Revolutionary 

War,.139 

American University of 

Harriman,.698 

Amerigo Vespucci, ... 396 

Voyage of,.81 

Ames, Fisher,.396 

James Barr,.396 

Amethyst, .759 

Amherst, Lord, .... 396 
Amherst College, .... 698 
Amiens, Treaty of, . . . 164 

Ammon,.325 

Amoret.344 

Ampere, Andr£ M., . . . 397 

Amphibia.6S5 

Amphictyon.397 

Amphion,.325 

Amsterdam.509 

Amundsen, Roald, . . . 397 

Amur River,.564 

Anacreon,. 282, 397 

Anacreontic Verse, . . . 344 

Anagram,.344 

Anaxagoras,.397 

Anaximander,.397 

Anchises,.325 

Ancient: 

Architecture, . . . .511 

Mariner,. 344 

Andersen, Hans Chris¬ 
tian, . 288, 397 

Anderson, Mary, .... 397 

Rasmus B.,.397 

Robert,.397 

Anderson’s Crossroads, 

Battle of,.11 

Andes,.509 

Minerals of,.509 

Andr£, John, . . . 100,397 
Andrea, Pisano, .... 397 

Andreani,.397 

Andrew, Saint, .... 397 
Andrew College, . . . .703 
Andrews, Elisha B., . . 397 

Joseph,.344 

Andromache,.325 

Andromeda,.325 

Andros, Sir Edmund, . . 397 

Angell, James B.397 

Angelo, Michael, .... 397 

Angelus, Domini.345 

Anglo-Saxon,.185 

Anglo-Saxons, Advance of, 68 

Anhalt.532 

Aniline Dyes,.670 

Animals, Symbolism of, . 775 
Anjou,Counts and Dukes of ,398 
Anna Comnena, .... 398 

Anne Boleyn,.398 

Anne of Austria, .... 398 
Anne of Beaujeu, .... 398 
Anne of Brittany, . . . 398 
Anne of Cleves,..... 398 


PAGE 

Anne, Queen of England,. 398 


Annuity,.651 

Annunzio, Gabriele d’ ; . 398 

Anselm, Saint,.398 

Ant,.729 

Antaeus.325 

Antarctic Exploration, . 509 
Antarctic Ocean, .... 509 

Antelope,.729 

Anthony, St.,.398 

Susan B.,.398 

Anthracite Coal, .... 655 
Antietam, Battle of,. . . 11 

Antigone,.325 

Antigonus, Cyclops, . . . 398 

Antimony,.694 

Antioch,.128, 510 

Antioch College, .... 698 

Antiochus,.398 

Antipater,.398 

Antipater of Idumea, . . 398 
Anti-polygamy Bill,. . . 177 

Antipyrene,.672 

Anti-rent Problems, . . . 101 
Antoinette, Marie, . . . 398 
Antommarchi, Doctor, . 399 

Antonio,.345 

Antoninus Pius, Titus, . 399 
Antony and Cleopatra, . 345 
Antony, Mark, . . . 399,462 
Second Triumvirate, . 63 

War with Octavius, . . 63 

Antwerp,.510 

Anura, ..729 

Aorta,.685 

Apache War,.94 

Ape,. 729 

Barbary,.731 

Apelles,.399 

Aphrodite,.325 

Apocalypse,.345 

Apocrypha, .... 345,685 

Apollo,.325 

Apollodorus of Damascus, 399 

Apollonius,.399 

Apollos,.399 

Apostle,.685 

Apostrophe,.191 

Apothecaries’, Measure, 861 

Weight.861 

Appian Way,.800 

Apple,.729 

Apples, Weight, .... 862 
Appomattox, Battle of, . 12 

April Fool’s Day,. . . . 775 

Aquamarine,.759 

Aqueducts, .... 63,510 

Anio Novus.510 

Anio Vetus,.510 

Aqua Alsietina,.... 510 

Aqua Appia,.510 

Aqua Claudia, . . . .510 

Aqua Julia,.510 

Aqua Marcia,.510 

Aqua Tepula, .... 510 

Aqua Virgo,.510 

Croton,.511 

Nimes,.510 

Aquinas, St. Thomas d’, . 399 

Arabia,.19 

Literature,. . . . 277,281 

Mecca,.542 

Medina.542 

Ravaged by Turks, . . 69 

Under Haroun al Ras- 

chid.69 

Arabian Nights, . . 281, 345 
Arabian Numerals, . . . 686 

Arachne.325 

Arago, Dominique, . . . 399 

Aral Sea.539 

Ararat,.547 

Arbaces,.399 

Arbela, Battle of, . . . 22, 60 

Arbor Day,.792 

Arc, Joan of,.,399 

Archelaus,.399 

Archimedes, . . 61, 283, 399 

Architects, Greek Masters, 511 

Architecture,.511 

Academy of,.84 

American,.513 


PAGE 

Architecture — Con.: 

Ancient,.511 

Byzantine,.512 

Commercial,.514 

Dwelling Houses, . . . 514 

Egyptian,.511 

Gothic, . ..512 

Greek,.511 

Greek Orders, . . . .511 

Italian.512 

Moorish,.512 

Revival of,.513 

Roman,.512 

Roman Orders of,. . . 512 
Spanish Types, . . . .514 
Victorian Gothic, . . .513 

Arcite,.345 

Arc Light, ....... 670 

Arctic, Exploration,. . . 514 

Explorers,.514 

Ocean,.514 

Arden, Enoch,.345 

Area, Countries of the 

World,.604 

Of Insular Possessions, 625 

Of States,.624 

Of Territories.625 

Arequipa, Mt.,.547 

Arethusa,.325 

Argand, Aime.399 

Argentina: 

Area,.604 

Capital,. 605 

Debt,.605 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Argentine Republic, . 20, 515 

Buenos Ayres, .... 520 

Constitution,.585 

Description of.515 

Financial Crisis, . 20, 107 

Government,.585 

Immigration,.20 

Independent.101 

Inhabitants,.515 

Minerals,.515 

Natural Resources, . . 515 

Navy,.848 

War with Paraguay,. . 100 

Argon,.694 

Argonauts,.325 

Argos,. 128, 325 

Ariadne,.325 

Arian,.686 

Ariel,.345 

Ariosto, Ludovico, . . . 399 

Aristides,.399 

Aristophanes, . . 282,399 

Aristotle, ... 59, 283, 399 

Arithmetic, .... 853-62 

Arius,.399 

Arizona.585 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area.624 

Capital,.626 

Exemption Laws, . . . 667 

Government,.585 

History,.20 

Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 

Legal Weights.862 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Arkansas,. 20,585 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area.624 

Capital,.626 

Constitution,.585 

Electoral Vote, .... 627 
Exemption Laws, . . . 667 

Government,.585 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 
Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, . . . 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 



PAGE 

Arkansas—Con.: 

Property Valuation,. . 627 

River,.564 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 
Arkwright, Sir Richard,. 399 

Arles.515 

Armada.21, 22 

Armenia.515 

Armida,.345 

Armies.776 

Of Asia.776 

Of Europe,.776 

Of South America, . . 776 
Of United States, . . . 776 
Of the Worlds .... 776 

Reserves,.776 

Strength of,.776 

Arminius, Battle of,. . . 22 

Armor,.775 

Patterns,.775 

Armour, J. O.,.399 

Arms,.775 

Egyptian,.775 

Primitive,.775 

Armstrong, John.637 

Arnheim, Baron von, . . 399 
Arnold, Benedict,. . 100, 399 

Edwin,. 297, 400 

Matthew. 297, 400 

Thomas,. 297, 400 

Arrest for Debt, .... 667 
Arrow Rock, Battle of,. 12 

Arsenic.694 

Arsinoe,.128 

Artemisia.400 

Arteries,.686 

Artesian Well,.669 

Artevelde, Jacob van, . . 400 

Arthur, C. A. 144, 400 

Julia,.400 

Arthur, King,.345 

Arthurian Romances, . . 345 
Arthur’s Drinking Horn, 345 

Round Table,. 346 

Sword.346 


Articles of Confederation, 



100, 586 

Powers of State, 


587 

Signers of, ... 


588 

States under, . . 


586 

Text of, ... . 


586 

Articles, Thirty-nine, 


686 

Artificial Limbs, . . 


670 

Artificial Silk, ... 


672 

Artillery,. 


776 

Art of Husbandry, . 


54 

Art3 of Civilization, 


54 

Promoted in Italy, 


78 

Aryan Languages, . 


184 

Asburv, Francis,. . 


400 

Ashmole, Elias, . . 


400 

Asia,. 


54 

Himalayas, . . 


536 

Asia Minor, . 


552 

Palestine,.... 


552 

Asir, . 


325 

Asmodeus, .... 


346 

Aspasia, . . . 


400 

Asquith, H. H., . . 


400 

Assembly, .... 


21 

Convention, The, 


21 

Directory, . . . 


21 

Legislative, . . . 


21 

National, . . . 


21 

Assurance, .... 


664 

Assyria,. 


21 

Literature, . . . 

277, 281 


Astarte,. 

. 325 


Asteroids,. 

. 687 


Astor, John J., . . . 

. 400 


William W., . . . 

. 400 


Astrology, Chaldean, . 

. 281 


Astronomy, Lick Tele- 


scope, ...... 

As You Like It, . . . 

94 


. 346 

Atahualpa. 

. 400 

Atalanta,. 

. 325 


Athanasian Creed, . . 

. 687 


Athanasius, Saint, . . 

. 401 

















































































































































































































INDEX 


869 


PAGE 


Athelstan,.401 

Athenagoras,.401 

Athens, . . .56, 116, 128, 515 
Architectural Monu¬ 
ments, .515 

Battle of,. 12 

Modern,.516 

Athos, Mount. 516 

Atlanta, Battle of, . . . 12 

Atlanta Baptist College, 698 
Atlanta University, . . 698 

Atlantic Cable First Mes¬ 


sage, .104 

Atlantic Ocean, .... 516 

Atlantis,.325 

Atlas,.325 

Atom,.687 

Atomic, Philosophy, . . 687 

Theory, ...... 687 

Weight of Chemical 
Elements, .... 694 

Atropos,.325 

Attila. 66,119,401 

Attorneys-General, . . 638 

Atwood, George, ... 401 

Thomas,.401 

Auber, D. F. 401 

Aubigne, Jean H., . . . 401 

Audubon, J. J., . . 304, 401 

Auerbach, Berthold, 290, 401 
Augean Stables, .... 326 

Augsburg, Confession of, 688 

League of,.164 

Augsburg Seminary, . . 698 

Augur,. 21 

Augurs, . ..326 

Augustan Age, .... 285 

Augustana College, . . 698 

Augustine, Saint, ... 401 

Augustulus, Romulus, . 401 

Augustus, Caius,. . . . 401 

Aulic Council,. 22 

Aurelian, ....... 65 

Aurelianus, Claudius,. . 401 

Aurelius, Marcus, 65, 146, 401 

Aurora.326 

Borealis,.688 

Aurungzebe,.401 

Austen, Jane, . . . 296,401 

Austerlitz, Battle of, . . 88 

Austin, Alfred, .... 401 

Austin College, .... 698 

Australasia.516 

Australia.516 


Area and Population, 

516, 604 

Capital.605 

Cities.516 

Debt.605 

Federation of, ... . 95 

Governor-General, . . 605 

Melbourne,.543 

Natural Resources, . 516 

Population, .... 604 

Standard Currency, . 604 

States of.516 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Austria, .... 22, 517, 589 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Debt.605 

Emperor,.605 

Exposition at Buda¬ 
pest, . 94 

House of,.81, 149 

Illiteracy,.714 

Made a Duchy, ... 81 

New Constitution, . . 92 

Population,.604 

Revolution in Hungary, 90 
Standard Currency, . 604 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Suffrage Bill, . . . . 96 

Triple Alliance Renewed, 94 

Vienna.577 

War with France, . . 92 

Austria-Hungary, 22, 517, 589 

Area.604 

Capital,.605 

Cities,.617 

Debt.605 

Description of, ... 517 


PAGE 

Austria-Hungary — Con.: 


Emperor, .605 

Government, .... 589 

Inhabitants of, . . . 517 

Merchant Marine, . . 673 

Navy,.848 

Population.604 

Reigning Dynasty, . 589 

Standard Currency, . 604 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Austrian Succession, 

War of, . . 51, 86, 139 

Austro-Swiss War, . . . 138 

Automobiles,.651 

Autosse, Battle of, . . . 12 

Avalon, '.346 

Avatar,.326 

Aventurine,.759 

Avernus. 326, 346 

Averrhoes,.401 

Avery, Elroy M., ... 401 

Avicenna, I. S., . . . . 402 

Avignon, Seat of Popes,. 78 

Avoirdupois Weight, . . 861 

Azazil,. 326, 346 

Aztecs,.98, 132 

Baal,.326 

Baalbec,.128 

Baba, Ali, .... 358, 402 

Babbitt Metal, .... 669 

Babes in the Wood, . . 346 

Baboon, ....... 730 

Babylon,.57, 128 

Babylonia,. 57 

Literature, . . . 277, 281 
Babylonish Captivity, . 125 

Bacchus.326 

Bach, Johann S. 402 

Bacon, Augustus O., . . 402 

Francis, . . .295,300,402 
Roger, ...... 295, 402 

Bacon’s Rebellion, ... 99 

Bacteria.730 

Baden.532 

Baden, Treaty of, . . . 164 

Badger,.730 

Baiting.730 

Badger, George E., . . 639 

Badgers.851 

Baer, George F., . . ... . 402 

Bailey, Joseph W. 402 

Liberty H.,.402 

Bajazet I., . . . . 166, 402 

Baker College, .... 698 

Balaklava, Battle of, . . 93 

Balata,.730 

Balboa, Discoveries of, 81, 98 

Vasco de,.402 

Baldwin I.,.402 

Henry,.640 

James M., ..... 402 

Baldwin University, . . 698 

Balfe, Michael W., . . . 402 

Balfour, A. J., . . . . . 402 

Balkan Independence, . 167 

Balkan States, .... 167 

Ballad, The,.201 

Ballinger, Richard A., . 403 

Balloon,.668 

Invented,.... 645, 668 

Balloons,.646 

Ballou, Hosea, .... 403 

Ball’s Bluff, Battle of, . 12 

Balmez, James L., . . . 403 

Balm of Gilead, .... 730 

Balmung,.326 

Balsam.730 

Baltic Sea,.517 

Baltimore, .... 517,582 

Fire of 1904, .... 517 

Great Fire, .... 96, 109 
Baltimore, Lord, ... 98 

Balzac, Honord de, . . . 403 

Bamboo,.730 

Banana.731 

Bancroft, George, 304,403,639 

Hubert H.,.403 

Baner, John,.403 

Bangkok,. . 517 

Banian.731 

Banker’s Method, . . . 854 

Banking, National, . . . 652 


PAGE 

Banking—Con.: 

In United States, . . 652 

U. S. Incorporated, . 88 

Bank of Venice. 74 

Banks, Nathaniel P., . . 640 

Bank of England, ... 84 

Banquo,.346 

Banshee,.326 

Banyan,.731 

Baobab,.731 

Baptists,.688 

Barbarian Wars, . . . 138 

Barbarossa, Horuk, . . 403 

Khair-ed-Din, . . . 403 

Barbary Ape,.731 

Barbed-wire fence,. . . 670 

Barberry,. ..731 

Barber’s Pole,.776 

Barbour, James, .... 637 

Philip P..640 

Barcelona.518 

Bardell, Mrs.,.346 

Bard: Of Avon.346 

Of Ayrshire, .... 346 

Of Hope,.346 

Of Memory,.346 

Of Rydal Mount, . . 346 

Barham, Richard II., . 403 

Barium.694 

Bark.731 

Peruvian,.732 

Barker, George F., . . . 403 

Barkis.346 

Barley,.732 

In United States, . . 649 

Weight,.862 

World’s Production, . 680 

Barley-Corn, Sir John, . 346 

Barnabas, Saint,. . . . 403 

Barnaby Rudge, . . . 346 

Barnacle,.732 

Goose.732 

Barnard, Edward E.,. . 403 

Barnard College, . . . 703 

Barnum, Phineas T., . . 403 

Barometer,.668 

Barrel.268 

Barrett, John,.403 

Barrie, J. M.,.403 

Barrow, Isaac,.404 

Barrows, Samuel J., . . 404 

Barry, William T., . . . 638 

Barrvmore, Ethel, . . . 404 

Bartholdi, F. A., . 404, 539 

Statue of Liberty, 107, 539 
Bartholdt, Richard, . . 404 

Bartholomew, Saint, . . 404 

Barton, Clara.404 

Basalt,.732 

Basel Treaties, .... 164 

Basil, Saint,.404 

Bass.732 

Bassanio,.346 

Bastille,.518 

Bat.733 

Bates, Edward, . . .637,638 

Bates College,.698 

Baton Rouge, Battle of, 12 

Batrachia,.733 

Battering Ram, .... 59 

Battle-axe,.776 

Battle, Sarah.347 

Battles: 

Acre,. 74 

Actium,. 63 

Agincourt,. 78 

Albemarle. 11 

American,. 11 

Anderson’s Cross¬ 
roads, . 11 

Antietam. 11 

Appomattox, .... 12 

Arrow Rock, .... 12 

Athens,. 12 

Atlanta,. 12 

Austerlitz,. 88 

Autosse,. 12 

Balaklava,. 93 

Ball’s Bluff. 12 

Baton Rouge, .... 12 

Bennington. 12 


Bermuda Hundred, . 12 


n, 


Battles — Con.: 

Big Horn, . . . . , 

Bladensburg, . . . , 

Bonhomme Richard 

Serapis.. 

Boyne,.. 

Brandywine, . . . , 

Brownstown, . . . . 

Buena Vista, . . . , 

Bull Run, .... 
Bunker Hill, . . . 
Camden, .... 
Campbell Station, 
Cannse, . . 
Castletown, . . 

Cedar Creek, . 

Cedar Mountain, 

Cerro Gordo, . 
Chteronea, . . 
Champion Hills, 
Chancellors ville, 
Chapultepec, 
Chattahoochee 
Chattanooga, 
Chesapeake-Shan 
Chickamauga, 
Chippewa, . 
Churubusco, 

Cloyd’s Mountain 
Cold Harbor, 
Contreras, . 

Corinth, . . 
Cowpens, . . 
Crampton Gap 
Cross Keys, 

Dabney’s Mills 
Drury’s Bluff, 

El Caney, . . 

Ezra Chapel, 

Fair Oaks, . 
Flodden,'. . 

Ft. Donelson, 

Ft. Erie, . . 

Ft. Fisher, . 

Ft. Gregg, . 

Ft. Moultrie, 

Ft. Pillow, . 

Ft. Schuyler, 

Ft. Stedman, 

Ft. Wagner, 

Franklin, . . 
Fredericksburg 
Gaines Mill, . 
Gettysburg, . 

Guilford C. H., 
Hanover C. H., 
Hastings, . . . 
Hatcher’s Run, 

Ipsus, . . . 

Iuka, .... 

Jackson, . . 

Jenkins Ferry, 
Kernstown, . 

Lake Champlain, 

Lake Erie, . 

Lepanto, . . 
Lexington, . 

Long Island, 

Lutzen, . . . 

Malvern Hill, 
Manassas, 

Manila,. , . 
Marengo, . . 
Marsaglia, . 
Martinsburg, 

Mine Run, . 
Monitor-Merrima 
Monmouth, . 
Monocacy, . 
Montebello, . 
Monterey, . 
Murfreesboro, 
Nashville, . 

Naval, . . . 

New Berne, . 

New Market Heights, 
New Orleans, 
Niagara, . . 

North Anna, 
Opequan,. . 

Pea Ridge, . 

Peach Tree Creek, 


16, 


c, 


12 

12 

12 
84 
12 
12 
12 
12, 32 
12,32 
12 
12 
61 
12 
12 
12 
13 

59 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 
13 

13 

14 
14 
80 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 

14 

15 
15 

22, 72 
15 

60 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 

15, 126 
83,127 
15, 127 

15 
84 

16 
16 

108, 542 
30, 87 
84 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
30,92 
16 
16 
16 
11 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
17 
17 
























































































































































17 

17 

17 

78 

17 

17 

!, 87 

30 

',99 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

92 

61 

17 

88 

18 

18 

18 

18 

95 

18 

18 

67 

92 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

88 

18 

19 

19 

89 

19 

179 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

75 

61 

139 

139 

138 

139 

139 

138 

138 

139 

139 

138 

139 

138 

138 

138 

138 

138 

138 

139 

138 

138 

138 

139 

138 

139 

138 

138 

138 

138 

138 

139 

139 

138 

138 

138 

139 

139 

139 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Battles, Chief—Con.: 
Spanish-N etherlands 

War, ...... 138 

Swedish-Russian War, 139 
Thirty Years’ War, . 138 

Trojan War.138 

War for Greek Inde¬ 
pendence, .... 139 

War of Austrian Succes¬ 
sion, .139 

War of 1812, .... 139 

War of Spanish Succes¬ 
sion, .139 

Wars of the Roses,. . 138 

Battles, Decisive: 


Arminius. 22 

Blenheim,. 22 

Chalons,. 22 

Hastings. 22 

Marathon, .... 22, 58 

Metaurus,. 22 

Orleans,. 22 

Pultowa,. 22 

Saratoga,. 22 

Syracuse. 22 

The Armada, .... 22 

Tours,. 22 

Valmy,. 22 

Waterloo. 22 

Battleships,.848 

Bavaria,.532 

House of,.150 

Bayard,.347 

Bayard, Thos. F., ... 636 

Baylor College, .... 703 

Baylor University, . . . 698 

Bazaine, Francois A., . 404 

Bean,.733 

Beaneaters,.851 

Beans, weight, .... 862 

Bear,.733 

Beatrice,.347 

Beauharnais, Eugene de, 404 

Hortense,.404 

Beaumarchais, P. A., . . 404 

Beaumont, Francis, . . 295 

Beaumont College, . . 703 

Beauregard, Pierre G., . 404 

Beauty and the Beast, . 347 

Beaver,.733 

Beaver College,. . . 698, 703 
Beck, James M., . . . . 404 

Becket, Saint Thomas a, 404 
Beckford, William,. . . 405 

Bede, J. Adam, .... 405 

Bee.734 

Beecher, Henry Ward, . 405 

Lyman,.304 

Beelzebub.326 

Beet,. 734 

Beethoven, Ludwig van, 405 

Beetle.735 

Befana,.326 

Beggar’s Daughter, . . 347 

Begonia,.735 

Bering Sea Dispute, . . 107 

Belasco, David, .... 405 

Belfast,.518 

Belgium, . . . 22,518, 589 

Antwerp, : .510 

Area,.604 

Austrian Succession, . 23 

Brussels,.520 

Canals, .653 

Capital.605 

Cities, ..518 

Congo Free State, . . 23 

Congress of Vienna, . 23 

Constitution.589 

Debt.605 

Government, .... 589 

Illiteracy,.714 

King,.605 

Leopold II.,. 23 

Population,.604 

Provinces,.518 

Resources,.518 

Spanish Netherlands, 23 
Standard Currency, . 604 
Stock of Money, . . 604 


Treaty of Campo Formio, 23 



' PAGE 


PAGE 

Belhaven College, . 

. . 703 

Bird of Paradise, 

. . 735 

Belisarius. 

. 67,405 

Birds. 

. . 735 

Defeats the Vandals, 67 

Birmingham, . . . 

. . 518 

Subdues Sicily, . 

. . 67 

Birth of Christ to Present 

Takes Naples, . . 

. . 67 

Time, .... 

. . 64 

Takes Pome, . . 

. . 67 

Bishop, Sir Henry, 

. . 407 

Belknap, W. W., . 

. . 637 

Bishops and Popes of Rome, 23 

Bell, Alexander G., 

. . 405 

African, .... 

. . 24 

John,. 

637,640 

Burgundian, . . 

. . 26 

Belladonna, .... 

. . 735 

Dutch,. 

. . 26 

Bellerophon, . . . 

. . 326 

Eighteenth Century, . 27 

Bellevue College. 

698 

Eighth Century, 

. . 25 

Bellew, Harold K.,. 

. . 405 

Eleventh Century, 

. . 25 

Bellini, Giovanni, . 

. . 405 

English, .... 

. . 26 

Vincenzo,.... 

. . 405 

Fifteenth Century, 

. 26 

Bellman,. 

• 287, 405 

Fifth Century, 

. . 24 

Bells, Weight of, 

. . 777 

First Century, 

. . 23 

Czar Kolokol, . . 

. . 547 

Fourteenth Century, . 26 

Bell-the-Cat, . . . 

. . 347 

Fourth Century, 

. . 24 

Belmont, August, . 

. . 405 

French. 

. 25,26 

Beloit College, . . 

. . 698 

Greek. 

. . 24 

Bern, Joseph, . . . 

. . 405 

Italian,. 

. . 26 

Bembo, Pietro, . . 

. . 405 

Leo XIII., . . . 

. . 27 

Ben Hur,. 

. . 347 

Nationality, . . 

. 23-27 

Ben Nevis, .... 

. . 547 

Nineteenth Century, . 27 

Benedick. 

. . 347 

Ninth Century, . 

. . 25 

Benedict, Saint, . . 

. . 405 

Pius X., .... 

. . 27 

Benjamin, Judah P., 

. . 405 

Pontificate of, 

. 23-27 

Bennett, James G., . 

. . 405 

Roman. 

. . 24 

Bennington, Battle of, . 12 

Saxon, . 

. . 25 

Bentham, Jeremy, . 

. . 405 

Second Century, 

. . 23 

Benton, T. H., . . 

304,405 

Seventeenth Century, 27 

Benvolio. 

. . 347 

Seventh Century, 

24 

Beowulf,. 

297,347 

Sicilian. 

. . 24 

Berea College, 

. . 698 

Sixteenth Century, 

. . 26 

Berenice. 

. . 326 

Sixth Century, . 

24 

Bering Strait, . . . 

. . 518 

Spanish. 

. . 26 

Berkeley, Bishop, . 

. . 296 

Surname, .... 

25, 26, 27 

George. 

. . 405 

Syrian, .... 

. 24,25 

Berlin,. 

. . 518 

Tenth Century, . 

. . 25 

Treaty,. 

. . 164 

Third Century, . 

. . 24 

University, . . . 

. . 518 

Thirteenth Century, . 26 

Berlioz, Hector, . . 

. . 406 

Tuscan, .... 

. . 24 

Bermuda Hundred, Bat- 

Twelfth Century, 

. . 25 

tie of, ... . 

. . 12 

Bismarck-Schonhausen, 

Bernadotte, Jean B., 

. . 406 

92, 

114, 407 

Bernard, Saint, . . 

. . 406 

Death of, ... 

. . 94 

Bernardin de Saint Pierre, 

Resignation of, . 

. . 94 

J. H. 

. . 406 

Bismuth,. 

. . 694 

Bernhardt, Rosine Sarah, 406 

Bison,. 

. . 736 

Bernini, G. L., . . 

. . 406 

Bispham, George T., 

. . 407 

Bernouilli, James, . 

. . 406 

Bittern, . 

. . 736 

Berosus,. 

. . 406 

Bituminous Coal, . 

. . 655 

Berrien, John McP., 

. . 638 

Bjoernstjerna, M., . 

. . 407 

Berthier, Louis A., 

. . 406 

Bjornson,. 

289, 407 

Beryl,. 

. . 759 

Black, Frank S., 

. . 407 

Berzelius, Johann J., 

. . 406 

Jeremiah S. ... 

636, 638 

Besant, Walter, . 

297 

William, .... 

297,407 

Bessemer, Sir Henry, 

. . 406 

Blackbird, .... 

. . 736 

Bessemer Process, . 

. . 673 

Blackburn, Joseph C. 

. 407 

Bessey, Charles E.,. 

. . 406 

Blackburn College, 

. . 698 

Bessie Tift College, 

. . 703 

Black Friday, . . . 

. . 777 

Betel. 

. . 735 

Black Hawk War, . 

. . 103 

Bethany College: 


Black Hole,. . . . 

521, 777 

Kansas, . 

. . 698 

Black Maria, . . . 

. . 777 

West Virginia, 

. . 698 

Blackmore, R. D., . 

297,407 

Bethel College, . . . 

698, 703 

Black Mountain, 

. . 547 

Beveridge, A. J., 

. . 406 

Blackstone, Sir William. 

Bewick, Thomas, , 

. . 406 


296,407 

Bibb, Geo. M., 

. . 637 

Blackwell, Elizabeth. 

. . 407 

Bible, Books of, . . 

. . 280 

Bladensburg, Battle of, . 12 

Communist’s, . . 

. . 719 

Blaine, James G., 407. 636.640 

Gothic, .... 

. . 65 

Blair, John, . . . 

. . 640 

Revision, . . . 

. . 94 

Montgomery, . . 

. . 638 

Bibliomancy, . . . 

. . 348 

Blairsville College, 

. . 703 

Bibliomania, . . . 

. . 348 

Blanc, Jean J., . . 

. . 407 

Bibliotheque Nationale, 

Blanche of Castile, 

. . 408 


714,803 

Blarney Stone, . . 

. . 777 

Bichat, Marie F., . 

. . 406 

Blashfield, Edwin H., 

. 408 

Bicycle,. 

668,670 

Blast Furnace, . . 

. . 669 

Biddle, John, . . . 

. . 406 

Blatchford, Samuel, 

. . 640 

Biddle University, 

. . 698 

Blavatskv, Mme., . 

. . 408 

Bierce, Ambrose, . 

. . 406 

Blenheim, Battle of, 

. . 22 

Bighorn,. 

. . 735 

Blind, Karl,.... 

. . 408 

Big Horn, Battle of, 

. . 12 

Bliss, Cornelius N., 

. . 638 

Bins, capacity of, . 

. . 860 

Blood,. 

. . 688 

Biography. 

. . 198 

Circulation of, 

. 82,696 

Dictionary of. 

393-504 

Harvey, .... 

. 82, 443 

Biot, Jean B., . . . 


Bloodhound, . . . 

. . 736 

Birch,. 

. . 735 

Bloodstone, . . . 

. . 759 

Bird, Cardinal, . . 

. . 740 

Bloody Shirt, . . . 

. . 777 

Mocking, .... 

. . 752 

Bloomfield, Robert, 

. . 408 






































































































































































INDEX 


871 


PAGE 


Bliicher, Gebhard, . . . 408 

Bluebird, .736 

Bluefish, . 736 

Blue Hens,.850 

Blue Laws,. 27 

Blue Mountain College, 703 

Blue Stocking, .... 777 

Boa.737 

Board Measure, .... 860 

Bob Acres,.343 

Boccaccio, . . 309, 311, 408 

Bodleian Library, . 714, 803 

Bodley, Sir Thomas, . . 408 

Body, in Letter Writing, 215 

Boerhaave.408 

Boer War. 27 

Battles of.27-29 

British Losses, ... 28 

Capitulation of Boers, 29 

Causes,. 27 

Declaration, .... 27 

Kitchener’s Proclama¬ 
tion, . 29 

Plea for Intervention 

in, . 28 

President Kruger, . . 28 

Surrender of Lady¬ 
smith. 29 

Treaty of Peace, . . 29 

United States and, . 28 

Bogardus, . 408 

Bohemia . 29, 162 

A Kingdom, .... 75 

House of Luxemburg, 30 

Hussite War, . . . . 79 

John Huss, . 30 

Prague . 560 

Under Austria, ... 30 

Wenceslas, King, . . 77 

Bohemian, . 777 

Boii .. 30 


Boileau-Despr^aux, Nic¬ 
olas, . 

Bok, Edward W., . . . 

Boker, George H. 

Bolingbroke, Henry, . . 

Bolivar,. 

Death of, . 

Dictator,. 

Bolivia,. 

Area,. 

Capital,. 

Constitution, .... 

Debt,. 

Government, .... 
Population, .... 

President,. 

Standard Currency, . 
Stock of Money, . . 

Bombay,. 

Bonaparte, Charles J., 


“UO , OUO| \J*-f k7 

Napoleon I., . . 408,469 

Napoleon III., . . . 470 

Bonaparte’s Egyptian 

Campaign, .... 30 

Forty Days’ Cam¬ 
paign, ...... 30 

Italian Campaign, . 30, 86 

Bonapartes, The, . . . 408 

Bonds,.857 

Boneset,.737 

Bonheur, Rosa, .... 409 

Bonhomme Richard-Se- 


408 

408 

408 

408 

408 

102 

102 

589 

604 

605 
589 
605 
589 

604 

605 
604 
604 
519 


rapis, Battle of, . . 12 

Boniface, .348 

Bony Pike.737 

Book: Of Mormon, . . 718 

Of Rites.279 

Books. 62 

Family Library, . . 318 

Fifth and sixth grades, 320 
For children, .... 319 

For children under six, 319 
For older children, . . 320 

List for library, . 319, 320 
Primary grades, . . . 319 

Seventh and eighth 

grades.320 

Third and fourth grades, 320 
Boone, Daniel, .... 409 

Booth-Tucker, Frederick, 409 


PAGE 


Bopp, Franz.409 

Borax,. . 737 

Borden, Robert L., 152, 409 

Boreas,.326 

Borghese,.409 

Borgia, Cesare, .... 409 

Lucrezia,.410 

Borgiano, Horazio, . . 410 

Borglum, John G. 410 

Borie, Adolph E. 639 

Boron,.694 

Borromeo, St. Carlo, . . 410 

Boscobel College, ... 703 

Bossuet, Jacques B., . . 410 

Boston, ....... 519 

Description of, ... 519 

Educational institu¬ 
tions, ...... 519 

Faneuil Hall.531 

Gas light introduced, 102 

Great fire,.106 

Historic landmarks, . 519 

History,.519 

Massacre, 100, 132, 169, 519 
Tea party, 100 , 132, 169,519 
Boston University, . . 698 

Boswell, James, . . 296, 410 
Bothwell, James H., . . 410 

Botta, Carlo G., .... 410 

Botticelli, Alessandro, . 410 

Bottom, Nick, .... 348 

Boughton, George H., . 410 

Bouguereau, Adolphe G., 410 
Boulanger, George E., . 410 

Boulder clay,.655 

Bourbon, House of, . . 148 

Boutwell, George S., . . 637 

Bowdoin College, . . . 698 

Bowdon College, . . . 698 

Bower Bird,.737 

Bowie, James,. 11 

Bowles, Samuel, .... 410 

Bows,.776 

Boxer Rebellion, .... 30 

Capture of Peking,. . 31 

Causes,. 30 

Conflicts of. 31 

Leader,. 30 

The Allies,. 31 

Treaty of Peace,... 31 

United States and,. . 31 

Boxers, .7. 97 

Box Tree,.737 

Boycott,.777 

Boyd, Linn,.640 

Brackets,.190 

Braddock, General, 99, 410 
Braddon, Mary E.,. . . 410 

Bradford, Wm., .... 638 

Bradlaugh, Charles, . . 410 

Bradley, Joseph P., . . 640 

Brady, Cyrus T., . . . 410 

Brahe, Tycho, . . . 288,411 

Brahma,. 326,689 

Brahmanism, . . ^ . . 689 

Brahmans.689 

Brahmaputra River, . . 564 

Brahms, Johannes,. . . 411 

Bramble,. 737 

Branch, John,.639 

Brandenburg, .... 560 

Brandywine, Battle of, 12, 100 

Brank,.738 

Brant, Joseph.411 

Brasenose College,. . . 804 

Brazil, .... 31,520,589 

Abdication of Dom 

Pedro,.32, 103 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Cities, ..520 

Constitution, .... 589 

Debt.605 

Description of, ... 520 

Government, .... 589 

Honors American 

Squadron, .... 32 

Independence of, . . 32 

Independent, . . . 89, 102 
Inhabitants, .... 520 

Insurrections, .... 107 

> Merchant Marine, . . 673 


PAGE 


Brazil — Con.: 

Minerals.520 

Navy, . ..848 

Population,.604 

President.605 

Resources,.520 

Revolution in, . . . . 103 

Slave Trade Suppressed, 104 
Spaniards expel Dutch, 98 
Standard Currency, . 604 

Steamship line to 

Europe.104 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 

The Empire, .... 589 

The Republic, . . . 589 

Under the Portuguese, 

31, 101 

War with Buenos Ayres, 102 
War with Uruguay, . 105 

Brazilwood,.737 

Bread, Adulteration of,. 645 

Breadfruit, ...... 738 

Breadnuts,.738 

Breekenridge, John C., . 411 

Breckinridge, John, . . 638 

Breda, Treaty, .... 164 

Bremen,.532 

Bremer, Frederika, . . . 287 

Brenan College, .... 703 

Brentford, Kings of . . 348 

Breslau, Treaty, .... 164 

Bretigny, Treaty, . . . 164 

Brewer, David J., . 411,640 

Brewster, Benjamin H., 638 

Sir David,.411 

Brian Boru,.72,411 

Briareus,.326 

Bricks. 54 

Bridge,.778 

Brooklyn, opened,. . 107 

Of Sighs,.576 

Suspension, at Niagara 

Falls,.104 

Bridges,.779 

Albany,.779 

Britannia,.779 

Brooklyn,.779 

Cincinnati and Cov¬ 
ington, .779 

Development of,. . . 778 

Dubuque,.779 

Forth,.779 

Girder,.778 

In England,.778 

Kinzua.779 

Lachine Completed, . 94 

Maintenon,.779 

Niagara,.780 

Notable Examples, . . 779 

Over Danube. 65 

Poughkeepsie, .... 780 

Quincy.780 

Rialto Built. 82 

Rockville,.780 

Roman,.778 

St. Charles.780 

St. Louis,.780 

Schuylkill.780 

Structural Material, . 778 

Suspension, . . . 779, 780 

Tay,.778 

Tubular,.778 

Victoria,.780 

Victoria at Montreal,. 104 

Washington, . . . 780 

Bridget, Saint, ... 411 

Bridgewater College, . . 698 

Briggs, Charles A. . . . 411 

Bright, John,.411 

Bristfpw, Benj. H., '. . . 637 

Britain: 

Battle of Hastings, . 72 

Feudal System Intro¬ 
duced, . 74 

Invades France, ... 74 

Invasion of Sweyn, . 72 

Ireland,. 67 

Massacre of Danes,. . 72 

Name of.804 

Struggle for French 

Crown. 78 

Thomas il Becket, . . 74 


page 

Britain—Con.: 

William the Conqueror, 72 

British, Africa.508 

America.98 

Lion,.780 

Museum.520 

British Colonies, Execu¬ 
tives of,.534 

How Governed, . . . 534 
British Empire,. . . 533, 590 

Cabinet.. . 590 

Crown Colonies, . . . 590 

Division of,.534 

Established Church,. . 590 

Government,.590 

Heir Apparent, . . . 590 
House of Commons,. . 590 
House of Lords, . . . 590 

In Africa,.534 

In America,.534 

In Asia,.534 

In Australasia.534 

In Europe,.534 

Lion,.780 

Parliament,.590 

Possessions of, ... . 533 
Public Instruction, . . 590 
Representative Colo¬ 
nies, .590 

Responsible Colonies, . 590 
British North America 

Act,.591 

British Possessions: 

Area.535 

How Acquired, .... 535 

Population.535 

Brock, Sir Isaac, .... 411 
Brocken, Specter of, . . 341 

Bromine.694 

Bronte, Charlotte, . 297,411 
Brooke, Rev. Stopford, . 411 

Brook Farm.348 

Brother Jonathan, . . . 780 
Brougham, Henry, . . .411 
Brown, Aaron V.,.... 638 

C. B.304 

Henry Billings, . . .411 

John.92,411 

Tom.348 

Browne, Charles F., . 323, 412 

Sir Thomas,.412 

Bi'owning, Elizabeth B., 

297,412 

Orville H.,.638 

Robert, . . . 297,303,412 
Brown-Sequard,Edward, 411 
Brownstown, Battle of,. 12 

Brownsville, Riot at, . 96, 161 
Brown University, . . . 698 

Bruce, David,.412 

Edward,.412 

Robert,.481 

Brummel, Beau, .... 412 

Brunehild,.348 

Brunswick,.532 

House of,.32 

Brussels.520 

Field of Waterloo, . . 520 
Noted Architecture, . . 520 
Brussels Sprouts, .... 738 
Brutus, Decimus J., . . . 412 
Lucius J., . . . . . . 412 

Marcus J.,.412 

Bruyere, John,.412 

Bryan,William Jennings,. 412 
Bryant, W. C., . . 304, 412 

Bryce, James, . . . 297, 412 

Bryn Mawr College, . . . 703 

Buccaneers,.32 

Buchanan, James, 104,144,412 
Buchtel College, .... 698 

Buck, Dudley.412 

Buckeyes, . ..851 

Buckle, T. Henry, . . . 412 
Buckley, James M., . . . 412 
Bucknell University, . . 698 

Buckwheat,.738 

In United States, . . . 648 

Weight,.862 

Budapest, ..520 

Buddha.57, 412, 689 

Buddha Philosophy, . . 279 



















































































































































































872 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Buddhism,.689 

Buddhist temples, . . . 522 
Buena Vista, Battle of, . 12 

Buena Vista College, . . 698 

Buenos Ayres.98, 520 

Capital of Argentina, . 106 
Buffalo, .... 521, 582, 738 

Buffon, Count de.413 

Bulgaria,. 167,590 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Debt,.605 

Founded. 68 

Government,.590 

Population,.604 

King, .605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Bull, Ole Bornemann, . . 413 

Bulldog,.738 

Bullfrog,.738 

Bullheads, .738 

Bull Run, Battle of, . 12, 32 
Buller, Sir Redvers, . . . 413 
Billow, Friedrich von, . . 413 
Bulwer-Clayton Treaty, . 104 

Bunker Hill.32 

Battle of.12 

Monument,.32 

Bunyan, John, . 296,301,413 
Pilgrim’s Progress, . . 301 
Burbank, Luther, .... 413 
Burdett-Coutts, Baron¬ 
ess.413 

Burgess, John W., . . . 413 

Burgoyne, Gen. John, . . 413 
Surrender of, .... 100 

Burial,.780 

Celebrated Tombs, . . 780 

Customs,.780 

In Churches,.781 

Burke, Edmund, . . 296, 413 
Burleigh, William C., . . 413 
Burleson College, . . . .698 
Burlingame, Anson, . . . 413 

Burmah.32 

King Theebaw, ... 32 

Rangoon,.562 

Burmese Empire, ... 32 

Burne-Jones, Edward, . 413 
Burnett, Frances Hodgson, 

413 

Burns, Robert, . . 296, 413 

Poems,.302 

Burnside, Ambrose E., . 414 

Burr, Aaron, .414 

Duel with Hamilton, . 101 
Burroughs, John, . 305, 414 
Burrows, Julius C., . . . 414 
Burton, Theodore E., . . 414 
Bushnell, Horace, . . . 304 

Buskin,.349 

Bustard,.738 

Butler, Benjamin F., . . 414 
Benj. F., .... 637, 638 

Nicholas Murray, . . 414 
Samuel. ....... 414 

Butler College,.698 

Butter, Adulteration of, . 645 
In United States, . . 650 

Butterfly,.738 

Butternuts.851 

Button-hole machine, . .671 

Buzzard.738 

Buzzards.850 

Byfield,.349 

Byron, Lord, . . . 296, 414 
Byzantine Architecture, . 512 
Byzantium, .... 57, 128 

Caaba,.326 

Cabala,.349 

Cabalistic Science, . . . 349 

Cabbage,.739 

Rose.739 

Cabinet, United States, . 635 
Members of, . . . 636-40 

Organized,.101 

Cable, George W., . 306, 414 

Pacific completed, . . 109 

Cable Car,.670 

Cables, Submarine, . . 679 
Cabot, John, .414 


PAGE 

Cacao,.739 

Cactus,.739 

Cade’s Rebellion, . . 33, 48 

Cadmium.694 

Caesar,.284 

Assassinated.63 

Biography,.414 

Birth of,.63 

Conquest of Gaul, . . 63 

Defeats Germans, . . 63 

Dictator,.63 

Invades Britain, ... 63 

Rebuilds Carthage, . . 63 

War with Pompey, . . 63 

Caesars, The.146 

Caesium,.694 

Caine, Hall,.414 

Cairo.521 

Caissons, Pneumatic, . . 669 

Calcium,.694 

Calcium Carbide, . . . .670 
Calculating machine, . . 669 

Calcutta,.521 

Black Hole, . . . 521, 777 

Siege of,.521 

Taken,.87 

Calderon de la Barca, Pedro, 

414 

Caldwell College, . . . .703 

Calendar,.33 

Caesar reforms, .... 63 

Corrected by Augustus, 64 
Introduced into Japan, 94 
Calhoun, John Caldwell, 414 

Caliban.349 

California, .... 33,590 

Agricultural Statistics of, 

648 

Area, . . ..624 

Asiatic immigration, . 34 

Capital,.626 

Chinese in,.33 

Chinese population, . . 33 

Code, . ..591 

Constitution, .... 590 
Discovery of gold, 33, 103 

Earthquake,.34 

Electoral vote, .... 627 
Exemption laws, . . . 667 
Government, .... 590 
Governor’s salary, . . 626 
Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, . . . 862 
Legislative statistics, . 627 
Los Angeles, ... 540 
Lower California, ... 33 

Metropolis,.625 

Mexican Revolution in, 33 

Population,.625 

Property valuation, . 627 
Public education, . .591 

San Francisco.568 

Statutes of limitation, 667 
Suffrage requirements, 626 

Tax rate,.627 

Voting population, . . 627 
Caligula, ... 64, 146, 415 

Caliph.34 

Caliphs,. 68 

Calmar, Union of, ... 164 

Calverts.131 

Calvin, John, . . . 294,415 

Institutes, .294 

Cambaceres, Jean J., . . 415 
Cambray, Treaties of, . . 164 
Cambridge University, 

founded,.70 

Cambuscan.349 

Cambyses, .... 58,415 

Camden, Battle of, . . . 12 

Camel,.739 

Camellia,.739 

Camelopard,.739 

Camelot,.349 

Cameo.759 

Cameron, J. D.,.637 

Simon,.637 

Camille, .349 

Camoens, Luiz de, . . .415 

Campanile,.521 

Of Pisa, .521 


PAGE 

Campanile — Con.: 

Venice,. 521,576 

Campbell, Alexander, . .415 

Geo. W.637 

James.638 

John A.,.640 

Thomas.415 

Campbell College,.... 698 
Campbell-Bannerman, Sir 

Henry,.415 

Campbell Station, Battle of, 12 
Campo Formio, Treaties, 164 
Campus Martius, .... 34 

Canace,.349 

Canada, . . . 34,521,591 

Alaskan Boundary, . . 35 

Area and population, 

521, 604 

Bering Sea fisheries,. . 35 

British North America 

Act,.591 

Cabinet.591 

Canals,.522 

Capital,.605 

Ceded to English, . . 99 

Cities.522 

Confederation.34 

Courts,.*592 

Debt,.605 

Discoveries,.34 

Division of,.101 


AGE 


Dominion formed, 
First Parliament, 
Fisheries Treaty, . 
Government, . . 
Governor-General, 
Governors-General, 


105 
. . 105 
. . 34 

clqi 

59 i, 605 
. . 151 


Macdonald, Premier, . 104 

Minerals,.522 

Montreal,.546 

Ottawa.551 

Parliament,.591 

Physical features, . . 522 

Population,.604 

Progress of,.109 

Provinces of, .... 521 
Provincial Government, 592 

Quebec.562 

Railroads,.522 

Recent events, .... 107 
Reciprocity, . . . 96, 109 

Red River Insurrec¬ 


tion. 

Riel’s Rebellion, . 

Rocky Mountains, 

Standard Currency, 

Stock of Money, . 

Under the English, 

Under the French, 

Uniform Currency, 
Vancouver Riots, 

Welland Canal, 

Canada Lynx, . . . 

Canadian Distance Table, 

Canal. 

Alimentary, . . 

Canals: 

Corinth.654 

Elbe and Trave, . 96, 654 

Erie. 530, 653 

In Belgium.653 


34 

34 

565 

604 

604 

34 

34 
106 

35 
102 
739 
866 
652 
684 


In China, 

In Egypt, . . . , 

In France, . . 

In Germany, . , 

In Great Britain, 

In Holland, . . . 

In Remote Times, 

In Russia, . . 

In United States, 

Kaiser Wilhelm, 

Manchester, . . . 

Nicaragua,.107 

Panama.553 

Sault Ste. Marie, . 101, 654 

Ship,.654 

Suez. 92,573, 654 

Welland,.654 

Canals in United States, 

Statistics of, ... . 653 

Canary,.739 

Candidates, Presidential, 618 


652 
652 

652 

653 
653 
652 

652 

653 

653 

654 
94, 654 


PAGE 

i Candide.349 

Candleberry.739 

| Myrtle,.739 

Candlemas,.781 

Canisius College, .... 698 
Cannae, Battle of, ... 61 

Cannel Coal,.655 

Canning, George, . . . .415 
Cannon, Joseph G., . 415, 640 

Canossa.522 

Canova, Antonio, . . . 415 
Canterbury Tales, . 298, 350 

Canton,.522 

Canute the Dane, . . . 415 
Canvasback Duck, . . . 740 
Capacity, of Bins, . . . 860 

Of Cisterns,.860 

Cape of Good Hope, . . 522 
Caper,.740 


! 


Capet, Hugh, . 

House of, . . 
Capillarity, . . 
Capital Letters, 
Rules for, . . 
Capital Removed 
Washington, 


110, 415 
. . 148 
. . 689 
. . 187 
. . 187 
to 

. . 101 


Capitals of the World, . 605 
Capital University, . . . 698 

Capitol,.523 

At Washington, . . . 578 
Capo-D’Istria, Count of, 415 

Capri, ..523 

Captivity,.123 

Of Jews,.57 

Capulet,.349 

Lady,.349 

Caracalla,.65, 415 

Caracas, .523 

Caraway,.740 

Carbolic Acid,.669 

Carbon, . 690,694 

Carborundum.672 

Carbuncle,.759 

Car Coupler,.671 

Cardinal,.690 

Bird,.740 

Grosbeak,.740 

Carey, H. C., . . . . 304, 415 

Caribou,.740 

Carisbrook,.523 

Carleton College.698 

Carlisle, John G., 415, 637,640 
Carlovingian Dynasty, . 110 
Extinction of, . . . .113 

Carlovingians.147 

Carlowitz, Treaty, . . . 164 
Carlsbad, ....... 523 

Congress of,.164 

Carlyle, Thomas, 297, 303, 416 

Carmel, Mt.,.523 

Carnegie, Andrew, . . .416 

Institution.690 

Carnelian,.759 

Carnivora,.690 

Carnot, Leonard Sadi, . 416 
Carolina, North, Settled, 99 
Carotid Arteries, . . . .691 


Carpenter, Frank G., 
William B., . . . 
Carpet-baggers, . . 

Carpeting,. 

Carrel, Alexis, . . . 
Carrere, John M., . . 
Carroll, Lewis, . . . 

Carrot,. 

Carson, Christopher, 
Carteret, Philip, . . 

Carthage,. 

Conquest of, . . . 
Destruction of, . . 
Punic Wars, . . . 
Carthage College, . . 
Cartier, Sir George E. t 

Jacques,. 

Carton, Sidney, . . 
Cartwright, Edmund, 
Caruso, Signor, . . . 
Casabianca, Louis, . 

Case School of Applied 
Sciences, 

Cash Carrier, 


. 416 
. 416 
. 781 
. 858 
. 416 
. 416 
. 416 
. 740 
. 416 
. 416 
56,128 
. 62 
. 35 

. 35 

. 698 
. 416 
. 416 
. 349 
. 416 
. 416 
416 


704 

671 


1 Casimir-Perier,.95 

























































































































































































INDEX 


873 


PAGE 

Caspian Sea, .... 523, 539 
Cass. Lewis, . . 416, 636, 637 

Cassandra,. 326, 349 

Cassio,.349 

Cassiopeia.326 

Castaly,.326 

Castile.523 

Castle, Dangerous, . . . 349 

Garden,.781 

Of Indolence.349 

Castlereagh, Robert S-, . 416 
Castletown, Battle of, . . 12 

Castor and Pollux, . . . 326 

Cat.740 

Catacombs,.781 

Egyptian.781 

Parisian.781 

Roman,.781 

Catapults,.59,775 

Catbird, .741 

Catching a Tartar, . . .781 
Cathedrals: 

Amiens.509 

Antwerp,.510 

Cologne,.513, 526 

Duomo, Florence,. . . 531 
Duomo, Milan, .... 544 

Moscow,.547 

Notre Dame, Montreal, 546 
Notre Dame, Paris, . . 555 

Philadelphia,.513 

Pisa.558 

Prague,.560 

Rheims,.563 

Saint Gudule, Brussels, 520 
Saint Isaac’s, . . . .572 
Saint Lorenzo, Genoa, . 532 
Saint Mark’s, .... 576 
Saint Patrick’s, .... 513 
Saint Paul’s, . . 540, 571 
Saint Peter’s, . . 566, 571 
Saint Sophia,. 65, 526, 570 
Saint Stephen’s, Vienna, 577 
Votive Church, Vienna, 513 
York Minster, .... 581 
Catherine I., . . 87, 152, 417 

II. 87,152,417 

Catherine, of Aragon, . . 417 

de’ Medici,.417 

Parr,.417 

Cathode Rays,.671 

Catholic Cathedral, of 

Philadelphia, . . .513 
Catholic Church, Roman, 691 

Statistics of.692 

Catholic League, .... 164 
Catholic University of 

America.698 

Catiline, Lucius S., . 63, 417 

Conspiracy of, ... . 63 

Cato,.284 

Catron, John,.640 

Cat’s-eye,.759 

Catullus,.284 

Caucasus,.523 

Caudle, Mrs..349 

Caustic Art,.60 

Cauther,.327 

Cavour, Count, . . . 123, 417 

Cavy, .748 

Caxton, William, . . . .417 

Cecilia, Saint,.350 

Cecrops, .327 

Cedar.741 

Cedar Creek, Battle of, 12 
Cedar Mountain,Battle of, 12 
Cedarville College, . . . 698 

Celibacy.692 

Celluloid. 654, 671 

Cement, waterproof, . .672 
Cenci, Beatrice, .... 417 

Cenis, Mt.,.523 

Centaurs.327 

Centenary College of 

Louisiana, . . . . . 698 
Centennial Exposition, 

106, 177 

Center of Area and Popu¬ 
lation, U. S., .... 781 
Central America: 

Plans for Federation, . 109 
Union of.107 


PAGE 

Central Baptist College,. 703 
Central College, . . 698, 703 
Central High School of 

Philadelphia, .... 698 
Central University of Ken¬ 
tucky.698 

Central Wesleyan College, 698 
Cephalus and Procris, . . 350 

Cerberus, . 327 

Ceres, . 327 

Cerium . 694 

Cerro Gordo, Battle of, . 13 

Cervantes, Miguel, . 313,417 
Cervera’s Fleet, Destruc¬ 
tion of,.108 

Cevennes, . 524 

Ceylon . 524 

Colombo . 526 

Chseronea, Battle of, . . 59 

Chaffee, Adna R., . . .417 

Chalcedony, . 760 

Chalmers, Thomas, . . . 417 
Chalons, Battle of, ... 22 

Chamberlain, Joseph, . .417 
Chambers, Robert W., . 418 

Chameleon, . 741 

Chamisso, Adalbert von, . 418 

Chamois . 741 

Champagne, . 654 

Champion Hills, Battle of, 13 
Champlain, Samuel de, . 418 
Chancellorsville, Battle of, 13 
Chandler, William E., 418, 639 


Zachariah,.638 

Channing, Edward, . . . 418 

W. E.,. 304, 418 

Chaos,.327 

Chappell Hill College,. . 703 
Chapultepec, Battle of, . 13 

Charcoal,.654 

Chariot,. . 55 

Charlemagne, 

69, 110, 113, 350,418 
Aids Learning, . . , . 290 
Divides Empire, ... 69 

Founds Holy Roman 

Empire,.69 

Reforms Church, ... 69 

Charles I.,.418 

II.418 

Charles V..418 

Abdication,. 9 

Charles X.,. 9 

XII .418 

XIII 137 
Charles City College, . . 698 

Charles Martel,.419 

Charleston Convention, . 90 

Charon. 327 

Charter Oak,.35 

Chart of History, .... 54 

Chartreuse, La Grande, . 524 

Charybdis,.327 

Chase, Salmon P., 419,637,640 

Samuel,., . 640 

Chateaubriand, ..... 295 
Chatham, Earl of, ... 419 
Chattahoochee, Battle of, 13 
Chattanooga, Battle of, . 13 

Chaucer, Geoffrey, . 295, 419 

Poems,.298 

Tales.350 

Cheese, Adulteration of, . 645 
In United States, . . , 650 
Chemical, Affinity, . . . 692 

Attraction.692 

Changes,.692 

Compounds.692 

Elements, .... 692, 694 

Equivalents,.693 

Precipitation, .... 692 
Chemical Elements, Atomic 

Weight,.694 

Discoverers of, ... . 694 

Symbols,.694 

Table of,.694 

Temperature, .... 694 
Chemical Substances: 

Chemical Names of, . 782 
Common Names of, . . 782 

Chemistry,.692 

Atomic Weight, . . . 693 


PAGE 


Chemistry—Con.: 

Inorganic,.693 

Organic,.693 

Thermo,.693 

Cheops,.419 

Cherbourg.524 

Cherubini, Maria L., . . 419 

Chesapeake-Shannon, Bat¬ 
tle of.13 

Chesterfield, Earl of, . . 419 

Chevy Chase,.350 

Chibiabos.327 


Columbian Exhibition, 525 
Commercial Center, . . 524 

Description,.524 

Great Fire,. . . . 106,524 
Chickamauga, Battle of, . 13 

Chickasaw College, . . . 703 

Childe Harold.350 

Children in the Wood, . 350 

Chile. 35,525,592 

Adopts Gold Standard, 108 

Area.604 

Cabinet,.592 

Capital,.605 

Cities,.525 

Civil War in.107 

Constitution,.592 

Debt.605 

Declares War Against 

Spain.105 

Description.^.525 

Government,.592 

Independent, .... 101 
Local Government, . . 592 

Minerals,.525 

Navy.848 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Religious toleration, . 105 
Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Chimsera,.327 

Chimborazo.547 

Chimpanzee, .741 

China, . . . 35, 54, 525, 592 
Antiquity of, .... 35 

Area,. 525, 604 

Book of Rites.279 

Boxer difficulties, . . 36 

Boxer outbreak, ... 97 

Buddhism introduced,. 35 

Burlingame Treaty, . . 92 

Cabinet.592 

Canals,.652 

Canton,.522 

Capital, . . .„ . . . . 605 
Chinese-Japanese War, 

36, 95, 125, 139 
Christians expelled, . 87 

Cities,.525 

Confucius, . . 35, 278, 422 
Conquered by Jenghis- 

Khan.35 

Debt, ..605 

Description,.525 

First knowledge of, . . 36 

General Gordon, . 93, 438 
Government, .... 592 

Hong-Kong,.537 

Insurrection of, 1850, . 36 

Laws of,.592 

Literature, . . . 277,278 

Manchuria,.542 

Mencius,.279 

Ministry,.592 

Modernization of,. . . 36 

Mongol Dynasty, ... 36 

Navy,.■ . . 848 

Open door policy, . . 96 

Opium War,.90 

Peking,.556 

Population,.604 

Present Dynasty, . . 592 

President,.605 

Printing,.279 

Provinces.525 

Reforms, .... 36, 593 

Resources,.525 

Sacred books, .... 278 
Shanghai.569 


PAGE 

China—Con.: 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Tai-ping Rebellion, . . 36 

Tartar Dynasty, ... 36 

Tartar Invasion, ... 35 

Treaties with, . . 36, 593 

Treaty with U. S., . . 90 


Wall of, . ..817 

Yang-tse-kiang, . 565, 580 
Chinese Exclusion Bill, . 94 

Chinese War.60 

Chippewa, Battle of, . . 13 

Chiron,.327 

Chivalry,.782 

And The Crusades, . . 782 
In Germany, .... 291 

Ranks of,.782 

Chloral-hydrate.669 

Chlorine,.694 

Chloris.327 

Chloroform,.669 

Discovered.103 

Choate, Joseph H., . . . 419 

Rufus,.419 

Chocolate, .739 

Choiseul, Duke of, . . . 419 

Chou,.327 

Christ, Disciples of, . . . 695 

Christ, Jesus,.450 

Christian Association, 

Young Men’s, . . . 726 
Christian Brothers College: 
Memphis, Tenn., . . . 698 
St. Louis, Mo., .... 698 
Christian, Bunyan’s, . . 350 

Christian College.703 

Christian Endeavor,. . . 695 
Christian Era, introduced 

by Dionysius, ... 67 

To Fall of Rome, . . 64 

Christianity,.695 

Among German nations, 68 

Branches of.695 

Carried to Scandinavia, 69 
Development of, . . . 64 

Greek Church.695 

In Bohemia.70 

Introduced into France, 

67, 70 

Piets adopt,. 68 

Protestants,.695 

Roman Catholics, . . 695 
Statistics of,.695 


Struggle with Moham¬ 
medanism, .... 74 

Christian Science, . . . 695 
Doctrines of, .... 695 


Statistics of.696 

Christians, Persecution of, 

64, 65 

Christian University, . . 698 

Christina,.419 

Of Sweden,. 9 

Christmas, .792 

Tree.782 

Christopher, Saint, . . . 350 
Christy, Howard Chandler, 419 

Chromium, ..694 

Chromosphere,.725 

Chronicles,.281 

Chronology,.696 

Chrysalis,.696 

Chrysolite,.760 

Chrysoprase, .760 

Chrysostom, St. John, . 419 
Church: 

Controversy in France, 97 
Councils of, . . . 66,708 

Days,.792 

Death of Leo XIII., . 97 

Episcopal.712 

Fathers of.712 

Greek,.713 

Greek established, . . 72 

Lutheran,.715 

Mass introduced, ... 68 

Methodist.716 

Moravians,.717 

Pantheon of Rome, . . 68 

Pope Pius X.. 27, 97, 477 

Popes and Bishops, . 23 


























































































































































































720 

691 

68 

67 

69 

68 

80 

569 

76 

726 

726 

726 

72 

13 

350 

419 

419 

75 

782 

420 

525 

420 

350 

525 

327 

668 

696 

713 

696 

82 

36 

860 

863 

129 

782 

582 

582 

626 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

782 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

782 

783 

783 

783 

783 

783 

712 

174 

175 

92 

105 

698 

351 

640 

420 

321 

420 

704 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 


Clark University.698 

Classic words and 

phrases, , . . 255-63 

Claxton, P. P.,.420 

Clay, Henry,.420 

Clay,. 655 

Boulder,.655 

Fire,.655 

Fuller’s earth, .... 655 

Kaolin,.655 

Ochres.655 

Pipe,.655 

Porcelain,.655 

Potter’s.655 

Tripoli,.655 

Clayton, John M., .... 636 

Clearing house.655 

Clemens, Samuel L.,. 305, 420 
Clemson Agricultural Col¬ 
lege, .704 

Cleopatra,.420 

And Antony, .... 63 

Defeat at Actium, . . 63 

Philosophical schools 

under,.43 

Poisons her brother, . 63 

Suicide.63 

Clepsydra.62 

Cleveland,. 526, 582 

Cleveland,Grover, 107,144,420 

Clews, Henry.420 

Clifford, Nathan, . . 638, 640 

Clifford College.703 

Clingman Dome, .... 547 
Clinker, Humphrey, . . 351 
Clinton, George, .... 420 

Sir Henry,.420 

Clio.327 

Clock, Magnetic, .... 90 

Wheels,.62 

Clotho.327 

Clouds,.696 

Cloves,.741 

Clovis 1. 67, 421 

Founds French Mon¬ 
archy.67 

Makes Paris his capital, 67 
Subdues Thuringia, . . 67 

Cloyd’s Mountain, Bat¬ 
tle of, .13 

Clytemnestra.327 

Coal,.655 

Anthracite,.655 

Bituminous,.655 

Cannel, . ..655 

Lignite.655 

Weight.862 

Coal, Anthracite, 

Discovered, .... 101 
Coal, in United States, . 655 

Areas,.655 

Production,.655 

Coalitions against France, 164 

Coal tar,.656 

Cobalt, . .694 

Cobb, Howell, . . . 637,640 
Cobden, Richard, . . . 421 

Cocaine.670 

Cockran, William Bourke, 

421 

Cockrell, Francis M., . . 421 

Cocoa,.739 

Cocoanut, Coconut, . . . 741 

Cocytus,.327 

Code of ‘Manu,.278 

Coe College,.698 

Coffee..741 

Adulteration of, . . . 645 

In Venice,.82 

Coffey, Titian J., . . . . 638 

Cohen, Solomon S.421 

Coinage,.656 

Latin Union.127 

Coins,.656 

Ancient,.656 

Bronze,.657 

Denominations, . . . 656 
Foreign, ...... 657 

Gold,.656 

Minor, in United States, 657 

Nickel,.657 

Of United States, . . 656 


PAGE 

Coins — Con.: 

Silver,.656 

Values.656 

Coke, Sir Edward, . . .421 

Coke,.658 

Colbert, Jean B., .... 421 

Colby College,.698 

Colchis.327 

Cold Harbor, Battle of, . 13 

Cold Storage.658 

Coleridge, S. T., . . 296, 421 

Colfax, Schuyler, .... 640 
Colgate University, . . . 698 
Coligny, Sire de, . . . .421 
Collamer, Jacob, .... 638 
Collared Peccary, .... 742 
College Fraternities, . . . 697 
College of Charleston, . . 698 
Colleges : 

Agricultural.683 

Land-grant,.684 

Statistics of, . . . . . 698 
Colleges and Universities: 

List of, in U. S., . . . 698 

Location,.698 

Number of Instructors, 698 
Number of Students, . 698 
Presidents of, .... 698 
Value of Property, . . 698 
Colleges for Women: 

List of.703 

Location,.703 

Number of Instructors, 703 
Number of Students, . 703 
Presidents of, .... 703 
Value of Property, . . 703 

Collins, Wilkie.297 

Colman, Norman J., . . . 639 

Cologne.526 

Colombia,.526 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Congress of.593 

Constitution.593 

Debt.605 

Government.593 

Ministry, ..593 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Colon,.190 

Colonial Congress, ... 99 

Declaration of Rights, 100 
Colonial Settlements, 98, 168 

Color, .705 

Colorado, ....... 36 

Agricultural College, . 704 
Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.626 

College,.698 

Constitution, .... 593 

Denver,. 529, 582 

Electoral Vote, . . . 627 
Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government.593 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 
Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 627 

River,.564 

School of Mines, . . . 704 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 

Colors.705 

Colossus of Rhodes, ... 60 

Colt, Samuel,.421 

Columbia,.809 

Columbia, District of, . . 601 
Columbia Female College, 703 
Columbia River, . . 526, 564 
Columbia University: 

New York City, . . . 698 
Portland, Ore., .... 698 
Columbium,.694 




PAGE 

Columbus.80 

Christopher,.421 

Discoveries,.98 

Discovers America, . . 80 

Columns, Spires, and 

Towers,.783 

Combustion,.705 

Spontaneous, .... 706 

Comedy.201 

Of Errors,.351 

Comet,.706 

Most Remarkable, . . 706 

Comma, .188 

Commanders: 

American Civil War, . 139 
American Revolutionary 

War.139 

Austrian Succession, 

War of,.139 

Austro-Swiss War, . . 138 
Chinese-Japanese War, 139 

Crusades.138 

Dacian War,.138 

English Civil War, . . 139 
Franco-Prussian War, 139 
French Civil War, . . 138 
French Revolution, . .139 
Gallic War, . . . . . 138 


138 

138 

138 

138 

138 

139 
138 
138 

138 

139 

138 

139 
138 
138 
138 
138 

138 

139 
139 


138 

138 

138 

139 
139 


Gladiatorial War, 
Greco-Persian War, 
Greco-Roman War, 

Hundred Years’ War, 

Hussite War, 

Italian War, . . . 

Jewish-Roman War, 
Jugurthine War, 

Messenian War, . 

Mexican War, .. . 

Mithridatic War, 

Napoleonic Wars,. 
Peloponnesian War 
Perso-Grecian War, 

Punic Wars, . . 

Roman Civil War, 

Roman Social War, 
Russo-Japanese War, 
Russo-Turkish War, 

Sacred Wars of 
Greece, .... 

Samnite War, . . 

Saracen Conquests, 

Seven Weeks’ War, 

Seven Years’ War, 

Spanish-American War, 139 
Spanish-Netherlands 

War.138 

Spanish Succession, 

War of, . . . . . 139 

Swedish-Russian War, 139 
Thirty Year’s War, . . 138 

Trojan War,.138 

War for Greek Inde¬ 
pendence.139 

Wars of the Roses, . .138 

War of 1812,.139 

Commerce,.645 

Commerce: 

Department Created, . 109 
Department of, ... 639 
Secretaries of, ... . 639 : 
Commercial Discount, . . 854 
Commercial Law, Tabu¬ 
lated, .... 666-67 

Commission.855 

Committee of Public Safe¬ 
ty.37 

Commodities, Legal 

Weight of,.862 

Common Law.70 

Common Names of 

Chemical Substances, 782 

Compass,.56 

Complimentary Close, In 

Letter Writing, . .215 
Composition: Argument, 198 

Description,.198 

Didactic Poetry, . . . 198 
Dramatic Poetry,. . . 198 

Epics.198 

Exposition.198 

Forms of,.198 ; 

Lyric Poetry, .... 198 



























































































































































































INDEX 


875 


PAGE 

Composition — Con.: 

Narration,.198 

Oratory,.198 

Poetry,.198 

Prose,.198 

Compound Interest, . . 854 
Comstock, Anthony, . .421 

Comus.351 

Conchology,.706 

Concordat,.164 

Concordia,.327 

Concordia College: 

Fort Wayne, Ind., . . 698 
Milwaukee, Wis., . . . 698 
Cond6, Prince of, ... . 421 
Condolence, Letters of, . 219 

Condor,.742 

Condorcet, Jean Marie, . 421 

Conductor,.706 

Franklin’s,.706 

Confederacy, JStolian, . . 10 

Of the Franks.65 

Confederates, In Canada,. 105 
Confederate States, . 92, 104 

Jefferson Davis, Presi¬ 
dent, .104 

Readmitted,.106 

Confederation, Articles of, 586 
Confederation, Germanic, 150 
Of the Rhine, ... 37, 164 
Conference, Algeciras,. . 96 

Pan-American.96 

Confidence Man, .... 783 
Confucius, . . 35, 58, 278, 422 
Philosophy of, .... 279 
Sacred Books of, . . . 278 

Congo River,.564 

Congo State. 508, 564 

Congratulation, Letters of, 219 
Congregationalists, . . . 706 
Congressional Library,. . 578 
Congress of U. S., ... 634 

First Meets,.101 

Conic Sections,.59 

Connaught, Arthur, duke of 

151,422 

Connecticut,.37 

Adoption of Constitu¬ 
tion, .37 

Agricultural College, . 704 
Agricultural Statistics 

of.648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.626 

Colonial History, ... 37 

Constitution,.593 

During the Civil War, 37 
Electoral Vote, .... 627 
Exemption Laws,. . . 667 
First Constitution, . . 98 

Government, .... 593 
Governor’s Salary, . . 626 
Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation,. . 627 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Under Sir Edmund An¬ 
dros.37 

Voting Population, . . 627 

Connor, Ralph,.321 

Conrad, Chas. M., .... 637 
Conspiracy, Catiline’s, . 63 

Constance, Treaty of, . . 164 

Constantine 1.422 

Constantinople,.526 

Architectural Features, 526 
Besieged by Bulgarians, 70 
Golden Horn, .... 526 

Inhabitants,.526 

Siege of,.68 

Constellations,.707 

Ptolemaean,.707 

Constitution of the 

United States, . .170, 594 

XIV. Amendment, . . 106 

XV. Amendment,. . . 106 


PAGE 

Constitution of the United 
States — Con.: 
Amendment of,. . . . 597 
Amendments to, . . . 597 

Apportionment, . . . 595 

Convention.594 

Direct Taxes, .... 596 
Duties of President,. . 596 
Executive Power,. . . 596 

Habeas Corpus.596 

House of Representa¬ 
tives, . . .594 

How Bills Become Laws, 595 
Impeachments, .... 595 
Judicial Power,. . . . 597 

Legislative Power, . . 594 

New States,.597 

Organizationof Congress,595 
Powers of Congress, , 595 
Powers of States, . . 596 
President of Senate, . 595 
Public Debt, .... 598 
Qualifications of Presi¬ 
dent, . 596 

Ratification, . . . 594,597 
Ratification of Amend¬ 
ments, _ .598 

595 
598 

597 

595 

598 
597 
597 

596 

597 

598 
351 
148 
169 
707 
707 

707 

202-208 
13 

708 
113 
703 
4-99 

304,422 
698 
708 
708 
164 
422 


Revenue Bills, . . 

Right of Suffrage, 

Rights of Citizens, 

Senate. 

Slavery Prohibited, 
Supreme Court, 

Treason, . . . 

Treaties, . . . 

Trial by Jury, . 
Vice-President,. 

Consuelo,. 

Consulate, The French 
Continental Congress, 
Continuity, Law of, 
Contractile Force, 
Contractility, . . . 
Contractions, . . . 
Contreras, Battle of. 
Convection, .... 
Convention, Geneva, 

Converse College,. . 

Cook, Captain James, 

Cooper, James F., 

Cooper College, . . . 

Cooper Institute, . . 

Cooper Union, . . . 
Copenhagen, Treaty, 
Copernicus, Nicholas, 

Copper. 658, 694 

Alloys of,.658 

Countries producing, . 658 
Mining processes, . . 658 
Production of, ... . 658 
Reduction of, .... 658 
Copperfield, David, . . . 351 

Copperheads,.783 

Corday, Charlotte, . . . 422 
Cords, pile of wood, , . . 860 

Corea,. 37, 599 

Annexed to Japan, 97, 599 
Emperor, ...... 599 

Emperor abdicates, . . 97 

Government, .... 599 

Massacre of 1866, . . 38 

Treatiei vith other na¬ 
tions, ..38 

Treaty with Japan, . . 38 

Under Japanese pro¬ 
tectorate, .38 

Corelli, Marie,.422 

Corinth, . . . 55, 128,526 

Battle of,.13 

Corliss Engine,.670 

Corn, World’s production, 

680 

In United States, . . 648 

Weight,.862 

Corncrackers,.852 

Corneille, Pierre, .... 422 

Cornelia,.422 

Cornell: 

College,.698 

University,.698 

Cornell, Ezra,.422 

Cornwallis, Charles, . 139, 422 


PAGE 

Cornwallis—Con.: 

Surrender at Yorktown, 

86, 170, 180 


Coronis,.327 

Corot, Jean.422 

Correggio, Antonio, . . 422 
Correlation of forces, . . 708 
Cortelyou, George B., 

422. 637, 640 
Cortez, ... 83, 98, 132, 423 
Discovers Mexico, . . 98 

Corwin, Thomas, . . 423, 637 

Corybantes,.327 

Cosmogony,.708 

Cossacks,.527 

Costa Rica: 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Debt, ..605 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Cotner University, . . . 698 

Cotopaxi,.527 

Cottey College,.703 

Cotton,.658 

Growing,.659 

In United States,. . . 649 

Kinds,.659 

Mercerized,.670 

Production of.659 

Spinning,.659 

World’s production, . 680 

Cotton Gin,.668 

Invented,.101 

Cotton seed, Weight, . . 862 
Cotton spinning: 

In Great Britain, . . . 660 
In Southern States, . 660 
In United States, . . 660 

Machines,.659 

Processes,.659 

Statistics, ...... 660 

Cougar, .*.761 

Councils: 

Aulic, .22 

At Chalcedon, .... 66 

Of the Church, .... 708 

Constance,.78 

Of Constantinople, . 66, 68 

At Ephesus,.66 

First Lateran.74 

Fourth Lateran, ... 76 

Nice,.65 

Pisa.78 

Second Lateran, ... 74 

Third Lateran, ... 76 

Tours, ..81 

Trent.82 

Vatican,.95 

Vienna,.*78 

Countries of the world, 604-605 

Area,.604 

Capitals,.605 

Debts of,.605 

Population, .'.... 604 

Rulers, . ..605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Court Fool,.789 

Courts, Federal.635 

Covenanters,.38 

Coventry.527 

Coverley, Sir Roger, . . 351 
Cowpens, Battle of, . . . 13 

Cox, Jacob D.,.638 

Kenyon,.423 

Palmfer,.423 

Cox College, ...... 703 

Crab,.742 

Cracow,.527 

Craik, Dinah M.423 

Crampton Gap, Battle of, 13 

Crane,.742 

Crane, Ichabod, .... 351 
Cranmer, Thomas, . . . 423 
Crassus, Lucius L., . . . 423 

Marcus,.423 

Crawford, F. M., . . . . 306 

Geo. W.,.637 

Wm.H,.637 


PAGE 


Crawford, Thomas, . . . 423 
Crawley, Rawdon, . . .351 
Crawthumpers, . . . .851 
Crayon, Geoffrey,.... 321 
Creasy, Sir Edward, . . 423 
Creation, to Birth of Christ, 54 

To Deluge.54 

Cr^cy,.527 

Credit,.660 

Mobilier,.106 

Creed,.709 

Creed, Athanasian, . . . 687 
Creighton University, . . 698 

Cressida,. 327,351 

Cresswell, John A. J., . . 638 

Creusa,.327 

Crimean War, 38, 92, 139, 167 
Crisp, Charles F., . . . . 640 
Crispi, Francesco,. . . . 423 

Criticism,.200 

Crittenden, John J., . 423, 638 

Crockery,.55 

Crockett, David.11 

Crocodile,.742 

Crompton, Samuel, . . . 423 
Cromwell, Oliver, 

49, 84, 139, 151, 423 
Fifth Monarchy Men, . 110 
Cromwell, William N.,. . 423 

Cronstadt, .527 

Crookes, Sir William, . . 423 
Cross Keys, Battle of, . 13 

Croton Aqueduct, . . .511 

Crow, .743 

Crowninshield, B. W., . . 639 

Jacob,.639 

Cruisers.848 

Crusaders, .38 

Crusades,.138 

Baldwin of Flanders, . 38 

Constantinople taken,. 76 

First, ... . 74 

Frederick II.38 

Godfrey of Bouillon, . 38 

Louis VII.38 

Louis IX., .38 

Peter the Hermit, . . 38 

Richard the Lion 

Hearted,.38 

Saladin, .38 

Crusoe, Robinson, . . . 351 

Crystal Palace. 783 

Ctesiphon, .129 

Cuba, .527 

Acquisition,.178 

Area,. 604 

Cabinet, .599 

Capital,.605 

Climate, .527 

Conquered.81 

Constitution, .... 599 
Constitutional Conven¬ 
tion.108 

Description,.527 

Destruction of Maine, 39, 94 
Early Settlement of, . 38 

Filibuster invasion, . . 104 
Filibusters’ attack, . . 106 
Government, .... 599 
Governor, General Wood, 

108 

Havana,.536 

Independence of, . . . 39 

Insurgents surrender, . 106 
Insurrection of, ... 39 

Insurrections against 
Spanish rule, . . . 108 
Intervention of U. S., . 599 
Invasion by U. S., . . 108 
Natural resources, . . 527 
Palma, first president, 39 
Palma resigns, 96, 109, 599 
Passes to America, . . 96 

Platt Amendment, . . 96 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Productions, .... 528 
Provisional Govern¬ 
ment in,.39 

Slave trade in, .... 39 

Spanish-American War, 39 
Standard Currency, . . 604 













































































































































































604 

528 

599 

528 

108 

861 

351 

776 

424 

424 

698 

424 

327 

604 

552 

640 

305 

424 

424 

424 

638 

640 

106 

857 

660 

668 

351 

424 

327 

327 

351 

743 

327 

58 

424 

424 

605 

528 

13 

138 

327 

327 

424 

669 

327 

650 

650 

650 

698 

637 

698 

424 

660 

351 

351 

304 

327 

69 

72 

783 

424 

424 

640 

288 

288 

288 

288 

424 

424 

564 

327 

327 

547 

425 

351 

528 

351 

425 

784 

425 

699 

425 

425 

190 

528 

425 

425 

425 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


Davidson College.699 

Davis, David,.640 

Henry G.,.425 

Davis, Jefferson, . . 425,637 

Captured,.105 

Davis, Richard Harding, 425 
Davis and Elkins College, 699 
Davy, Sir Humphrey, . . 425 
Dawkins,.352 


425 
. . 426 
426,640 
666,784 
. . 640 
. . 784 


Dawson, Sir John, 

Day, James R., 

William R., . . 

Days of Grace, . . 

Dayton, Jonathan, 

Dead Letter Office, 

Dead Sea. 528, 539 

Deaf and Dumb, Institu¬ 
tion for,.86 

Deaf Mutes, Instruction of, 102 

Deans, Effie,.352 

Dearborn, Henry, .... 637 

Death Rates, . 796 

By Occupation, . . . 795 
Comparative, . . . .796 
From Various Causes, . 795 

In Cities, . 796 

Death Warrant of Jesus,. 784 
Debt, Arrest for, .... 667 
Of Countries of the 

World,.605 

Decameron,.352 

Decatur, Stephen, . . . 426 

Decemviri,.39 

Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence, . 100, 599 

Signers of, .600 

Text of,.599 

Decoration Day, . . 784,791 

Deer.743 

Deerslayer,.352 

Defoe, Daniel, . . . 296,426 
DeGogorza, Emma Eames, 426 

Degrees,. 202-208 

In Free Masonry, . . .789 


Deiphobus, 

Deland, Margaret W., 
Delano, Columbus, . 
Delaware, 


Statistics 


Agricultural 

of,. 

Area,. 

Capital,. 

College,. 

Constitution of, 

Electoral Vote,. . 
Exemption Laws,. 
Government,. . . 
Governor’s Salary, 

Interest Laws in, . 
Jurisdiction of^Justices, 667 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Metropolis,.625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation,. . 627 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 
Tax Rate,..627 


327 
426 
638 
39. 99 


648 

624 

626 

699 

601 

627 

667 

601 

626 

666 


Voting Population, 
Delcasse, Theophile, . 
Delmas, Delphin M., 


Delphi,. 129,328 


627 

426 

426 


352 

328 

39 

40 
54 

328 


Delphin Classics, 

Delphos,. 

Deluge,. 

Of Deucalion, . . 

To Time of Moses, 

Demeter,. 

Demetrius,. 60, 426 

Demosthenes, . 60, 283, 426 

Dendrite,.760 

Deneen, Charles S.426 

Denison University,. . . 699 

Denmark,.528 

Abolition of Serfage, . 40 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Constitution,.601 

Death of Christian, . . 97 

Debt.605 

Early History.40 

Eddas,.40 

Gonn the Old.40 


PAGE 

Denmark—Con.: 

Government,.601 

Illiteracy,.714 

King.605 

Navy.848 

Population,.604 

Rigsdag.601 

Standard Currency, . . 604 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Under Frederick VIII., 41 
Under Margaret, ... 40 

Union with Norway, . 83 

Dennison, William. . . . 638 

Denver, . 529,582 

Department, of Agricul¬ 
ture, .639 


Of Commerce, . . 

Of the Interior,. . 

Of Justice, .... 

Of Labor, .... 

Navy,. 

Post-office,. . . . 

Of State. 

The Treasury, . . 

Of War,. 

De Pauw University, 

Depew, Chauncey M., 

Deposed Kings of England: 
Before the Conquest, . 41 

Since the Conquest,. . 41 

Deposed Kings of France, 41 
De Quincey, Thomas, . . 426 


639 

638 

637 

640 

639 

638 
636 

636 

637 
699 
426 


De Reszke, Edouard, 
Jean, . . . . . 
Deronda, Daniel, . 
Descartes, Rene, . 
Description, . . . 
Deserted Village, . 

Desmas,. 

Des Moines College, 

De Soto,. 

In America, 


Detroit,. 529, 582 


Detroit College, 
Deuteronomy, . . 
Devens, Charles, . 

Dew,. 

Dewar, Sir James, 
Dewey, George,. . 
DeWitt, John, . . 
Dexter, Samuel, 


426 

426 

352 

426 
199 
352 
352 
699 

427 
98 


699 
280 
638 
709 
427 
131,427 
85, 427 
. . 637 


Dhu, Roderick,.352 

Dials,.58 

Diamond. .760 

Diamonds: 

Braganza,.785 

Cullinan,.785 

Florentine,.785 

Koh-i-nur, . . . . .785 

Notable,.785 

Orloff.785 

Rajah of Mattan, . . . 785 

Shah.785 

Diana,.328 

Diaz, Porfirio, . 133, 427, 605 
Dickens, Charles, 297, 303, 427 
Dickerson, Mahlon, . . . 639 
Dickinson, Jacob M., . . 427 

Dictator.41 

Dictionary, ...... 56 

Abbreviations, .... 202 

Classic W ords and 

Phrases.255 

Foreign Words and 

Phrases,.255 

Of Biography, .... 393 
Of Inventions, .... 668 
Of Mispronounced Words, 

267-74 

Of Mythology, .... 323 
Of Name Origins,. . . 797 
Of Names in Fiction, 
Literary Plots, and 

Allusions,.343 

Of Rulers, ...... 146 

Of Synonyms, . . 221-55 

Words, Proper Use of, 191 

Didactic Poetry.202 

Dido,. 328,352 

Dielman, Frederick,. . . 427 

Diet of Worms,.82 

Digestion,.709 


PAGE 

Dike.328 

Dill, James B.427 

Dillon, John,.427 

Diogenes, ....... 427 

Diomed,. 328,352 

Diomedes,.328 

Dionysius,.328 

Diopside,.760 

Directory, France under, 41 

The French.112 

Disciples of Christ, . . . 695 

Discordia.328 

Discount,.854 

Bank,. ..855 

Commercial,.854 

True, ^ . 855 

Discoveries in U. S., . . 168 

Disraeli, Benjamin, . . . 428 

Dissenter,.709 

Distances, between Amer¬ 
ican Cities,.863 

Canadian,.866 

World’s, .... 864-65 

Distempers,.849 

Distillation.709 

District of Columbia, 41, 601 
City of Washington, 41, 578 


Commissioners,. 
Exemption Laws,. 
Extent, ..... 
Government,. . . 
Interest Laws in. 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 


601 

667 

41 

601 

666 

667 


Population,.625 

Present Government, . 41 

Seat of Government, . 41 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 

Suffrage,.631 

Territorial Government, 41 

Dives,.328 

Divine Comedy, ._ . 310, 352 
Divine Right of Kings, . 42 

Dix, Dorothy,.321 

John A.,.637 

Dixie,.785 

Dixon, Thomas, Jr., . . 428 
Dnieper River, ..... 564 
Dobbin, James C., . . . 639 

Doctor Syntax, .... 352 

Dog,.744 

Prairie,.759 

Dogberry,.353 

Dollar Mark.785 

Dollinger, Johan J., . . 428 

Dolliver, J. P.,.428 

Dolly Varden,.353 

Dombey,.353 

Domes, Great, . 1 . . . 785 
Domesday Book, . . . . 353 
Dominican Republic, 42, 601 
Treaty with U. S., . . 601 

Dominicans,.709 

Don River,.564 

Donatello, ..353 

Don Giovanni,.353 

Don Juan.353 

Don Quixote, . . . 313,353 
Dore, Paul Gustave, . . 428 

Dorothea.353 

Dorrit, Edward, .... 353 
Dorr Rebellion, . . 42, 146 

Doubting Castle, .... 354 
Douglas, Stephen A., . . 428 

William L.,.428 

Douglass, Frederick, . . 428 
Doyle, Sir A. Conan, . . 428 

Draco,.428 

Draconian Code, .... 57 

Drake, Sir Francis, . . . 428 
Drake University, . . . 699 
Drama: 

English,.299 

French,.293 

German,.291 

German, founded, . . 80 

Dramatic Poetry, . . . 201 
Dramatic Unities, . . . 354 

Draper, J. W.,.428 

Drawing,.710 

Drawings, Classes of, . .710 

Dreams.710 

Dred Scot Decision, . . 92 














































































































































































































INDEX 


877 


PAGE 

Dresden.529 

Dreyfus, Captain, ... 95 

Trial of.95 

Driver,.354 

Droma,.328 

Dromio, .354 

Druids.42 

Drury College.699 

Drury’s Bluff, Battle of, 13 

Dryads,.328 

Dryden, John, . . . 296,428 

Dry Measure,.861 

Duane, Wm. J.637 

Dublin, . ..529 

Duck, Canvasback, . . 740 

Duckbill,.758 

Dudevant, Mme., 293, 323, 485 

Dudu,.354 

Duel,.785 

Dueling, In England, . . 785 

In France,.785 

In the German Army,. 786 
In United States, . . . 786 
Duelists, Notable, . . . 786 

Duergar,.328 

Due West College, . . . 703 

Duff, Jamie.354 

Duma, Russian, .97, 153, 621 
Dumas, Alexandre, . . . 428 
Dumas, Alexandre the 

Elder, .428 

Du Maurier, G. L., . . . 429 

Dun.786 

Duncan.354 

Dunne, Finley P.429 

Duns Scotus,.429 

Dunstan,.70 

Durward, Quentin, . . . 354 
Duse, Eleonora, .... 429 
Dutch Language, . . . 184 
Dutch Settlements, ... 98 

Duties,.857 

Duval, Gabriel,.640 

Dwarf,.786 

The Black,.354 

Dwight, Timothy, . . . 429 

Dwina River,.564 

Dying Gaul,.786 

Dynamics.710 

Dynamite, .671 

Dynamo,.671,711 

Eads, James B., . . . 429 

Eagle.744 

Early, Jubal A.429 

Earth, Statistics of, . . . 852 
Earthquake, Areas, . . .786 

Earthquakes,.786 

Constantinople, ... 67 

Notable, . . . 786, 787, 788 

Easter,.792 

Eggs,..792 

Rabbit,.792 

Eastern Empire, . . . 42,65 
Capture of Constanti¬ 
nople, .80 

Civil War in, .... 78 

End of, .80 

Treaty with Murad, . 78 

East India Company, 

83,120,788 
Eaton, John H., .... 637 

Ebers, George,.290 

Eblis. 328,354 

Ecaudata,.729 

Ecclesiastes,.281 

Echo.328 

Eckhardt.354 

Eclipse,.57 

Ector, Sir, .354 

Ecuador. 42, 601 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Constitution, . . . .601 

Cotopaxi,.527 

Debt.605 

Government, .... 601 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Edda.354 

Eddas.286 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Eddy, Mary Baker. . 

429 

Electric, Battery—Con.: 


Edict of Nantes, . 

42 

Lamp. 

669 

Edinburgh,. 


Light.. 

711 

Edison, Thomas A., 

429 

Welding. 

672 

Electric lighting, . . . 

106 

Electric Light, Mercury 


Phonograph. 

106 

vapor,. 

672 

Editorial, The. 

200 

Nernst. 

672 

Education,. 

683 

Electric Locomotive, . . 

672 

Chinese, . . . , 

279 

Electric Plow. 

672 

Colleges, .... 

698 

Electrical Discoveries, 

668 

Colleges for Women, 

703 

Electrical Engineering, . 

712 

Schools of Technologv. 

704 

Electricity, . . 

710 

Universities, . . . 

698 

Applications of, ... 

710 

Education, Cost of, . 

788 

Dynamo. 

711 

In Australia, . . . 

788 

Electric light, .... 

711 

In Austria,. 

788 

Franklin’s discoveries,. 

86 

In Canada, . . . 

788 

Gilbert’s discoveries, . 

82 

In France,. 

788 

Measurements of, . . . 

94 

In Germany,. 

788 

Motor,. 

710 

In Greaf/Britain, . 

788 

Trolley,. 

711 

In Hungary,. 

788 

Electric Railway, .... 

672 

In Italy,. 

788 

Electric Railway, First 


In Russia,. 

788 

in United States, . . 

672 

In Sweden,. 

788 

Electrolysis,. 

670 

In Switzerland,. 

788 

Electro-Magnetism, . . . 

669 

In United States,. . . 

788 

Electrometer. 

668 

Edward,. 

429 

Electro-plating, .... 

668 

I.,. 

429 

Electroscope,. 

669 

VII. 53,96,151,429 

Elegy,. 

202 

The Black Prince, . . 

78 

Elephant,. 

744 

The Confessor, 46, 150, 429 

Elevator, Passenger, . . 

670 

Edwards, Jonathan, 304 

430 

Elf,. 

328 

Edyrn,. 

355 

Elfland. 

355 

Egan, Maurice F., . . 

430 

Elgin Marbles,. 

554 

Eggleston, Edward, . 

305 

Eliot, Charles W.,. . . . 

430 

Eggs, in United States, . 

650 

George, . . . 297,303,430 

Eglantine, Madame, . . 

355 

Elixir of Life,. 

684 

Egmont, Lamoral, . . . 

430 

Elizabeth,. 

430 

Egypt, . .43,54,57,530,604 

St., of Hungary, . . . 

430 

A Greek State, . . . . 

43 

Elizabethan Literature, . 

299 

Anglo-French Agreement, 44 

Elizabeth College, . . . 

703 

Antiquity of, .... 

43 

Elkins, Stephen B., . . . 

637 

Area,. 

604 

Elliott, Hobbie,. 

355 

Bonaparte in, 

87 

Maxine. 

431 

Cairo, . 

521 

Ellsworth, Oliver, . 431, 640 

Cairo Taken by Turks, 

81 

Elsie,. 

355 

Canals. 

652 

Elysium,. 

328 

Capital. 

605 

Elzevir.. . 

355 

Chronology of, ... . 

43 

Emancipation. 

176 

Conquered by the French, 44 

Emancipation Proclama- 


Debt. 

605 

tion,.44, 105 

Dynasties, . 

43 

Number of Slaves not 


Early Kings, .... 

43 

Affected,. 

44 

Hyksos, . 

119 

Slaves Freed. 

44 

Khedive. 

605 

Text of Proclamation, . 

44 

Literature, . . . 277,282 

Emanuel, Filibert, . . . 

431 

Mamelukes,. 

44 

Embassadors,. 

61 

Nile,. 

549 

Ember Days,. 

792 

Obelisks,. 

550 

Emerald,. 

760 

Population,. 

604 

Uralian, . 

761 

Power of Mamelukes 


Emerson, R. W., . . 304, 431 

revived. 

87 

Emile,. 

355 

Pyramids,. 

561 

Emilia. 

355 

Standard Currency,. . 

604 

Emmet, Robert. 

431 

Stock of Money, . . . 

604 

Emory and Henry College, 699 

Thebes,. 

161 

Emory College,. 

699 

Under Ptolemies, . . 

43 

Emperor: 


Under the English, . . 

44 

Of Abyssinia, .... 

605 

Under the Saracens, . 

44 

Of Austria-Hungary, . 

605 

Wars with Persia, . . 

43 

Of Corea,.9, 

599 

Egyptian, Architecture, . 

511 

Of Germany. 

605 

Sudan,. 

508 

Of India. 

605 

Thief. 

355 

Of Russia,. 

605 

Eiffel, Gustave, .... 

430 

Emperors: 


Eiffel Tower. 

530 

Of France,. 

147 

Elaine,. 

355 

Of Germany, .... 

149 

Elba,. 

813 

Roman,. 

146 

Elberich,. 

355 

The Five Good, , . . 

146 

Elbe River. 

565 

Empire, The French, . . 

148 

El Caney,.44, 157 

Emporia College. 

699 

Battle of,. 

13 

Empyrean,. 328, 355 

Eldon, John S., .... 

430 

Endell, Martha, .• . . . 

355 

El Dorado,. 

355 

Endicott, Wm. C., . . . 

637 

Election Day,. 

791 

Endymion, .... 329,355 

Electoral Commission, 

106 

Energy, Transmutation of 

708 

Vote of States. 

627 

Engineering,. 

712 

Electors. 

44 

Branches of. 

712 

Electra. 328, 355 

England,.45 

530 

Electric, Battery, .... 

668 

Abolition of Slavery, . 

52 

Cautery,. 

670 

Accession of Victoria,. 

52 

Conductors,. 

668 

Act of Uniformity, . . 

50 

Insulators. 

668 

African Wars, , . . . 

53 


PAGE 

England — Con.: 

After the Roman Con¬ 
quest, .45 

Alfred the Great, 46, 150,395 
American Revolution, . 51 

Area,.530 

As Angle-land, .... 45 

At Waterloo,.52 

Austrian Succession,The, 51 
Balfour, Premier, ... 53 

Barons’ Wars, The, . . 47 

Birmingham,.518 

Boer War,.53 

Cade’s Rebellion, . . 33, 48 
Calendar Reformed,. . 51 

Campbell-Bannerman, 

Premier.53, 415 

Charles Beheaded, . . 49 

Charles II., . .49, 151, 418 
Christianization of, . . 45 

Cities.530 

Civil War,.49 

Climate,.530 

Commonwealth,The, 49,151 

Coventry,.527 

Crimean War, ... . 52 

Danish Invasions,... 46 

Death of Victoria, . . 53 

Declaration of Rights,. 50 

Divided into Counties, 70 
Dominion of Canada, The,53 
During the American 

Civil War.53 

During the Crusades, . 47 

During the French Rev¬ 
olution.52 

Edward I.,.429 

III., . . . .48,151,429 
VII.,. . .53,96,151,429 
Edward, the Confessor, 

46, 150, 429 
Embraces Christianity, 68 
Enormous National Debt, 51 
Ethelbert’s Code, ... 68 

First Parliament, ... 47 

George I., . . .50, 151, 437 

II..50, 151, 437 

> III.51,151,437 

IV.52, 151, 437 

V.,.53, 151, 437 

Gladstone, .... 53, 438 

Grand Alliance, The, . 50 

Henry I., . . .46, 150,445 

II .47, 150, 445 

III .47, 151, 445 

VI.48, 151, 445 

VII. , . . . .48,151,445 

VIII. ,. . . .49,151,445 

Heptarchy, The, ... 45 

Illiteracy,.714 

In America,.51 

Independence of Ameri¬ 
can Colonies, .... 51 

Independence of Scotland,47 
53 

51 
69 

52 
80 

.49,151,449 
47 
150 

49 
76 

295 
540 

540 

53 
47 

541 

50 
68 
52 

530 
46 


Indian Rebellion, 

In India, .... 
Invasion of Danes, 

Irish Rebellion,. . 

Jack Cade, 

James I., 

King John, . . . 

Kings and Queens, 

Lady Jane Grey, , 

Law Courts Founded, 
Literature,.... 
Liverpool, .... 
London, . ... 

Lord Beaconsfield, 
Magna Charta, . . 
Manchester, . . . 
Marlboroughs, The, 
Name First Used,. 
Napoleonic Wars, The, 
Natural Features,. . . 
Norman Conquests, The, 
Operations in Egypt, 

Oxford,. 

Parliament in, . . 

Peace with Russia, 
Plymouth, .... 
Principal Islands, 


52 
551 

78 

53 
558 
530 

Queen Anne, ..... 50 








































































































































































































49 

49 

49 

49 

53 

68 

47 

51 

530 

51 

48 

49 

46 

, 45 

46 

46 

50 

76 

53 

, 80 

53 

48 

76 

76 

,48 

50 

52 

580 

295 

530 

139 

214 

303 

303 

185 

186 

295 

298 

300 

299 

299 

301 

301 

302 

302 

302 

295 

295 

302 

295 

301 

299 

298 

298 

303 

355 

355 

356 

329 

329 

129 

201 

431 

431 

760 

356 

356 

712 

356 

356 

696 

39 

356 

696 

431 

694 

329 

431 

431 

539 

126 

653 

356 

356 

329 

431 

699 

356 

356 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Esperanto,.788 

Esquire,.782 

Essay, The, . . * . . . 200 

Essonite.760 

Estaing, Count d’, . . .431 

Esther. 58, 281 

Ether,.670 

Etna, Mount, . . . 530,577 

Etrurians,.58 

Etruscan War.60 

Euclid,.60 

Of Alexandria, . . . .431 
Eug&ne, Francois, . . . 431 

Prince,.166 

Euler, Leonhard, .... 432 

Eumenides,.329 

Euphrates River, . . 531, 565 

Euphrosyne,.329 

Euphues,.356 

Eureka College, .... 699 

Euripides. 283, 432 

Europa, .329 

Eurydice.329 

Eurylochus,.329 

Eusebius, Pamphili, . . 432 
Eustachio, Bartolommeo, 432 

Eustis, Wm.,.637 

Evadne,.329 

Evangeline.356 

Evangelist,.356 

Evans, Robley D., . . . 432 
Evarts, Wm. M., . . . . 638 
Events of Human Progress, 54 

Everest, Mt.,.547 

Everett, A. H.432 

Edward,.432 

Ewald, Johannes,.... 288 
Ewing, Thomas, . . 637, 638 

Ewing College.699 

Exact Interest, .... 854 

Excalibur, .356 

Exclamation Point, . . . 190 
Executive Departments, 

United States, . . .635 
Exemption: 

Homestead,.667 

Laws, .667 

Of personal property, . 667 

Exile of Jews,.122 

Exodus,.280 

Expectation of life, . . . 665 
Exports of Principal 

Countries,.663 

Exports of U. S., . . . 662 

Articles, .662 

By Countries, .... 663 

Quantities,.662 

Values,.662 

Expositions: 

Alaska-Y ukon-Pa.cific, 

109, 569 

Budapest,.94 

International Cotton, . 106 

Jamestown,.109 

Lewis and Clark, . . . 559 
Pan-American, .... 96 

Paris, .92 

Philadelphia Centennial, 94 

St. Louis,.96 

World’s Columbian, . 94 

World’s Industrial, . . 107 

Eyre, Jane,.357 

Ezekiel,. 281,432 

Ezra,.281 

Ezra Chapel, Battle of, . 14 

Fabius, Maximus, . . 432 

Fables,.199 

Fabliaux,.357 

Faerie Queene,.357 

Faery,.357 

Fagin,.357 

Fahrenheit, Gabriel D., . 432 
Fairbanks, Charles W., . 432 
Fairchild, Chas. S., . . . 637 
Fairfax, Lord Thomas, . 432 
Fair Maid of Perth, . . 357 
Fairmount College, . . . 699 
Fair Oaks, Battle of, . . 14 

Faithful.357 

Falcon,.744 

Falconio, Diomede, . . 432 
Falkland, ....... 357 


PAGE 

97 

357 

318 

387 


Failures, Armand, . 

Falstaff, Sir John, . 

Family Library, . . 

Famous Poems, . . 

Faneuil Hall.531 

Faraday, Michael, . . . 432 

Farce.201 

Fargo College,.699 

Farm products in U. S., . 650 

Farragut, D. G., .... 432 

Fata Morgana,.357 

Fates,.329 

Fathers of the Church,. .712 

Fathoms,.861 

Fatima,.357 

Fauni.329 

Fauns,.329 

Faure, Felix.95 

Faust,.357 

Faustus,.357 

Fay, ..329 

F^nelon, Francois, . . . 432 



Ferdinand, . , 

I. 

V. of Castile, 


Fessenden, W. P., 
Feudal System, 


Knight Service, 


Fichte, Johann G., 


David D., 


Fielding, Henry, . . 2! 
Fifth Monarchy Men, . 
Figures of Arithmetic,. 
Figures of Speech, . . 
Fillmore, Millard,. . L 
Finance: 


Bank of England, 
Bank of Venice, . 
Coins and Coinage, 


Panic of 1857, 
Financial Panic, 
Findlay College, 


Finland: 

Area, 


Ceded to Sweden, 

Debt.605 

Grand Duke,.605 

Illiteracy,.714 

Population.604 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Swedes driven out, . . 87 

Firdausi.433 

Fire Engine, First portable, 669 
Fire Insurance, .... 664 

Fire Opal,.760 

First Naval Battle, ... 57 

Fish, Hamilton, .... 636 
Fisher, Harrison, .... 433 

Fishes,.745 

Fiske, John, .306 

Minnie Maddern, . . . 433 
Fisk University, .... 699 

Fitch, Clyde,.433 

Flag, United States, 100,789 

Flamingo,.745 

Flax,.745 

Flaxseed, In United States, 648 

Weight.862 

Flea,.745 


Fleance.358 

Fledgeby,.358 

Fletcher, John, . . 295, 433 

Flint,.760 

Flint, Austin.433 

Floating Batteries, . . . 670 

Flora.329 

Florence,.531 

Florida.. . 110 

Agricultural Statistics 

of,.648 

Area,.624 

Capital,. 626 

Ceded to Great Britain, 99 


College, 

Constitution, . . 

Electoral vote, . . 

Exemption Laws, 
Government, . . 

Governor’s Salary, 
Huguenots, . . . . . 110 

Interest Laws in, . . . 666 


703 

601 

627 

667 

601 

626 


105 

Jurisdiction of Justices, 

667 

357 

Legal Weights, . . . . 

862 

358 

Legislative Statistics, . 

627 

432 

Metropolis,. 

625 

432 

Ponce de Leon, . . . 

110 

745 

Population,. 

625 


Property Valuation, . 

627 

637 

Statutes of Limitation, 

667 

110 

Suffrage Requirements, 

626 

67 

Tax Rate,. 

627 

67 

University of, ... . 

702 

124 

Voting Population, . . 

627 

110 

Florizel, . 

358 

110 

Flounder,. 

746 

110 

Flour, Adulteration of, . 

645 

433 

Flower,. 

746 

199 

Flowers, State. 

852 

343 

Floyd, John B., . . . . 

637 

329 

Fluorine. 

694 

433 

Fluorite. 

760 

433 

Fluorspar. 

760 

433 

Fly. 

746 

433 

Flying Dutchman, . . . 

358 

640 

Flying Fish,. 

746 

433 

Flying Squirrel, .... 

746 

110 

Folger, Chas. J., . . . . 

637 

70 

Folk, Joseph W., . . . . 

433 

208 

Folk-Tales. 

199 || 

433 

Fontainebleau, Treaty 



of,. 

164 

109 

Fool, Court,. 

789 |! 

652 

Foraker, Joseph B., . . 

433 

84 

Forces, Correlation of, . 

708 

74 

Foreign Coins. 

657 

656 

Value of, ...... 

657 it 

604 

Foreign Commerce of 


92 

United States, . 662, 663 

109 

Forestry,. 

660 

699 

Destruction by fire, . . 

661 if 

358 

Values,. 

661 

732 

Form, In letter writing, . 

214 , 


Forrest, Edwin, . . . . 

434 

604 

Fort Donelson, Battle of, 

14 |; 

605 

Fort Erie, Battle of, . . 

14 

83 

Fort Fisher, Battle of, 

14 1 


14 

14 

14 

14 

14 


Fort Gregg, Battle of, 

Fort Moultrie, Battle of, . 

Fort Pillow, Battle of,. . 

Fort Schuyler, Battle of, . 

Fort Stedman, Battle of,. 

Fort Sumter, ..158 

Fortuna, . ..329 

Fortunatus.358 

Fortunio’s Horse, . . . 358 
Fort Wagner, Battle of, . 14 

Fort Worth University, . 699 

Forty Thieves.358 

Forum,.110 

Forward, Walter, .... 637 

Foster, Charles,.637 

John W.,.434 

Foundation of Roman Law, 39 

Fouqu6, Karl.290 

Fox,.746 

Fox, Charles J./.434 

George,.434 

Foxe, John,.295 

Foxes,.850 


France, .... 67, 110, 531 

Agincourt, Battle of, - 79 


79 







































































































































































































INDEX 


879 


PAGE 

France—Con.: 

Alliance with America, 87 

Area,.604 

Aristocracy, Rise of, . 68 

Bonaparte,.Ill 

Burgundy Annexed, . 73 

Canada, Loss of, . . . 87 

Canals.652 

Capital,.605 

Carlovingian Dynasty, 110 
Castile, War with, . . 77 

Charlemagne.110 

Charles VII., Crowned, 81 
Church and State, Sep¬ 
aration of,.97 

Cities, .532 

Civil Wars,.71 

Climate.531 

Constitution, .... 602 

Cr^cy.527 

Crusades, . . . . 75, 111 

Debt, ..605 

Description.531 

Directory,.112 

Edict of Nantes, ... 83 

Edict of Nantes Re¬ 
voked, .85 

Empire, The, .... 148 
Exposition in Paris, . 93 

Franco-Prussian War, 

94,112,115,139 

Franks,. .110 

French occupy Mexico, 93 

Fronde, The,.Ill 

Henry II.,.Ill 

House of Deputies, . . 602 
House of Valois, . . . Ill 
Hugh Capet, . . . 110, 415 
Hugh the Great, Duke, 71 
Illiteracy, . . . . . .714 
Invasion of Holland, . 85 

Joan of Arc,.81 

Kingdom Divided, . . 68 

Kings of,.147 

Legislature.602 

Literature,.292 

Lorraine Annexed, . . 71 

Louis IX., .77 

XIV.,.Ill 

XV .Ill 

XVI .Ill 

Louis Philippe.112 

Lyons, ....... 540 

Manufactures, .... 532 

Marie Antoinette, . . Ill 

Marseilles,.542 

Maximilian, Emperor 

of Mexico,.93 

Merchant Marine, . .674 

Ministry,.602 

Morocco and, .... 97 

Napoleon I.,.112 

III.112 

Napoleon Bonaparte, . 87 

Napoleonic Wars, 87, 112 
Natural Features, . .531 

Navy,. . 848 

Notre Dame Rebuilt, . 73 

Occupies Morocco, . . 97 

Orleans.551 

Panama Scandals, . . 95 

Paris. 554, 582 

Peace of Utrecht, . . 87 

Poitiers, Battle of, . . 79 

Population,.604 

President, ...... 605 

President Loubet in 

England,.97 

Presidents of, .... 147 

Productions,.531 

Protestantism, . . . . Ill 
Religious Wars, ... 83 

Republics, The, . . . 148 
Revolt of Flemings, . 79 

Revolution, The, ... 112 

Rheims, .563 

Richelieu,.83 

Rivalry with England, 75 
St. Bartholomew, Mas¬ 
sacre of, . . 83, 111, 153 

Senate,.602 

Separation Law, ... 112 



PAGE 

PAGE 

France—Con.: 


French Revolution — Con. 

. 

Siege of Paris, . . . 

85 

Girondists,. 

113 

Standard Currenc^, . 

604 

Great Days of, ... . 

112 

States-General, First, 

79 

Leaders of,. 

112 

Stock of Money, . . 

604 

Robespierre,. 

113 

Talleyrand, Death of, 

91 

Frey,. 

330 

Teutonic Language in. 

68 

Freyja,. 

330 

Tours, Council of, 

81 

Friar Lawrence. 

358 

Under Napoleon, . 

89 

Friar’s Tale,. 

358 

Universities, .... 

111 

Friar Tuck,. 

358 

War with Charles V., 

83 

Frick, Henry C.. 

435 

War with England, . 75,79 

Friday. 

358 

William, Duke of Nor- 


Friends, Society of, . . . 

712 

mandy, .... 

73 

Frigga,. 

330 

Wine Growers’ Agitation, 97 

Frisians,. 

113 

Wi^es,. 

531 

Froebel, F.,. 

435 

Francis, David R., 

638 

Frog, . 

747 

1 rancis 11. (Joseph Charles), 

Fronde.111,113 

9. 434 

Front de Boeuf, .... 

358 

Franconia, House of, . 

149 

Froude, J. A. 297.435 

Franco-Prussian War, 


Fruits in United States: 


94, 112, 115, 139 

Small,. 

650 

Frankenstein,. 

358 

Sub-tropical,. 

650 

Frankfort, Treaty of, . 

164 

Frye, William P., . . . . 

435 

Franklin, Battle of, 

14 

Fudge Family,. 

358 

Franklin, Benjamin, 304, 434 

Fugitive Slave Law,. . . 

90 

Death of,. 

101 

Fuller, Melville W., . 435. 640 

Discovers Electricity, 

86 

Fuller’s Earth,. 

655 

Franklin and Marshall 

Fulton, Robert, .... 

435 

College,. 

699 

Clermont. 

101 

Franklin College: 


Funston, Fred, . . . 142, 

435 

Indiana,. 

699 

Furman University,. . . 

699 

Ohio. 

699 

Furies,. 

330 

Franks,.65,110 

Gabriel. 

359 

Defeat of, by Constantine, 65 

Gadolinium,. 

694 

Form a Kingdom, . 

66 

Gadsden Purchase, . 

90 

Master Bhtavia, . . 

65 

Gage, Lyman J., . . . . 

637 

Fraternities, Chapters, 

697 

Gaines Mill, Battle of, 

14 

College,. 

697 

Gainsborough, Thomas, . 

435 

For Men,. 

697 

Galahad, Sir,. 

359 

For Women,. 

697 

Galatea,. 

359 

Foundation of, . . . 

697 

Gale College,. 

699 

Greek Letter, . . . . 

697 

Galen, Claudius. 

435 

Houses,. 

697 

Galilei, Galileo. 

435 

Membership, . . . . 

697 

Gallatin, Albert, .... 

637 

Frederick I.,. 

114 

Gallaudet, T. H., . . . . 

435 

II.,. 

434 

Gallaudet College, 

699 

Charles,. 

434 

Gallic War,. 

138 

Fredericksburg, Battle of 

14 

Gallinger, Jacob H., . . 

435 

Fredericksburg College, . 

699 

Gallium,. 

694 

Free lovers. 

719 

Galvani, Luigi,. 

436 

Freeman, E. A., . . 297, 435 

Galvanized Iron, .... 

669 

Freemasonry,. 

789 

Galvanometer,. 

669 

Degrees in,. 

789 

Galveston, Great Flood,. 

108 

Scottish Rites, . . . . 

789 

Gambetta, Ldon M., 

436 

York Rite. 

789 

Ganelon, Sir, . 

359 

Fremont Peak,. 

547 

Ganges River, . . . 532,565 

Freeport, Sir Andrew,. . 

358 

Ganymede,. 

330 

Free silver,. 

108 

Garcia, Pedro,. 

359 

Frelinghuysen, F. T., . . 

636 

Garde Nationale, .... 

113 

French, Daniel C., . . . 

435 

Garden: 


French: 


Of Eden,. 

789 

Africa,. 

508 

Of England,. 

789 

Authors,. 

292 

Of Erin. 

789 

Civil War,. 

138 

Of Europe. 

789 

Consulate,. 

148 

Of France,. 

789 

Drama,. 

293 

Of Gethsemane, . . . 

789 

Empire, The. 

148 

Of Helvetia,. 

789 

First Settlement in 


Of India. 

790 

America,. 

98 

Of Spain,. 

790 

In Mississippi Valley, 

180 

Of the East,. 

790 

Languages, .... 

184 

Of the West,. 

790 

Restoration, The,. . 

148 

Gardens of the World,. „ 

789 

Troubadours. . . . 

293 

Gardiner, Samuel R., . . 

436 

Words and Phrases, 263-67 

Gareth, Sir,. 

359 

Written Language, . 

72 

Garfield, James A., . 144, 436 

French-America, . . . . 

98 

Shot. 

106 

Champlain,. 

98 

Garfield, James R., . . . 

436 

Quebec Founded, . . 

98 

Garfield’s Assassination, . 

177 

French and Indian War 

168 

Garfish,. 

737 

French Literature, . . 

292 

Gargantua). 

359 

History, . 

295 

Garibaldi, . . . 91,123,436 

Poetry. 

292 

And the Papal States, 

93 

Politics,. 

295 

Death of,. 

95 

Prose, . 

292 

Garland, Augustus H., . 

638 

Representative Works, 

292 

Garnet. 

760 

Romance. 

294 

Garrick, David, .... 

436 

Under Feudalism, . 

294 

Garrison, William L., . . 

436 

Under Louis XIV., . 

294 

Gas, Illuminating, . . . 

668 

French Revolution, . 112, 139 

Gas Engine. 

671 

Danton. 

113 

Gas Meter,. 

669 

First, The,. 

112 

Gaskell, Elizabeth, . . . 

436 


PAGE 

Gastein, Convention of, . 164 


Gaston College.703 

Gates, Horatio, .... 436 

Gatling, R. J.,.436 

Gatling Gun,.671 

Gaul, Conquest of, . . . 63 

Gaunt, Griffith.359 

Gauss, Karl F.436 

Gautama,.330 

Gawain, Sir.359 

Gazelle,.747 

Geijer, Erik,.287 

Gemini,.330 

Genesis,.280 

Geneva Award.106 

Geneva College, .... 699 
Geneva Convention, . .113 

Genevieve,.359 

Genevra,.359 

Gengis Khan, . . . .77,436 

Genii. 330,359 

Genoa,.532 

Genseric. 66, 436 

Geographical Measure, . 861 

Geography,.507 

George,.437 

George V.,.437 

George, Henry,.437 

Georgetown University, . 699 
George Washington Uni¬ 
versity, .699 

Georgia: 

AgriculturalStatisticsof, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.626 

Constitution.602 

Electoral Vote,. . . . 627 
Exemption Laws,. . . 667 
Government, .... 602 
Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History, .113 

Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 

Legal Weights.862 

Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 


Property Valuation, . 627 
School of Technology,. 704 
Statutes of Limitation,. 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 


Tax Rate.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 

Georgies,.359 

Geranium,.747 

German: 

Africa,.508 

Authors,.289 

College, . ..699 

Confederation, .... 92 

Drama,.291 

Poetry,.289 

Prose works,.289 

Scientists.292 

Words and phrases, 263-67 
German Empire: 

Area,.532 

Bundesrath,.602 

Cities.532 

Climate, ..532 

Constitution,.602 

Debt,.605 

Diet. 602 

Emperor.602 

Government, .... 602 

Heir Apparent.602 

Ministry.602 

Physical features, . . 532 

Population,.532 

Productions.532 

Reichstag,.602 

Sea Ports,.532 

Standard Currency, . . 604 

States of.532 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Germanic Confederations, 150 

Germanium,.694 

German Literature, . . . 289 

Philosophy,.291 

Representative works,. 289 
German Nations, Migra¬ 
tion of,.62 





































































































































































































880 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 


Germany, ..602 

Bavaria seized, ... 86 

Beginning of Reforma¬ 
tion, .80 

Berlin,.518 

Bismarck.114,407 

Bohemia annexed, . . 71 

Canals,.653 

Charlemagne, . . 113,418 
Confederation, The, . .114 
Conrad II., Emperor, . 73 

Emperors of, .... 149 
Emperor visits London, 96 
First coalition against 

France,.86 

Franco-Prussian War, 

115, 139 

Frederick I.,.114 

Germanic Nations, . . 114 

Hamburg,.536 

Henry III.114 

Henry V. and the Pope, 75 

History, .113 

House of Austria estab¬ 
lished.81 

Illiteracy.714 

Invaded by Gustavus 

Adolphus.84 

Invasion of Hungarians, 71 
Invasion of the Turks, 80 
Italy united to the Em¬ 
pire. 73 

Literature,.289 

Louis I., king, .... 71 

Luther’s Bible, . . . .291 
Liitzen, Battle of, . . 84 

Maximilian 1. 80 

Merchant Marine, . . 674 
Modern Literature, . .291 
Morocco and, .... 96 

Munich, .548 

Napoleon and, . . . .114 
Napoleon’s Austrian 

Campaign.86 

Navy,.848 

Order of Knights, . .291 
Popes and the Empire, 75 
Prince Eugene, ... 84 

Prince Henry visits 
United States, ... 96 

Protestant Reformation, 114 

Prussia. 561 

Resignation of Bismarck, 94 

Rhine, The,.563 

Roman Law abolished, 96 
Rome taken, .... 77 

Seven Years’ War, 86, 139 
Social Democrats, . .115 


Subdued by Germanicus, 64 
Swiss Insurrection, . . 79 

Thirty Years’ War, 114, 138 
Troops defeated in Af¬ 


rica, .96 

War of the Austrian 
Succession, . 51, 86, 139 
Gesta Romanorum, . . 359 
Gettysburg, Battle of, 14, 115 
Soldiers’ Monument, . 106 
Ghent, Treaty of, ... 164 

Ghibellines,.115 

Giants,. 330, 790 

Notable,.790 

Giant’s Causeway, . 533, 732 
Gibbon, Edward, . 296, 437 
Gibbons, Cardinal, . . . 437 

Gibraltar.533 

Taken by English, . . 84 

Gibson, Charles Dana, . 437 

Gilbert Peak,.547 

Gil Bias,.360 

Gildersleeve, B. L., . . . 437 

Gilead, Balm of.73C 

Gilman, Daniel C., . . . 437 
Gilmer, Thomas W., . . 639 

Gilpin, Henry D., .... 638 

John,.360 

Giotto, A. B.,.437 

Giraffe,.747 

Girard, Stephen.437 

Girondists, . . . . 113, 115 
Glaciers.533 


Gladden, Washington, . 437 



PAGE 


PAGE 


PAGE! 


Gladiatorial War, . . . 

138 

Grant, Ulysses S., . .144,439 

Greenbacks, . . . . 

. . 105 

Gladiators. 

116 

Graphophone. 

672 

Greene, Nathanael, . 

. .440 

Gladstone, William Ewart, 

Grass seed, in U. S., . . 

650 

; Greensboro College, . 

. . 703 ,| 

53.438 

Grattan, Henry. 

439 

Greenville College, . 

. . 699 3 

Death of,. 

94 

Gray, Asa. 

439 

Gregorian Calendar,. 

. . 33 

Glasgow,. 

533 

George,. 

439 

Gregory I., Pope,. . 

. . 440 g 

Glasgow, Ellen,. 

438 

Horace,. 

640 

VII.. 


Glendale College, .... 

703 

Thomas,. 296, 439 

Gr^vy, Francois, . . 

. . 440 ! 

Glucinum. 

694 

Great Britain,. 

533 

Jules,. 

Grey, Lady Jane,. . 

. . 95 

Gnome. 330, 360 

Accession of Edward 


. . 440 

Gnu,. 

747 

VII. 

96 

Grier, Robert C., . . 

. . 640 1 

Goat,. 

747 

Boer War.27, 96 

Griggs, James M.,. . 


Gobbo, Launcelot, . . . 

360 

Boyne, Battle of the, . 

84 

John W., .... 

Grimm, Jacob, . . . 

. . 638 

Goblins. 

360 

Canals,. 

653 

290,440 

Godfrey de Bouillon, . . 

438 

Civil War,. 

84 

Wilhelm. 

• • 290 $ 

Gods. 

323 

Crimean War, . . 92, 

139 

Griswold, Roger, . . 

. . 637 

Greek,. 

323 

Cromwell, Protector, . 

84 

Grosvenor, Charles H., . 440 

Roman. 

323 

Death of Victoria, . . 

96 

Edwin A., . . 

. . 440 

Superior. 

323 

First United Parlia- 


Grote, George, . . . 

297,440 

God Save the King, . . 

360 

ment,. 

86 

Grotius, Hugo, . . . 

. . 440 

God’s Truce. 

116 

Flodden, Battle of, . . 

80 

Grouchy, Marquis de, 

. . 440 ! 

Goethals, George W., . . 

438 

Habeas Corpus Act,. . 

84 

Grove City College, . 

. . 699 

Goethe, J. W. 290, 438 

House of York,.... 

80 

Grow, Galusha A., . 

. . 640 1 

Goff, Nathan, Jr., . . . . 

639 

Independence of Amer- 


Grundy, Felix, . . . 

. . 638 

Gold. 694, 

747 

ican Colonies Ac- 


Grundy, Mrs., . . . 

. . 361 

Coin,. 

61 

knowledged, .... 

86 

Guatemala: 


Coins,. 

656 

Invasion of France, . . 

80 

Area,. 

. . 604 

Discovered in California 

90 

Japanese Alliance, . . 

96 

Capital. 

. . 605 

Discovery in Australia, 

91 

Kafir War,. 

90 

Debt,. 

. . 605 

In United States, . . 

649 

Lord Curzon Resigns, . 

96 

Population, . . . 

. . 604 

Mining in Brazil, . . . 

99 

Navy,. 

848 

President, .... 

. . 605 

Premium, at high, . . 

105 

New Orleans, Battle of, 

88 

Standard Currency, 

. . 604 | 

Gold Bug,. 

360 

Railroads in,. 

674 

Guelphs. 


Golden Apples. 

330 

Rebellion in India, . . 

92 

Guericke, Otto von, . 

. . 440 1 

Golden Beryl,. 

760 

Repeal of Corn Laws, . 

90 

Guffey, James M., . 

. . 440 

Golden Fleece,. 

330 

Surrender of Cornwallis, 

86 

Guido Reni. 

. . 441 

Golden Legend, .... 

360 

Union of England and 


Guildhall, London, . 

• • 818 I 

Goldsmith, Oliver, . 296, 

438 

Ireland,. 

86 

Guilford C. H., Battle 

of, 15 

Gomorrah,. 

130 

Victoria, Queen, . . . 

90 

Guilford College, . 

. . 699 

Gompers, Samuel, . . . 
Gonzaga College: 

438 

Wars of the Roses, 80, 138 
War with the Ameri- 

Guinea Pig, .... 
Guiscard, Robert,. . 

. . 748 
. . 441 

Spokane, Wash., . . . 

699 

can Colonies,. . 86,139 

Guiteras, Juan,. . . 

. . 441 j 

Washington, D. C., . . 

699 

War of 1812,. . . 88, 

139 

Guizot, Francois, . 

95,441 

Goodwin, Nathaniel C., . 

438 

Grecian Republics, . . . 

59 

Gulf Stream, .... 

. . 536 

William W.,. 

438 

Greco-Persian War, . . . 

138 

Gulliver, Lemuel, . . 

. . 361 

Goodyear, Charles, . . . 

438 

Greco-Roman War, . . . 

138 

Gun, Breech-loading, 

. . 668 | 

Goodv Two-Shoes, . . . 

360 

Greece: 


Cotton,. 

. . 670 

Goose,. 

748 

Alexander,. 

116 

Gunpowder at Cressy, 

. . 78 

Barnacle,. 

732 

Area,. 

604 

Gunpowder Plot, . . 

. . 117 i 

Gophers. 

851 

Army,. 

603 

Guns,. 


Gordian Knot. 

360 

Athens.116, 515 

Gustavus,. 

. . 441 

Gordon, General, . . 93, 438 

Capital. 

605 

Adolphus, .... 

. . 162 

George A.,. 

439 

Congress of Berlin,. . . 

117 

Gustavus Adolphus 

Col- 

Gorgons,. 

330 

Conquered by Turks, . 

116 

lege,. 


Gorilla. 

748 

Constitution,. . . 91,603 

Gustavus Vasa, 

. . 83 

Gorky, Maxim, .... 

439 

Debt,. 

605 

Gutenberg, Johann, . 

. . 441 1 

Gothic, Architecture, . . 

512 

Government,. 

603 

Guthrie, James, . . 

. . 637 J 

Bible,. 

289 

Heir Apparent,.... 

603 

Guy Mannering, . . 

. . 361 

Goths.66, 116 

Illiteracy,. 

714 

Guyot, Arnold, . . . 

. . 441 

Defeat Romans, . . . 

66 

Independence, .... 

116 

Gypsies, . 

. . 790 

Theodoric,. 

116 

Insurrection. 

93 

Habeas Corpus, . 
Habersham, Joseph. 

.84,596 

Gouin, Sir Lomer, . . . 

439 

King,. 

605 

. . 638 j 

Gould, George J. 

439 

Kingdom of, Founded,. 

89 

Habsburg: 


Helen M.,. 

439 

Messenian Wars, . . . 

116 

Founded. 


Gounod, Charles F., . . 

439 

Ministry. 

603 

House of, ... . 

117,149 

Government,. 

585 

Navy. 

848 

Hades,. 

. . 330 

Governor-General, of 


Olympiad. 

116 

Hadley, A. T., . . . 


Canada, . 

591 

Olympic Games, . . . 

116 

Haeckel, E. H., . . 

. . 441 

Governor-General, of 


Persian Invasion, . . . 

116 

Hafiz,. 

Haggard, Henry Ride 


India,. 

606 

Philosophy. 

283 

r, . 441 || 

Governors: 


Population,. 

604 

Hague, The, .... 

. . 536 

Length of Term, . . . 

626 

Standard Currency,. . 

604 

Treaty, . . . j . 

. . 164 

Salaries of,. 

626 

Stock of Money, . . . 

604 

Tribunal,. 


Governors-General, of 


War with Turkey, . . 

117 

Hahnemann, C. S. t . 

. . 441 

Canada,. 

151 

Greek: 


Hale, E. E. 

305,441 

Graaf, Regnier de, . . . 

439 

Architects,. 

511 

Eugene. 


Graal, Holy,. 

360 

Architecture. 

511 

Sir Matthew,. . . 

. . 441 

Gracchus, Caius S., . . . 

439 

Authors,. 

282 

Halifax, . 

. . 536 

Graceland College, . . . 

699 

Church,. 

713 

Hall, Nathan K., . . 


Graces, The,. 

330 

Drama. 

284 

G. Stanley, . . . 


Graham, George. 

637 

Gods,. 

323 

Hall of Fame, . . . 

. . 790 

William A. 

639 

Historians,. 

284 

Hallam, Henry, . . 

296,441 

Grain Binder,. 

671 

Literature,. 

282 

Haman, ...... 

. . 442 

Grand Canyon,. 

533 

Mourning Customs, . . 

796 

Hamburg,. 

532, 536 

Urand Central Terminal, 

533 

Oratory,. 

284 

Hamburg League. . 

. . 164 

Grand Duke of Finland, . 

605 

Orders of Architecture, 

511 

Hamilcar Barca, . . 

. . 442 

Grand Island College, . 

699 

Science,. 

284 

Hamilton, Alexander, 

. . 442 

Grandison, Sir Charles, . 

360 

Words and Phrases, 255-63 

Killed in Duel, . . 

. . 101 

Grand Vizier of Turkey, . 

632 

Greek Independence, 


Hamilton, Paul, . . 

. . 639 

Granger, Francis, . . 

638 

War of,. 

167 

Sir William, . . . 

. . 442 

Gideon,. 

Grant, Frederick D., . . 

638 Greeley, Horace, . . . 

440 

Hamilton College, . 

. . 699 

439 

Green, J. R., . . . . 297,440 

Hamlet, . . . “ . . 



















































































































































































INDEX 


881 


PAGE 

Hamlin, Hannibal, . . . 442 
Hamline University, 

Minnesota,.699 

Hammond, James B., . . 442 

John H.,.442 

Hampden, John.442 

Hampden-Sidney College, 699 

Hancock, John.442 

Winfield S.,.442 

Handel, George F., . . . 442 
Hanly, J. Frank, . . . . 442 
Hanna, Marcus A., . . . 442 

Hannibal,.61,442 

Hanover College, .... 699 
Hanover C. H., Battle of, 15 
Hanover, House of, . . . 151 
Hanseatic League, . 77, 117 

Hanse Towns,.117 

Hans Sachs, .... 80, 289 

Hapgood, Norman, . . . 
Hardcastle, Mr., .... 361 
Hardin College, . . . .703 

Hard Times,.361 

Hardy, A. S.,. 


Haricot, .733 


John M.,. 

Harlowe, Clarissa, . . .361 
Harmon, Judson, . . . 443 
Harmony, in Music,. . . 719 

Harney Peak,.547 

Harold, Childe.361 

Harold I.,.443 

II.443 

Haroun Al-Raschid, 

282, 362, 443 
Harper, William R., . . 443 

Harpies,.331 

Harriman, E. H., . . . . 443 

Harris, Joel C.,.443 

Harrison, Benjamin, 144, 443 

Robert H.,.640 

W. H.,. 144,443 

Hart, Albert B., .... 443 

Harte, Bret, .... 306, 443 

Hartbeest, Hartebeest, . 748 
Hartford Convention, . .791 
Harvard, John, . . 98,443 

Harvard University, . . 699 
Harvey, George B. M.; . 443 
Harvey, William, .... 443 
Discovers Circulation 

of the Blood, ... 82 

Hastings, Battle of, . . 22, 72 
Hastings, Warren, . . . 443 
Hastings College, .... 699 
Hatcher’s Run, Battle of, 15 

Hatto,.362 

Havana,.536 

Haverford College, . . . 699 
Hawaii: 


Annexation. 

. 94 

Honolulu,. 

Hawaiian Islands: 

. 537 

Area,. 

. 625 

Capital,. 

. 624 

Metropolis, .... 

. 625 

Population, .... 

. 625 

Hawkeyes,. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 

. 850 


304,444 

Hay, John,.444 

Haydn, Joseph, .... 444 
Hayes, R. B., . . . 144, 444 

Hay in United States,. . 649 
Hayne, Robert Y., . . . 444 
Great Speech of, . . . 102 
Hayti: 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Constitution, .... 603 

Debt,.605 

Dominican Republic, . 601 
Government, .... 603 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Religion of.603 

Republic of,.603 

Revolt against French, 101 
Soulouque, President, . 91 

Standard Currency,. . 604 



PAGE 

PAGE 

Hayti—Con.: 


Himalayas, The, .... 

536 

Stock of Money, . 

. . 604 

Hindu Philosophy. . . . 

278 

Hazlitt, William, . 

. . 444 

Hindustan. 

537 

Hearst, Phoebe, . . 


Hippolyta,. 

332 

William R. 


Hippolytus,. 

332 

Heart, . . . 

. . 713 

Hippopotamus, .... 

748 

Heart of Midlothian, 

. . 362 

Hiram College,. 

699 

Hebe, . . . 


History,. 

198 

Hebrew, Language. . 

. . 184 

Abyssinia, . 

9 

Literature, . . . 

277, 279 

Afghanistan, .... 

10 

Old Testament, 

. . 280 

Agrarian Agitation, . . 

11 

Poetry. 


Alabama,. 

11 

Hebrews,. 


Alemanni,. 

11 

Hecate. 


Alexander to Birth of 


Hector,. 


Christ, From, . . . 

60 

Hecuba,. 


Arabia,. 

19 

Hedin, Sven A., . . 

. . 444 

Argentine Republic, 

20 

Heep, Uriah, . . . 

. . 362 

Arizona,. 

20 

Hegel, G. W., . . . 

290,444 

Arkansas, ...... 

20 

Heidelberg University, . 699 

Armada,. 

21 

Heimdal,. 


Assembly,. 

21 

Heine, Heinrich, . . 

. . 444 

Assyria, . 

21 

Helena,. 

. . 362 

Austria-Hungary, . . 

22 

Helen of Troy. . . . 

56,331 

Babylonia,. 

57 

Helicon. 

. . 331 

Belgium. 

22 

Heliography, . . . 

. . 669 

Birth of Christ to Pres- 


Helios,. 

. . 331 

ent Time,. 

54 

Heliotrope. 

. . 760 

Bishops and Popes of 


Helium,. 


Rome,. 

23 

Hell Gate,. 

. . 536 

Blue Laws,. 

27 

Helmet of Hades, 

. . 331 

Boer War. 

27 

Helmets,. 

. . 776 

Bohemia. 

29 

Helmholtz, H. L., . 

. . 444 

Boii,. 

30 

Helvetii. 

. . 117 

Boxer Rebellion, . . . 

30 

Hemans, Felicia D., 

. . 444 

Brazil. 

31 

Hematite,. 

. . 760 

Burmah. 

32 

Henderson, David B., 

. . 640 

Cade’s Rebellion, . . . 

33 

Henderson College, . 

. . 699 

Calendar,. 

33 

Hendrix College, , . 

. . 699 

California,. 

33 

Heney, F. J., ... 

. . 444 

Caliph,. 

34 

Hennepin, Louis, . . 

. . 445 

Canada,. 

34 

Henry I., . . . 46, 150, 445 

Carthage,. 

35 

II.,. 47,150,445 

Charter Oak. 

35 

III., .... 47, 

151,445 

Chile. 

35 

IV.48, 

151,445 

China. 

35 

V. 48, 78, 151 

Christian Era to Fall of 


VI.,. 48,78,151 

Rome,. 

64 

VII. 48,151,445 

Cisalpine Republic, . . 

36 

VIII. 49, 151, 445 

Colorado,. 

36 

Henry II. of France, 


Confederation of the 


111, 148,445 

Rhine,. 

37 

IV. 111,148,445 

Connecticut,. 

37 

Henry IV. of Germany, 

Consul,. 

37 

75, 

149,445 

Consulate,. 

37 

v.. 

114,149 

Continental System, 

37 

Henry, Joseph, . . . 


Convention,. 

37 

Patrick,. 

. . 445 

Corea.. 

37 

Henry Kendall College, . 699 

Creation to Birth of 


Henshaw, David, . . 

. . 639 

Christ, From, . . . 

54 

Hepburn, William P., 

. . 445 

Creation to Deluge, . . 

54 

Hera,. 

. . 331 

Crimean War. 

38 

Heraclidse, .... 

. . 331 

Crusades,. 

38 

Herbert, Hilary A., . 

. . 639 

Cuba, . 

38 

Victor, . . . . 7 

. . 445 

Decemviri,. 

39 

Herculaneum, . . . 

129,576 

Decisive Battles of, . . 

22 

Herculean Knot, . . 

. . 331 

Defenestration of Prague, 39 

Hercules,. 

. . 331 

Delaware,. 

39 

Hermann and Dorothea, 362 

Deluge,. 

39 

Hermes, . 

. . 331 

Deluge to Time of Moses, 

54 

Hermione,. 

. . 331 

Deposed Kings of Eng- 


Hernani. 

. . 362 

land,. 

41 

Hero and Leander, . 

. . 362 

Deposed Kings of France, 41 

Herodotus, .... 

282,445 

Dictator,. 

41 

Herod the Great, 

. . 445 

Directory, The, . . . 

41 

Death of. 

. . 64 

District of Columbia, . 

41 

Heroes, Deified, . . 

. . 323 

Divine Right of Kings, 

42 

Herschel, Sir William, . 445 

Dominican Republic, . 

42 

Hesiod,. 

. . 282 

Dorr Rebellion, .' . . 

42 

Hesperides, .... 

. . 331 

Druids. 

42 

Hesse,. 

. . 532 

Eastern Empire, . . 42,65 

Hessians,. 

. . 86 

Ecuador,. 

42 

Hezekiah, ..... 

. . 446 

Edict of Nantes, . . . 

42 

Hiawatha,. 

. . 362 

Egypt,.43,57 

Hieroglyphics, . . . 

88,282 

Electors, The, .... 

44 

Higginson, Henry Lee, . 446 

Emancipation Procla- 


Thomas W., . . . 

305, 446 

mation. 

44 

Highland University, 

. . 699 

England,. 

45 

Hildreth, Richard, . 

. . 446 

Events of Human Prog- 


Hill, David J., . . . 

. . 446 

ress. 

54 

James J. 

. . 446 

France. 

67 

Hillrtfan College, . . 

. . 703 

Great Britain and Ireland, 67 

Hillsdale College, . . 

. . 699 

Greece. 

58 


PAGE 

History — Con.: 

Hebrews,.54 

Israel,.56 

Italy and the Church, . 67 

Judah,.56 

Judea,.60 

Moses to Cyrus, ... 55 

New Mexico, .... 135 
Outline of New World, 98 

Parthia, .60 

Rome.58 

Syria, .60 

Western Empire, ... 65 

Hitchcock, Ethan A., . . 638 
Hoang-ho River, .... 565 

Hoar, Ebenezer R.638 

George F., 446 

Hobart College, .... 699 
Hobbes, Thomas, .... 446 
Hobson, Richmond P., . 446 
Hobson’s Choice, . . . .791 
Hodges, George, .... 446 

Hoe, Robert.446 

Hohenstauffens, .... 149 
Hohenzollern, House of, . 150 
Holdberg, Ludwig, . . . 288 

Holidays: 

In United States,. . . 791 

Old English,.792 

Holland.117,548 

Beginning of Republic, 83 

Canals,.652 

Cities,.548 

Description.548 

Hague, The,.536 

John de Witt, .... 85 

Kingdom of.117 

Louis Napoleon, King, 89 
Merchant Marine, . . 674 

Navy,.848 

Netherlands.117 

Possessions,.548 

Productions, .... 548 
Receives a Constitution, 91 

Rotterdam.567 

Van Tromp.85 

Wilhelmina, Queen,. . 95 

Holland, J. G., . . 305, 323 

Hollins Institute, .... 703 
Holmes, O. W., . . 305, 446 

Holofernes.362 

Holst, Hermann, .... 446 

Holt, Joseph. 637, 638 

Holy Alliance, . 89, 117, 164 

Holy Cross College, . . . 699 
Holy Ghost College,. . . 699 

Holy Graal,.360 

Holy Roman Empire, . . 118 

Homer,.56,282,446 

Iliad,. 283, 363 

Home Rule League, . . 118 

Homestead, Exemption of, 

667 

Homilies,.362 

Honduras: 

Area,.604 

Capital.605 

Debt,.605 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Honeymoon,.793 

Hong-Kong,.537 

Honolulu.537 

Honor, Legion of, ... 793 

Hood, Thomas,.297 

Hoosac, Mt.,.537 

Tunnel.537 

Hoosiers,.850 

Hope College,.699 

Hopeful,.362 

Hopkins, Mark,.447 

Hopkinson, Francis, . . 447 
Hop-o’-My-Thumb, . . . 362 
Hops in United States, . 650 

Horace,. 284, 447 

Horae. 332 

Hornaday, W. T.447 

Hornbrook,.362 

Horner, Jack,.362 

Horoscope,.793 

































































































































































































882 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Horse,.748 

Horse-Latitudes, . . . 820 

Horse-power,.713 

Hosmer, Harriet, . . . 447 

Household Measure, . . 861 

House: 

Of Austria, .... 81, 140 

Of Bavaria,.150 

Of Bourbon, .... 148 

Of Brunswick, ... 32 

Of Capet,.148 

Of Commons, .... 590 

Of Fame.362 

Of Franconia, .... 149 

Of Habsburg, . . 114, 149 

Of Hanover, .... 151 

Of Hohenzollern, . . 150 

Of Lancaster, . 78, 126, 151 

Of Lords.590 

Of Lorraine, .... 150 

Of Luxemburg, . . . 149 

Of Nassau,.149 

Of Orleans,.148 

Of Palatinate, .... 150 

Of Romanoff, .... 149 

Of Ruric,.149 

Of Saxony,.149 

Of Stuart,.151 

Of Valois.148 

Of York. 151 

House of Representa¬ 
tives, United States, 633 

Speakers of,.640 

Houston, Sam, . . . 103, 447 

Howard, John, .... 447 

Howard College, . . . 699 

Howard Female College, 703 
Howard Payne College: 

Missouri,.703 

Texas,.699 

Howard University, . . 699 

Howe, Julia Ward,. 305,447 

Howell, Clark. 447 

Howells, W. D., . . 305,447 

Hubbard, Elbert, . . . 447 

Samuel D.,.638 

Hubertusburg, Treaty, . 164 

Hudibras.363 

Hudson Bay Company, . 179 

Hudson River, . . 537, 565 

Hugh Capet, . . . 110, 415 

Hughes, Charles E., 447, 640 

Thomas. 297, 447 

Hugo, Victor M., . 295, 447 

Huguenots, .118 

St. Bartholomew, 111, 118 

Hull, Isaac,.448 

Humbert, King.95, 97 

Humboldt, Alexander von, 

290,448 

Hume, David, . . . 296, 448 

Humpty Dumpty, . . . 363 

Hundred Years’ War, 118, 138 

Hungary.118, 537 

Area,.604 

Autonomy for, ... 92 

Capital,.605 

Charter of Liberty, . 77 

Debt,.605 

Founded,. 71 

Hussites, .... 118, 119 

Illiteracy,.714 

King,.605 

Kossuth,.90, 119 

Magyars, The, .... 118 

Maria Theresa, ... 119 

National Movement, . 119 

Population, .... 604 

Productions, .... 537 

Protestant Reforma¬ 
tion.118 

Standard Currency, . 604 

Stock of Money, . . 604 

Union with Austria, . 119 

War with Austria, . . 119 

Huns,.65, 119 

And China.119 

Attila,.119 

Hunt, Ward.640 

William H.,.639 

Hunter, John.448 

R. M. T. 640 


PAGE 


Huron. 537, 539 

Huron College, .... 699 

Huss, Johann,.448 

Hussites,.119 

Hussite War, .... 79, 138 

Huxley, Thomas H., 297, 448 

Huyghens, Christian, . . 448 

Hyacinth.760 

Hyde Park.821 

Hydraulic Dredge, . . . 672 

Hydrogen.694 

Hydrophobia: 

Cure for,. 94 

Pasteur. 94 

Hyena,.749 

Hygeia.332 

Hyksos,.119 

Hymen.332 

Hyndman Peak, .... 547 

Hypatia. 363, 448 

Hyperboreans, .... 332 

Hyperion, .... 332, 363 

Hyphen,.190 

Hyrcanus, John. 62 

Iago,.363 

Ibsen, Henrik, . . . 289, 448 

Icemaking Machine, . . 670 

Ida, Mt. 332 

Idaho: 

Agricultural Statistics 

of.648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.626 

Constitution, .... 603 

Electoral Vote, . . . 627 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 

Government, .... 603 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History,.119 

Interest Laws in, . . 666 

Jurisdiction of Jus¬ 
tices, .667 

Legal Weights, . . . 862 

Legislative Statistics,. 627 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, .... 625 

Property Valuation, . 627 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population,. . 627 

Idocrase,.760 

Idomeneus,.332 

Idylls of the King, . . . 363 

Iliad,. 283, 363 

Ilium. 130, 165, 821 

Illampu.547 

Illinois: 

Agricultural Statistics 

of.648 

A rpfl AO/i 

Black Hawk'War, ! ! 120 

Capital,.626 

College,.699 

Constitution, .... 603 

Electoral Vote, . . . 627 

Executive,.603 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 

Government, .... 603 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History,.119 

Interest Laws in, . . 666 

Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, . . . 862 

Legislative Statistics,. 627 

Legislature.603 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 627 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate.627 

Voting Population, .' 627 

Wesleyan University,. 699 
Woman’s College, . . 703 

Illiteracy,.714 

II Trovatore,.385 

Immaculate Conception 

College,.699 

Immigration: 

Chinese Prohibited, . 107 

To United States, . , 793 


PAGE 


Imogen, ....... 363 

Implements, Agricultural, 647 
Imports: 

Principal Countries, . 663 

Imports of U. S., . . . 663 

Articles,.663 

By Countries, .... 663 

Quantities,.663 

Values, ..663 

Inachus.332 

Inauguration Day,. . . 794 

Incandescent Gaslight, . 672 

Incas.120 

Pizarro,.120 

Independence: 

Day,.791 

Declaration of, . . . 599 

Of United States, 169, 599 

Independents,.706 

India,. 120,537 

Akbar,. 83 

Area,.604 

Bombay,.519 

Brahmanism, .... 689 

Buddhism,.689 

Burmah Annexed, . . 95 

Calcutta.521 

Capital,.605 

Cities,.537 

Climate,.537 

Congresses in, . . . . 120 

Debt.605 

Description,.537 

East India Company, 

83,120 

Emperor,.605 

English in.120 

Famine,.120 

French in,.120 

Government, .... 606 

Governor-General, . . 606 

Insurrection. 91 

Invasions of.120 

Literature,.277 

Lord Clive. 120 

Mogul Power, .... 85 

Population, .... 604 

Portuguese in. 120 

Productions, .... '537 

Standard Currency, . 604 

Stock of Money, . . 604 

Taj Mahal,.574 

Vegetation,.537 

Viceroy,.606 

Victoria, Empress of,. 120 

Warren Hastings, First 
Governor, .... 87 

Indian: 

Empire,.606 

Ocean.538 

Tongues,.183 

Wars,.168 

Indiana,.120 

Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.626 

Constitution, .... 606 

Electoral Vote, . . . 627 

Executive,.606 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 

Government, , . . . 606 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

Indian War, .... 120 

Interest Laws in, . . 666 

Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 

Legal Weights, . . . 862 

Legislative Statistics,. 627 

Legislature,.606 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, .... 625 

Property Valuation, . 627 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

U niversity..699 

Voting Population, . 627 

Indianapolis, . . . 538,582 

Indian University,. . . 699 

India Rubber, .... 664 

Vulcanized.664 

Indicolite,.760 

Indium,.694 


Indus River, . . . 
Industries, .... 

Industries of U. S., 

Capital Invested, 

Number of Establish 
ments, 

Rank of, 

Value of Products, 

Wage Earners, 

Wages Paid, . 

Industry, .... 

Inferno, The, . . 

Ingalls, Melville E 
Ingelow, Jean, . . 

Ingersoll, Robert G 
Innocent III., Pope 
Innocents Abroad, 

Insects,. 

Institute, Cooper, 

Institution: 

Carnegie, . . . 
Smithsonian, . 

Insurance, . . . 

Capital Invested, 

Chief Companies, 
Development of,. 

Fire and Marine, 

Life, . . . 

Mutual, . 

Property,. 

Interest, . . 

Compound, 

Contract Rate, 

Days of Grace, 

Exact, .... 

In United States 
Laws, .... 

Legal Rate, . . 

Simple, . . . 

Usury, .... 

Interest Laws of U 
Interludes, . . . 
Interrogation Point, 
Inter-State Commerce 
Bill, . . . 

Invention, . 

Air Pumps, 

Balloon, . 

Date of, . 

Dictionary of, . 
Lithography, . 

Magnetic Clock, 

Morse’s Telegraph, 

Paper, . 

Railways, 

Rosse’s Telescope, 

Safety Lamp, . 

Spinning jenny, 

Steamboat, . . 

Steam Engines, 
Stenography, . 

Telegraph, . . 

Telephone, . . 

Telescope, . . 

Typesetting Machines, 
Wheatstone’s Tele¬ 
graph, . 

White Paper, .... 
Inventors: 

Nativity of, .... 

Table of,.668 

Invocation,.363 

Io.332 

Iodine,.694 


661 

661 

661 

661 

661 

645 

363 

448 

297 

448 

448 

363 

749 

708 


690 
724 
664,856 
665 
665 
665 
664 

664 

665 
856 

665 
854 

666 
666 
854 

665 

666 
666 
853 
666 
666 
363 
190 


177 

645 

84 

668 

668 

668 

88 

90 

90 

62 

88 

90 

88 

86 

88 

86 

86 

84 

94 

82 

94 

90 

84 

668 


Iole, 


332 


lolite.760 


Ionians, 
Iowa, 


58 
121 

Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Area.624 

Capital,.626 

College,.699 

College of Agricultural 
and Mechanical Arts, 704 
Constitution, .... 606 

Electoral Vote, . . . 627 

Executive,.606 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 

Government, .... 606 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

Interest Laws in, . . 666 

Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 














































































































































































INDEX 


883 


PAGE 

Iowa — Con.: 

Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, 627 

Legislature,.606 

Metropolis, .... 625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation, . 627 

Statutes of Limita¬ 
tion, .667 

Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population,. . 627 

Wesleyan University,. 699 

Iphigenia, .... 332,363 

Ipsus, Battle of, ... . 60 

Irawadi River, .... 565 

Iredell, James, .... 640 

Ireland.121, 538 

And Scandinavians, . 121 

And the Reformation, 122 

Belfast,.518 

Christianized, .... 121 

Civil War in, .... 90 

Description, .... 538 

Dublin,.529 

Early Tribes in, . . . 121 

Giant’s Causeway, . . 533 

Government, .... 606 

Home Rule,.122 

Illiteracy,.714 

James II.,.122 

Local Government, . 606 

Lord Chancellor of, . 606 

Lord Justices, . . . 606 

Lord-Lieutenant, . . 606 

Monasteries.121 

St. Patrick. 121 

Subjection of, ... . 121 

Under Cromwell, . . 122 

Union with Great Brit¬ 
ain, .122 

Ireland, John, .... 448 

Iridium,.694 

Iris,.332 

Irish Land Act, .... 94 

Iron,. 672,694 

Amount Produced,. . 673 

Bessemer Process, . . 673 

Furnaces,.668 

In United States, . . 673 

Manufacture of, . . . 673 

Ores,.673 

Producing Countries, . 673 

Puddling,.673 

Ironclad,.670 

Ironsides. 122 

Irving, Sir Henry, . . . 448 

Washington, . . 304,448 

Irving College, .... 703 

Isaac of York,.363 

Isabella,. 80 

Of Castile,.448 

Isaiah,. 281, 448 

Isbell College,.703 

Isis,.332 

Islam.717 

Island No. 10, Battle of, . 15 

Island of Lanterns, . . 363 

Island of the Blest, . . 363 

Israelites.55, 122 

Abraham,.122 

Captivity, The, . . . 123 

David.122 

Exile, The.122 

Kingdom,.122 

Moses,.122 

Philistines,.122 

Saul,.122 

Solomon, ...... 122 

Syrian Invasion, . . 123 

Twelve Tribes, The, . 122 

Israfil,.333 

Italian: 

Africa.508 

Architecture.512 

Authors,.309 

Lynching,.178 

Words and Phrases, 263-67 
Italian Literature, . . . 309 

Dante,.310 

Machiavelli,.311 


Medici, Lorenzo de\ . 311 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Italian Literature — Con.: 


Jaguar,. 

749 

Modern,. 

312 

James,. 

449 

Poetry,. 

309 

II. 

9 

Prose,. 

309 

James, Edmund J.. . . 

449 

Tasso,. 

312 

Henry.306. 449 

Italians, Massacre of, at 


Saint. 

449 

New Orleans, . .107, 

178 

William,. 

449 

Italian War,. 

139 

James Island, Battle of, 

15 

Italy. 123. 538 

Jamestown: 


And Sicilv,. 

123 

Exposition. 

109 

And the Church, 

67 

Settlement of, . . 82.98 

Area, .... 

604 

Jamieson’s Raid, . . . 

95 

Battle of Marsaglia, . 

84 

Janizaries,. 

124 

Bonaparte’s Italian Cam 


Janus,. 

333 

paign. 

86 

Japan,. 124, 539 

Capital,. 

605 

Area,. 

604 

Cities. 

538 

Buddhism,. 

124 

Conquered by Belisa- 


Capital,. 

605 

rius,. 

67 

Chinese-Japanese War, 

125 

Conquered by Lom- 


Christianity in, . . . 

124 

bards,. 

67 

Cities,. 

539 

Conquered by Theo- 


Commercial Treaty 


doric,. 

67 

with United States, 

92 

Constitution. 

607 

Constitution, .... 

607 

Count Cavour, . .123.417 

Debt,. 

605 

Debt,. 

605 

Diet,. 

607 

Description, ... 

538 

Dynasties,. 

124 

Florence, . 

531 

Early History of, . . 

124 

French Driven Out, . 

84 

Emperor, . . . 605, 607 

Garibaldi,. 

123 

Empire of,. 

607 

Garibaldi in Sicily,. , 

93 

Feudal System, . . . 

124 

Genoa,. 

532 

First Parliament, . . 

95 

Government, .... 

607 

Heir Apparent, . . . 

607 

Guelphs and Ghibel- 


House of Peers, . . . 

607 

lines. 

123 

House of Representa- 


Humbert Assassinated, 

97 

tives. 

607 

Illiteracy,. 

714 

Islands of,. 

539 

Independence, . . . 

123 

Literature,. 

317 

Independent, .... 

77 

Merchant Marine, . . 

674 

Invaded by the French, 

86 

Minerals,. 

539 

King. 

605 

Ministry,. 

607 

Legislature,. 

607 

Natural Resources, 

539 

Literature,. 

309 

New Constitution, . . 

95 

Mazzini,. 

91 

Osaka. 

551 

Merchant Marine, . . 

674 

Perry’s Expedition, . 

90 

Milan. ' . . 

543 

Perry’s Treaty, . . . 

124 

Naples,. 

548 

Population, 

604 

Navy. 

848 

Productions, .... 

539 

Overthrow of Republic, 

91 

Shoguns and Tycoons, 

124 

Padua. 

552 

Standard Currency, . 

604 

Papal States, .... 

123 

Stock of Money, . . . 

604 

Passes to the Pope, . 

76 

Tokyo.575, 582 

Pisa, . 

558 

Vegetation. 

539 

Population,. 

604 

War with Russia, . . 

125 

Productions, .... 

538 

Japanese Literature, . . 

317 

Ravenna,. 

563 

Ancient Poetry, . . . 

317 

Republics of, ... . 

123 

Classical Poetry,. . . 

318 

Revolt of Naples, . . 

84 

Histories, . 

317 

Revolution in Cities, . 

91 

Religion and Philoso- 


Rome,.123, 

565 

phy. 

318 

Rome Annexed, . . * 

95 

Romances,. 

318 

Standard Currency, . 

604 

Japonica,. 

739 

Stock of Money, . . . 

604 

Jargon,. 

761 

Surface,. 

538 

Jarley, Mrs.,. 

364 

Tiber, The,. 

574 

Jason,. 

333 

Tripoli ceded to,. . 97, 123 

Jasper, . 

760 

Under Greek Exarchs, 

67 

Jay, John, .... 449, 

640 

Under Odoacer, . . . 

66 

Jayhawkers,. 

850 

Venice,. 

576 

Jay’s Treaty, . . . 101 

164 

Victor Emmanuel, . . 

123 

Jeejeebhoy, Sir Jamset- 


Victor Emmanuel III., 

97 

jee,. 

449 

Victor Emmanuel, King 

91 

Jefferson, Thomas, 144,304,450 

War with Austria, . . 

93 

Minister to France, 

100 

War with Turkey, . . 

97 

Jefferson College, . . . 

699 

Ithaca. 

333 

Jekyll and Hyde, . . . 

364 

Ithuriel. 

363 

Jelliffe, Smith Ely, . . . 

450 

Ito, Marquis Hirobumi, 

449 

Jenkins Ferry, Battle of, 

15 

Iuka, Battle of, ... . 

15 

Jenks, J. W., ..... 

450 

Ivanhoe. 

363 

Jenner, Edward, .... 

450 

Ixion,. 

333 

Jeremiah,. 

450 

Jacinth,. 

760 

Jeroboam,. 

450 

Jack and the Bean-Stalk, 

364 

Jerome, St.,. 

450 

Jack Cade.33, 48 

Jerome K.,. 

450 

Jackson, Andrew, . . . 

449 

William T.,. 

450 

Howell E.,. 

640 

Jersey Blues,. 

851 

Thomas J.,. 

449 

Jerusalem, . . . 57, 129,539 

Jackson, Battle of,. . . 

15 

Delivered,. 

364 

Jack Sprat,. 

364 

Taken by Saracens, . 

73 

Jack the Giant-Killer, . 

364 

Jessamine Institute, . . 

703 

Jacobins. 

123 

Jester,. 

789 

Jacquard, Joseph M., 

449 

Jesuits: 


Jade,. 

760 

Founded by Loyola, . 

82 


PAGE 


Jesuits—Con.: 

Influence in China, . 85 

Order of,. 82 

Jesus: 

Apostles Sent Abroad, 64 

Baptized,. 64 

Birth of,. 64 

Christ.450 

Crucifixion,. 64 

Death Warrant of,. . 784 

Life of, .450 

Reasons with the Doc¬ 
tors, . 64 

Jew, The Wandering,. . 364 

Jewish-Roman War, . . 138 

Jews,.125 

Babylonish Captivity, 125 
Banished from Rome, 64 

In Africa,.125 

In Asia,.125 

In Australasia, . . . 125 

In Austria-Hungary, . 125 

In Belgium.125 

In British Isles, . . . 125 

In Denmark, .... 125 

In France.125 

In Germany, .... 125 

In Greece.125 

In Holland. 125 

In Italy,.125 

In Palestine, .... 552 

In Rumania.125 

In Russia,.125 

In Sweden and Norway, 125 
In Switzerland, . . . 125 

In Turkey,.125 

In United States, . . 125 

Modern History, . . . 125 

Number in the World, 125 
Temple, The, .... 125 

Time of Christ, in,. . 125 

Under Roman Empire, 125 

Jinn,.333 

Joan of Arc,.399 

Burned. 81 

Saves France. 81 

Job,.281 

John, King of England, 76 

Saint,.451 

John B. Stetson Univer¬ 
sity.699 

John Bull,.794 

Johns Hopkins University, 699 
Johnson, Andrew, . . 144, 451 
Impeached, .... 106 

Johnson, Cave, .... 638 

Eastman,.451 

Hiram W.451 

John A.,.451 

Reverdy,.638 

Samuel, . . 296, 302, 451 

Thomas,.640 

Tom L.,.451 

William,.640 

Johnston, Albert S., . . 451 

Joseph E.,.451 

Johnstown Flood, . . . 107 

Jokai, Maurice, .... 451 

Jonathan,.452 

Jones, John W., .... 640 

Paul.452 

William,.639 

Jonesboro, Battle of, . 15 

Jonson, Benjamin, . . . 452 

Jordan, David Starr, . . 452 

Joseph,.452 

Joshua,.280,452 

Josiah,.452 

Joubert, Petrus J. 452 

Joule, James P.,. . . . 452 

Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, 452 

Jove,.333 

Jowett, Benjamin, . . . 452 

Judah,. 56 

Judas Iscariot, .... 452 

Judea,. 60 

A Roman Province, . 63 

Judges.281 

Judgments, ....... 667 

Judicial Department,. . 635 

Judith, .364, 452 

Judson, Harry P. 452 
























































































































































































452 

138 

452 

452 

699 

333 

333 

667 

667 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

640 

452 

452 

669 

547 

749 

,648 

624 

626 

699 

607 

627 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 


Kansas — Con.: 

Executive,.607 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 

Government,.607 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History,.126 

Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, . . . 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Legislature,.607 

Metropolis.625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation, . 627 

State Agricultural Col¬ 
lege, .704 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 
Kansas City University,. 699 
Kansas-NebraskaJBill, 92, 173 
Kant, Immanuel, . . 290, 452 

Kaolin,.655 

Kauffmann, Angelica, . . 453 

Kay, Sir.364 

Kean, Charles J., . . . . 453 
Kearney Agitation, . . . 106 
Keats, John, .... 297, 453 
Kee Mar College, .... 703 
Keifer, Joseph W., . . . 453 

Kellar, Harry,.453 

Kelly, Howard A., ... 453 

Kembles, The,.453 

Kempis, Thomas a,. . . 453 

Kendall, Amos,.638 

Kennedy, John P.639 

Kent, James,.453 

Kentucky: 

Agricultural and Me¬ 
chanical College, . .704 
Agricultural Statistics of ,684 

Area,.624 

Capital.626 

Constitution, .... 607 
Electoral Vote, .... 627 

Executive,.607 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government,.607 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History,.126 

Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Legislature,.607 

Mammoth Cave, . . .541 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, ..... 625 
Property Valuation,. . 627 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

University,.699 

Voting Population, . . 627 
Wesleyan College, . . 699 
Kenyon College, .... 699 
Kepler, Johann, . . 82,453 

Kernstown, Battle of, . . 15 

Kerr, Michael C., . . . . 640 
Key, Francis Scott, . 304, 453 
Khedive of Egypt, . . . 605 

Khyber Pass.126 

Massacre,.10, 126 

Kiel, Treaty of.164 

Kilima-Njaro.577 

Kilkenny Cats,.364 

Kinematics.710 

Kinetics,.710 

Kinetoscope,.672 

King: 

Of Belgium,.605 

Of Denmark,.605 

Of Greece,. 605 

Of Italy,.605 

Of Norway,.605 

Of Rumania, .... 605 

Of Servia,.605 

Of Siam,.605 

Of Spain,.605 

King Arthur.345 

Legends,.298 


PAGE 

King, Henry C., . . . . 453 

King Horatio,.638 

King Carlos,.143 

Kinglake, Alexander W., 453 

King Philip’s War, . . . 99 

Kings,.281 

Of England,.150 

Kings and Queens of 
England: 

Lineage,.150 

Period of Reign, . . . 150 

King Stork.364 

Kingsley, Charles, . 297, 453 
Kipling, Rudyard, . . . 453 
Kirkland, James H., . . 454 

Kirkwood, Samuel J., . . 638 

Kitchen Cabinet.794 

Kldber, Jean B., . . . . 454 

Knapp, Martin A.454 

Kneisel, Franz.454 

Knickerbockers, . . 364,851 
Knighthood, ...... 782 

Knights: 

Of Round Table, . 299, 365 

Of St. John,.782 

Knight Service, . . . .110 
Knitting Machine, . . . 668 
Know-Nothing Movement, 173 

Knox, Henry,.637 

John,.454 

Philander C.,. . . 454, 638 
Knox College, . . . : . 700 
Knoxville College, . . .700 

Koch, Robert,.454 

Kodaks, .672 

Kohlsaat, Hermann H., . 454 

Koppelberg.333 

Koran,.282 

Published,.68 

Korea.599 

Kosciusko, T.,.454 

Kossuth, Louis, 90, 119, 454 
Kotzebue, A. F., .... 454 
Krauskopf, Joseph, . . . 454 

Krishna.333 

Kropotkin, Prince, . . . 454 
Kruger, Paul, . . . 97,454 

Krupp, Alfred,.454 

Krypton,.694 

Ku-Klux-Klan.794 

Kutchuk-Kainardj i, 

Treaty of,.164 

Kyanite.760 

Labor, Department of, 640 
Secretaries of, ... . 640 

Labor Day,.791 

Labradorite,.760 

Ladd, George T., .... 454 
Lady Jane Grey, executed, 82 

Lady of Lyons,.365 

Lady of the Lake, . . . 365 

Laertes,.. . 365 

La Farge, John.455 

Lafayette, Marquis de, . 455 

Death of,.89 

Lands at Charleston, . 100 
Visits America, . . . 102 
Lafayette College, . . . 700 
La Fayette College, . . .700 
LaFollette, Robert M., . 455 

Lagrange, Count, . . . 455 
La Grange College, . . . 700 
La Grange Female College, 703 

Lake: Baikal,.539 

Chapala.539 

Erie,. 530, 539 

Great Salt,.539 

Huron,. 537, 539 

Ladoga,.539 

Maggiore.541 

Michigan, .... 539, 543 

Nicaragua,.539 

Ontario, .... 539, 550 
Superior, .... 539, 573 
Titicaca, . . . . 539,844 
Lake Champlain, Battle of, 15 
Lake Erie, Battle of, . . 126 
Lake Erie C. and S. Col¬ 
lege.703 

Lake Forest College, . . 700 

Lake Poets,.365 

Lakes, Area.539 


PAGE 

Lakes:—Con.: 

Depth,.539 

Elevation of,.539 

Largest, .539 

Lama.750 

Lamar, Lucius Q. C., 638, 640 
Joseph R., ... 455, 640 

Lamartine, Alphonse, . . 455 
Lamb, Charles, . . 296, 455 

Lamian War,.10 

Lamont, Daniel S., . . . 637 
Lamp, Safety, invented, 88 

Lampoon,.365 

Lancaster, House of, 

78, 126,151 

Lander College.703 

Landis, K. M.,.455 

Land Measure: 

Linear,. 858, 861 

Square,. 858, 861 ! 

Tenure.110 

Landor, Walter S., . . . 455 
Landseer, Sir Edwin H., 455 
Langtry, Lillie, .... 455 
Language Composition, . 198 
Languages: 

American.183 

Aryan,.184 

Dutch,.184 

English.184 

French,.184 

Hamitic,..* 183 

Hebrew.184 

Latin.184 

Sanskrit. 184, 277 

Semitic,.184 

Teutonic.184 

Lanier, Sidney,.306 

Lantern-Land,.365 

Lantern of Demosthenes,. 365 
Lanthanum, 694 

Laocoon,.333 

Laomedon.333 

Laotse.455 

Lapis-lazuli,.760 

Laplace, Pierre Simon, . 455 
Lardner, Dionysius,. . . 455 

Nathaniel, .455 

Lares.334 

Lark,.750 

Larned, J. N.,.455 

La Salle, Robert, .... 456 

La Salle College.700 

Lasell Seminary, .... 703 
Lassalle, Ferdinand, . . 456 
Last of the Mohicans, . . 365 
Latin: j 

Authors.284 

Language, ... 68, 184 

Union.127 


Words and phrases, 255-63 


Latin Literature, .... 284 
Augustan Age, .... 285 

Church fathers.285 

History,.285 

Legal codes,.286 

Philosophy.285 

Poetry, . ..285 

Representative works, 284 

Latins,.57 

Latinus,.334 

Latitude,.539 

Latitudinarians, .... 365 

Latona,.334 

Latter-Day Saints, . . . 718 
Laughing Philosopher, . 365 

Launfal, Sir, .365 

Laureate, Poet, . . . .365 
Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, . . 456 

Lavinia,.334 

Lavoisier, Antoine L., . 456 
Law, of Continuity, . . 707 

Courts of,.76 

Salic,.153 

Lawrence University, . . 700 
Lawson, Thomas W., . . 456 
Lawton, General, .... 142 
Lawyer’s Alcove, .... 366 
Lay of the Last Minstrel,. 366 

Lazarre,.366 

j Lazuli.760 

Lea, Henry C.450 




































































































































































INDEX 


885 


PAGE 

Lead, . ..694 

League, vEtolian. 10 

Hanseatic, . . . .77, 117 

Leander,.366 

Lear,.366 

Leather-Stocking Tales, . 366 

Lebanon Valley College,. 700 

Lecture, The,.200 

Leda,.334 

Lee, Charles.638 

Lee, Robert E., . . 115,456 

Surrender.175 

Le Gallienne, Richard, . 456 

Legal Weights, per bushel: 

Apples.862 

Barley,.862 

Beans,.862 

Beets,.862 

Bran,.862 

Buckwheat,.862 

Carrots,.S62 

Clover seed,.862 

Coal,. • . . 862 

Corn.862 

Corn meal.862 

Cotton seed,.862 

Flaxseed,.862 

Hemp seed,.862 

Hungarian grass seed,. 862 

Millet,.862 

Oats,.862 

Onions.862 

Orchard grass seed, . . 862 

Peaches.862 

Pears.862 

Peas,.862 

Potatoes,.862 

Rye.862 

Sweet potatoes, . . . 862 

Timothy seed, .... 862 

Tomatoes.862 

Turnips,.862 

Wheat,.862 

Legare, Hugh S., . . 636, 638 

Legend,.366 

Legends.199 

Legion of Honor, . . 366, 793 

Badges.793 

Legislatures: 

Length of session, . . 627 
Salaries of members, . 627 
Terms of members, . . 627 
Lehigh University, . . . 700 
Leland Stanford, Jr., Uni¬ 
versity, .700 

Group of Buildings, . . 682 

Lemon,.750 

Lena River,.565 

Lenoir College. . . . . . 700 
Lenormant, Francois, . . 456 

Lenox College,.700 

Leo I.,.456 

• X.456 

Leo XIII.456 

Death of,.97 

Pope.95 

Pope’s Jubilee, .... 95 

Leonidas,.161,456 

Leonine Verses, .... 366 

Leopard,.750 

Leopardi, Giacomo, . . . 456 

Leopold I.,.456 

II.456 

Lepanto,..127 

Battle of, ... . 83, 166 

Le Sage, A. R. 294, 456 

Lesseps, Ferdinand, . . . 457 
Lessing, Gotthold E., . . 457 

Lethe,. 334,366 

Letter,.214 

Acceptance,.219 

Application,.217 

Business,.216 

Condolence,.219 

Congratulation, . . .219 

Follow-up,.217 

Formal,.218 

Introduction, .... 217 

Invitations.218 

Order for goods, . . . 216 

Remittance,.216 

Reply to complaint, . 217 


PAGE 

Letter—Con.: 

Requesting payment, . 216 
Letterpress.366 


Letter Writing, . . . .214 

Address,.214 

Body, .215 

Complimentary Close, . 215 

English.215 

Form,.214 

Heading.214 

Materials,.214 

Salutation,.214 

Signature.215 

Subscription, . . . .215 

Titles,.215 

Leviticus,.280 

Lexicon,.366 

Lexington, Battle of, . 15, 127 

Lexington College, . . . 703 

Leyden Jar,.668 

Libations.367 

Liber.334 

Liberia.608 

Constitution.608 

Government, .... 608 
President, ...... 608 

Purchased.102 

Libertas,.334 

Liberty, Statue of, . 107, 539 

Liberty Bell,.794 

Liberty College.703 

Libissa,.334 

Libraries: 

Alexandrian, . . 63, 684 

Bodleian, Oxford, . . 714 
Boston Public, .... 714 
British Museum, . . . 714 

Children’s.319 

Family,.318 

Harvard University, . 714 

Largest of the world, . 714 
New York Public, . . 714 

Of Congress,.714 

Of St. Petersburg, . .714 
Paris National, . . . 714 
Small Home, . . . .318 

Vatican,.714 

Lick Observatory, ... 94 

Lieber, Franz,.457 

Liebig, Baron von, . . . 457 
Life: 

Expectation,.665 

Insurance, .664 

Preserver, First, . . . 668 

Ligeia,.367 

Light, .714 

Lighthouse, First, ... 61 

Lignite Coal.655 

Liguorians,.367 

Lilac,.750 

Lilith,.334 

Liliuokalani, Lydia,. . . 457 

Lilliput,.367 

Lily.750 

Lima College, . . . . . 700 

Limbo,.367 

Limestone College, . . . 703 
Limitation, Statutes of, . 667 
Lincoln, Abraham, . 144, 457 
And the Civil War, . . 104 
Assassinated, . . 105, 176 

Lincoln, Levi,.638 

Robert T.,.637 

Lincoln College, .... 700 
Lincoln University, . . .700 

Lind, Jenny, .457 

Lindenwood College, . . 703 
Linear Measure, . . 858, 861 
Linen, Irish Manufactures, 86 

Linnaeus,.457 

Linotype Machine, . . .672 

Lion,.750 

Lion of Lucerne, .... 825 

Lippe,.532 

Lippi, Fra Filippo, . . . 457 

Liquid Air, .715 

Liquid Measure, .... 861 
Liquors, Adulteration of, 645 

Lisbon.540 

Market of World, ... 82 

Lisle, Rouget de, .... 295 
Liszt, Franz, .457 


PAGE 


Literary Allusions, . . . 343 

Literary Plots,.343 

Literati,.367 

Literature,.277 

American,.304 

Arabian. 277, 281 

Assyrian, ..... 277, 281 

Babylonian,.281 

Chinese,. 277, 278 

Comparative View, . . 277 

Danish,.288 

Egyptian, .... 277, 282 

English,.295 

French,.292 

German,.289 

Greek.282 

Hebrew,.279 

Indian,.277 

Italian,.309 

Japanese,.317 

Latin,.284 

Norwegian,.289 

Oriental.277 

Persian, ....... 278 

Russian,.314 

Sanskrit,.277 

Scandinavian, .... 286 

Spanish,.312 

Swedish,.287 

Under Frederick the 

Great,.291 

Lithium,.694 

Lithography,.668 

Invented,.88 

Little Nell,.367 

Liverpool.540 

Livingston, Brock, . . . 640 

Edward,.457 

Livingstone, David,. . . 458 
Livingstone College, . .700 

Livy,. 285, 458 

Llama,.750 

Lloyd-George, David,. . 458 

Lobster,.750 

Lochinvar.367 

Locke, John, .... 296, 458 

Locksley Hall,.367 

Lockwood, Belva Ann, . 458 
Locomotive: 

Electric,.670 

First Built in U. S., . . 103 
First in United States,. 669 
Lodge, Henry C., . . . . 458 

Loeb, Jacques,.458 

Log, Ship’s,.794 

Logan College,.703 

Logarithms,.82 

Logos,.. . 367 

Lohengrin,.367 

Loire River.565 

Loki,.334 

Lollards,.127 

Lombard College, .... 700 

Lombards.66, 127 

London, .540 

British Museum, . . . 520 

Population,.540 

Tower of,.163 

Treaty of,.164 

Westminster Abbey, . 579 
Westminster Hall, . . 579 

Long, John D.,.639 

John L.,.458 

Longfellow, H. W., . 305, 458 
Long Island, Battle of, . 15 

Longitude,.540 

Longobardi,.127 

Long’s Peak, ..547 

Lorelei,.334 

Lorimer, George H.,. . . 458 
Lorraine, House of, . . . 150 
Los Angeles, . . . 540, 582 


Botis.334 

Lotos-Eaters,.367 

Lotze, R. H. 290, 458 

Louis IX., . . . 111,148,459 


Xiv!, ! .' ! ! 11R 148! 459 
XV., .... 111,148,459 


Philippe,' '. 9, 112! 148! 459 


PAGE 

Louisburg, Captured, . . 99 

Louisburg College, . . . 703 
Louisiana: 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area,.624 

Battles in,.130 

Capital.626 

Ceded to Spain, ... 99 

College,.703 

Constitution,.608 

Electoral Vote, .... 627 

Executive,.608 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 

Government.608 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History, .130 

Interest Laws in, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Legislature,.608 

Metropolis,.625 

New Orleans, . . 548, 582 

Population.625 

Property Valuation,. . 627 
Purchase, . , . . 101, 130 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 
Louvre, The, . . 555,826 

Love Doctor.367 

Lover, Samuel, .... 297 

Lover’s Vows,.368 

Love’s Labor’s Lost, . . 368 

Loving Cup.368 

Low, Seth,.459 

Lowell, Abbott Lawrence, 459 
James Russell, . . 305, 459 
Loyola, Ignatius, .... 459 

Loyola College,.700 

Lubbock, Sir John, . . . 459 

Lubeck,.532 

Lucan,.285 

Lucifer,.334 

Lucretia,.826 

Lucretius,. 284, 460 

Lucy Cobb Institute, . . 703 

Luke, St.460 

Lumbering.660 

Luna,.334 

Lundy’s Lane,.130 

Battle of,.102 

Lun^ville, Treaty of, . . 164 

Lungs.715 

Lurton, H. H.640 

Lusiad,.368 

Lusitania. 96, 368 

Luther.114 

And the Reformation,. 80 

German Bible, . . . .291 

Martin,.460 

Lutherans,.715 

Augsburg Confession, . 688 
During Reformation, . 715 

In U. S.715, 721 

Luther’s Postils, .... 368 

Liitzen,.131, 162 

Luxemburg, House of, . 149 

Luxor,.130 

Lycidas.368 

Lycomedes,.334 

Lydia,. 58, 368 

Lyell, Sir Charles, . . . 460 

Lynx,.751 

Lyons.540 

Lyre,.369 

Lyric, .369 

Poetry.201 

Lytton, Lord,.460 

Sir E. B.,.297 

31ab, Queen,.369 

Macalester College, . . . 700 

Macao,.826 

Macaulay, T. B., . . 297, 460 

Macaw,.751 

Macbeth,.369 

Maccabeus, Judas, ... 62 

Macdonald, George, . . . 297 

Sir John,.460 

Macedon,.57 

Roman Province, ... 62 

Macedonian War, Second, 62 











































































































































































































































886 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 


PAGE I 


Machiavelli, N., . . 311, 460 

Machiavellianism, . . . 369 
Mackenzie, Alexander, . 460 

Mackenzie River.565 

MacMahon, Marie, . .95, 460 
Macon, Nathaniel, . . . 640 
Macready, William C., . 460 

MacVeagh, Wayne, . 460, 638 

Madison, James.461 

Madrid, ........ 541 

Treaty,.164 

Madrigal,.369 

Maeterlinck, Maurice, . .461 
Magazine Rifle, . . . .671 
Magdalene, Mary, . . .461 

Magellan,. 82,461 

Maggiore, Lake, . . . .541 

Magi,.369 

Magic Rings,.369 

Magic Staff,.369 

Magic Wands,.369 

Magnalia.369 

Magnesium,.694 

Magnetic Needle.74 

Magnificat.369 

Magnolia,.751 

Magoon, Charles E., . . 461 

Magpie,.751 

Maguaga, Battle of, . . 16 

Mahan, Alfred T., . . . 461 

Mahogany,.751 

Maidens’ Castle.369 

Maid, of Athens.369 

Marian,.369 

Of Saragossa, .... 369 
Maine: 

Agricultural Statistics 

of,.648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.626 

Constitution,.608 

Electoral vote, .... 627 

Executive,.608 

Government,.608 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History. 131 

Interest Laws in, . . . 666 

Legal Weights.862 

Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Legislature,.608 

Local Government, . . 608 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 627 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 
Wesleyan Seminary, . 703 
Maine, Destruction of, . . 94 
Maine, Sir Henry, . . . 461 
Malaprop, Mrs., .... 369 

Malays,.541 

Malibran, Maria.461 

Malory, Sir Thomas,. 295, 461 
Malpighi, Marcello, . . .461 
Malthus, Thomas R., . . 461 
Malvern Hill, Battle of, . 16 

Mambrino,.369 

Mamelukes,.131 

Mammon,.334 

Mammoth Cave.541 

Manassas, Battle of, . . 16 

Manatee,.751 

Manchester,.541 

Ship Canal, . . . .94,654 

Manchuria,.542 

Russo-Japanese War, . 542 
Mandrill, . . . . . . .751 

Manes,.334 

Manfred.370 

Mangrove, .751 

Manhattan College, . . . 700 

Manila,.542 

Battle, . .16,108,131,542 

Manitou,.334 

Mann, Horace.461 

Louis,.461 

Manna,.751 

Mannering, Mary, . . . 461 
Manning, Cardinal, . . .461 
Daniel,.637 


Mansel, Henry L.462 

Mansfield, Earl of, . . . 462 

Richard,.462 

Mansfield College.703 

Mantell, Robert B.462 

Manu, Code of.278 

Maple,.752 

Sugar in United States, 650 
Marat, Jean P., .... 462 

Marathon, Battle of, . 22, 58 

Marcellus.370 

March, F. A.,.462 

Marconi, G.,.462 

Marcus Aurelius, .65, 146, 401 
Marcy, Wm. L., 462, 636, 637 

March-Gras,.791 

Marengo, Battle of, . . . 87 

Margaret of Austria, . . 462 
Margaret of Denmark, . 462 
Margaret of Valois, . . . 462 
Maria Theresa, . . 86,462 

Marie Antoinette,. . 111,398 

Marie de’ Medici.462 

Marietta College.700 

Marine Engineering, . .712 
Marine Insurance, . . . 664 
Mario, Giuseppe, .... 462 
Marion College: 

Alabama,.703 

Virginia,.703 

Mark, St.,.462 

Mark Antony,.462 

Marksville, Battle of, . . 16 

Marlborough, John C., . 463 

Marlowe, Julia,.463 

Marplot.370 

Marquette, La Salle, . . 99 

Mars,.334 

Marseillaise,.295 

Marseilles.542 

Marshall, John, . . 463, 640 

Thomas R.,.463 

Marsyas,.334 

Martaban River, .... 565 
Martha Washington Col¬ 
lege, .703 

Martin College.703 

Martineau, Harriet, . 297, 463 
Martinsburg, Battle of, . 16 

Marx, Karl.463 

Mary 1.463 

Of Guise.463 

Queen of Scots, . 82, 463 

Stuart,.463 

Maryland: 

Agricultural College, . 704 
Agricultural Statistics 

of.648 

Area,.624 

Baltimore,.517 

Capital.626 

College,.704 

Constitution.608 

Government, .... 608 

Governor,.609 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History, .131 

Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Legislature,.608 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation,. . 627 

Settlement,.98 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 
Maryville College, .... 700 

Mask, The,.201 

Mason, John Y., . . 638, 639 
Mason and Dixon’s Line, 132 
Masonry, . ..859 


Masques,.370 

Massachusetts: 

Agricultural College, . 704 
Agricultural Statistics 

of.648 

Area.624 

Boston,.519 


PAGE 

Massachusetts — Con.: 

Boston Massacre, . 100, 132 


Capital,.626 

Charter, .132 

Colony.98 

Constitution, . . 609 

Electoral vote. . . 627 

Executive,.609 

Free Schools, .... 99 

General Court, .... 609 
Government, .... 609 
Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History, .132 

In Civil War, .... 132 
Institute of Technology, 704 
Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Legislature,.609 

Local Government, . . 609 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 627 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate.627 

Voting population, . . 627 
Massacre, Boston, . 100, 132 

Custer’s.106 

Wyoming.99 

Materials of Letter Writing, 

214 

Mather, Cotton, . . 304,463 

Increase,.463 

Mathers, Helen, .... 322 

Matterhorn,.542 

Matthew,.463 

Matthews, Stanley, . . . 640 
Matthias Corvinus, . . . 463 
Maupassant, Henri.... 463 
Maurice of Nassau, . . . 464 

Maximilian I.,.464 

II.464 

Maximilian of Mexico, 93, 133 
Execution of,.... . 93 

Max O’Rell.464 

Maxwell, James C., . . . 464 
May, Sir Thomas E., . . 464 
Mazarin, Guilio, .... 464 

Mazeppa,. 87,370 

Mazzini,.91 

McBurney, Charles, . . . 464 
McCall, Samuel W., . . . 464 
McCarthy, Justin, . . . 297 
McClellan, George B., . . 464 
McClelland, Robert, . . . 638 

McCrary, G. W.637 

McCullock, Hugh.637 

McCutcheon, G. B., . . . 464 
McGrath, Harold, . . . 464 

McHenry, James.637 

McKendree College, . . .700 
McKenna, Joseph, . 638, 640 
McKernon, Thomas M. T., 638 
McKim, Charles F., . . . 464 
McKinley, John, .... 640 
McKinley, William, . 144, 464 
Shot at Buffalo, . 108,178 
Spanish-American War, 108 
McLane, Louis, . . . 636, 637 
McLean, Emily Nelson, . 465 
John, .... 637,638,640 
McMaster, John B., . . . 465 
McMinnville College, . .700 
Meade, General, . . 115,465 

Meadow Lark,.752 

Measurements, . . 858-60 

Measures,.861 

Apothecaries’, . . . .861 

Board,.860 

Cubic,. 859, 861 

Dry.861 

Geographical, .... 861 

Household,.861 

Land,.861 

Liquid,.861 

Linear,. 858, 861 

Lumber.860 

Square,.858 

Weights and, . . 861-62 

Mecca, ........ 542 


PAGE 


Mechanical Engineering, . 712 


Mechanics,.60 

Mechanicsville, Battle of, 16 

Mecklenburg.532 

Mecklenburg Declaration, 132 

Medea,.334 

Media,.57 

Medici, Lorenzo de’,. 311, 465 

Marie de’,.462 

Medicines, Adulteration of, 645 

Medina,.542 

Mediterranean Sea, . . . 543 

Medusa, .335 

Megsera.335 

Megin-giord,.335 

Meigs, Return J., . . . . 638 
Meissonier, Jean L.,. . . 465 
Meister, Wilhelm, . . . 370 

Meistersingers,.370 

Melanchthon, Philip, . . 465 
Melba, Madame, .... 465 

Melbourne,.543 

Centennial of, ... . 543 

Meleager.335 

Melissa,.335 

Mellen, Charles S., ... 465 

Melodrama,.201 

Melpomene,.335 

Melrose, .543 

Abbey,.543 

Melusina.335 

Members of Congress, 

Salary,.634 

Memnon,.335 

Memoirs.198 

Memphis, Battle of, . . 16 

Memphis Institute, . . . 704 
Mencius, ... .... 279 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, 

Felix.465 

Menelaus.335 

Mengtse,.370 

Mentor,.335 

Mephistophelean.335 

Mercer University, . . .700 
Merchant Marine: 


Of Austria-Hungary, . 673 

Of Brazil,.673 

Of Chief Countries, . .673 

Of France,.674 

Of Germany.674 

Of Great Britain, . . . 673 

Of Holland,.674 

Of Italy,.674 

Of Japan,.674 

Of Norway,.674 

Of Russia, . . . . . 674 

Of Sweden, . . . . . 674 

Of United States, . . 673 

Merchant of Venice,. . . 371 

Mercury,. 335,694 

Meredith, George, . . . 465 

Owen,.297 

W. M.637 

Mergenthaler, Ottmar, . 465 
Merivale, Charles, . . . 465 

Merlin.371 

Merlin’s Cave,.371 

Mermaids,.335 

Merovingians, The, . . . 147 

Merovceus 1.66 

“Merrimac” Sunk, . . . 157 
Merritt, Wesley, .... 465 
Merry del Val, Raphael, . 466 
Messenian War, . . 57, 138 

Messenian Wars, . . . . 116 

Messiah, The,.371 

Metals, Transmutation of, 96 
Metaurus, Battle of, . . 22 

Metcalf, Victor H., . 639,640 
Methodist Church . . .716 
Government of, ... 716 

In England.716 

In United States, . . 716 
Metrical Romances,. . . 201 
Metternich, Clemens W.,. 466 
Mexican War, . . . 139, 172 

Mexico,.543 

Area,.604 

Aztecs,.132 

Capital,.605 

Cities, 543 





















































































































































































INDEX 


TAGE 


Mexico—Con.: 

Civil War in, .... 104 

Congress.609 

Constitution,.609 

Constitution Adopted,. 93 

Cortez.132 

Council,.609 

Courts,.609 

Debt.605 

Evacuation by French, 93 
Federal Republic, . . 102 
French Occupation, . . 133 
Government, .... 609 

History, .132 

Independent,.102 

Insurrection in.102 

Iturbide, Emperor, . . 89 

Maximilian, . . . 93, 133 

Navy,.848 

New Constitution, . .104 

Population,.604 

President, .... 605, 609 

Productions,.543 

Republic Re-estab¬ 
lished, .105 

Santa Ana, President, 89 
Standard Currency,. . 604 

State Religion.609 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Toltecs,.132 

Vegetation,.543 

War with France, . . 103 
War with U. S., . . . 133 

Zones of,.543 

Meyer, Adolf,.466 

George von Lengerke,. 466 
Miami University, . . . 700 

Michael VIII.,.466 

Angelo Buonarrotti, . 397 

Michelet, Jules.466 

Michigan: 


Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area, . ..624 

Capital,.626 

Constitution, . . . .610 

Detroit,.529 

Electoral Vote.627 

Executive,.610 

Government.610 

Governor’s Salary, . . 626 

History.133 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 

Lake,. 539, 543 

Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 627 

Legislature,.610 

Local Government, . .610 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, . . . . . 625 
Property Valuation, . 627 
State Agricultural Col¬ 
lege, .704 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Voting Population, . . 627 

Microbes,.730 

Microphone, .... 671,672 

Midas,.335 

Middlebury College, . . .700 
Midsummer N ight’s Dream, 371 

Milan,.543 

Cathedral.544 

Expositions at, . . . 544 
Miles, Nelson A., . . . . 466 
Military Engineering, . . 712 
Milk, Adulteration of,. . 645 
In United States, . . 650 

Milky Way.724 

Mill, James,.466 

J. S. 297,466 

Miller, Hugh,.297 

Joaquin,.306 

Samuel F.,.640 

William H. H.638 

Miller Manual College, . . 704 
Millersburg College, . . .704 
Milligan College, . . . .700 
Milliken’s Bend, Battle of, 16 
Mill Spring, Battle of, . . 16 

Milman, Henry H., . . . 466 


PAGE 

Milton, John, . 296, 300, 466 


Poems,.300 

Milton College,.700 

Milwaukee-Downer College,704 

Mimir,.335 

Miner’s Lamp,.669 

Mine Run, Battle of, . . 16 

Minerva,.335 

Mines, deepest,.795 

Mining Engineering, . .712 
Minneapolis, .... 544, 582 

Minnehaha,.371 

Minnesingers.371 

Minnesota: 

Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Area,.624 

Constitution, .... 610 
Electoral Vote, .... 629 

Executive.610 

Government,.610 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History,.133 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.610 

Local Government, . . 610 

Metropolis,.625 

Minneapolis.544 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation,. . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 627 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate,.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 

Minos,.335 

Minotaur,.336 

Mints, in England, ... 70 

Miracle Plays,.371 

Mirage.544 

Miranda.371 

Miseno.544 

Miserere,.371 

Mispronounced Words, 

267-74 

Mission House of the Re- 

formediChurch, . . . 700 
Mississippi: 

Agricultural and Me¬ 
chanical College, . .704 
Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.628 

College,.700 

Constitution, . . . .610 
Electoral Vote,.... 629 

Executive,.610 

Government, .... 610 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 
History, ....... 133 

Industrial Institute and 

College.704 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.610 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, . . . . . 625 
Property Valuation, . 629 
River, .... .544,565 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate,.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Missouri: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Capital,.628 

Compromise, . . . 102, 172 

Constitution,.610 

Electoral Vote, .... 629 

Executive,.611 

Government.610 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History.134 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.611 

Metropolis, . . . . f 625 


FAGE 

Missouri—Con.: 

Population.625 

Property Valuation,. . 629 

River,. 544, 565 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 

St. Louis,.571 

Suffrage Requirements, 628 
Synodical College, . . 704 

Tax Rate.629 

Valley College, .... 700 
Voting Population, . . 629 
Wesleyan College, . . 700 

Mistletoe,.752 

Mitchell, D. G., .... 305 

John,.466 

Mithridatic War.138 

Mitylene,.545 

Mnemosyne,.336 

Mocking Bird,.752 

Modern Languages: 

French phrases, . .263-67 
German phrases, . .263-67 
Italian phrases, . . 263-67 
Phrases from, . . .263-67 
Spanish phrases, . .263-67 
Words and phrases, .263-67 
Modjeska, Helena, . . . 466 

Modoc War,.106 

Mohammed,.467 

Religion of,.282 

Mohammedanism, . . .717 
Struggle of Christianity, 74 
Mohammedan Mosque, . 718 

Molifere, Jean,.467 

Molly Maguires, . . . .106 
Moltke, Count von, . . . 467 

Molybdenum.694 

Mommsen, Theodor, . . 290 

Monaco, .545 

Government,.611 

Prince of.611 

Monetary Standards, Var¬ 
ious Countries, . 604, 657 
Systems, Foreign, . . 657 

Units.657 

Money,.57 

Coins and Coinage, . . 656 
Origin of name, . . . 829 
World’s stock of, . . . 604 

Mongols,.545 

Monitor, . ..671 

Monitor-Merrimac,Battle of, 16 

Monk, George,.467 

Monkey,.752 

Monkey-bread Tree, . . 731 
Monmouth, Battle of, 16, 100 
Monmouth College, . . . 700 
Monocacy, Battle of, . . 16 

Monroe, James, . . 144, 467 
Monroe Doctrine, . . . 172 
Mont Blanc, .... 545, 547 
Montaigne, Michel, . . . 467 
Montana: 

Agricultural College, . 705 
Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Area,.624 

Capital, ..628 

Constitution.611 

Electoral Vote, .... 629 

Executive,.611 

Government,.611 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History, .134 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.611 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, . . \ . . 625 
Property Valuation, . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Montcalm de Saint Veran, 


Montebello, Battle of, . 30,92 

Monte Carlo,.545 

Montenegro, ...... 545 

Constitution, . . . .611 
Qovernment.611 


887 

PAGE 


Montenegro — Con.: 

King of,.611 

Ministry.611 

National Assembly, . .611 

Monte Perdu,.547 

Monte Rosa,.547 

Monterey, Battle of, . . 16 

Montesquieu, . . . 294,467 
Spirit of Laws, . . . 294 
Montezuma, I., .... 467 

II.467 

Montgomery: 

Death of General, . . 100 

General,.100 

Richard. 467 

Montreal,.546 

Founded,.99 

History of,.546 

Montrose, James G., . . 467 

Monuments: 

Bunker Hill, Dedicated, 103 
Gettysburg’s Soldiers’,. 106 
Washington, .... 579 

Moody, D. L.,.467 

William H., . 467,639,640 

Moon,.717 

Moonstone,.760 

Moore, Alfred,.640 

John B.,.467 

Sir John.467 

Thomas,.296 

Moore’s Hill College, . . 700 
Moorish Architecture, . . 512 
Moors : 

Expelled from Spain, . 82 

In Spain.156 

Morality, The.371 

Moravians,.717 

Zinzendorf, Count, 504, 717 
Moravian Seminary, . . 704 
More, Sir Thomas, . 295, 468 
Morgan, John Pierpont, . 468 

John T.,.468 

Morley, John, . . . 297, 468 
Mormon, Book of, ... 718 

Mormons,.718 

Brigham Young, . . . 718 

Doctrines of.718 

Founded Salt Lake City, 103 

Sealing,.718 

Spiritual Wives, . . . 718 
Morningside College, . . 700 

Morocco.546 

Algeciras Conference, . 96 

Algeciras Treaty, . . .612 

Cities,.547 

Government, . . . .611 

Inhabitants,.546 

Ministry.611 

Occupied by French, . 97 

Productions,.546 

The Sultan, . . . 546,611 

Morpheus, .336 

Morrill, Lot M.637 

Morris, Clara,.468 

Gouverneur,.468 

Robert.468 

William, .... 297,468 
Morris Brown College, . . 700 

Morris Dance,.371 

Morris Harvey College, . 700 
Morrisville College, . . . 700 
Morse, Samuel F. B., 

90, 468, 675 

Mortality,.795 

Death Rates, .... 795 
Morton, J. Sterling, . . . 639 

Levi P.,.468 

Moscow,.547 

Capital of Russia, . . 79 

Founded,.75 

* Great Bell of, .... 547 

Invaded,.89 

Kremlin,.547 

Moses,. 55,468 

To Cyrus,.55 

Mosque, .. . 718 

Mosses,.752 

Moth.753 

Mother-of-Pearl, . . . .753 
Motley, J. L., ... 305, 469 
Motor,.710 











































































































































































i-51 

469 

469 

469 

547 

547 

523 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

547 

760 

753 

547 

547 

753 

704 

700 

700 

700 

830 

796 

796 

796 

753 

469 

469 

371 

640 

700 

469 

753 

753 

469 

297 

371 

753 

547 

469 

164 

469 

31 

469 

16 

469 

469 

565 

336 

520 

718 

72 

719 

719 

753 

753 

700 

717 

97 

129 

336 

739 

739 

371 

336 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Mythology,.323 

Dictionary of.324 

Myths,.199 

Nacre,.753 

Nahant, .830 

Naiads.336 

Names and Name Origins, 797 
Names in Fiction, . . . 343 
Names of States, .... 624 
Nanking, Treaty of,. . . 164 
Nansen, F., . . . . 469, 514 
Nantes, Edict of, . ... 164 

Nantucket,.830 

Naples,.548 

Napoleon I., . . . 9,112,469 
Abdication of, ... . 89 

At Waterloo,.89 

Austrian Campaign, . 86 

Banished to St. Helena, 88 

Death of,.89 

Emperor of the French, 89 
Expedition to Egypt, . 87 

Fall of,.88 

Hundred Days’ War, . 89 

King of Italy, .... 88 

Russian Campaign, . . 89 

Swiss Campaign, ... 87 

Napoleon III., . . 9,112,470 
Napoleonic Wars,. . 112,139 

Naraka,.336 

Narcissus, ....... 336 

Narragansett,.830 

Narration,.198 

Nashville, Battle of, . . 16 

Nassau, House of,. . . . 149 
National Banks, .... 652 
Natural History, . . .729-72 

Museum of,.84 

Natural Philosophy,. . . 723 
Natty Bumppo, .... 371 

Nausicaa,.336 

Nautical Measure, . . .861 
Naval Battle, First, ... 57 

Naval Expeditions, Ar¬ 
mada, .21 

Navies of the World, . . 848 
Navigation: 

Aerial,.645 

Inland.88 

Trans-Atlantic, ... 88 

Navy: 

Department, .... 639 
Of Argentina, .... 848 
Of Austria-Hungary, . 848 

Of Brazil,.848 

Of Chile,.848 

Of China,.848 

Of Denmark,.848 

Of France,.848 

Of Germany,.848 

Of Great Britain, . . . 848 

Of Greece,.848 

Of Holland,.848 

Of Italy,.848 

Of Mexico,.848 

Of Netherlands, . . . 848 

Of Norway,.848 

Of Portugal,.848 

Of Russia,.848 

Of Siam,.848 

Of Spain.848 

Of Sweden,.848 

Of Turkey.848 

Of United States, . . . 848 

Pacific Fleet,.96 

Neander, Johann,. . 290, 470 
Nebraska: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Area.624 

Capital.628 

Constitution..612 

Electoral Vote,.... 629 

Executive.612 

Government..612 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History.134 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.612 

Metropolis.625 


PAGE 

N ebraska—Con.: 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation,. . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Wesleyan College, . .700 
Nebuchadnezzar, . . 57, 470 

Necho,.470 

Nectar,.336 

Needham, Charles W., . 470 

Negroes, Imported into 

America,.81 

Nehemiah.281 

Neilson, Adelaide, . . . 470 
Nelson, Admiral, . . 86, 470 

John,.638 

Samuel,.640 

Nelson River,.565 

Nemean Lion, .... 336 

Nemesis,.336 

Neodymium,. ..... 694 

Neon,.694 

Neoptolemus,.336 

Nepenthe,.371 

Nephrite.760 

Nepos,. 284,470 

Neptune.336 

Nereids.336 

Nernst Electric Light,. . 672 

Nero,.470 

Golden Palace of, . . 64 

Persecutes Christians, . 64 

Sets Fire to Rome, . . 64 

Nerva, Marcus.470 

Nestor,. 336,372 

Netherlands, The,. . . . 548 

Area,.604 

Capital.605 

Constitution, .... 612 

Debt,.605 

Government, .... 612 

Illiteracy,.714 

Navy.848 

Population,.604 

Queen.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 

State Council.612 

States-General, . . . .612 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Nevada: 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area,.624 

Capital, ..628 

Constitution, . . . .612 
Electoral Vote, . . . 629 

Executive,.613 

Government,.612 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History,.134 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction, ..... 667 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.612 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation,. . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate,.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Nevskii Prospekt, . . .831 
New Amsterdam, .... 98 

Newark Technical School, 705 
New Atlantis, The, . . . 372 
New Berne, Battle of,. . 16 

Newcomb, Colonel, 1 . .372 

Simon,.470 

New England Primer, . . 372 
Newfoundland: 

Constitutional Govern¬ 
ment, .103 

Purchases Railways, . 108 
Refuses to joinDominion,106 

Settled,.100 

New Hampshire: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.628 


College of Agriculture 
and Mechanic Arts, . 705 


PAGE 

New Hampshire—Con.: 

Constitution,.613 

Electoral Vote, .... 629 

Executive.613 

Government,.613 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History.135 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.613 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation,. . 629 
Statutes of limitation,. 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 

New Haven,.98 

New Jersey: 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.628 

Constitution, .... 613 
Electoral Vote, . . . 629 

Executive,.613 

Government.613 

Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History,.135 

Interest Laws of,. . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 

Legal Weights.862 

Legislative Statistics,. 629 

Legislature,.613 

Metropolis.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation,. . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 

New Jerusalem.372 

Newman, John H., . . . 470 
New Market Heights, 

Battle of,.16 

New Mexico: 

Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Area,.625 

Capital.624 

College of Agriculture 
and Mechanic Arts, . 705 

Executive,.613 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 
Government, .... 613 

History,.135 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legislature, . . . '. . 613 
Local Government, . . 613 

Metropolis.625 

Population,.625 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 
New Orleans, . . . 548, 582 

Battle of.16, 88 

Founded.99 

Italian Lynching,. . . 178 
Mardi-Gras, . . . 549, 791 
World’s Industrial Ex¬ 
position, .107 

News, .199 

New Testament, Books of, 281 
Newton, Sir Isaac, . 296, 470 
Newtown, Battle of, . . 16 

New Windsor College, . . 700 
New World, Historical 

Outline of, .... 98 

New York: 

Agricultural Statistics of ,648 


Area,.624 

Buffalo,.52] 

Capital,.628 

City. 549,582 

College of City of, . . 700 
Constitution, .... 613 
Electoral Vote, . . . 629 

Executive,.614 

Exemption Laws, . . 679 
Financial Panics, 106, 109 
Government, .... 613 
Governor’s Salary, . . 628 


















































































































































































INDEX 


889 


PAGE 1 

New York—Con.: 

Greater City of, . 108 582 

History, .135 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.614 

Metropolis,.625 

Niagara Falls, .... 549 

Population,.625 

Post-office Building, . 513 
Property Valuation, . 629 

Rochester.565 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate,.629 

University.700 

Voting population, . . 629 
New Zealand: 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Colonial Legislature, . 614 

Debt.605 

Government.614 

Governor,.614 

Legislative Council, . . 614 

Population,.604 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Wellington.579 

Ney, Michel,.471 

Niagara, Battle of, . . . 16 

Niagara Falls,.549 

Electric power, . . . 549 
Niagara University, . . . 700 
Nibelung, King, .... 372 
Nibelungen Lied, . . . .372 
Nicaragua: 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Debt.605 

Population.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Nice, Council of, ... . 65 

Nicholas II., 

95, 149, 152, 471, 605 

V.471 

Nickel,.694 

Nickel Steel,'.672 

Nickleby, Nicholas, . . . 372 
Nicknames by States, . . 372 
Niebuhr, Barthold, . 290, 471 
Niehaus, Charles H., . .471 

Nielsen, Alice,.471 

Niger River,.565 

Nightingale,.753 

Nightingale, Florence,. . 471 
Nihilism, Russian, . . . 152 
Nile River, .... 549, 565 

Niles, John M.,.638 

Nilsson, Christine, . . . 471 

Nimrod, .471 

Nineveh,.129 

Nine Worthies.372 

Ninus. 337,471 

Niobe.337 

Niord,.337 

Niton,.694 

Nitrogen, ..694 

Nitro-glycerine.670 

Nitrous Oxide Gas, . . .670 

Nixon, Lewis,.471 

Noah.471 

Noble, John W., .... 638 

Nokomis, ..337 

Nonconformist, . . . .709 
Nordica, Lillian, . . . .471 

Normandy,.136 

Norman-English.186 

Norse Folk Tales, . . . 289 
North, Frederick, . . .471 

S. N. D.471 

North Anna, Battle of, . 16 

North Carolina: 

Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.628 

College of Agriculture 
and Mechanic Arts, . 705 
Constitution, . . . .614 


PAGE 

North Carolina—Con.: 

Electoral vote.629 

Executive.614 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 
Government, .... 614 
Governor’s salary, . . 628 

History, .136 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature.614 

Mecklenburg Declara¬ 
tion.132 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate,.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
North Dakota: 

Agricultural College, . 705 
Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital, ....... 628 

Constitution, .... 614 

Electoral vote, .... 629 

Executive,.614 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 
Government, . . . .614 
Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History, .136 

Interest Laws.666 

Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.614 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate,.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Northern Illinois College, 700 
Northern Securities Case, 109 
North Georgia A. and M. 

A. College,.705 

North German Confedera¬ 
tion.136 

Northmen.136 

Northwestern College,. . 700 
Northwestern University: 
Evanston, Ill., .... 700 
Watertown, Wis.,. . . 700 
Northwest Fur Company, 179 
Northwest Missouri Col¬ 
lege.700 

Norton, Charles E., . . . 472 

Norway,.550 

Area,.604 

Capital.605 

Charles XIII.137 

Christianity in, . . 137 

Cities,.550 

Conquered by Canute,. 73 

Council of State, . . .615 

Debt, ..605 

Description,.550 

Eric, King,.71 

Government, .... 615 

History, .137 

Illiteracy.714 

Independence of, . . . 137 

Independent.97 

King,.615 

Merchant Marine, . .674 

Navy, _.848 

Population.604 

Productions.550 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

The Storthing.615 

Union with Denmark, 83 
Union with Sweden, . 89 

Union with Sweden dis¬ 
solved.615 

Vegetation.550 

War with Wends, . . 75 

Norwegian Literature, . 289 
Wergeland,.289 


PAGE 

Norwegian Lutheran 

College,.700 

Norwich University, . . 700 

Notable Wars,.138 

Chief leaders.138 

Leading battles, ... 138 

Notes,.667 

Notre Dame College, . .704 

Nourmahal,.372 

Nova Scotia,.534 

Halifax,.536 

Novum Organum, . . .372 

Nov QQ7 

Nullification, . . . i03, 172 

Numantia,.129 

Numbers.280 

Numerals, Arabian, . . . 686 

Nyassa,.550 

Nymphs,.337 

Nystad, Treaty of, . . . 164 

Oakland,. 550, 582 

Oak Grove, Battle of,. . 16 

Oats, in United States, . 648 

Weight,.862 

World’s productions, . 680 

Obelisk, .550 

Luxor,.88 

Oberammergau, .... 550 
Passion Play, .... 550 
Oberlin College, .... 700 

Oberon,.372 

Obi River,.565 

Observatories: 

Astronomical.677 

Lick,.94 

Obsidian,.760 

Occidental College, . . . 700 

Oceanus,.337 

Ochre clay,.655 

O’Connell, Daniel, . . . 472 

Ode, The.201 

Odell, Benjamin, Jr., . . 472 

Odin,.337 

Odoacer. 66, 67, 472 

O’Donnell, Marshal, . . 93 

Odysseus.337 

Odyssey.373 

(Edipus, .337 

Oehlensehlager, A. G.,. . 288 

Oersted, H. C.,.288 

Offertory,.373 

Ogden College,.700 

Ogdensburg, Battle of, . 16 

Oglethorpe, James E., . 472 

Ogontz School,.704 

Ogres.337 

O’Groat.373 

Ohio: 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 
Area, ........ 624 

Capital.628 

Cincinnati.525 

Cleveland,.526 

Constitution, .... 615 
Electoral vote, .... 629 

Executive,.615 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 
Government, .... 615 
Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History, .140 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislature, . . . . .615 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 629 

River, . 550, 565 

State University, . . .700 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate.629 

University,.700 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Wesleyan University, . 700 
Ohm, George S., . . . . 472 

Oklahoma.615 

Admitted,.109 

Agricultural and Me¬ 
chanical College, . .705 
Agricultural Statistics of ,648 


PAGE 

Oklahoma—Con.: 

Area.624 

Capital,.628 

Constitution.615 

Electoral Vote, .... 629 
Exemption Laws, . . 667 
Government, .... 615 
Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History, .140 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Metropolis.625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation, . 629 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax rate.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Oku, General Count, . . 472 

Olaf, Saint,.472 

Olcott, “Chauncey,” . . 472 

Oldenburg.532 

Old Man of the Sea, . . 373 
Old Red Sandstone, ... 373 

Oleomargarine.671 

Olivet College,.700 

Olivine,.760 

Olney, Richard, . .472, 638 
Olustee, Battle of, . . . 16 

Olympiad,.116 

Olympic Games, . . . .116 

Olympus,.337 

Oman,.615 

And Great Britain, . . 616 
Government, . . . .615 

Sultan,.616 

Omar Khayyam, . . 278, 472 
Onions, Weight, .... 862 
Ontario: 

Lake,. 539, 550 

Toronto,.575 

Onyx,.760 

Opal.760 

Opequan, Battle of, . . . 16 

Opera,.201 

Ophelia,.373 

Ophthalmoscope, .... 670 

Oporto,.551 

Opossum,.754 

Oppenheim, Nathan, . . 472 
Opper, Frederick B., . . 472 

Ops.337 

Orange,.754 

Orange, Princes of, . . . 472 

Orange River,.565 

Orang-Utan,.754 

Orations,.200 

Oregon: 

Agricultural College, . 705 
Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area,.624 

Electoral Vote, .... 629 

Executive,.616 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 
Government, .... 616 
Governor’s Salary, . . 628 

History,.140 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 629 

Legislature,.616 

Lewis and Clark Expo¬ 
sition, .140 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Portland. 559, 582 

Property Valuation,. . 629 
River, . . . . . . . 526 
Statutes of Limitation,. 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 628 

Tax Rate,.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 

Orestes,.337 

Organon,.373 

Organ Pedal Invented, . 80 

Oriental Literature, . . . 277 
Orinoco River, . . . 551, 565 

Oriole.754 

Orion,.337 
















































































































































































890 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 


Orlando Furiosa, .... 373 

Orleans,.551 

Battle of, ..... . 22 

House of,.148 

Siege of,.79 

Orpheus,.337 

Orr, James L.640 

Osaka,.551 

Oscar I.,.472 


Osgood, Samuel, .... 638 
O’Shanter, Tam, .... 373 

Osiris.338 

Osier, William.472 

Osman,.166 

Osmium,.694 

Ossian, . ..473 

Ostend Manifesto. ... 92 

Ostrich,.754 

Othello.373 

Othman,.76 

Ottawa,.551 

Great Fire, . . . 108,551 

River,.551 

University,.700 

Otterbein University, . . 700 

Otto I. 473 

Ottoman Empire, . . . 166 

Cairo Taken.81 

Crimea Ceded to Rus¬ 
sia.87 

First Established,. . . 76 

Greece Subjected,. . . ■ 81 

In Europe,.79 

Janizaries.83 

Turks Lose Belgrade, . 87 

War with Hungary, . . 81 

War with Persia, ... 81 

War with Russia, First, 85 
Ouachita College, . . . .700 

Ovid,.285 

Owen, Robert,.473 

Owensboro College, . . .704 

Owl,.754 

Oxenstierna, Axel, . . . 473 

Oxford,.551 

Parliament at, ... . 76 

University Founded, . 70 

University of, .... 551 

Oxford College.704 

Oxygen, ........ 694 

Oyama, Field-Marshal 

Prince,.473 

Oyster,.755 

Ozone.719 

Pacific College, .... 700 

Pacific Ocean,.552 

Depth,.552 

Discovery of, .... 552 
Pacific University, . . . 700 
Packer Collegiate Insti¬ 
tute, .704 

Paderewski, I. J., . . . . 473 
Padua University 

Founded.76 

Paganism,.719 

Page, Anne,.373 

Thomas N.,.473 

Pagoda,.719 

Paine, John K., .... 473 

Thomas,.473 

Painters: 

Alma-Tadema,Laurence, 396 
Angelo, Michael, . . . 397 

Apelles.399 

Blashfield, Edwin H., . 408 
Bonheur, Rosa,.... 409 
Borglum, John G., . . 410 

Botticelli,.410 

Boughton, George H., . 410 
Bouguereau, A. G., . . 410 
Burne-Jones, Edward, 413 

Cimabue. 76, 420 

Correggio.422 

Cox, Kenyon.423 

Cox, Palmer.423 

Dielman, Frederick,. . 427 
Dore, Paul Gustave,. . 428 
Gibson, Charles Dana,. 437 
Giotto, A. B., .... 437 

Guido Reni,.441 

Johnson, Eastman, . . 451 


PAGE 


Painters —Con.: 

Kauffmann, Angelica, . 453 
Landseer, Sir Edwin, . 455 
Lippi, Fra Filippo, . . 457 
Meissonier, J. L. E., . . 465 

Raphael,.479 

Rembrandt van Rijn, . 480 
Remington, Frederick, 480 
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, . 480 
Romney, George, . . . 482 
Rubens, Peter Paul, . . 483 

Ruysdaal,.484 

Sargent, John S., . . . 485 

Titian. 82, 495 

Trumbull, John, . . . 495 
Turner, J. M. W„ ... 495 
Van Dyck, Anthony, . 496 
Van Eyck, Jan, ... 78 

Velasquez, Diego, . . .496 
Vinci, Leonardo da,. . 497 
Watts, George F., . . 499 

West, Benjamin, . . . 500 
Whistler, J. A. McN., . 500 

Palamedes,.338 

Palatinate, House of, . .150 

Palestine,.552 

Cities,.553 

Description.552 

Inhabitants,.552 

Jerusalem,.552 

Paley, William.473 

Palimpsest,.374 

Palisades, The,.833 

Palissy, Bernard, .... 473 
Palladium, . . . 338, 374, 694 

Pallas-Athene,.338 

Pall Mall.833 

Palma, Tomas E.473 

Resigns,.96, 109 

Palmer, George H., . . . 473 

Palms,.755 

Palmyra,.129 

Pan.338 

Panama: 

City of,.552 

Description,.552 

Government, . . . .616 
Independent, .... 96 

Inhabitants,.553 

Isthmus of,.553 

President,.616 

President’s Visit, ... 96 

Productions,.553 

Republic of, . 553, 605, 616 

Resources.553 

Panama Canal,.553 

Purchase of.96, 109 

Pan-American Conference, 96 

Pandora,.338 

Panegyric, .374 

Panhandlers,.851 

Pantagruel,.374 

Pantheon,.554 

Paris,.554 

Rome,.554 

Tombs within, .... 554 

Panther,.755 

Papacy, Power of, ... 72 

Papal States, . . . .93,554 

Paper,.62 

Papering,.858 

Paper Machine,.668 

Paper Mill, First in 

America,.668 

Papin, Denis,.473 

Parables,.199 

Paradise Lost,.374 

Paradise Regained, . . . 374 
Paraguay: 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Congress,.616 

Constitution, . . . .616 

Debt,.605 

Government.616 

Independent.101 

Population,.604 

President, .... 605, 616 
Standard Currency,. . 604 
State Religion, .... 616 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Parana River,.565 


PAGE 


Parcse (see Fates). . . . 329 

Parcel Post,.849 

Extent of.849 

Requirements of, . . 849 
Table of rates,. . . . 849 

Parentheses,.190 

Paris. 338, 554 

Arches,.554 

Besieged by Normans, 71 
Boulevards, The, . . . 554 

Bridges,.554 

Capitulation.95 

Carriages Introduced, . 82 

Churches,.555 

Colleges,.76 

Description of, ... . 554 

Eiffel Tower,.530 

Great Exposition, . . 93 

History of.555 

Louvre,.555 

Notre Dame Rebuilt, . 73 

Parks of,.554 

Public Buildings, . . . 555 
Relieved by Spaniards, 83 

Siege of.85 

Treaties of,.164 

Universities,.555 

University of.76 

Park, Roswell,.473 

Park College,.700 

Parker, A. B.474 

Theodore, . 474 

Parker College.700 

Parkhurst, Charles H.,. . 474 
Parkman, Francis, . 305, 474 

Parley, Peter, . 374 

Parliament: 


British,.590 

Canadian,.591 

Parnassos,.338 

Parnell, Charles S.474 

Parody.374 

Parrot.755 

Parsees,. 278, 719 

Parsifal,.374 

Parsons, Frank, .... 474 

Theophilus.638 

Parsons College, .... 700 

Parthenon.515, 555 

Parthia, .60 

Partington, Mrs.374 

Partitions of Poland, . . 164 
Parton, James, . . . 305, 474 

Partridge,.755 

Partridge, William O., . . 474 
Passau, Treaty of, . . . 164 
Passenger Pigeon, . . . 755 

Passion Flower.756 

Passion Play,.550 

Pasteur, . 94,474 

Death of,.95 

Pastoral,.374 

Patagonia,.555 

Divided,.106 

Patagonians, .555 

Patent Office, Washington,578 
Paterson, William, . . . 640 
Patient Griselda, .... 374 
Patmore, Coventry, . . 474 

Patriarchs.122 

Patricians.59 

Patriot’s Day,.791 

Pattern Loom,.668 

Patti, Mme. Adelina, . . 474 

Pattison, Mark.474 

Patton, Francis L., . . . 474 

Paul, Saint,.474 

Appeals to Caesar, . . 64 

At Athens,.64 

Converted to Christian¬ 
ity, .64 

Epistles, ...... 281 

Visits Jerusalem, ... 64 

Paul and Virginia, . . . 375 
Paulding, James K., . . 639 

Paving,.859 

Pawnbroker’s Sign, . . . 849 

Pax.338 

Payne, John H., . . 304,475 

Sereno E.,.475 

Peabody, Francis G., . . 475 
George.475 


PAGE 

Peabody School for 

Teachers.700 

Peace of Constance, . . 77 

Peach,.756 

Peaches, Weight.862 

Peach Tree Creek, Battle 

of,.17 

Peacock,.756 

Pear,.756 

Pearce, James A.,. . . . 638 
Pea Ridge, Battle of, . . 17 

Pearl.760 

Peary, Josephine D., . . 475 
Robert E., ... 475, 514 

Peccary,.756 

Peck, Harry T., .... 475 

Peckham, R. W., . . 475, 640 

Pedro II.9,589 

Peel, Sir Robert.475 

Peeping Tom.375 

Pegasus,.339 

Peking.555 

Boxer Uprising, . . . 556 
The Forbidden City, . 555 
Under Kublai Khan, . 77 

Walls of.556 

Pelee, Mont.556 

Peleus,.339 

Pelican,.756 

Peloponnesian War, .59, 138 

Peloponnesus,.556 

Pelz, Paul J.,.475 

Penates, .339 

Penelope,.339 

Pen Names of Writers, 

321—23 

Penn, William, . . . 99, 475 


475 

640 


es, 


Pennell, Joseph, . . 
Pennington, William, 
Pennsylvania: 

Agricultural Statist! 

of,. 

Area,. 

Capital. 

College,. 

Constitution, . . 

Electoral Vote, . . 
Executive, . . . 
Exemption Laws, 

Farmer, . . . . . 
Government, . . 
Governor’s Salary, 

History, .... 

Interest Laws of, . 
Jurisdiction of Justin 
Legal Weights, . 

Legislative Statistics 
Legislature, ..." 
Metropolis, . . . 

Military College, . 
Philadelphia, . . 
Pittsburgh, . . . 
Population, . . . 

Property Valuation, 

State College, . . 

Statutes of Limitation, 
Suffrage Requirements, 
Swedes settle in, 

Tax Rate,.629 

Voting Population, . . 629 
Woman’s College,. . . 704 
Pennypacker, S. W., . . 476 

Pentateuch. 280, 375 

Peony,.756 

People’s Party, . . . .107 

Pepin le Bref,.476 

Pepper, ..756 

Percentage.853 

Perfectionists,.719 

Peri.339 

Pericles .59 

Period,.188 

Periods.696 

Perry, Bliss,.476 

Perry, Commodore, . . . 102 

Expedition to Japan, . 90 

Treaty with Japan, 124, 164 

Perryville, Battle of, . . 17 

Persephone,.339 

Persepolis,.129 

Perseus,.339 

Persia,. 58,556 


648 

624 
628 
700 
616 
629 
616 
667 
375 
616 
628 
140 
666 
667 
862 
629 
616 

625 
700 

557 

558 
625 
629 
700 
667 
628 

99 



































































































































































































INDEX 


891 


Petrarca, F.,.476 

Petrarch,.311 

Petroleum.757 

Discovered,.103 

Phxedo,.375 

Phsedra,.339 

Phaeton,.339 

Phalanx,.59 

Phaon.339 

Pharaoh,.55 

Pheasant,.757 

Phidias, .476 

Philadelphia, . . . 556,582 

Centennial of.556 

City Hall, ...... 557 

EducationalInstitutions,557 
Fairmount Park, . . . 556 

Girard College.557 

Incorporated, .... 99 

Independence Hall, . . 557 
Manufactures, .... 557 
Public Buildings, . . . 557 
Philander Smith College,. 701 

Philip,.476 

II., of Macedon, . . 59,476 

II. of Spain,.476 

Philippic,.375 

Philippines,.557 

Acquisition of, . . . , 178 

Aguinaldo,.394 

Area,.'. . 625 

Assembly,.96 

Capital,.624 

Civil Government, . . 96 

Mestizos,.557 

Metropolis,.625 

Native races, . . . .557 

Population.625 

Productions,.557 

Settlement.624 

Philippine War, .... 142 

Aguinaldo,.142 

General Funston, . . . 142 


Persia — Con.: 

PAGE 

Abbas, the Great. . 

. . 83 

Alexander the Great. . 141 

Area,. 


Capital, . . . 

. . 605 

Commerce, . . . 

. . 556 

Constitution, . . 

. . 617 

Darius I. 


Debt,. 


Description, . . . 

. . 556 

First Parliament, 

. . 97 

Government, . . 

. . 617 

History, .... 

. . 141 

Invades Greece, . 

. . 116 

Literature, . . . 

277,278 

Ministry, .... 

. . 617 

Productions, . . 

. . 556 

Senate, ..... 

. . 617 

Shah. 

605, 617, 

Standard Currency 

. .604 

Stock of Money, . 

. . 604 1 

War with Russia 

and 1 

Turkey. 

. . 142 

Xerxes,. 

. . 141 

Persian War, ... 

. . 65 

Perso-Grecian War, . 

. . 138 

Persuasion, .... 

. . 200 

Peru,. 

. . 617 

Area,. 

. . 604 

Capital,. 

. . 605 

Congress, .... 

. . 617 

Constitution, . . 

. . 617 

Cuzco,. 

. . 528 

Debt,. 

. . 605 

Government, . . 

. . 617 

Incas, . 

. . 120 

Independent, . . 

89,102 

Population, . . . 

. . 604 

President, .... 

605, 617 

Rich gold mines 

dis- 

covered, . . . 

. . 108 

Standard Currency 

. . 604 

Stock of Money, . 

. . 604 

Pestalozzi, Johann H. 

, . 476 

Peter I., ... 149, 

152, 476 

The Hermit, . . . 

. . 74 

Peters, John P., . . 

. . 476 

Petersburg, Battle of, 

. . 17 

Petra,. 

. . 129 


PAGE 

Philippine War—Con.: 

General Lawton, ... 142 
Philistines, .... 56,375 

Phillips, Wendell.476 

Philo.375 

Philomath College, . . .701 
Philosopher’s Stone, . . 684 
Philosophy: 

Alexandrian School of, 65 

In England,.303 

In Germany,.291 

In Rome.285 

Of Greece,.283 

Scholastic,.74 

Phipps, Henry, .... 476 

Phoebus.339 

Phoenicia, ....... 557 

Phoenix.339 

Phonograph,.671 

Invented.106 

Phonography,.723 

Phosphorus,.694 

Photographic portraits, . 669 
Photography: 

Dry plate.670 

First Experiments, . . 668 

Photosphere,.725 

Phyllis,. 339,375 

Pianoforte,.668 

Player,.671 

Piccadilly,.835 

Pickaninny,.375 

Pickering, Edward C., . . 476 
Timothy, . . 636,637,638 

Pickwick, Mr.375 

Pied Piper,.375 

Pierce, Franklin.144 

Pierrepont, Edward, . . 638 
Piers Plowman, .... 375 

Pigeon.757 

Pike College,.701 

Pike’s Peak, .... 547, 557 
Pilate, Pontius, .... 476 
Pilgrims: 

Mayflower, .... 82,98 
Pilgrim’s Progress, . 301,376 
Pinchot, Gifford, .... 477 

Pindar.282 

Pine,.757 

Pineapple.758 

Pinero, Arthur W., . . . 477 

Pink.758 

Pinkney, William, . . . 638 

Pin money,.835 

Pipe clay,.655 

Pippa Passes,.376 

Pisa,.558 

Cathedral.558 

Leaning Tower, . . . 558 

Pitt, William,.477 

Pittsburgh, .... 558, 582 
Carnegie Library,. . . 558 

History, .558 

Manufactures, .... 558 
Public Buildings,-. . . 558 
Pittsburg Landing, Battle of, 17 

Pius V.,.477 

IX.477 

X., . . . . . . . 97,477 

Pizarro, Francisco, . . . 477 

Planetoids,.687 

Planing Machine, .... 668 

Plantagenets,.150 

Plastering. 858 

Plata, Rio de la, . . 564, 565 

Plate Glass,.668 

Platinum,.694 

Plato, . 283,477 

Platonic love.376 

Platt, Thomas C., ... 477 

! Platt Amendment, ... 96 

Platypus,.758 

Plautus, .284 

Pleasant Hill, Battle of, . 17 

Plebians.59 

; Pleiades.339 

Pliny, .285 

Plots, Literary,.343 

Plow,.668 

Plum,. . ..758 

Plutarch,.477 

i Pluto, ........ 339 


PAGE 

Plutus,.339 

Pluvius,.339 

Plymouth: 

Colony,.98 

England,.558 

Pneumatic Tire, .... 670 

Po River,.558 

Pocahontas.477 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 305, 477, 791 
Poems, Famous, .... 387 
Author and First Line, 387 

Poet Laureate,.365 

Poetry.201 

Hebrew,....... 281 

Poinsett, J. R.,.637 

Poitiers, Battle of, . . . 78 

Poland: 

Cracow,.527 

Dismembered, .... 86 

Independence of, . . . 81 

Partitions of.164 

Sobieski, King, .... 85 

United to Russia,. . . 89 

War with Russia,. . . 85 

Warsaw,.577 

Polar Bear,.758 

Polar Sea, ..514 

Pole, Barber’s.776 

Polecat,.758 

Political Parties, . . . .101 

Politics,.585 

Polk, James K., 144, 477, 640 
Pollock, Sir Frederick, . 477 

Pollux,.339 

Polydorus,.339 

Polygamy,.94 

Polyphemus,.339 

Polytechnic College,. . .701 
Institute of Brooklyn, 701 
Pomona College, . . . . 701 

Pompeii,. 129,558 

Architecture.559 

Description,.559 

Destruction of, . . .64, 558 

Ruins,.559 

Ponce de Leon,. . . 110,477 
Pond Lily,.769 


PAGE 


Porto Rico—Con.: 

Inhabitants,.559 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Productions,.559 

Under the U. S.559 

Portsmouth, Treaty of, . 164 

Portugal,.560 

Area,.604 

Becomes a Kingdom, . 75 

Becomes a Republic, 97, 617 

Capital,.605 

Chamber of Deputies, . 617 
Chamber of Peers, . . 617 

Cities,.560 

Constitution,.617 

Constitutional Gov¬ 
ernment.143 

Cortes,.617 

Debt,.605 

Government,.617 

History,.142 

Illiteracy,.714 

King Carlos Assassi¬ 
nated.143 

Lisbon,.540 

Navy.848 

Oporto,.550 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Products.560 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Surface of,.560 

Portuguese, Africa, . . . 508 

Poseidon, ..340 

Postal Congress. Universal, 94 
Postal Savings System, . 849 
Post Cards, Penny, . . . 106 
Postmasters-General, . . 638 
Post-office: 

Department,.638 

Established,.101 

Post-offices, in France and 

England,.80 

Potassium,.694 

Potatoes : 


Pontiac’s War.99 

Poor Richard,.376 

Pope, Alexander, 296, 301, 478 

Popes.23 

Popinjay,.376 

Poppy,. . 759 

Popular Names: 

Of Cities,.782 

Of People. 850-51 

Of States, .... 850-51 

Popular Vote: 

For President.618 

For Vice-President, . . 618 
Population: 

Colored, .... 627-29-31 

Countries of the World, 604 
Foreign, ....... 625 

Insular Possessions, . . 625 

Native.625 

Of States,.625 

Of U. S. Territories, . . 625 
Voting, of United States,627 

Porcelain clay,.655 

Porcupine,.759 

Porgy. 759 ( 

Porpoise,.759 

Port Arthur,.95, 559 

Siege of,. 97, 559 

Porter, Gene Stratton, . 478 

Horace, .478 

James M.,.637 

Jane,. 296, 478 

Noah,.478 

Peter B.,.637 

Port Hudson, Battle of, . 17 

Portland,. 559, 582 

Portland Cement,.... 669 

Porto Rico.559 

Acquisition,.178 

Area,.625 

Capital,. 624! 

Departments of, . . . 560 

Description, ..... 559, 
During Spanish-Ameri- 
can War,. 5601 


In United States, . . . 649 
World’s Production, . 680 
Potiphar Papers, .... 376 
Potomac River, . . 560, 565 

Potsdam,.560 

Potter, Cora Urquhart, . 478 

Henry C.,.478 

Mrs. James Brown, . . 478 

Potter College.704 

Potter’s clay,.655 

Powell, Major John W., . 478 
Power Loom, . . . 668,672 
Powers, Hiram, .... 478 
Powers of the Presidents, 596 
Prague, ........ 560 

Battle of, ..560 

Cathedral of,.560 

Thirty Years’ War, . . 560 

Treaty of,.164 

Prairie Dog.759 

Praseodymium, .... 694 

Praxiteles,.478 

Px-ecious Stones, .... 759 

Precipitation,.692 

Premiers of Canada, . . 152 
Prentice, G. D., .... 304 

Presburg, Treaty, .... 164 
Presbyterian College of 

South Carolina, . .701 

Presbyterians,.720 

Presbyterians, Scotch,. . 720 
Prescott, W. H., . . 304,478 
Preserved Vegetables, 

Adulteration of, . . 645 
President: 

Election of, . .... . 634 

Electoral vote.618 

Eligibility of, .... 634 
Popular vote, .... 618 

Powers of,.596 

Salary of,.634 

Presidential Candidates, . 618 
Presidential Election: 

Of 1789. 618 

Of 1792. 618 


























































































































































































































892 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Presidential Election—Con.: 

Of 1796. 618 

Of 1800. 618 

Of 1804. 618 

Of 1808. 618 

Of 1812.618 

Of 1816.618 

Of 1820. 618 

Of 1824. 619 

Of 1828,-. 619 

Of 1832. 619 

Of 1836. 619 

Of 1840,. 619 

Of 1844. 619 

Of 1848. 619 

Of 1852. 619 

Of 1856. 619 

Of 1860. 619 

Of 1864. 619 

Of 1868. 619 

Of 1872. 619 

Of 1876. 619 

Of 1880. 619 

Of 1884. 619 

Of 1888,. 619 

Of 1892. 620 

Of 1896. 620 

Of 1900. 620 

Of 1904. 620 

Of 1908. 620 

Of 1912.620 

Presidential Succession, . 634 
Presidents of Foreign 

Countries,.605 

Presidents of the United 
States: 

Adams, John, 101, 171 393 
Adams, J. Q., 102,172,393 

Ancestry,.144 

Arthur, C. A., 106, 177, 400 
Buchanan, Jas., 104,173, 412 
Cause of Death, . . . 145 

Children,.144 

Cleveland, Grover, 

107, 177, 178, 420 
Education of, .... 145 
Fillmore, Millard, 

104, 173, 433 

Garfield, J. A., 106, 177, 436 
Grant, U. S., 106, 177, 439 

Harrison, Benj., 107,177,443 
Harrison, W. H.,103,172,443 
Hayes, R. B., 106, 177, 444 
Jackson, A., . 102,172,449 
Jefferson, Thomas, 

101, 171, 450 
Johnson, Andrew 

105, 176,451 
Lincoln, A., 44, 104, 173, 457 
Madison, James, 101,171,461 
Marriage Statistics. . . 144 
McKinley,Wm., 108,178,464 
Monroe, James, 102,172, 467 
Pierce, Franklin, . 104, 173 
Place of Burial, . . . 145 
Polk, James K., 103,172,477 

Profession of.145 

Religion of,.145 

Residences,.144 

Roosevelt, T., 108, 178, 482 
Taft, Wm. H., 109, 178, 492 
Taylor, Zachary, 104,173,493 
Tyler, John, 103, 172, 496 
VanBuren, M., 103, 172, 496 
Washington, Geo., 

101, 170, 498 
Wilson, Woodrow, 

109, 144, 502 
Preston, William B., . . 639 


Pretoria, Treaty, 

Priam,. ' 

Prickly Pear, . . . 
Priestley, Joseph, . . 

Primrose,. 

Prince of Bulgaria, . 
Princeton, Battle of,. 
Princeton University, 

Printing,. 

Double cylinder, . 
Franklin’s, . . . 
In America, . . . 
In China. 


. 164 
. 340 
. 761 
. 478 
. 761 
. 605 
17,100 
. 701 
. 61 
. 670 
. 668 
. 84 

. 279 


Printing — Con. : 

Invention of, . 80 

Multicolor, . 669 

Press at Copenhagen, . 80 

Revolving cylinder, . . 668 
Rotary steam power, . 668 
Rotary three-color, . . 668 

Screw,.668 

Typesetting machines, 94 
Web-feeding, . . . .671 

Priscilla.376 

Pritchett College, . . . .701 
Proctor, Redfield, .... 637 
Profit and Loss, .... 855 

Projectiles . 776 

Prometheus, ...... 340 

Property, Exemption of, 667 

Prophets, . 281 

Prose, . 198 

Proserpine.340 

Prospero.376 

Protestantism.Ill 

Protestant Reformation, 114 

Luther,.114, 460 

Prouty, Charles A., . . . 478 


Proverbs, 
Providence, R. I., 


281 
561,582 


Prussia,. 532, 561 

Bismarck, premier, . . 92 

Cities,.561 

Cologne,.526 

Constitution,.617 

Constitution for, ... 90 

Education.561 

Fief of Poland.81 

Franco-Prussian War, . 94 

German Confederation, 92 

Government.617 

Manufactures.561 

Mineral Springs, . . . 561 

Products.561 

Sadowa, Battle of, . . 92 

Surface.561 

The Crown,.618 

War with Austria, . . 92 

Prussic Acid,.86 

Psalms, . ’.281 

Pseudonyms,.321 

Psyche,.340 

Ptolemaeus Claudius, . . 478 

Ptolemseus Soter.478 

Ptolemies, Age of, ... 60 

Ptolemy I.,.60 

Public Library,. . . 58, 714 

Puddling,. 668,673 

Puebla, Battle of,... . 17 

Puffendorff, Samuel, . . 478 

Pulitzer, Joseph.478 

Pulmoter,.672 

Pultowa.- . 22, 87 

Puma.761 

Punctuation.188 

Marks,.188 

Punic War,.61 

War, third.62 

Wars, .138 

Pupin, Michael I., ... 478 

Purdue University, . . . 705 

Purdy, Milton D., . . . 479 

Pure Food Act, . . 109, 645 

Puss in Boots,.376 

Putnam, Herbert, . . . 479 

Israel,.479 

Pygmalion,.340 

Pyle, Howard,.479 

Pyncheon.376 

Pyramids,. 54, 561 

Building of.561 

Dimensions of, ... . 561 

Pyramus.340 

Pyrenees.562 

Minerals,.562 

Scenic features, . . 562 

Treaty.164 

Pyrope,.760 

Pyrrhus,. 340,479 

Pythagoras, .... 282, 479 

Pythia.340 

Python. 340, 761 

Qua drum ana, .... 729 

Quadruple Alliance, . .164 

Quail,. 761 


Quakers,.712 

In Boston,.99 

Hicksite,.713 

Quasimodo,.376 

Quebec.562 

Battle of,.17, 99 

Citadel.562 

Population,.562 

Province.562 

Settlement, . . . . 562 

Surrenders to English, 99 
Queen Elizabeth, . . 82, 430 
Queen of the Netherlands, 605 
Queens of England, . . . 150 
Queenstown, Battle of, . 17 

Quesnay, Francois, . . . 479 
Quickly, Mistress, . . .376 

Quilp.376 

Quincy, Josiah,.479 

Quintilian,.285 

Quirinal,.837 

Quixote, Don,. ... . 377 

Quotation Marks,.... 190 
Rabelais, Francois, 292, 294 

Raccoon,.761 

Rachel,.479 

Racine, Jean,.479 

Radcliffe College,.... 704 
Radio-activity, Science of, 672 

Radium,. 674, 694 

Ragnarok.340 

479 
340 
674 
674 

674 

675 


Ragozin, Z. A., . . 

Rahu,. 

Railroad,. 

In England, . . . 
In United States, . 
Statistics, .... 
Railroads, Value of: 

In Europe, . . . 
In Germany, . . 
In United States, . 
Railway, Central Asian 
First Norwegian, 
Inter-Colonial, . 
Saint Gothard, 
Union Pacific, 


675 

90 

675 

95 

90 

106 

95 

94 


Railways, Canadian Pacific, 94 
First in Brazil, ... 92 

First Canadian, . . . 103 

First Electric.94 

First in United States, 102 
Grand Trunk, .... 104 

Great Strike.106 

India.94 

In England,.88 

In Germany,.90 

Northern Pacific begun, 106 
Panama completed,. . 92 

Swiss Nationalization of 95 
Union Pacific opened, . 106 

Rain, .562 

Rainbow,.562 

Rakshas,.340 

Raleigh, in Virginia, . . 98 

Sir Walter, . . . 295,479 

Ramona,.377 

Ramsey, Alexander, . . . 637 
Randall, Alexander W., . 638 

Samuel J.,.640 

Randolph, Edmund, 636, 638 
Randolph-Macon College: 
Ashland, Va., .... 701 
Lynchburg, Va., . . . 704 
Random, Roderick, . . . 377 

Rangoon,.562 

Ranke, Leopold von, . . 479 

Raphael,.479 

Rappahannock, Battle of, 17 

Rasselas,.377 

Rastatt, .562 

Congresses at, ... . 562 

Treaties,.164 

Ratisbon,. 164,563 

Ravenna,.563 

Tomb of Dante, . . . 563 

Ravens,.340 

Ravenswood,.377 

Rawlins, John A., .... 637 
Rawlinson, George, . . . 479 
Raymond, Battle of, . . 17 

Rayner, Isidor,.479 

Read, T. B., ..... . 305 


PAGE 

Reade, Charles,. . . 297, 479 
Ream’s Station, Battle of, 17 

Rebecca,.377 

Reclus, Jean J., .... 479 

Reconstruction, .... 176 
Red Bank, Battle of, . . 17 

Red-Cross Knight, . . . 377 
Red-Riding-Hood, . . . 377 

Red River,.565 

Battle of.17 

Red Sea,.563 

Redslate Peak,.547 

Redwood,.761 

Reed, Thomas B., . . 480, 640 
Reformation, Beginning of, 80 


of, 


127 

720 
563 
480 
480 
683 
689 
695 
717 
719 
719 
719 

23 

726 

94 

721 
721 
721 
721 
721 
721 
721 
721 
721 
480 
480 
480 
480 
480 


In- 


Lollards, 

Reformed Church, . 

Regensburg. 

Rehan, Ada, .... 

Reid, Whitelaw, . . 

Religion,. 

Buddhism, . . . 
Christianity, . . . 
Mohammedanism, 
Paganism, .... 

Parsees. 

Perfectionists, . . 

Popes and Bishops, 
Theosophy, . . . 

World’s Parliament 
Religious Statistics, . 

Catholic Church, . 
Denominations, 

Of Europe, . . . 

Of United States, . 
Orthodox Churches, 

Jews. 

Mohammedans, 

Protestant Churches 
Rembrandt van Rijn, 
Remington, Frederic, 

Remsen, Ira, . . . 

Renan, Joseph E., . 

Rennie, John, . . . 
Rensselaer Polytechnic 
stitute, .... 
Representative Men, 

Reptiles,. 

Republic, Plato’s,. . 

Resaca, Battle of, 

Respiration, .... 
Restoration: 

French. 

Literature under, . 

Retreat of the 10,000, 

Reuter, Baron Paul, . 

Revere, Paul, . . . 

Reviews, . . . . ‘ 
Revolutionary War, . 

Reynard the Fox, 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 
Rhadamanthus, . . 

Rhamnus,. 

Rhapsody. 

Rhees, Rush, . . . 

Rheims. 

Cathedral of, . . . 

Joan of Arc, . . .* 

Under the Franks, 

Rhine, Confederation of,. 

Rhine River. 563, 565 

Rhinoceros,.762 

Rhode Island: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital.630 

College of Agriculture 
and Mechanic Arts, 705 
Constitution, ...... 620 

Dorr’s Rebellion, . . . 146 
Electoral Vote, .... 631 

Executive,.620 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government,.620 

Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History, . ..146 

Interest, Laws of,. . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.620 

Local Government, . . 620 


705 

377 

762 

377 

17 

722 

148 

301 

59 

480 

480 

200 

100 

377 

480 

340 

340 

377 

480 

563 

563 

563 

563 

164 


























































































































































































INDEX 


893 


PAGE 

Rhode Island—Con.: 

Metropolis,.625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation, . . 631 

Providence.561 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

Voting Population, . . 631 
Rhodes, Cecil J., . . 95, 480 

James F.,.480 

Rhodesia,.563 

British South African 

Company. 563! 

Commercial Importance, 564 

Provinces of,.564 

Rhodium.694 

Rhodonite.760 

Rhone River,.565 

Ricardo, David, .... 480 
Rice: 

In United States, . . . 648 
World’s Production, . 680 

Richard,.480 

II., . ;. 9 

Richardson, William A., . 637 
Richelieu. Armand, . . . 480 
Richmond, Va., . . 564, 582 
In the Civil War, . . . 564 
Public Buildings, . . . 564 

State House,.564 

Richmond College: 

Ohio.701 

Virginia. — .701 

Richmond, Ky., Battle of, 17 
Ridley, Nicholas, .... 480 

Rifle Barrel,.668 

Riga,.564 

Right Use of Words,. 191-98 

Rigolette.377 

Riis, J. A.,.481 

Riley, James Whitcomb, 481 
Ring and Book, .... 378 
Rio Bravo del Norte, . . 565 
Rio de Janeiro, .... 564 
Captured by French, . 99 

Pan-American Confer¬ 
ence.109 

. . 107 
564, 565 
. . 565 
. . 701 
. . 565 
. . 565 
. . 701 
. . 378 
. . 481 
. . 748 
. 564-65 
. .565 
701 


Revolution at, . 

Rio de la Plata, . 

Rio Grande, . . . 

Rio Grande College, 

Rio Madeira, . . . 

Rio Negro. 

Ripon College, . . 

Rip Van Winkle, . 

Ristoria, Adelaide, 

River Horse, . . 

Rivers, Longest, . 

Riviera,. 

Roanoke College, . 

Roanoke Female College, 704 
Roanoke Island, Battle of, 17 
Robbia, Luca Della, . .481 

Robert Bruce,.481 

Roberts, Lord.481 

In South Africa, ... 96 

Robeson, George M., . . 639 

Robespierre, .... 113, 481 
Robin Goodfellow, . . . 378 

Robin Hood,.378 

Robinson Crusoe.378 

Rob Roy,.378 

Rochambeau, Jean, . . . 481 

Rochester,. 565, 582 

Aqueduct,.565 

Rock Crystal,.760 

Rockefeller, John D., . . 481 

John D., Jr.,.481 

William.481 

Rockford College.704 

Rock Hill College, ... 701 
Rocky Mountains, . . . 565 
Chief Ranges, .... 565 
Highest Peaks, .... 565 

Minerals.565 

Passes of, ..565 

Rocky Mountain Sheep, . 762 

Rodin, Auguste.481 

Rodney, Caesar A., . . . 638 

Roe, E. P.305 

Roebling, John A., . . . 481 


PAGE 

Roebling, Washington A., 482 
Roentgen, Wilhelm C., . 482 

Rays.94, 726 

Rogation Days, .... 792 

Roger II.,.482 

Rogers, Henry H., . . . 482 

Henry Wade.482 

Roland.378 

Marie Jeanne, .... 482 
Roller Flour Mills, . . .671 

Rollins College,.701 

Roman: 

Architecture,.512 

Calendar.57 

Catholic Church, . . .691 

Census,.58 

Civil War,.138 

Emperors,.146 

Empire (See Rome), . 58 

Forum,.110 

Gods,.323 

Mourning Customs, . . 796 
Orders of Architecture, 512 

Social War,.138 

Romance of the Rose, . . 378 

Romances.378 

Roman Emperors, . . . 146 
Lineage of, ..... 146 
Military Despots, ... 146 

Of the West,.147 

Period of Rule.146 

The Caesars.146 

The Five Good, . . . 146 
Roman Empire (See Rome): 

Division of,.65 

Holy,.118 

Lombards.127 

Romanes, George J., . . 482 

Roman Law,.70 

In Germany, ..... 96 

Romanzoff, Peter A., . . 482 

Rome,.58 

Ancient,.566 

Annexed to Italy, . . 95 

Art..' ... 566 

Athens Subjected, . . 63 

Capital of Italy, ... 95 

Capitol.523 

Churches.566 

Democracy in, ... . 78 

Description,.566 

Hills.566 

Historic Ruins, ..... 566 

History,.567 

Italy,.565 

Monarchy, A.63 

Monuments,.566 

Population of,.63 

Public Buildings, . . . 566 
St. Peter’s, . . . 566,571 
Streets of, ...’.. 566 
Taken by Barbarossa, . 76 

The Quirinal, .... 566 
Under the Popes, . . . 567 
Vatican, . . . r . 567, 576 

Wall of, .65 

Walls,.566 

Romeo,.378 

Romney, George.482 

Romulus,. 56,378 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 144, 482 

Policies of,.109 

Reforms.178 

Visits Panama, . . . 109 
Root, Elihu, . . 482, 636, 637 

Rose,.762 

Rosebery, A. P..483 

Rosecrans, William S., . 483 

Rose Polytechnic Institute, 

705 

Rose Quartz,.760 

Rosetta Stone, . . . 282,378 
Rossetti, Gabriele, . . . 483 

Rossini, G. A.,.483 

Rotary Steam Turbine, . 672 

Rothschild.483 

Rotten Row, ..... 838 
Rotterdam, ...... 567 

Rough Riders,.157 

Round Logs.860 

Round Table.378 

Round Top, N. Y., . . . 547 


PAGE 


Rousseau, J. J., . . 294, 483 

Royce, Josiah,.483 

Rubber Dental Plate, . .671 
Rubber, vulcanized, . . 103 

Rubellite,.760 

Rubens, Peter Paul, . . 483 

Rubidium,., 694 

Ruby,.760 

Rudge, Barnaby, .... 379 

Rudolf 1.114,483 

II.,.483 

Rulers of the World,. 146, 605 
Bishops and Popes of 

Rome,.23 

Emperors of Germany, 149 
Kings and Queens of 

England.150 

Kings, Emperors, and 
Presidents of France, 147 
Presidents of the U nited 

States,.144 

Roman Emperors, . . 146 
Sovereigns of Russia, . 149 

Rumania, .567 

Area.604 

Capital,.605 

Commerce,.567 

Constitution, .... 620 

Debt.605 

Description.567 

Government, .... 620 

Illiteracy,.714 

Inhabitants,.567 

King,.605 

Ministry,.621 

National Assembly, . . 620 

Population.604 

Productions, .... 567 
Standard Currency, . . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Surface, .567 

Rumford.jBenjamin T., . 483 
Runeberg, J. L., . . 287, 483 

Runes,.379 

Runic Inscriptions, . . . 289 

Runny mede,.76 

Ruoff, Henry W., ... 6 

Rupert, Prince Robert, . 483 
Rush, Benjamin, .... 484 

Richard. 637,638 

Rusk, Jeremiah M., . . . 639 
Ruskin, John, . 297, 303, 484 

Russell, Annie,.484 

John,.484 

Lillian,.484 

Russia,.567 

Alaska sold,.93 

Alexander II., assassi¬ 
nated, .95 

Alliance with Austria, . 87 

Area.604 

Battle of Pultowa, . 22, 87 

Canals.653 

Capital,.605 

Catherine I., . .87, 152, 417 
Catherine II., . . 87, 152 

Cities.568 

Civil Wars.73 

Climate, ...... 568 

Constitution, . . 97,621 

Cossack revolt, .... 87 

Cossacks,.527 

Council of Empire, . . 621 
Crimean War, . . .93, 139 

Cronstadt.527 

Crown, The.622 

Czar’s peace proposal, . 97 

Debt,.605 

Duma.97, 153, 621 

Duma authorized, . . 97 

Emperor (Czar), . . . 605 
End of serfdom, ... 93 

Expedition against Con¬ 
stantinople, .... 70 

Exports, ...... 568 

Extent of Empire, . . 567 
Finland ceded to Sweden, 83 
Geography of, ... . 568 
Government, , . . .621 

Greek Church.713 

History.152 

Illiteracy,.714 


PAGE 


Russia—Con.: 

Incursion of Huns, . . 77 

Invaded by Tamerlane, 79 
Invasion of Finland, . 79 

Invasion of Thrace, . . 72 

Ivan, first czar, ... 81 

Literature,.314 

Local government, . . 622 

Manufactures.568 

Mazeppa.87 

Merchant Marine, . .674 

Minerals.568 

Ministry,.622 

Mongolian Invasion, . 77 

Moscow,.547 

Navy,.848 

Nicholas II., 95,149,152,471 

Nihilism,. 152 

Peter the Great, 85, 152, 476 
Population, . . . 568, 604 

Port Arthur.95, 559 

Productions,.568 

Riga,.564 

Ruric the Norman, . . 71 

Russo-Japanese War, 97,153 
Russo-Turkish War, 139,152 
Sebastopol, Siege of, . 93 

Siberia discovered, . . 83 

Sovereigns of.149 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
St. Petersburg, . . .572 
Sweden invades, ... 87 , 

Tartar invasions, ... 81 

Tartar War,.79 

Territory,.152 

Under Tartars.77 

Ural Mountains, . . . 576 
Vladimir, first Christian 

ruler.73 

Volga, ..577 

War against Turkey, . 91 

War with Poland, . . 85 

Russian Empire.621 

Russian Literature, . . 314 

Church,.315 

Count Tolstoi, . . 316, 495 
Early period, . . . .315 

Historians.316 

Modern period, . . .316 
Turgenieff, . . . 316,495 
Under Catherine II., . 316 
Russo-Japanese War, 

125,139, 153 
Russo-Turkish War, 139, 152 

Rustam.379 

Rust University, .... 701 
Rutgers College, .... 701 

Ruth.281 

Ruthenium,.694 

Rutile,.760 

Rutledge, John, .... 640 
Ruysdaal, Jacob van, . . 484 

Ruyter, Michael.484 

Ryan, Patrick J., ... 484 

Thomas F.484 

Rydberg, Viktor, .... 287 
Rye, in United States, . 648 
World’s production, . 680 

Ryswick.164 

Sabine Cross-Roads, 

Battle of,.17 

Sabines,.153 

Sable.762 

Sackett’s Harbor, Battle of, 17 
Sacred Heart, College of,. 701 

Sacred War.59 

Sacred Wars,.116 

Of Greece,.138 

Sadi-Carnot, M., . 95, 112, 148 
Safe, first fire-proof, . . 668 
Safety matches, . . . .670 


Sagasta, Praxedes M., 95, 484 

Sage, Margaret 0.484 

Sage Hens,.851 

Sago.762 

Saguntum,.129 

Battle of,.61 

Sailor’s Creek, Battle of, . 17 

Sainte-Beuve, C. A., . . 484 

Saionji, Marquis, .... 485 






















































































































































































894 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

689 

77 


Sakya Muni. 

Saladin,. 

And the Crusaders, . . 77 

Battle of Ascalon, . . 77 

Conquers Syria, ... 77 

Death of,.77 

Salamanca, Battle of, . . 88 

Salary: 

Federal Judges, . . 635-36 
Justices United States 
Supreme Court, . . 635 
Members of Congress, . 634 
Of U. S. Cabinet 

Officers,.635 

President of U. S., . . 634 
Speaker of H. of R., . 634 

Vice-President.634 

Salem Academy and Col¬ 
lege, .704 

Salic Law,.67, 153 

Salientia,. 729 

Salisbury, Marquis of, . . 485 

Sallust. 284,485 

Salmagundi.379 

Salmon.763 

Salt, Common, . . . . .763 

Salt River. 379 

Salvation Army, .... 722 

Statistics of.722 

Samaria.129 

Samarium,.694 

Samian Letter, The, . . 380 
Samnite War, . . . .59, 138 

Samson,.56 

Samuel. 281, 485 

San Antonio College, . . 704 

Sancho Panza,.380 

Sand, George, . 293, 295. 485 
Sandy Creek, Battle of, . 18 

San Francisco, . 568, 582, 625 
Earthquake, . 96, 569, 788 

Exposition,.568 

Golden Gate Park, . . 568 

Harbor.568 

Sanitary Engineering, . . 712 
San Juan, Battle of,. . . 18 

San Juan Hill,.157 

San Salvador: 

Area,.604 

Capital.605 

Debt.605 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency,. . 604 

Sanskrit,.380 

Language,.184 

Literature,.277 

San Stefano, Treaty of, . 164 
Santa Ana, Antonio, . . 485 
Santa Clara College, . . 701 
Santa Claus,.380 


Sante Fe, Baldy Peak, 
Santiago, Battle of, 

18, 108, 

Santo Domingo, 

Area, . 

Capital, 


Debt, 

Population 
President, 

Revolution 
Standard Currency, 

Stock of Money, 
Santos-Dumont, A., 

Sao Francisco River 
Sapphire, .... 

Sappho,. 

Saracen Conquests, 

Saracens, .... 

Besiege Constantinople, 
Besiege Rome, . . 

Capture Jerusalem, 

Decline of Caliphate, . 
Destroy Venetian Fleet, 
Eastern Empire Invaded, 69 
Encourage Learning, . 69 

War Against Italians,. 71 
Saratoga, Battle of, . . 18, 22 

Sard.760 

Sardis,.129 

Sardonyx.761 

Sardou, Victorien, . 295, 485 


547 

157 

601 

604 

605 
605 

604 

605 
109 
604 
604 
485 
565 
760 
282 
138 

68 

69 

70 
73 
70 
70 


PAGE 


Sargent, Dudley Allen, . 485 
John S., ...... 485 

Saskatchewan River, . . 565 

Satan,.380 

Saturn,.341 

Satyr,.341 

Saul,.485 

Savage, Minot J., . . . . 485 
Savannah, Battle of, . . 18 

“ Savannah, ” First Trans- 

Atlantic Steamship,. 102 
Savonarola, Fra Girolamo, 485 

Sawyer, Bob,.380 

Saxe, J. G.,.305 

Maurice.485 

Saxe-Coburg.532 

Saxe-Meiningen, .... 532 

Saxe-W eimar,.532 

Saxons: 

Defeated by Arthur, . 67 

Heptarchy Begins, . . 67 

In Britain,.66 

Laws Promulgated, . . 67 

United with Normans, 74 
Saxony, ........ 532 

Dresden,.529 

House of,.149 

Sayre Institute, .... 704 

Scalds.380 

Scandinavian Literature, 286 

Eddas,.286 

Gustavus Adolphus, . 287 

History,.287 

Poetry,.287 

Sagas.286 

Vikings,.286 

Scandium,.694 

Scarlet Letter,.380 

Scarritt Collegiate Insti¬ 
tute, .701 

Schaeberle, John M., . . 485 
Schiff, Jacob H., .... 485 
Schiller, Johann F., . 290, 486 

Schillingfurst,.96 

Schlemihl, Peter, .... 380 
Schley, Winfield S., . . . 486 
Schofield, John, . . 486, 637 
Schonbrunn, Treaty of, . 164 
Schools of Technology, . 704 

Instructors,.704 

List of,.704 

Location,.704 

Number of Students, . 704 

President,.704 

Value of Property, . .704 
Schurman, Jacob G., . . 486 
Schurz, Carl, .... 486, 638 
Schwab, Charles M.,. . . 486 

Science,.683 

Acetylene,.683 

* Acid,.683 

Acoustics,.683 

Aerolite,.683 

Air-pump,.650 

Albumen,.684 

Alcohol,.650 

Alimentary Canal, . . 684 

Alkaloids,.685 

Aluminium,.685 

Amphibia,.685 

Aorta,.685 

Archimedes, . . . .61,399 

Arteries,.686 

Asteroids.687 

Atom,.687 

Atomic Theory, . . . 687 
Aurora Borealis, . . . 688 
Automobiles, . . . .651 

Blood,.688 

Capillary Action, . . . 689 

Carbon,.690 

Carnegie Institution, . 690 

Carnivora,.690 

Carotid Arteries, . . ; 691 

Celestial Globe. 59 

Celsus,.64 

Chemical Elements, . . 694 
Chemical Substances, . 782 

Chemistry,.692 

Christian,.695 

Chronology.696 

Chrysalis, . s .... 696 


PAGE 


Science—Con.: 

Circulation,.696 

Classified,.722 

Clepsydra.62 

Cloud,.696 

Color,.705 

Combustion,.705 

Comet,.706 

Conchology,.706 

Conductor,.706 

Conic Sections. 59 

Constellations, . . . .707 
Continuity, Law of,. . 707 

Contractile Force, . . 707 

Convection.708 

Correlation of Forces, . 708 

Cosmogony,.708 

Dew,.709 

Digestion,.709 

Distillation,.709 

Dreams,.710 

Dynamics,.710 

Eclipses,.59 

Electrical Measure¬ 
ments.94 

Electricity,.710 

Engineering,.712 

Euclid,.60 

German.292 

Heart,.713 

Horsepower,.713 

Inoculation for Small¬ 
pox, .86 

Inventions and Discov¬ 
eries, .668-72 

Kepler’s Laws.82 

Lick Telescope,. ... 94 

Light,.714 

Liquid Air,.715 

Lungs.715 

Magnetic Needle, ... 74 

Mathematics at Alex¬ 
andria, .66 

Mechanics. 60 

Moon,.717 

Natural History, . .729-72 

Ozone.719 

Pasteur,.94, 474 

Practical,.722 

Prussic Acid,.86 

Radium,.674 

Respiration,.722 

Skeleton,.724 

Skin,.724 

Stars.724 

Stomach,.725 

Study of Anatomy, . . 82 

Sun,.725 

Surgery,.61 

Telegraph,.675 

Telephone,.676 

Telescope,.677 

Theology,.725 

Theoretical.722 

Theosophy,.726 

Weights and Measures, 

861-62 

Wireless Telegraphy, . 676 

X-Rays.726 

Sciences,.722 

Scio College,.701 

Scipio Africanus, . . .61,486 

Scorpion,.763 

Scotland,.568 

Canute,.72 

David I.,.74 

Description,.569 

Edinburgh,.529 

Geography of, ... . 569 

Glasgow,.533 

History.154 

Illiteracy,.714 

Independence of, . . . 78 

Invades England,. . . 78 

James I., King. 78 

Lakes,.569 

Local Government, . . 622 
Murder of Duncan, . . 72 

Relation to the Crown, 622 

Robert Bruce, King, . 78 

Scenery,.569 


Scottsboro, Battle of, . . 18 


PAGE 

Scott, Sir Walter, 296, 303, 486 

Winfield.486 

Scourge of God, .... 380 
Scrooge, Ebenezer, . . . 380 

Sculpture, ..57 

And Painting, .... 54 

Scutum,. 776, 782 

Seal.764 

Seasons, .. 379, 569 

Seattle,. 569, 582 

Exposition,.569 

Seawell, Molly.486 

Secession,.173 

In South Carolina, . . 92 

Of Southern States, . . 92 

Second Samnite War, . . 60 

Secretaries: 

Of Agriculture, . . . 639 

Of Commerce, .... 639 

Of Labor.640 

Of Navy,.639 

Of State.636 

Of the Interior, . . . 638 

Of Treasury,.636 

Of War.637 

Sedan, Battle of, ... . 95 

Sedgwick, Theodore, . . 640 
Seeley, John R., . . 297,487 

Seine River.565 

Selenium,.694 

Self-binding reaper, . . .671 
Sembrich, Marcella, . . . 487 

Semicolon,.189 

Seminole War, . 102, 103, 172 

Semiramis,.54 

Semitic Languages, . . . 184 
Senate of United States,. 633 
Seneca, Lucius, . . 285, 487 
Sentimental Journey, . . 381 
Septuagint, .... 61,723 

Sequoia,.764 

Sermons.200 

Servetus, Michel.487 

Servia : 

Area.604 

Capital,.605 

Constitution.622 

Debt.605 

Government.622 

Illiteracy,.714 

King,.605 

National Assembly, . . 622 

Population,.604 

Standard Currency, . . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Suffrage,.622 

Sesame,.381 

Seton Hall College, . . ' . 701 
Seven: 

Bibles, The.381 

Pines, Battle of, .* . . 18 

Sleepers, The, . . . .381 

’Weeks’ War.139 

Wise Men,.381 

Wonders of the World, 849 
Years’ War, . . . 139, 154 
Seward, William H., 487, 636 
Sewing Machine, . . . . 670 
Howe Patents, .... 103 

Patented,.90 

Shad.764 

Shatter, William R., . . 487 

Shah Jehan. 487, 574 

Shah of Persia,.605 

Shakespere, . . 295, 299, 487 

Shaler, Nathaniel S., . . 487 
Shandy, Tristram, . . . 381 

Shanghai,.569 

Commerce of, .... 569 

Shark,.764 

Sharp, Rebecca, .... 381 

Shasta,.577 

Shaw, Albert,.487 

George B.,.487 

Henry W.,.487 

Leslie M.,.637 

Shaw University.701 

Shays, Daniel,.487 

Shays’s Rebellion, ... 154 

Sheep,.764 

Shelby, Isaac,.637 

Shelley, P. B., . . . 297,487 





























































































































































































































INDEX 


895 


PAGE 


Shepard, Edward M., . . 488 


Shepherd’s Calendar, . „ 381 
Sheridan, Philip H.,. . . 488 
Sherman, J. S., .... 488 

John.637 

William T., . . . 488, 637 

Shetland Isles,.841 

Shields,.776 

Shimonoseki, Treaty, . .164 

Shingling.859 

Ship Canals.654 

Cost of,.654 

Length of,.654 

Ship Screw.669 

Shiras, Geo., Jr., .... 640 

Shoe-last Lathe.672 

Shoguns, of Japan, . . . 124 
Shorter College, .... 704 

Shorthand.723 

Pitman,.723 

Short Story, The, .... 199 

Shurtleff College.701 

Shylock.382 

Siam,.604 

Area,.604 

Bangkok.517 

Capital,.605 

King. 605,623 

Local Government, . . 623 

Ministry,.623 

Navy,.848 

Population,.604 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Siberia,.83 

Sicilian Vespers, .... 155 

Sicilian War,.59 

Sicilies, The Two, . . 89, 154 

Sicily: 

Mt. Etna.530 

Palermo,.552 

Taken by Roger, ... 75 

Siddons, Sarah,.488 

Siegel, Henry.488 

Siege of Sebastopol, ... 93 

Siegfried,.382 

Signature of the Cross, . 849 
Ancient Use of, ... 849 
Signature of Letters, . . 215 

Sigsbee, Charles D.488 

Sikes, Bill,.382 

Silenus,.341 

Silicon,.694 


Silk: 


And Linen.63 

Introduced into Europe, 67 

Silkworm, .765 

Silliman, Benjamin, . . . 488 
Silliman Collegiate Insti¬ 
tute, .704 

Silver,. 694, 765 

Certificates Authorized, 107 

Coins, .656 

Free Movement, . . . 108 
In United States,. . . 649 

Money,.61 

Simmons College.704 

Simplon,.547 

Simpson, Sir James,. . . 488 
Simpson College, .... 701 

Sindbad.382 

Singapore,.841 

Sioux War, ..107 

Sirens.341 

Sismondi, Jean, .... 488 
Sisters of Bethany College, 

704 

Sitting Bull,.488 

Killed. 107 

Sitting Bull Mountain, . 547 
Six-Mile House, Battle of, 18 

Sixtus IV.,.488 

V.488 

Skeleton,.724 

Skin.724 

Construction of, . . . 724 

Function of,.724 

Slavery,. . 155 

Abolished in British 

i Colonies,. 88 

Abolished in U. S., . . 92 

In Virginia.82 


PAGE 

Slavery — Con.: 

Question,. 173 

Sleeping Beauty.382 

Sleeping Car.670 

Slough of Despond, . . . 382 
Smalley, George W., . . 488 
Small pox, Inoculation for, 
Introduced, .... 86 

Smith, Adam,.296 

Caleb B.638 

Goldwin.488 

Herbert K.489 

Hoke,. 489, 638 

John. 98, 489 

Joseph.489 

Robert, . . . 636,638,639 

Smith College.704 

Smithson, James.724 


Smithsonian Institution, 


579,724 

Founded,.88 

Smokeless Gunpowder, . 671 
Smollett, Tobias G.,. 296, 489 

Snail.765 

Sneehattan,. 547 

Sobieski.85 

Social, Democrats in Ger¬ 


many.115 

Social War, ..... 61, 63 

Socrates,.489 

Sodium,.694 

Sodom,.130 

Soissons, Battle of, . . . 67 

Sol,.341 

Solferino, Battle of, . . . 92 

Solid South,.849 

Solomon,. 56,489 

Solomon’s Temple, . . . 160 

Solon’s Code.57 

Solyman II.. 166, 489 

Somnus,.341 

Song of Roland.382 

Songs of Solomon, . . .281 

Sonnet,.202 

Sophia, St., Church, . . . 569 

Sophocles. 283, 489 

Sorata,.547 

Sorghum, in U. S.650 

Sothern, Edward H., . . 489 

Soule College,.704 

Sounds, Musical, .... 683 
Sousa, John Philip, . . . 489 
South Africa: 

Cecil Rhodes.95 

Jamieson’s Raid, ... 95 

Union of,.570 

South America: 

Argentine Republic,. . 515 

Colombia.526 

Southard, Samuel L., . . 639 
South Carolina: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 
Area, ........ 624 

Capital,.630 

Constitution,.^ . . . 623 
Electoral Vote, . . . .631 

Executive,.623 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government,.623 

Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History,.155 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 

Legal Weights.862 

Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.623 

Metropolis,.625 

Military Academy. . . 701 
Population, . . . . . 625 
Property Valuation, . . 631 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

University, . . . . .702 
Voting Population, . .631 
South Dakota: 

Agricultural College, . 705 
Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.630 

Constitution,.623 

Electoral Vote, .... 631 


PAGE 


South Dakota—Con.: 

Executive,.623 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government.623 

Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History,.155 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics,. 631 

Legislature,.623 

Metropolis,.625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation, . . 631 
School of Mines, . . . 705 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

Voting Population, . .631 
Southern University, . . 701 
Southey, Robert, .... 489 
South Mountain, Battle 

of.18 

Southwestern Presbyte¬ 
rian University, . . 701 
Sovereigns of Russia: 

House of Romanoff, . . 149 
House of Ruric,.... 149 

Lineage.149 

Period of Rule.149 

Spain,. 62, 570 

Alhambra Founded, . . 77 

Alfonso XIII., King, . 97 

Arabian horses intro¬ 
duced.69 

Area.604 

Army.623 

Barcelona,.518 

Capital.605 

Charles, King of The 
Netherlands, .... 80 

Cid, The.75 

Civil War,.81 

Columbus,.80 

Conquest of Granada, 80 
Conquest of Mexico, . 83 

Constitution, .... 623 
Cordova divided, ... 73 

Cortes,.623 

Cortez,.83 

Crown.623 

Death of Canovas, . . 97 

Death of O’Donnell, . 93 

Debt.605 

Description,.570 

Discovery of America, 80 
Dispute with Peru. . . 93 

Ferdinand and Isabella, 80 

Government,.623 

Heroic Age,.71 

History, .155 

Illiteracy,.714 

King.605 

Kingdom of Navarre 

founded.71 

Literature,.312 

Local Government, . . 623 

Madrid,.541 

Minerals.571 

Moorish dissensions, . 79 

Moors defeated at Ta- 

rifa.79 

Navy,.848 

O’Donnell’s Insurrection, 93 
Philip V., King, ... 84 

Physical features, . . 570 

Population,.604 

Productions, . . . .571 
Sagasta, Minister, . . 95 

Spanish-American War, 

95, 156 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
State Religion, . . . 623 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Subdued by Agrippa, . 63 

Trial by jury, .... 95 

Under Caliphs, ... 69 

Under the Moors, . . 156 
Vasco de Gama, ... 80 

War with England, . . 84 

War with France, . . 84 

War with United States, 570 


PAGE 

Spanish: 

Africa.508 

America,.98 

Authors.312 

In South America, . . 99 

Spanish-American War, . 

139, 178 

History.156 

Manila Bay.131 

, Principal events, . . . 156 
Spanish Armada, destroyed, 82 
Spanish Fleet, destruc¬ 
tion of,.157 

Spanish Literature, . . . 312 

Golden Age.314 

Poetry,.312 

Prose,.312 

Spanish-Netherlands War, 138 
Spanish Succession, . . 84 

War of.139 

Spanish words and 

phrases.263-67 

Sparks, Edwin E., . . . 489 

Jared.489 

Sparrow,.765 

Sparrow Hawk, .... 765 

Sparta.158 

Spartacus, .489 

Speakers of the House: 

Banks, Nathaniel P., . 640 
Barbour, Philip P., . 640 

Bell, John,.640 

Blaine, Jas. G.640 

Boyd, Linn,.640 

Cannon, Joseph G., . . 640 
Carlisle, John G., . . 640 

Cheves, Langdon, . . 640 
Clark, Champ, .... 640 
Clay, Henry, .... 640 

Cobb, Howell.640 

Colfax, Schuyler, . . . 640 
Crisp, Chas. F., ... 640 

Davis, John W., . . . 640 
Dayton, Jonathan, . . 640 
Grow, Galusha A., . . 640 
Henderson, David B., 640 
Hunter, R. M. T., . . 640 

Jones, John W.640 

Keifer, J. Warren, . . 640 
Kerr, Michael C., . . 640 

Macon, Nathaniel, . . 640 
Muhlenburg, F. A., . . 640 

Orr, Jas. L.640 

Pennington, Wm., . . 640 

Polk, Jas. K.640 

Randall, Samuel J., . 640 

Reed, Thomas B., . . 640 

Sedgwick, Theo.640 

Stevenson, Andrew,. . 640 
Taylor, John W., . . 640 

Trumbull, Jonathan, . 640 
Varnum, Joseph B., . 640 

White, John.640 

Winthrop, Robert C., . 640 

Spears,.775 

Specie Payment.106 

Spectator, The, .... 382 
Speech, Figures of, . . . 208 

Speeches.200 

Speed, James,.638 

Spencer, Herbert, . 297, 489 

John C.,.637 

Spenser, Edmund, . 295, 489 

Speyer, James.489 

Sphinx,.341 

Spider,.766 

Spinel,.761 

Spinning jenny, .... 668 
Invention of, .... 80 

Spinning wheel, .... 82 

Spires, Heights of, . . . 783 

Spofford, A. R.489 

Sponge,.766 

Spontaneous Combustion, 700 
Spottsylvania, Battle of, 18 
Spreckels, Claus, .... 490 
Spring Hill College, . . . 701 
Spring-Rice, Sir Cecil,. . 490 

Spruce,.766 

Spruce Mountain.547 

Spurgeon, Charles H.,. . 490 
Squirrel,.766 

















































































































































































896 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

St. Anselm’* College, . . 701 

St. Augustine,.838 

St. Bartholomew,. . . . 

Massacre of, . 83, 111, 153 
St. Bede’s College, . . . 701 
St. Benedict’s College: 

Kansas,.701 

New Jersey,.701 

St. Bernard,.547 

St. Bernard College,. . . 701 
St. Bernard Pass,.... 838 
St. Bonaventure’s College, 701 
St. Charles College, . . . 701 
St. Clair, Arthur, . . . 484 
St. Elizabeth College, . .704 
St. Francis Solanus Col¬ 
lege.701 

St. Francis Xavier College, 701 
St. Gaudens, Augustus, . 484 
St. Germain, Treaty of, . 164 
St. Ignatius College, . . . 701 
St. James’s Palace, . . . 839 
St. John, N. B., great fire, 106 
St. John’s College: 

Brooklyn,.701 

Maryland,.701 

New York City, . . . 701 
Washington, D. C., . . 701 
St. John’s Lutheran Col¬ 
lege, .701 

St. John’s University, . . 701 
St. Joseph’s College, . . . 701 
St. Lawrence River, 565,570 
St. Lawrence University, 701 

St. Leo College.701 

St. Louis,. 570, 582 

Manufactures, .... 571 

Parks,.570 

Public Buildings, . . 571 
Washington University, 571 
St. Louis University, . . 701 
St. Mary’s College: 

Kansas,.701 

Kentucky,.701 

North Carolina, . . .701 
St. Mary’s School, . . . 704 
St. Meinrad College,. . . 701 

St. Nicholas.379 

St. Olaf College.701 

St. Patrick’s Cathedral, . 513 
St. Paul’s Cathedral, . .571 
Monuments in, . . . .571 
St. Peter’s, .... 566, 571 

Cost,.572 

Dedicated,.82 

Dimensions,.572 

Rome,.80 

St. Petersburg, . . 572, 582 
Admiralty, The, . . . 572 

Description.572 

Founded,.85 

History,.572 

Monuments.572 

Palaces,.572 

Population, . . . 573,582 
Public Buildings, . . .572 
St. Isaac’s Cathedral, . 572 
Winter Palace, . . . 572 
St. Peter’s College, . . . 701 
St. Sophia, Church of, 65, 569 
St. Stephen’s College, . . 701 
St. Vincent’s College: 

California,.701 

Pennsylvania.701 

St. Xavier College, . . . 701 
Stadtholder, ...... 158 

Stael, Madame de, . . . 295 

Stamp Act,.169 

Stanbery, Henry, .... 638 

Standard Oil Company, 

Fined, ...... 109 

Standish, Captain Miles, 

98, 490 

Stanford Graded College, 701 
Stanley, Arthur P., . . . 490 

Henry M., 490 

Stanton, Edwin M., 

490, 637, 638 
Stanton College, .... 704 
Staples of the World, . . 680 

Star-Chamber,.158 

Starfishes, .766 


PAGE 

Star Route Trials, . . . 107 

Stars, .724 

State Capitals,.626 

State Capitol: 

At Albany,.513 

At Hartford.513 

Of Alabama, .... 513 
State College for Colored 

Students.701 

State Flowers.852 

Staten Island,.842 

States:_ 

Admission of, .... 624 

Area,.624 

Assessed Valuation,. . 627 

Capitals,.626 

Electoral Vote,.... 627 
Legal Weights, . . . 862 
Legislative Statistics, 627 
Meaning of name, . . 624 

Metropolis,.625 

Mottoes,. 850-51 

Nicknames.372 

Original names, . . . 625 
Origin of name, . . . 624 
Popular names, . 850-51 

Population,.625 

Rank of,.625 

Salaries of Governors, 626 
Settlement of, ... . 624 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 

Tax Rate,.627 

Territory from which 
derived, ..... 625 
Voting Population, . . 627 
States-General, .... 842 

State Statistics.624 

Geographical, .... 624 

Historical.624 

Industrial,.624 

Statics,.710 

Statistics: 

Earth’s, .854 

Religious, ..721 

State, ..624 

Statue, Marcus Aurelius, 65 
Statutes of Limitation, . 667 
Stead, William T., . . . 490 
Steam: 

Coach,.668 

Engine,.668 

Engines,.86 

Hammer,.670 

Locomotive. 668 i 

Plow,.671 

Road Wagon, .... 668 

Steam, Use of.668 

Steamboat: 

First in Europe, ... 88 

First in United States, 668 
Fulton invents, ... 88 

Steamships: 

Allan Line,.104 

First Pacific Mail at 
Vancouver, .... 107 
Stedman, E. C., . . 305, 490 
Steel: 

Bessemer’s process, 92, 673 

Pen,.668 

Steerforth.382 

Stenography,.723 

Invented,.86 

Stephen, Leslie, .... 490 
Stephens, Alexander H., 490 
Stephenson, George, . . 490 

Robert,.490 

Stepniak, S. D.490 

Stereotyping,.668 

Sterne, Laurence, . 296, 490 

Stethoscope.669 

Stevens Institute of Tech¬ 
nology, ...... 705 

Stevenson, Adlai E., . . 490 

Andrew,.640 

Robert Louis, . . 297,490 
Steyn, Martinus T., . . 490 

Stillman, James, . . . . 491! 

Stimson, F. J.,.491 

Stockholm,.571 

Diet of,.85 

Founded.571 

Industries,.571 


PAGE 

Stockholm — Con.: 

Public Buildings, . . . 571 
Stocking, Blue, .... 777 
Stocks and Bonds, . . . 857 

Stockton, F. R.305 

Stoddert, Benjamin, . . 639 
Stolypin, Peter A., . . . 491 

Stomach.725 

Stone, Marcus,.491 

Stones, Precious, .... 759 
Stonewall Jackson College, 704 
Storage Battery, . . 668 , 670 
Storey, Moorfield,. . . .491 

Stork,.767 

Story, Joseph, . . . 304,491 

William.491 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 

305, 491 

Straight University, . . .701 
Strathcona, Baron, . . .491 

Straus, Oscar S..491 

Strauss, Richard, . . . .491 
Strawberry Plains, Bat¬ 
tle of. 18 

Stretton, Hesba, .... 323 
Strikes: 

Coal and Iron, .... 108 

Railroad,.108 

Strong, William.640 

Strontium,.694 

Stuart, Alexander H. H., 638 

Cosmo,.323 

Gilbert C.491 

James E. B.,.492 

Leslie,.323 

Stuart, House of, ... 151 
Stuart Hall College, . . . 704 

Stubbs, William,.492 

Sturgis, Dinah,.323 

Stuyvesant, Peter, ... 99 

Styx, ..341 

Sublime Porte.842 

Submarine Cables, . . . 679 

Length of,.679 

Of the World.679 

Owned by Governments, 679 

Submarines.848 

Subway,New York,Opened, 96 

Suckers,.850 

Sudermann, Hermann, . 492 
Sue, Eugene, .... 295, 492 

Suetonius,.285 

Suez Canal, .... 573, 654 
Suffrage, Persons Ex¬ 
cluded, ..626 

Suffrage Requirements in 

the States.626 

Suffrage, Woman, 53, 626, 633 
Sugar: 

Adulteration of, . . . 645 
World’s Production, . 680 

Sugar Cane,.767 

Sugar in United States, 

Maple,.650 

Sullins College,.704 

Sully, Thomas,.492 

Sulphur,. . 694 

Sultan of Turkey.605 

Sumner, Charles, .... 492 
Sumptuary Law, First, . 63 

Sun.725 

Distance from Earth, . 725 

Heat of,.725 

Spots,.725 

Sundial,.60 

Sunstone,.761 

Surgery.61 

Antiseptic,.671 

Surname,.383 

Susa,.130 

Susquehanna University, 701 

Suwanee,.842 

Swallow.767 

Swan,.767 

Swan, Annie S., . , . . 323 
Swarthmore College, . .701 
Swayne, Noah H., . . . 640 

Sweden,.573 

Area,.604 

Capital.605 

Charles XII. 85, 159 

Christina, Queen, ... 85 


PAGE 

Sweden — Con.: 

Climate.673 

Constitution,.632 

Death of Oscar II., . . 97 

Debt, ..605 

Description.573 

Diet.632 

Divisions of.573 

Dominates North Eu¬ 
rope, .83 

Government.632 

Gustavus Adolphus, . . 83 

Gustavus III., Assassi¬ 
nated, .87 

History,.158 

Illiteracy.714 

Independence of, . . . 159 

Independent.97 

Industries.573 

King.605 

Merchant Marine,. . . 674 

Navy.848 

Oscar II.159 

Population.604 

Standard Currency, . . 604 

Stockholm,.571 

Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Union with Norway, 89, 159 
War with Denmark, . . 83 

Swedenborg,Emanuel, 287, 492 
Swedish Literature, . . . 287 

Authors.287 

Prose,.287 

Swedish-Russian War, . . 139 
Swift, Jonathan, . . 296, 492 
Swinburne, A. C., . 297, 492 

Switzerland,.573 

Alps, The,.574 

Area,.604 

Capital.605 

Cities,.574 

Constitution.632 

Debt,.605 

Forests.574 

Government,.632 

History,.159 

Illiteracy,.714 

Mountains of, .... 573 
National Assembly, . . 632 

Population,.604 

President,.605 

Productions,.574 

Republic Founded, . . 79 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Swiss Revolution, ... 87 

Treaty of Vienna, . . . 632 
War with Austria, . . 79 

Sybaris,.130 

Sybel, Heinrich von, . . 492 

Sydney, . . ..842 

Sylvanus,.341 

Sylvester, James J., . . . 492 
Symbolism of Animals, . 775 
Synodical College, . . . 704 

Synonyms,. 221 

Abandon, to, .221 

Abandon, give up, . . 243 
Abandoned, profligate,. 250 

Abase, to, .221 

Abatement, deduction, . 235 

Abhor, to, .221 

Abide, to, .221 

Ability .221 

Able .221 

Abolish, to, .221 

Abominate, abhor, . . 221 

Abridgment .221 

Abrogate, abolish, . .221 

Absolute, .221 

Absolve, forgive, . . . 242 

Abstract, to, .221 

Abstract, abridgment, . 221 
Absurd, irrational, . . 247 

Abuse, to, .221 

Accede, agree, .... 223 
Accelerate, hasten, . . 244 

Acceptable, .221 

Access, approach, . . . 224 
Accident, event, . . . 239 


Acclamation, applause, 224 
Accomplice, confederate , 231 
















































































































































































INDEX 


897 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Accomplish, to, . . . .221 
Accomplishment, quali¬ 
fication .250 

Accord, correspond, . . 233 
Accordant, consonant, . 232 
Accountable, answerable, 224 
Accumulate, heap, . . 244 
Accurate, correct, . . . 233 
Accusation, complaint,. 231 

Accuse, to, .221 

Achieve, accomplish, . 221 
Acquainted, be; know, 247 
Acquiesce, agree, . . . 223 

Act, to, .221 

Action .222 

Active, .222 

Actual, .222 

Actuate, to, .222 

Acute, .222 

Acute, sharp, .... 252 
Adage, axiom, .... 225 

Address .222 

Address, direction, . . 236 
Adequate, proportionate, 250 

Adhere, to .222 

Adherent, follower, . .241 

Adjacent, .222 

Adjective, epithet, . . 239 
Adjoining, adjacent, . . 222 
Administration, govern¬ 
ment .243 

Admission, admittance, 222 

Admit, to, .222 

Admittance, .222 

Admittance, approach, 224 

Adoration, .222 

Advance, to, .222 

Advantage, .222 

Adventure, event, . . . 239 
Adventurous, enterpris¬ 
ing .239 

Adventurous, foolhardy, 241 

Adverse .222 

Advice, .222 

Advice, information, . 246 
Advocate, defender, . . 235 

Affair, .222 

Affect, to, ..... . 222 
Affecting, moving, . . 248 

Affectionate, .222 

Affirm, to, .222 

Afflict, to, .222 

Affliction .222 

Affront, .222 

Afraid .222 

Aged, elderly, .... 238 
Agent, minister, . . . 248 

Aggravate, to, .223 

Agony, distress, . . . 237 

Agree, to, .223 

Agreeable .223 

Agreeable, conformable, 232 

Aid, help, .244 

Aim .223 

Aim, to .223 

Aim, endeavor, .... 239 

Air, .223 

Alacrity, alertness, . . 223 

Alarm, .223 

Alertness, .223 

Alike, equal, .239 

All, .223 

Allay, to, .223 

Alleviate, to, .223 

Alliance, .223 

Allot, to .223 

Allow, to .223 

Allow, admit .222 

Allow, consent, .... 232 

Allowance, .223 

Allude, to .223 

Allure, attract .225 

Almanac, calendar, . . 227 

Alone, .223 

Altercation, difference ,. 236 
Alternate, successive, . 253 

Amass, heap .244 

Ambassador, .223 

Ambiguity, .223 

Amenable, answerable ,. 224 
Amend, to, .224 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Amends, compensation, 230 

Amicable, .224 

Ample, .224 

Amuse, to, .224 

Ancestors, forefathers, . 241 

Anger, ..224 

Anger, displeasure, . . 237 
Anguish, distress, . . . 237 
Animadversion ,.... 224 

Animate, to .224 

Animosity, enmity, . . 239 
Announce, to, .... 224 
Annoy, inconvenience, . 246 
Annul, abolish, . . . .221 

Answer .224 

Answerable, .224 

Anticipate, prevent, . . 250 
Anxiety, care, .... 228 
Anxiety, distress, . . . 237 
Apartment, lodging ,. . 247 
Aphorism, axiom, . . 225 
Apologize, to, .... 224 
Apophthegm, axiom, . 225 
Appall, dismay, . . . 237 

Apparel, .224 

Apparent, .224 

Appear, seem .252 

Appearance, look,. . . 248 
Appease, allay, .... 223 

Applause, .224 

Application, address, . 222 

Appoint, to, .224 

Appoint, allot, .... 223 
Appoint, constitute, . . 232 
Apprehend, to, ... . 224 

Approach, .224 

Approach, to, .224 

Approbation, assent, . 225 
Approximate, approach, 224 

Apt, ft, .241 

Apt, ready, .251 

Arbitrary, absolute, . . 221 

Ardent, fervent, . . .241 

Ardent, hot, .245 

Argue, to, .224 

Argument, .224 

Arise, to, .224 

Arraign, accuse, . . . 221 

Arrange, class, .... 229 
Arrange, dispose, . . . 237 
Array, apparel, .... 224 

Arrive, come, .230 

Arrogance, .224 

Arrogance, haughtiness, 244 

Art, .224 

Art, business, .... 227 
Articulate, utter, . . . 254 

Artificer, artist, .... 224 
Artisan, artist, .... 224 

Artist ,. ..224 

Ascend, arise, .... 224 

Ask, to, .225 

Aspire, aim .223 

Assail, attack, -'.... 225 
Assault, attack, .... 225 

Assemble, to, .225 

Assent, .225 

Assert, to, .225 

Assert, affirm, .... 222 
Assiduous, active, . . . 222 

Assist, help, .244 

Association, .225 

Assuage, allay, .... 223 

Assume, affect .222 

Astrologer, astronomer, 225 

Astronomer, .225 

Asylum, .225 

Atone for, to, .225 

Atrocious, heinous, . . 244 
Attach, adhere, .... 222 

Attack, to, .225 

Attack, impugn, . . . 245 

Attempt, .225 

Attend, to, .225 

Attention, heed, . . . 244 

Attentive, .225 

Attire, apparel, .... 224 
Attitude, action, . . . 222 

Attract, to, .225 

Augur, to, .225 

Auspicious .225 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Austere, .225 

Author, writer, .... 255 
Authorize, commission, 230 

Avaricious, .225 

Avocation, business ,. . 227 

Awaken, to .225 

Awe, .225 

Awkward, .225 

Axiom, .225 

Babble, to, .225 

Badly, .226 

Balance, poise .250 

Band, .' 226 

Banishment, .226 

Bankruptcy, insolvency, 246 
Barbarous, cruel, . . . 234 

Bare, .226 

Barefaced, glaring, . . 243 
Bargain, buy, .... 227 
Barter, change, .... 229 
Bashfulness, modesty, . 248 
Basis foundation, . . . 242 

Be, to, .226 

Bear, to, .226 

Beat, to, .226 

Beautiful, .226 

Become, be, .226 

Becoming, .226 

Beg, to, .226 

Begin, to .226 

Belief ,. ..226 

Believe, think, .253 

Bend, lean .247 

Bend, turn, .254 

Benefice, living, . . . 247 

Beneficent, .226 

Benefit, advantage, . . 222 

Benevolence, .226 

Benignity, benevolence, 226 
Bequeath, devise, . . . 236 

Bereave, to, .226 

Beseech, beg, .226 

Besides, .226 

Bestow, allow, .... 223 
Bestow, confer, .... 231 

Bestow, give, .242 

Betoken, augur, . . . 225 

Better, amend .224 

Bid, call, .228 

Big, great, .243 

Billow, wave, .254 

Bishopric, .226 

Blame, to, ..... . 226 
Blam e, find fault with, . 241 

Blast, breeze, .227 

Blemish, .226 

Blend, mix, .248 

Blot out, to .226 

Blunder, error, .... 239 
Boast, glory, ..... 243 
Boisterous, violent, . . 254 

Bold .227 

Bold, daring, .... 234 

Booty, .227 

Bound, to .227 

Boundless .227 

Bounteous, beneficent, . 226 
Bountiful, beneficent, . 226 

Brave, .227 

Bravery, .227 

Breach, .227 

Break, to, .227 

Break, breach, .... 227 
Breaker, wave, .... 254 
Breeding, education, . . 238 

Breeze, .227 

Brief, short .252 

Brightness, ..... 227 
Brightness, clearness, . 230 
Brilliancy, brightness, . 227 
Brilliancy, radiance, . .251 

Bring, to, .227 

Brittle, fragile, .... 242 
Broad, large, .... 247 
Broil, quarrel, .... 250 
Bruise, break , .... 227 

Buffoon, fool, .... 241 

Bulky, .227 

Burden, weight ,.... 254 

Burial, .227 

Burning, hot, .245 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Burst, break, .227 

Business, .227 

Business, affair, . . . 222 

Bustle, .227 

Busy, active, .222 

Butchery, carnage, . . 228 

Buy, to, .227 

By-word, axiom, . . . 225 

Calamity, .227 

Calculate, to, .227 

Calendar, .227 

Call, to, .228 

Call, name, .248 

Calm, .228 

Calm, peace, .249 

Can .228 

Cancel, abolish, . . . 221 
Cancel, blot out, . . . 226 
Candid, frank, .... 242 

Candor, .228 

Capable, able .221 

Capacious, able, . . .221 
Capacious, ample, . . . 224 
Capaciousness, capacity, 228 

Capacity, .228 

Capacity, ability, . . .221 
Capricious, fanciful, . . 240 

Captious, .228 

Capture, .228 

Care .228 

Care, heed, .244 

Careful, .228 

Careful, attentive, . . . 225 

Carnage, .228 

Carp, censure, .... 228 

Carriage, .228 

Carry, bring, ..... 227 

Case, .228 

Cash, money .248 

Cast, .228 

Casual, occasional, . . 249 
Catch, lay hold of,. . . 247 

Cause, .228 

Cause, to .228 

Cause, case, .228 

Cautious, .228 

Cautious, careful, . . . 228 
Cavil, censure, .... 228 

Cease, to, .228 

Celebrate, to, .228 

Celebrated, famous, . . 240 

Celestial, .228 

Censure, to, .228 

Censure, blame, . . . 226 
Ceremony, form, . . . 242 

Certain .228 

Cessation, .229 

Chance .229 

Chance, happen, . . . 244 

Change, .229 

Change, to, .229 

Character, .229 

Charge, accuse, . . . .221 
Charge, attack, .... 225 

Charge, care .228 

Charge, cost, .233 

Charm, grace .243 

Chasm, breach, .... 227 
Chasten, to, . ... . 229 
Chastise, chasten, . . . 229 

Chat, babble, .225 

Chatter, babble, .... 225 

Cheapen, buy .227 

Cheat, to, .229 

Check, to .229 

Cheer, to, .229 

Cheer, animate .224 

Cherish, foster, .... 242 

Chide, check .229 

Chief, .229 

Choose, to, .229 

Circuit, ..229 

Circumscribe, to, .. . 229 
Circumscribe, bound, . 227 
Circumspect, cautious, . 228 
Circumstance, .... 229 
Circumstantial, .... 229 

Cite, to, .229 

Civil, .229 

Civilization, cultivation, 234 
Claim, right . 251 

























































































































































































































229 

229 

229 

230 

230 

224 

240 

230 

230 

230 

224 

230 

230 

230 

239 

252 

225 

230 

243 

230 

230 

225 

242 

228 

233 

230 

249 

230 

232 

230 

226 

230 

229 

230 

228 

226 

247 

250 

248 

253 

230 

249 

230 

230 

253 

230 

230 

225 

226 

230 

249 

253 

230 

230 

221 

230 

231 

231 

231 

231 

229 

231 

231 

232 

254 

231 

231 

223 

231 

231 

231 

228 

231 

231 

231 

231 

231 

227 

239 

231 

231 

231 

249 

231 

224 

231 

222 

222 


231 

234 

234 

234 

237 

234 

251 

234 

234 

234 

235 

235 

231 

253 

235 

226 

226 

235 

235 

224 

243 

235 

235 

235 

,231 

235 

232 

235 

235 

229 

221 

235 

235 

235 

235 

232 

234 

241 

249 

235 

235 

235 

235 

235 

253 

235 

233 

249 

235 

235 

235 

235 

235 

235 

226 

235 

232 

235 

223 

235 

235 

228 

235 

221 

252 

235 

235 

226 

235 

252 

235 

232 

235 

221 

236 

223 

236 

226 

242 

236 

236 

234 

244 

236 

233 

236 

234 

221 

244 

236 

236 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Concern, interest, . . . 246 

Concert, to, .231 

Conciliate, to, .231 

Concise, short, .... 252 
Conclude, close ,.... 230 

Conclusion, .231 

Conclusive, .231 

Conclusive, -final , . . .241 

Concord, .231 

Concurrence, assent, . 225 
Condemn, blame, . . . 226 
Condescension, complais¬ 
ance, .231 

Condition, ...... 231 

Condolence, sympathy,. 253 

Conduce, to .231 

Conduct, to, .231 

Conduct, lead, .... 247 
Confederacy, alliance, . 223 

Confederate .231 

Confer, to, .231 

Conference, conversation ,233 

Confidence, .231 

Confident, .231 

Confine, bound, .... 227 
Confined, contracted,. . 233 

Confirm, to, .231 

Confirm, to, .232 

Conform, comply, . . . 231 

Conformable .232 

Confound, to, .... 232 
Confound, mix, . . . 248 

Confront, to, .232 

Confuse, confound, . . 232 

Confusion, .232 

Confute, to, .232 

Congratulate, felicitate, 241 
Conjecture, guess ,. . . 243 

Connect, to, .232 

Connection .232 

Conqueror, .232 

Conscious, feel, .... 241 
Consecrate, dedicate, . 234 

Consent, to, .232 

Consent, agree .223 

Consent, assent, . . . 225 

Consequence, .232 

Consider, to, .232 

Consideration, .... 232 
Consistent, compatible ,. 230 
Consistent, consonant, . 232 

Consonant, .232 

Conspicuous, distin¬ 
guished, .237 

Conspicuous, prominent, 250 
Constancy, ...... 232 

Constant, continual,. . 232 
Constant, durable, . . 238 
Consternation, alarm, . 223 

Constitute, to, .232 

Consult, to .232 

Consume, destroy, . . . 236 
Consummate, to, ... 232 
Consumption, decay, . 234 

Contagion, .232 

Contagious, .232 

Contain, comprise, . .231 
Contaminate, to, ... 232 

Contemn, to, .232 

Contemplate, to,. . . . 232 

Contemptible, .232 

Contemptuous, contempt¬ 
ible, .232 

Contend, to, .232 

Contention, aissension, 237 
Contention, strife,. . . 253 

Contentment, .232 

Contest, contend, . . . 232 
Contiguous, adjacent, . 222 

Continual .232 

Continuance, .232 

Continuation, continu¬ 
ance., ... . . . 232 

Continue, to, .232 

Continue, to, .233 

Continued, continual, . 232 

Contracted, .233 

Contradict, to, .... 233 
Contrary, adverse,. . . 222 
Contrast, comparison, . 230 
Contribute, conduce ,. . 231 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Contrive, concert, . . .231 
Controvert, to, .... 233 
Contumacious, .... 233 
Contumely, reproach, . 251 

Convenient, .233 

Convenient, commodious ,230 
Convent, cloister, . . . 230 
Conversable, facetious ,. 240 

Conversant, .233 

Conversation, .... 233 
Converse, communion, . 230 

Convert, .233 

Convict, to, .233 

Convict, criminal,. . . 233 
Convince, convict, . . . 233 
Convincing, conclusive, 231 

Convivial .233 

Cool, dispassionate, . . 237 
Copy, ........ 233 

Copy, to .233 

Coquette, .233 

Cordial, hearty .244 

Correct, .233 

Correct, amend, . . . 224 

Correction, .233 

Correctness, justness, . 247 
Correspond, to, ... . 233 
Corroborate, confirm, . 231 
Corrupt, contaminate, . 232 
Corruption, depravity, . 235 

Cost, . . ..233 

Counsel, advice ,.... 222 
Count, calculate, . . . 227 
Countenance, to ,. . . . 233 
Country, land, .... 247 

Courage, .233 

Courage, bravery, . . . 227 

Cover, .233 

Cover, to, .233 

Covet, desire .235 

Crack, break .227 

Crave, beg, .226 

Create, cause, .... 228 
Create, make, .... 248 

Credit, .233 

Credit, belief, .226 

Creed, faith, .240 

Crew, band, .226 

Crime, .233 

Criminal, .233 

Criterion, ..234 

Criticism, animadversion, 224 
Crooked, awkward, . . 225 
Cross, awkward, . . . 225 
Cross, captious, .... 228 

Cruel, .234 

Crush, break, .227 

Cry, call, .228 

Crying, .234 

Culprit, criminal, . . . 233 

Cultivation, .234 

Culture, cultivation, . . 234 
Cunning, art, .... 224 

Cure, .234 

Cure, to, .234 

Curious, .234 

Current, stream, . . . 253 

Cursory, .234 

Custody, keeping, . . . 247 

Custom, .234 

Custom, usage, .... 254 

Daily, .234 

Dampness, moisture, . 248 

Danger, .234 

Daring, .234 

Dark, .234 

Daunt, dismay, . . . 237 

Deadly, .234 

Debase, abase .221 

Debate, to, .234 

Debility .234 

Debt .234 

Decay, .234 

Deceit, .234 

Deceit, art .224 

Deceitful, fallacious, . 240 

Deceiver .234 

Decency, .234 

Deception, deceit, . . . 234 
Decided, ....... 234 

Decision, .234 


















































































































































































INDEX 


899 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Devise, to, .236 

Devote, dedicate, . . . 234 
Dexterous, clever, . . . 230 
Dialogue, conversation,. 233 

Dictate, .236 

Dictate, to, .236 

Dictionary, .236 

Die, to .236 

Difference, .236 

Different, .236 

Difficulties, .236 

Difficulty, .236 

Diffidence, distrust, . . 238 
Diffidence, modesty, . . 248 

Diffuse, .236 

Diffuse, spread .252 

Digest, abridgment, . .221 
Digest, dispose, . . . 237 

Digress, to, .236 

Dilate, to, .236 

Diligent, .236 

Diligent, active, .... 222 

Dim, dark, .234 

Diminutive, little, . . . 247 
Diocese, bishopric, . . 226 
Direct, conduct,. . . . 231 

Direction, .236 

Disability, inability,. . 245 

Disaffection, .236 

Disappear, to, ... . 237 
Disapprobation, dis¬ 
pleasure, .237 

Disapprove, to, ... . 237 
Disaster, calamity, . . 227 

Disbelief, .237 

Discipline, correction, . 233 

Disclaim, to, .237 

Disclose, publish, . . . 250 
Discontinue, cease, . . 228 

Discord .237 

Discord, dissension, . . 237 

Discover, to, .237 

Discover, detect, . . . 236 
Discover, -find, . . . .241 

Discredit, .237 

Discretion, judgment, . 247 

Discriminate, distinguish, 237 

Discuss, to, .237 

Disdain, contemn, . . . 232 
Disdain, haughtiness, . 244 
Disease, disorder, . . . 237 
Diseased, sick, .... 252 
Disfigure, deface, . . . 235 
Disgrace, abase, . . .221 
Disgrace, discredit, . . 237 
Disgrace, dishonor, . . 237 
Disguise, conceal, . . .231 

Disgust, .237 

Dishonest, .237 

Dishonor, . . ... . 237 
Disinclination, dislike,. 237 

Disjoint, to, .237 

Dislike, . _.237 

Dislike, disapprove, . . 237 

Disloyalty, disaffection, 236 

Dismal, dull, .238 

Dismay, to, .237 

Dismember, disjoint, . 237 

Disorder, .237 

Disorder, confusion, . . 232 
Disown, disclaim, . . . 237 

Disparity, .237 

Dispassionate, .... 237 
Dispatch, hasten, . . . 244 

Dispel, to, .237 

Dispense, to, .237 

Disperse, dispel, . . . 237 

Displeasure .237 

Disposal, .237 

Dispose, to .237 

Disposition, . . . . 237 

Disposition, disposal, . 237 
Disprove, confute, . . . 232 
Dispute, contend, . . . 232 
Dispute, controvert, . . 233 
Dispute, difference, . . 236 

Disregard, to, .237 

Dissemble, conceal, . .231 
Dissension, . . . . . 237 
Dissimulation, simula¬ 
tion, .252 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Distant, .237 

Distemper, disorder,. . 237 
Distinct, different ,. . . 236 
Distinction, difference,. 236 
Distinctly, clearly, . . 230 
Distinguish, to, ... . 237 
Distinguish, abstract, . 221 
Distinguished, .... 237 
Distort, turn, .... 254 

Distress, .237 

Distress, to, .238 

Distress, afflict, .... 222 
Distribute, dispense,. . 237 
Distribute, divide,. . . 238 

Distrust, .238 

Disturb, to, .238 

Disturb, trouble, . . . 253 
Diurnal, daily, .... 234 
Diversity, difference, . 236 
Divert, amuse, .... 224 

Divide, to, .238 

Divine, Godlike, . . . 243 
Divine, guess, .... 243 

Divine, holy, .245 

Divinity, deity, .... 235 
Divulge, publish, . . . 250 

Do, act, .221 

Doctrine, .238 

Dogma, doctrine, . . . 238 
Dogmatical, confident, . 231 
Doleful, piteous, . . . 249 
Domestic, servant, . . 252 
Domineering, imperious, 245 
Dominion, empire, . . 238 
Donation, gift, .... 242 

Doom, destiny .236 

Doubt, .238 

Doubt, to, .238 

Doubt, demur, .... 235 

Downfall, fall .240 

Drag, draw, .238 

Draw, to .238 

Dread, awe .225 

Dreadful, fearful, . . . 241 
Dreadful, formidable, . 242 

Dream, .238 

Drench, soak, .... 252 
Drudge, servant, . . . 252 
Drudgery, work, . . . 255 

Due, debt, .234 

Dull .238 

Durable, .238 

Duration, continuance,. 232 

Duty, . ..238 

Dwell, abide, .221 

Each, all, .223 

Ease, .238 

Easy, .238 

Eclipse, to,. . . . . . 238 
Economical, penurious, 249 

Edict, decree .234 

Education, .238 

Efface, blot out .226 

Effect, to, ...... 238 

Effect, accomplish, . .221 
Effect, consequence, . . 232 
Effeminate, female, . . 241 
Effort, attempt, .... 225 

Effort, endeavor, . . . 239 

Effusion, .238 

Egotistical, opinionated, 249 
Ejaculation, effusion, . 238 

Elderly, .238 

Eligible, .238 

Elucidate, explain, . . 240 
Embarrassments, . . . 238 
Embarrassments, diffi¬ 
culties, .236 

Embolden, encourage, . 239 
Embrace, clasp, . . . 229 
Embrace, comprise, . .231 
Emend, amend ,.... 224 
Emergency, exigency, . 240 
Eminent, distinguished, 237 

Emissary, .238 

Empire, .238 

Employ, to, .238 

Employment, business, 227 
Empower, commission, 230 
Empty, hollow, .... 245 
Encircle, surround, . . 253 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Encomium, .239 

Encompass, surround, . 253 
Encounter, attack, . . 225 
Encourage, to, ... . 239 
Encourage, cheer, . . . 229 
Encyclopaedia, diction¬ 
ary, .236 

End, to, .239 

End, aim, .223 

Endeavor, .239 

Endeavor, to, .239 

Endeavor, attempt, . . 225 
Endless, eternal, . . . 239 

Endow, invest .246 

Endue, invest, .... 246 

Energy, .239 

Engage, attract ,.... 225 
Engagement, business,. 227 
Engagement, promise, . 250 

Enlarge, to, .239 

Enlighten, illuminate, . 245 
Enliven, animate, . . . 224 

Enmity, .239 

Enormous, .239 

Enough, .239 

Ensample, example, . . 239 
Entanglements, embar¬ 
rassments, .238 

Enterprising. .239 

Entertain, amuse,. . . 224 
Enter upon, begin, . . 226 

Entreat, beg .226 

Environ, surround, . . 253 
Envoy, ambassador, . . 223 
Envy, jealousy, .... 247 
Ephemeris, calendar, . 227 
Epicure, sensualist, . . 252 
Epidemical, contagious, 232 
Epistle, letter, .... 247 

Epithet, .239 

Epitome, abridgment, . 221 

Equable, equal .239 

Equal .239 

Equivocate, evade, . . 239 
Equivocation, ambiguity, 223 
Erase, blot out, .... 226 

Error, .239 

Erudition, knowledge, . 247 

Eruption, . 239 

Essay, attempt, .... 225 
Establish, confirm, . . 232 
Esteem, value, .... 254 

Estimate, to, .239 

Eternal, .239 

Eulogy, encomium, . . 239 

Evade, to, .239 

Even, equal, .239 

Event, .239 

Event, consequence, . . 232 
Everlasting, eternal, . . 239 

Every, all, .223 

Evidence, deponent, . . 235 
Evident, apparent, . . 224 
Evince, argue, .... 224 

Exact, .239 

Exact, to, .239 

Examine, discuss,. . . 237 

Example, .239 

Exasperate, aggravate,. 223 
Except, besides, . . . 226 
Except, unless, . . . 254 
Exchange, change, . . 229 

Excite, to, .239 

Excite, awaken, . . . 225 

Exclaim, call .228 

Exculpate, apologize, . 224 
Exculpate, exonerate, . 240 
Excursion, . . . • . . . 239 

Excuse, to, .239 

Excuse, apologize,. . . 224 

Execute, to, .240 

Execute, accomplish, . 221 
Exempt, free, .... 242 

Exercise, to .240 

Exertion, endeavor, . . 239 
Exhibit, give, .... 243 
Exhibition, show, . . . 252 
Exhilarate, animate,. . 224 

Exigency, .240 

Exile, banishment, . . 226 
Exist, be, .226 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Exonerate, to, .... 240 
Expand, dilate, .... 236 
Expand, spread, . . . 252 

Expediency, .240 

Expedient, .240 

Expedite, hasten, . . . 244 
Expeditious, diligent, . 236 
Expense, cost, .... 233 

Expert, clever .230 

Expiate, atone for, . . 225 

Expire, die, .236 

Explain, to, .240 

Explosion, eruption, . . 239 
Expostulate, to, ... . 240 
Expound, explain, . . 240 
Expulsion, banishment, 226 
Expunge, blot out, . . 226 
Extend, enlarge, . . . 239 
Extensive, comprehen¬ 
sive .231 

Exterior, outward, . . 249 
External, outward, . . 249 

Extort, exact .239 

Extraneous, .240 

Extraordinary, .... 240 

Extravagant, .240 

Extrinsic, extraneous, . 240 

Exuberant, .240 

Face, confront, .... 232 

Facetious, .240 

Fact, circumstance, . . 229 

Factious .240 

Faculty, ability, . . .221 
Failure, insolvency , . . 246 

Fair, .240 

Faith .. . 240 

Faith, belief, .226 

Faithful, .240 

Faithless, .240 

Fall .240 

Fallacious, .240 

Falter, hesitate, .... 244 

Fame, .240 

Familiar, conversant, . 233 
Familiar, free, .... 242 

Famous, .240 

Fanciful, .240 

Fancy, . ..240 

Fancy, conceit, . . . . 231 
Fantastical, fanciful, . 240 

Far, distant, .237 

Fashion, custom, . . . 234 
Fashion, form, .... 242 
Fatal, deadly, .... 234 

Fate, chance .229 

Fate, destiny, .... 236 

Fatigue, ....... 240 

Fault, blemish, . . . . 226 

Fault, error, .239 

Favor, credit, .... 233 

Fearful, .241 

Fearful, afraid, .... 222 
Fearless, bold, .... 227 
Feasible, colorable, . . 230 

Feeble, weak .254 

Feel, to .241 

Feign, to, .241 

Felicitate, to .241 

Felon, criminal, . . . 233 

Female .241 

Feminine, female, . . . 241 

Ferocious, .241 

Fervent, .241 

Fetch, bring, .227 

Feud, quarrel, .... 250 
Fidelity, faith, .... 240 
Fierce, ferocious, . . .241 

Fiery, hot, .245 

Final, .241 

Find, to,. . . . . . . 241 
Find fault with, to, . . 241 

Fine, .241 

Fine, beautiful, .... 226 

Finish, close, .230 

Finished, complete, . . 231 

Finite, .241 

Firm, .241 

Firm, hard, .244 

Firmness, constancy, . 232 

Fit, .241 

Fitness, expediency, . . 240 





























































































































































900 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Fitted, competent, . . .231 

Fixed, firm ..241 

Flagitious, heinous, . . 244 
Flagrant, heinous, . . 244 

Flatterer, .241 

Flaw, blemish, .... 226 

Flexible, .241 

Fluctuate, to, .241 

Follow, to, .241 

Follower, .241 

Folly, .241 

Fond, affectionate, . . 222 
Fond, indulgent, . . . 246 

Fool, .241 

Foolery, folly, . . . .241 
Foolhardy, . . . . . .241 

Foolish, irrational, . . 247 
Footstep, mark, . . . 248 

Force, .241 

Force, compel, .... 230 

Force, energy .239 

Forcible, coge.it, . . . 230 
Forebode, augur, . . . 225 

Forefathers, .241 

Forego, give up, . . . 243 

Foreign, extraneous, . . 240 

Foretell, to .241 

Forgetfulness, .... 242 
Forgive, to, ..... 242 
Forlorn, forsaken, . . . 242 

Form, .242 

Form, to, .242 

Form, make .248 

Formidable, .242 

Forsake, abandon, . .221 

Forsaken, .242 

Forswear, to, .242 

Fortify, strengthen, . . 253 
Fortitude, courage, . . 233 
Fortunate, happy, . . 244 
Fortune, chance, . . . 229 

Foster, to, .242 

Foundation .242 

Fragile, .242 

Frail, fragile, .242 

Frank.242 

Fraud, deceit, .... 234 
Fraudulent, fallacious ,. 240 

Free .242 

Free, frank, ..... 242 

Freedom .242 

Frenzy, madness, . . . 248 

Frequent, to .242 

Frequently, commonly ,. 230 

Fresh, new, .248 

Fretful, captious, . . . 228 
Friendly, amicable, . . 224 
Fright, alarm, .... 223 

Frighten, to, .242 

Frightful, fearful, . . . 241 
Fulfill, execute, .... 240 

Funeral, .242 

Furious, violent, . . . 254 
Furnish, provide, . . . 250 

Fury, anger, .224 

Fury, madness, .... 248 

Gait, carriage .228 

Gale, breeze .227 

Gallant, brave .227 

Gamesome, playful, . . 249 

Gang, band, .226 

Gap, breach, .227 

Gape, to .242 

Gather, to, .242 

Gaze, gape, .242 

General .242 

Generally, commonly, . 230 
Generous, beneficent, . 226 
Genius, intellect, . . . 246 
Genius, taste, .... 253 

Genteel, .242 

Gentle, .242 

Gesticulation, action, . 222 
Gesture, action,. . . . 222 

Gift .242 

Give, to, .242 

Give, to, .243 

Give up, to .243 

Gladness, joy, . . . . 247 
Glance, glimpse, . . . 243 
Glance, look, .248 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Glaring, .243 

Glide, slip, .252 

Glimpse. .243 

Gloomy, dull, .... 238 

Glory, .243 

Glory, to, .243 

Glossary, dictionary,. . 236 

Godlike, .243 

Good-humor, good-na¬ 
ture, .243 

Good-nature, .243 

Govern, to, .243 

Government, .243 

Grace, .243 

Graceful, becoming, . . 226 

Grand, great, .243 

Grant, allow, .223 

Grant, give, .242 

Grateful, acceptable, . .221 

Gratify, to, .243 

Gratify, satisfy, . . .251 
Gratitude, thankfulness, 253 

Gratuitous, .243 

Grave, .243 

Great .243 

Greeting, salute, . . .251 
Grief, affliction, .... 222 
Gripe, press, ^ ... . 250 

Groan, .243 

Gross, .243 

Ground, foundation, . . 242 

Grow, be, .226 

Grow, increase, .... 246 

Guard, .243 

Guard, to, .243 

Guardian, guard, . . . 243 

Guess, to, .243 

Guest, .243 

Guide, lead, .247 

Guile, deceit, .234 

Guise .243 

Gust, breeze .227 

Habit, custom, .... 234 

Habit, guise, .243 

Habitation .243 

Hale, draw, .238 

Hallow, dedicate, . . . 234 
Handsome, beautiful, . 226 
Hanker after, desire, . 235 
Happen, to, .... . 244 

Happy, ..244 

Harass, distress, . . . 238 

Harbor, .244 

Harbor, foster, .... 242 

Hard .244 

Hardly .244 

Harmony, concord, . .231 
Haste, rashness, . . .251 

Hasten, to, .244 

Hasty, cursory, .... 234 

Hate, to, .244 

Hateful, .244 

Haughtiness, .244 

Haul, draw, .238 

Haunt, frequent, . . . 242 

Have, to, .244 

Haven, harbor, .... 244 

Hazard, to .244 

Hazard, chance, . . . 229 
Hazard, danger, . . . 234 

Head, chief, .229 

Heal, cure, .234 

Healthful, .244 

Healtny, sound, . . . 252 

Heap, to, .244 

Hearken, attend, . . . 225 
Hearsay, fame, .... 240 

Hearty, .. . 244 

Heave, lift, ..... 247 
Heavenly, celestial, . . 228 
Heavenly, Godlike, . . 243 

Heed .244 

Heinous, .244 

Help, to, .244 

Heresy, heterodoxy, . . 244 
Hesitate, to, .... . 244 
Hesitate, demur, . . . 235 
Hesitation, demur, . . 235 

Heterodoxy, .244 

Hidden, secret, .... 251 
Hide, conceal, . . . .231 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Hide, cover .233 

High .244 

Hinder, to, .244 

Hinder, retard .251 

Hint, allude, .223 

Hire, allowance, . . . 223 

Hoist, lift, .247 

Hold, to .244 

Hold, to, .245 

Holiness, .245 

Hollow, .245 

Holy .245 

Home, habitation, . . . 243 

Honor, to, .245 

Honor, glory, .243 

Horrible, fearful, . . .241 
Horrid, fearful, . . .241 
Hostile, adverse, . . . 222 
Hostility, enmity, . . . 239 

Hot .245 

House, habitation,. . . 243 

Hug, clasp, .229 

Human, .245 

Humane, human, . . . 245 
Humanity, benevolence, 226 

Humble, .245 

Humble, abase, .... 221 
Humidity, moisture,. . 248 
Humor, ....... 245 

' Humor, gratify, . . . 243 
Hurricane, breeze,. . . 227 
Hurry, hasten, .... 244 

Hurtful, .245 

Idea .245 

Ideal, .245 

Idiot, fool, .241 

Idle, .245 

Ill, badly .226 

Illuminate, to .245 

Illumine, illuminate, . 245 
Illustrate, explain, . . 240 
Illustrious, distinguished ,237 
Illustrious, famous, . . 240 
Imaginary, ideal, . . . 245 
Imagination, fancy, . . 240 
Imagination, idea, . . 245 
Imagine, apprehend, . 224 
Imagine, think, . . . 253 
Imbecility, debility, . . 234 

Imminent, .245 

Impair, to, .245 

Impart, communicate, . 230 
Impeach, accuse, . . . 221 
Impediment, difficulty, 236 
Impel, actuate, .... 222 
Impending, imminent, . 245 

Imperious, .245 

Impetuous, violent, . . 254 
Impious, irreligious,. . 247 

Implicate, to, .245 

Implore, beg, ..... 226 
Importunity, solicita¬ 
tion, .252 

Impostor, deceiver, . . 234 
Improve, amend, . . . 224 

Impugn, to, .245 

Inability, .245 

Inadvertency. .245 

Inattention, inadvert¬ 
ency, .245 

Incident, circumstance, 229 

Incident, event .239 

Incite, excite, .239 

Inclination,.245 

Inclination, disposition, 237 

Incline, lean, .247 

Inclose, to, .246 

Inclose, circumscribe, . 229 
Include, comprise, . .231 
Include, inclose, . . . 246 
Incontrovertible, indubi¬ 
table, ..246 

Inconvenience, to, . . . 246 

Increase, to, .246 

Increase, enlarge, . . . 239 
Incredulity, unbelief, . 254 
Indebted, to be, . . . . 246 

Indifferent, .246 

Indignation, anger, . . 224 
Indisputable, indubi¬ 
table, .246 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Individual, particular, . 249 

Indolent, idle .245 

Indubitable .246 

Induce, actuate, . . . 222 
Indulge, foster, .... 242 
Indulge, gratify, . . . 243 

Indulgent .246 

Industrious, active, . . 222 
Ineffable, unspeakable,. 254 
Inequality, disparity, . 237 
Inexpressible, unspeak- 

254 
246 

232 
231 
254 
227 

254 
234 

233 
246 
246 
246 
246 
246 
242 
246 
221 

234 
222 

255 
230 

245 

246 
246 
225 
234 
246 
246 
246 
246 
246 
224 
239 
246 
246 
222 
238 
222 
246 
246 


able, 

Infamous, .... 

Infection, contagion, 
Inference, conclusion 
Infidelity, unbelief, 

Infinite, boundless, 

Infirm, weak,. . . 

Infirmity, debility. 

Influence, credit, . 

Inform, to, . . . . 
Information, . . . 
Ingenious, ingenuous 
Ingenuity, . . . 

Ingenuous, . . 

Ingenuous, frank, . 
Ingratiate, insinuate 
Inhabit, abide, . . 

Inhuman, cruel, . 

Inimical, adverse, . 
Iniquitous, wicked, 
Injunction, command, 
Injure, impair, . . 

Injury, injustice, . 

Injustice, .... 

Inquire, ask, . . . 
Inquisitive, curious, 

Inside, . 

Insinuate, to, . . . 
Insinuation, . . . 

Insist, to . 

Insolvency ,.... 

Inspire, animate, . 

Instance, example, 

Instant, . 

Instruct, inform, . 
Instruction, advice, 
Instruction, educatio 
Insult, affront, 

Insurrection, . 

Intellect, . . . 

Intellect, understanding, 254 
Intelligence, information, 246 
Intelligence, understand¬ 
ing, .254 

' ' ‘ 235 

246 
246 
246 
227 


n,. 


Intend, design, . 

Interchange, . . 

Interest, .... 

Interior, inside, 

Interment, burial, 
Intermission, cessation, 229 
Interposition, interven¬ 
tion, .246 

Interpret, explain, . . 240 
Interrogate, ask, . . . 225 
Interrupt, disturb, . . 238 
Interval, ....... 246 

Intervention, .246 

Interview, meeting, . . 248 
Intimidate, frighten, . . 242 
Intrepid, bold, .... 227 
Introductory, previous, 250 

Intrude, to .246 

Invalid, .246 

Inveigh, declaim, . . . 234 

Invent, find, .241 

Invest, to, .246 

Invigorate, strengthen, . 253 
Invite, attract, .... 225 
Invite, call, ..... 228 
Involve, implicate, . . 245 

Ire, anger, .224 

Irrational, .247 


Irrefragable, indubitable ,246 


Irreligious, 

Irritate, aggravate. 
Issue, consequence. 
Issue, offspring. 
Jaunt, excursion, . 
Jealousy, . . . . 
Jilt, coquette, . . . 


247 

223 

232 
249 
239 
247 

233 





























































































































































































INDEX 


901 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Jocose, facetious, . . . 240 
Jocular, facetious, . . 240 

Journey, .247 

Joy .247 

Judgment .247 

Judgment, decision, . . 234 
Justify, apologize, . . 224 

Justness, .247 

Juvenile, youthful, . . 255 

Keen, acute, .222 

Keen, sharp, .252 

Keep, to, .247 

Keep, hold .244 

Keeping, .247 

Kind, affectionate, . . 222 
Kindness, benevolence, . 226 

Kingly, royal .251 

Knavish, dishonest, . . 237 

Know, to, .247 

Knowledge .247 

Labor, work, .255 

Laborious, active, . . . 222 

Lack, want, .254 

Lag, linger, .247 

Lament, complain, . . 231 
Lament, deplore, . . . 235 

Land, ., . . 247 

Large, .247 

Large, great, . . . . . 243 
Lassitude, fatigue, . . 240 
Lasting, durable, . . . 238 

Latent, secret .251 

Laudable, .247 

Lavish, extravagant, . . 240 

Lay, lie .247 

Lay, put, .250 

Lay hold of, to, ... . 247 

Lazy, idle, .245 

Lead, to, .247 

Leader, chief, .... 229 
League, alliance, . . . 223 

Lean, to, .247 

Learning, knowledge, . 247 

Leave, to, .247 

Leave off, cease, . . . 228 
Leave off, desist, . . . 235 

Leavings .247 

Letter, .247 

Letter, character, . . . 229 

Level, aim, .223 

Lexicon, dictionary, . . 236 
Liberal, beneficent, . . 226 

Liberal, free, .242 

Liberty, freedom, . . . 242 

Lie, to, .247 

Lift, to, .247 

Like, equal .239 

Likeness, .247 

Limit, bound, .... 227 
Limited, finite, . . . .241 

Linger, to .247 

Listen, attend .225 

Little, .247 

Live, abide .221 

Living, .247 

Load, weight, .254 

Loathe, abhor, . . . .221 
Loathing, disgust ,. . . 237 

Lodging, .247 

Lofty, high, .244 

Loiter, linger, .... 247 
Lonely, alone, .... 223 
Long for, desire, . . . 235 

Look .248 

Look, air, . 223 

Loose, slack, . . . . . 252 
Lordly, imperious, . . 245 

Lose, to, .248 

Lot, destiny, .236 

Lucidity, clearness, . . 230 
Luster, brightness, . . 227 
Luxuriant, exuberant, . 240 

Madness, .248 

Magnificence, .... 248 

Main, chief, .229 

Maintain, assert, . . . 225 

Make, to, .248 

Make, act, .221 

Malady, disorder, . . . 237 
Malefactor, criminal, . 233 
Malevolence, ..... 248 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Maliciousness, malevo¬ 
lence, .248 

Malignity, malevolence,. 248 
Manage, concert, . . .231 
Manage, conduct, . . .231 
Management, care, . . 228 
Manful, manly, .... 248 
Manifest, apparent, . . 224 
Manifest, discover, . . 237 

Manly, .248 

Manner, air, . . . . . 223 
Manner, custom, . . . 234 

Manners, .248 

Mariner, seaman, . . .251 

Mark .248 

Martial .248 

Marvel, wonder, . . . 255 
Massacre, carnage, . . 228 
Massive, bulky, .... 227 
Maxim, axiom, .... 225 

May, can, .228 

Mean, design, .... 235 
Mechanic, artist, . . . 224 
Meditate, contemplate, . 232 
Medley, difference, . . 236 

Meet, fit, .241 

M eeting, .248 

Melancholy, defection, . 235 

Memory, .248 

Menace, threat, .... 253 
Mend, amend, .... 224 
Menial, servant ,.... 252 

Mercantile, .248 

Merit, desert, .235 

Metamorphose, transfig¬ 
ure, .253 

Mighty, powerful, . . . 250 
Military, martial, ... . 248 

Mingle, mix, .248 

Minister, .248 

Minute, circumstantial, 229 
Miracle, wonder, . . . 255 
Mirth, joy, ...... 247 

Mischance, calamity, . 227 
Miserly, avaricious, . . 225 
Misfortune, calamity, . 227 
Mishap, calamity, . . . 227 

Miss, lose, .248 

Mistake, error .239 

Misuse, abuse .221 

Mitigate, allay .223 

Mix, to .248 

Moan, groan .243 

Model, copy, .233 

Modern, new, .... 248 
Modest, humble, . . . 245 

M odesty .248 

M oisture .248 

Mold, form, .242 

Molest, inconvenience, . 246 

Molest, trouble .253 

Moment, instant, . . . 246 
Monastery, cloister, . . 230 
Money, 248 

Monster, wonder, . . . 255 
Monstrous, enormous, . 239 

Mood, humor .245 

Morals, manners, . . . 248 
Morbid, sick, .... 252 
Mortal, deadly, .... 234 

Motion, .248 

Motive, cause, .... 228 
Motive, principle, . . . 250 

Mount, arise .224 

Move, stir, ...... 253 

Movement, motion, . . 248 

Moving, .248 

Munificent, beneficent, . 226 
Muse, contemplate, . . 232 
Muster, assemble, . . . 225 

Mutual, .248 

Mysterious, dark, . . . 234 
Mysterious, secret, . . 251 

Name, to, .248 

Name, nominate, . . . 249 
Narrow, contracted, . . 233 

Native, .248 

Natural, native, . . . 248 
Nausea, disgust, . . . 237 

Near, close, .230 

Necessary, necessity, . 2481 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Necessitate, compel, . . 230 

Necessity, .248 

Need, want, .254 

Nefarious, wicked, . . 255 

Neglect, to, .248 

Neglect, disregard, . . 237 
Neighborhood, .... 248 

New, .248 

News, .249 

Nice, exact, .239 

Nice, fine .241 

Niggardly, avaricious, . 225 
Niggardly, penurious, . 249 

Nigh, close, .230 

Noisome, hurtful, . . . 245 
Nomenclature, diction¬ 
ary, .236 

Nominate, to, .249 

Noted, distinguished, . 237 

Notice, to .249 

Notice, information, . 246 
Notion, conception, . .231 

Novel, new .248 

Noxious, hurtful, . . . 245 

Numeral .249 

Numerical, numeral, . 249 

Obedient, .249 

Object, to, .249 

Object, aim, .223 

Object to, find fault with, 241 
Objection, demur,. . . 235 
Obligation, duly, . . . 238 
Oblige, compel, .... 230 
Obliged, indebted, . . . 246 
Obliging, civil, .... 229 
Obliterate, blot out, . . 226 
Oblivion, forgetfulness,. 242 
Obloquy, reproach, . .251 

Obnoxious .249 

Obscure, dark .234 

Obscure, eclipse, . . . 238 
Obsequies, funeral, . . 242 
Obsequious, obedient, . 249 
Observance, form, . . 242 

Observe, to,. .249 

Observe, notice, . . . 249 

Observe, see, .252 

Obstacle, difficulty, . . 236 
Obtrude, intrude, . . . 246 
Obvious, apparent, . . 224 

Occasion, .249 

Occasion, cause, . . . 228 

Occasional .249 

Occult, secret, . . . .251 
Occupation, business, . 227 
Occupy, hold, .... 245 
Occurrence, event, . . 239 
Odious, hateful,. . . . 244 

Offender, .249 

Offensive, obnoxious, . 249 

Offer, give .243 

Officious, active, . . . 222 

Offspring, .249 

Old, elderly, .238 

Omen, .249 

Omit, neglect, .... 248 
Onset, attack, .... 225 

Open, frank, .242 

Openness, candor, . . 228 

Operate, act, .221 

Opinionated .249 

Opportunity, occasion ,. 249 
Oppose, combat, . . . 230 

Oppose, object .249 

Opposite, adverse,. . . 222 
Oppugn, confute, . . . 232 

Option, .249 

Ordain, appoint, ... 224 
Order, appoint, . . . 224 
Order, command, . . . 230 
Order, direction, . . . 236 

Orifice, .249 

Ostensible, colorable, . 230 
Outrage, affront, . . . 222 

Outward, .249 

Overbearing, imperious, 245 
Overpower, beat, . . . 226 
Oversight, inadvertency, 245 
Overthrow, beat, . . . 226 

Paint, to, .249 

Panegyric, encomium, . 239 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Parasite, flatterer, . . .241 
Pardon, excuse, . . . 239 
Pardon, forgive, . . . 242 
Pardonable, venial, . . 254 
Parsimonious, avari¬ 
cious .225 

Part .249 

Part, divide, .238 

Particular, ..... 249 
Particular, circumstan¬ 
tial, .229 

Particular, exact, . . . 239 
Partisan, follower, . .241 
Partner, colleague, . . 230 
Partnership, association, 225 

Patch, part, .249 

Pathetic, moving, . . . 248 
Patient, invalid, . . . 246 
Pattern, copy, .... 233 
Pattern, example, . . . 239 
Pause, demur, .... 235 

Pay, allowance .223 

Peace, .249 

Peevish, captious, . . . 228 

Pellucid, .249 

Penurious .249 

Perceive, see, .252 

Perfect, complete, . . .231 
Perfidious, faithless, . . 240 
Perforation, orifice, . . 249 
Perform, effect, .... 238 
Perform, execute, . . . 240 
Performance, production, 250 

Peril, danger, .234 

Perjure, forswear, . . . 242 
Permanent, durable,. . 238 
Permit, admit, .... 222 
Permit, consent, . . . 232 
Pernicious, hurtful, . . 245 

Perpetrate, to .249 

Perplex, distress, . . . 238 
Perplexities, embarrass- 

. ments, .238 

Persevere, continue, .- . 233 
Persist, continue, . . . 233 
Persist, insist, .... 246 
Perspicuity, clearness, . 230 
Persuade, convict, . . . 233 
Pertinacious, tenacious, 253 
Perverted, awkward, . 225 
Pestilential, contagious, 232 
Petulant, captious, . . 228 

Pick, choose, .229 

Piece, part, .249 

Pile, heap, .244 

Pillar, .249 

Pinch, press, .250 

Piteous .249 

Pity, .249 

Place, put .250 

Placid, calm, .228 

Plain, apparent, . . . 224 

Plain, frank, .242 

Plausible, colorable, . . 230 

Playful, .249 

Plead, apologize, . . . 224 
Pleader, defender, . . . 235 
Pleasant, agreeable, . . 223 
Pleasant, facetious, . . 240 
Please, satisfy, . . . .251 
Pleasing, agreeable, . . 223 
Pleasure, comfort, . . . 230 
Pledge, deposit, . . . 235 
Plenipotentiary, ambas¬ 
sador, .223 

Pliable, flexible, . . . 241 
Pliant, flexible, .... 241 

Pluck, draw, .238 

Point, aim, .223 

Poise, to, .250 

Poison, . ..250 

Polish, politeness, . . . 250 

Polite, civil, .229 

Polite, genteel, .... 242 

Politeness .250 

Pollute, contaminate, . 232 
Pomp, magnificence, . . 248 
Port, harbor, . . . . . 244 
Portend, augur, . . . 225 

Position .250 

Position, tenet, .... 253 






























































































































































250 

250 

227 

250 

250 

234 

240 

247 

225 

225 

230 

238 

251 

241 

229 

238 

250 

250 

247 

225 

249 

224 

236 

254 

242 

243 

247 

250 

250 

224 

250 

250 

222 

241 

226 

239 

250 

250 

227 

233 

229 

250 

238 

250 

251 

228 

254 

222 

250 

224 

234 

234 

250 

240 

239 

255 

238 

248 

250 

247 

227 

250 

235 

240 

241 

249 

249 

241 

236 

250 

250 

236 

251 

250 

245 

254 

224 

252 

245 

241 

225 

250 

233 

254 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Protect, defend , . . . 235 

Prove, argue, .224 

Proverb, axiom, . . . 225 
Provide, to, ..... 250 
Provident, careful, . . 228 
Provoke, aggravate, . . 223 
Provoke, awaken, . . . 225 
Provoke, excite, . . . 239 
Prudence, judgment,. . 247 
Prudence, vnsdom, . . 255 
Prying, curious, . . . 234 

Publish, to .250 

Publish, announce, . . 224 
Publish, declare, . . . 234 
Puerile, youthful, . . . 255 

Pull, draw .238 

Punctual, exact, . . . 239 
Punishment, correction, 233 
Purchase, buy, .... 227 

Pure, clean, .230 

Purpose, design, . . . 235 
Pursue, follow, . . . .241 

Put, to, ..250 

Qualification .250 

Qualified, competent, . 231 

Quarrel, .250 

Quarrel, difference, . . 236 
Query, question, . . .251 

Question .251 

Question, ask, .... 225 
Question, doubt, . . . 238 

Quiet, ease, .238 

Quiet, peace .249 

Quit, leave, .247 

Quote, cite, .229 

Radiance, .251 

Rage, anger, .224 

Rage, madness, .... 248 
Ramble, excursion, . . 239 

Range, class .229 

Rapacious, .251 

Rase, blot out, .... 226 
Rash, foolhardy, . . . 241 

Rashness, .251 

Rate, estimate, .... 239 
Ravenous, rapacious, . 251 

Ready .251 

Ready, easy, .238 

Real, actual, .222 

Realm, state, .253 

Reason, argument, . . 224 
Reason, cause, .... 228 
Reason, consideration, . 232 
Rebellion, insurrection, 246 
Rebellious, contumacious, 233 
Rebuff, refuse, . . . .251 
Rebuke, check, .... 229 
Recapitulate, repeat, . 251 

Recent, new, .248 

Receive, admit .222 

Reciprocity, interchange ,246 

Recite, repeat .251 

Reckon, calculate ,. . . 227 

Reclaim, to .251 

Recline, to, .251 

Recollection, memory, . 248 
Recompense, compensa¬ 
tion .230 

Reconcile, conciliate, . 231 

Recover, to, .251 

Recovery .251 

Recruit, recover, . . .251 
Refer, allude, .... 223 
Refinement, cultivation, 234 
Refinement, politeness, 250 
Reflect, consider, . . . 232 
Reflection, insinuation, 246 

Reform, .251 

Reform, reclaim, . . .251 
Reformation, reform, . 251 
Refuge, asylum, . . . 225 

Refuse, to, .251 

Refuse, deny, .... 235 
Refute, confute, . . . 232 

Regal, royal, .251 

Regard, consider, . . . 232 
Regardless, indifferent, 246 
Regret, complain, . . . 231 
Regulate, govern, . . . 243 
Rehearse, repeat, . . .251 
Reign, empire .238 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

Reject, refuse, .... 251 
Rejoinder, answer, . . 224 
Relation, connection, . 232 

Relax .251 

Relieve, alleviate, . . . 223 
Relieve, help, .... 244 
Relinquish, abandon, . 221 
Relinquish, leave, . . . 247 
Remain, continue, . . 232 
Remains, leavings, . . 247 
Remark, notice, . . . 249 
Remarkable, extraordi¬ 
nary, .240 

Remedy, cure .234 

Remedy, to cure, . . . 234 
Remembrance, memory, 248 
Reminiscence, memory, 248 
Remit, forgive, .... 242 
Remit, relax, .... 251 
Remonstrate, expostu¬ 
late, .240 

Remote, distant, . . . 237 
Remuneration, compen¬ 
sation, .230 

Renown, fame, .... 240 
Renowned, famous, . . 240 
Repair, recover, . . . .251 

Repay, restore .251 

Repeal, abolish, . . . 221 

Repeat, to, .251 

Repel, refuse, . . . .251 
Reply, answer, .... 224 
Report, fame, .... 240 
Repose, ease, .... 238 
Repose, recline ,. . . . 251 
Representation, show, . 252 

Repress, to, .251 

Reprimand, check, . . 229 

Reproach, .251 

Reproach, blame, . . . 226 
Reproach, discredit, . . 237 
Reprobate, profligate, . 250 
Reprove, blame, . . . 226 
Reprove, check ,.... 229 
Repugnant, adverse,. . 222 
Reputation, character, . 229 
Reputation, fame, . . 240 
Require, demand, . . . 235 
Requital, compensation, 230 
Rescue, deliver, . . . 235 
Resemblance, likeness , . 247 
Resentment, anger, . . 224 
Reside, abide, . . . .221 
Residence, habitation, . 243 
Resign, give up, . . . 243 
Resolute, decided, . . . 234 
Resolution, courage, . . 233 
Resolve, determine, . . 236 
Resort to, frequent, . . 242 
Resource, expedient,. . 240 
Respect, honor, . . . 245 
Respite, interval, . . . 246 
Response, answer, . . 224 
Responsible, answerable, 224 
Rest, cessation, .... 229 

Rest, ease, .238 

Restoration, recovery, . 251 

Restore, to, .251 

Restrain, repress, . . . 251 
Restrict, bound, . . . 227 
Result, consequence, . . 232 

Retain, hold .244 

Retard, to, .251 

Retirement, privacy, . 250 
Retreat, asylum, . . . 225 
Retrieve, recover, . . .251 
Return, restore, . . .251 

Reveal, publish, . . . 250 

Reverence, adoration, . 222 
Reverence, awe, . . . 225 
Reverence, honor,. . . 245 
Reverie, dream, . . . 238 
Revoke, abolish, . . .221 
Revolt, insurrection, . 246 
Reward, compensation, 230 

Right .251 

Rigid, austere, .... 225 
Rigorous, austere, . . . 225 

Rise, arise, .224 

Risk, hazard .244 

Rite, form,. ..... 242 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Rough, coarse, .... 230 
Round, circuit, .... 229 
Rouse, awaken, . . . 225 

Rout, beat, .226 

Royal .251 

Rude, coarse, .230 

Rueful, piteous, . . . 249 
Ruin, destruction, . . . 236 

Ruin, fall, .240 

Rule, govern, .243 

Rumor, fame, .... 240 

Rural .251 

Rustic, rural, . . . .251 

Sacred, holy, .245 

Sad, dull, .238 

Safe .251 

Sailor, seaman .251 

Salary, allowance, . . 223 
Salubrious, healthful, . 244 
Salutary, healthful, . . 244 
Salutation, salute, . .251 

Salute, .251 

Sanction, countenance, . 233 
Sanctity, holiness, . . 245 

Sane, sound, .252 

Satisfaction, compensa¬ 
tion, .230 

Satisfaction, content¬ 
ment, .232 

Satisfy, to .251 

Saunter, linger, . . . 247 
Savage, cruel, .... 234 
Savage, ferocious, . .241 
Save, deliver, . . . .235 

Save, keep .247 

Saving, penurious, . . 249 

Saw, axiom, .225 

Say, speak, .252 

Saying, axiom, .... 225 

Scale, arise, .224 

Scandal, discredit, . .237 
Scandalous, infamous, . 246 

Scanty, bare .226 

Scarcely, hardly, . . . 244 
Science, knowledge, . .247 
Scorn, contemn,. . . . 232 
Screen, cover, .... 233 

Seaman, .251 

Seasonable, timely, . . 253 
Seclusion, privacy, . . 250 
Secrecy, concealment, . 231 

Secret, .251 

Secret, clandestine, . . 229 
Secrete, conceal, . . . 231 
Secure, certain, .... 228 
Secure, safe, . . . . .251 
Security, deposit, . . . 235 
Sedate, composed, . . .231 
Sedition, insurrection, . 246 
Seditious, factious, . . 240 

See, to, .252 

Seem, to, .252 

Seize, lay hold of, . . . 247 
Seizure, capture, . . . 228 
Select, choose, .... 229 
Sensible be, feel, . . .241 

Sensualist, .252 

Sentence, decision, . . 234 
Separate, abstract, . .221 
Separate, different, . . 236 
Separate, divide, . . . 238 
Sepulture, burial, . . . 227 

Sequel, .252 

Serene, calm, .228 

Serious, grave, .... 243 

Servant, .•. . 252 

Set, put .250 

Settle, compose, . . .231 
Severe, austere, .... 225 
Severe, strict, .... 253 

Shade, .252 

Shadow, shade, .... 252 
Shame, dishonor, . . . 237 

Shape, form .242 

Share, divide, .... 238 

Sharp, .252 

Shed, pour, .250 

Shelter, asylum, . . . 225 
Shelter, cover, .... 233 
Shocking, formidable, . 242 
Short, . , . .252 






















































































































INDEX 


903 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con : 

Show, .252 

Shrewd, acute .222 

Sick, ..252 

Sickly, sick, .252 

Sight, show, .252 

Sign, .252 

Signal, sign, .252 

Signify, denote, .... 235 
Similarity, likeness, . . 247 
Similitude, likeness, . . 247 
Simple, . . . 252 

Simulation, . . 252 

Sin, crime, ... . 233 

Sincere, hearty, . 244 

Sincerity, candor, . . 228 
Single, simple, . . . 252 
Singular, simple, . . . 252 
Situation, circumstance, 229 
Skillful, clever, . . . 230 

Slack, .252 

Slant, to, .252 

Slaughter, carnage, . . 228 

Slide, slip, .252 

Slight, cursory, .... 234 
Slight, disregard, . . . 237 

Slip, to, .252 

Slope, slant, .252 

Small, little, .247 

Snatch, lay hold of, . . 247 

Soak, to, ..252 

Sociable, social, . . . 252 

Social, .252 

Social, convivial, , . . 233 
Society, association, . . 225 

Soil, stain .253 

Sojourn, abide, . . . .221 
Soldier-like, martial, . 248 
Solemn, grave, .... 243 
Solicit, beg, .... 226 

Solicitation .252 

Solicitude, care, . . . 228 

Solid, firm .241 

Solid, hard .244 

Solitary, .252 

Solitary, alone, .... 223 
Soothe, allay, . . . 223 
Sorrow, affliction, . . . 222 

Sound, .252 

Spacious, ample, . . . 224 
Sparing, penurious, . . 249 

Speak, to, .252 

Speak, utter, .254 

Specimen, copy, . . . 233 
Specious, colorable, . . 230 
Speck, blemish, . . . 226 
Spectacle, show, . . . 252 
Speed, hasten, .... 244 

Spill, pour, .250 

Splendor, brightness, . 227 
Splendor, magnificence, 248 

Split, break, .227 

Spoil, booty .227 

Sportive, playful, . . . 249 

Spot, blemish .226 

Spread, to, .252 

Spy, emissary, .... 238 

Squeeze, break .227 

Squeeze, press .250 

Stability, constancy, . 232 

Stable, firm, .241 

Staff, .252 

Stain, to, ..253 

Stain, blemish, .... 226 
Stammer, hesitate, . . 244 
Standard, criterion, . . 234 

Stare, gape .242 

State, ........ 253 

Station, condition, . .231 
Stay, continue, .... 232 

Stay, staff, .252 

Steadiness, constancy, . 232 

Steep, soak .252 

Stern, austere, .... 225 
Stipend, allowance, . . 223 

Stir, to, .253 

Stir up, awaken, . . . 225 
Stop, cessation, .... 229 

Stop, check, .229 

Stop, hinder, .244 

Storm, breeze, .... 227 
Story, ..253 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Stray, deviate, .... 236 

Stream, .253 

Strengthen, to, ... . 253 

Strict, .253 

Stricture, animadversion ,224 

Strife .253 

Strife, discord .237 

Strip, bereave, .... 226 
Strive, endeavor, . . . 239 
Strong, cogent, .... 230 
Struggle, endeavor, . . 239 
Stutter, hesitate, . . . 244 
Sublime, great, .... 243 
Submissive, compliant ,. 231 
Submissive, humble, . 245 
Submissive, obedient, . 249 
Submit, comply, . . .231 
Suborn, forswear, . . . 242 

Subsist, be, .226 

Substitute, change, . . 229 

Successive, .253 

Succinct, short .252 

Succor, help, .244 

Suffer, admit, .... 222 
Sufficient, enough, . . 239 

Suggest, allude .223 

Suggestion, dictate, . 236 
Suitable, conformable, . 232 
Suitable, convenient, . 233 

Sully, stain, .253 

Summary, abridgment ,. 221 
Summary, short, . . . 252 
Summon, call, .... 228 
Superscription, direction ,236 
Supple, flexible,. . . .241 

Supplicate, beg .226 

Supply, provide, . . . 250 
Support, countenance, . 233 
Support, staff, .... 252 
Suppose, apprehend, . 224 
Suppose, think, .... 253 
Suppress, repress, . . . 251 

Sure, certain .228 

Surge, wave, .254 

Surround, to, .253 

Survey, view, .254 

Suspense, doubt, . . . 238 
Suspicion, distrust, . . 238 
Suspicion, jealousy, . . 247 
Swerve, deviate, . . . 236 
Sycophant, flatterer, . . 241 

Sympathy .253 

Taint, contaminate, . . 232 
Take hold of, lay hold of, 247 

Tale, story .253 

Talent, ability, . . . .221 
Talent, intellect, . . . 246 

Tall, high, .244 

Tame, gentle, .242 

Tantalize, aggravate, . 223 
Tantalize, tease, . . . 253 
Tarnish, -stain, .... 253 
Tarry, linger, .... 247 

Task, work, .255 

Taste, .253 

Taunt, tease, .253 

Teach, inform, .... 246 

Tease, to, .253 

Tell, speak, .252 

Temerity, rashness, . . 251 
Temper, disposition, . 237 
Temper, humor, . . . 245 
Tempest, breeze, . . . 227 
Tenacious, . . . . . . 253 
Tendency, inclination ,. 245 
Tenderness, benevolence, 226 

Tenet, ..253 

Tenet, doctrine .238 

Terminate, complete, . 231 
Terminate, end, . . . 239 
Terrible, fearful, . . .241 
Terrible, formidable,. . 242 
Terrific, fearful, . . .241 
Terror, alarm, .... 223 
Thankfulness, .... 253 

Thick, .253 

Think, to, .253 

Thought, idea, .... 245 

Threat, ........ 253 

Threatening, imminent, 245 
Thrifty, penurious, . . 249 


PAGE 


Synonyms — Con.: 

Tide, stream, .... 253 
Tidings, news, .... 249 

Timely, .253 

Timid, afraid .222 

Timorous, afraid, . . . 222 
Toil, work, ...... 255 

Tolerate, admit, . . . 222 

Torment, .253 

Torment, tease, .... 253 
Torture, torment, . . . 253 
Tour, circuit, .... 229 
Tour, excursion, . . . 239 
Trace, derive, .... 235 

Trace, mark .248 

Track, mark, .248 

Trade, business, . . . 227 

Tranquillity, peace, . . 249 
Transaction, proceeding, 250 
Transcribe, copy, . . . 233 
Transfigure, to, . . . . 253 
Transform, transfigure, 253 
Transparent, pellucid, . 249 
Travel, journey, . . . 247 
Treacherous, faithless, . 240 
Trembling, ...... 253 

Tremendous, fearful, . 241 
Tremor, trembling, . . 253 
Trepidation, trembling, 253 
Trial, attempt, .... 225 

Trick, cheat, .229 

Trip, excursion, . . . . 239 

Trouble, to, .253 

Trouble, afflict, .... 222 
Troubles, difficulties, . 236 

Trust, belief .226 

Trust, confidence, , . . 231 
Trusty, faithful, , . . 240 

Truth, .254 

Tug, draw .238 

Tumult, bustle, .... 227 

Turn, to, .254 

Turn, cast, .228 

Twirl, turn .254 

Twist, turn, .254 

Tyrannical, absolute, . 221 

Unbelief, .254 

Unbelief, disbelief, . . 237 
Unbounded, boundless, 227 
Unconcerned, indifferent, 246 
Undaunted, bold, . . . 227 
Undeniable, indubitable, 246 
Understand, conceive, . 231 
Understanding, .... 254 

Uniform, equal .239 

Unite, connect, .... 232 
Universal, general, . . 242 

Unless, .254 

Unlike, different, . . . 236 
Unlimited, boundless, . 227 
Unquestionable, indubi¬ 
table .246 

Unspeakable, .254 

Untoward, awkward, . 225 
Unutterable, unspeak¬ 
able, .254 

Unworthy, .254 

Upbraid, blame, . . . 226 
Uproar, bustle, .... 227 

Usage, .254 

Use, employ, .238 

Usually, commonly, . . 230 
Utility, advantage, . . 222 

Utter, to .254 

Valor, bravery, .... 227 

Value, to .254 

Vanish, disappear, . . 237 
Variation, change, . , 229 
Variety, difference, . . 236 
Vaunt, glory, . . . 243 
Vehement, violent, . . 254 
Veneration, adoration,. 222 

Venial, .254 

Venom, poison, . . . 250 
Venture, hazard, . . . 244 
Veracity, truth, .... 254 

Vex, tease .253 

Vice, crime, .233 

Vicinity, neighborhood,. 248 
Vicissitude, change, . . 229 
Victor, conqueror, . . 232 
View, .254 


PAGE 

Synonyms — Con.: 

View, aim, .223 

Vigilance, wakefulness, 254 

Vigor, energy .239 

Vindicate, assert, . . . 225 
Vindicate, defend,. . . 235 
Violence, force, . . . .241 

Violent, .254 

Visible, apparent, . . 224 
Visitant, guest, .... 243 
Visitor, guest, .... 243 
Vividness, clearness, . 230 
Vocabulary, dictionary, 236 
Vocation, business, . . 227 
Voluntary, gratuitous, . 243 
Voluptuary, sensualist, 252 
Voracious, rapacious, . 251 
Voyage, journey, . . . 247 
Wages, allowance, . . 223 

Wakefulness .254 

Walk, carriage, .... 228 
Wander, deviate, . . . 236 

Want, to, .254 

Warlike, martial, . . . 248 
Wary, cautious, . . . 228 
Waste, destroy, .... 236 
Watch, guard, .... 243 
Watch, observe, . . . 249 
Watchfulness, wakeful¬ 
ness, . . .254 

Waterman, seaman, . .251 

Wave .254 

Waver, fluctuate, . . .241 

Weak, .254 

Weariness, fatigue, . . 240 
Weeping, crying, . . . 234 

Weight, .254 

Welcome, acceptable, . 221 
Whimsical, fanciful, . . 240 

Whirl, turn, .254 

Whole, all . • . 223 

Wholesome, healthful, . 244 

Wicked .255 

Wide, large, .247 

Will, to, .255 

Wind, turn .254 

Wisdom, .255 

Wish, desire .235 

Wish, will .255 

Wit, ingenuity, .... 246 
Witness, deponent, . . 235 
Woeful, piteous, . . . 249 

Wonder, .255 

Word, promise, .... 250 
Work, . . ... . . .255 
Work, production, . . 250 
Worship, adoration, . . 222 
Worth, desert, .... 235 
Worthless, unworthy, . 254 

Wrath, anger .224 

Wrench, turn .254 

Wrest, turn, .254 

Wring, turn, .254 

Writer .255 

Writhe, turn, .254 

Wrong, injustice, . . . 246 

Yield, bear .226 

Yield, comply, . . . .231 
Yielding, compliant, . . 231 
Y outhful, .255 

Syracuse: 

Battle of,.22 

University,.701 

Syria. 60, 74, 123 

Tabard, . ..383 

Tables: 

Abdications,. 9 


Agriculture in U.S., 648-49 
American Battles, . 11-19 
American Canals, . . 658 
American History, 98-109 
American Literature, 304-6 
Armies of the World, . 776 
Attorneys-General, . . 638 
Books of the Bible, . 280-81 
British Colonies, . . 534-35 
Chemical Elements, . . 694 
Church Councils, . . . 708 
Cities, pop. of, ... . 582 
Cities, ten largest, . . 582 
Coal Areas in U. S., . 655-56 













































































































































904 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Tables—Con.: 

College Fraternities, . 697 
Colleges andU niversities 
of United States, 698-705 
Commercial Law, . . 666-67 
Cost of Education, . . 788 
Danish Literature, . . 288 
Degrees in Freemasonry, 

789 

Distances Between Cities, 

863-66 

Earthquake Areas, . .786 
Earthquakes of His¬ 
tory, .786-88 

Emperors of Germany, 

149-50 

English Literature, .295-97 
Epochs and Eras, . . 696 
Events of Human Prog¬ 
ress, .54-109 

Expectation of Life, . 665 
Facts Concerning Coun¬ 
tries of the World,. 604-5 

Foreign Coins.657 

French Literature, . 292-93 
German Literature, . 289-90 
Governors-General of 

Canada,.151 

Greatest Volcanoes, . 577 
Greek Literature, . . 282-83 
Highest Mountains, . . 547 

Holidays.791-93 

immigration to U. S.,. 793 
Imports and Exports of 
principal Countries,. 663 
Imports and Exports of 
United States, . .662-64 
Industries of U. S., . 661-62 
Inventions, . . . .668-72 
Italian Literature, . . 309 
Justices of the U. S. 

Supreme Court, . . 640 
Kings and Queens of 
England, .... 150-51 
Languages, .... 183-84 
Largest Lakes, .... 539 
Latin Literature, . . . 284 
Libraries of the World, 714 
Longest Rivers, . . 564-65 
Lost Cities, .... 128-30 
Minor Farm Products, 650 
Navies of the World, . 848 
Notable Bridges, . . 779-80 
Notable Diamonds, . . 785 
Notable Wars, . . . 138-39 
Observatories, . . . 677-78 
Popular Vote for Presi¬ 
dent, .618-20 

Postmasters-General, 638-39 
Presidents of the U. S., 

144-45 

Railroad Statistics, . .675 
Religious Statistics, . 721 
Roman Emperors, . 146-47 
Rulers of France, . . 147-48 
Rulers of the World, 146-52 
Secretaries of Agricul¬ 
ture, .639 

Secretaries of Commerce 
and Labor, .... 640 
Secretaries of State,. . 636 
Secretaries of the Inte¬ 
rior, .638 

Secretaries of the Navy, 639 
Secretaries of the Treas¬ 
ury, . 636-37 

Secretaries of War, . . 637 
Ship Canals, . . . . . 654 
Sovereigns of Russia, . 149 
Spanish Literature, . 312-13 
Speakers of the House 
of Representatives, . 640 
State Flowers, .... 852 
State Mottoes and Popu¬ 
lar Names, .... 850-51 
States of German Em¬ 
pire, .532 

State Statistics, . . 624-25 
Swedish Literature, . . 287 

Treaties,.163—65 

United States Coins,. 656-57 
Universal History, . 54-97 


PAGE 

Tables—Con.: 

Value of Agricultural 
Implements and Ma¬ 
chinery .647 

Vital Statistics, . . . 795 
Voting Requirements,626-31 
Weights and Measures, 

861-62 

World’s Merchant Ma¬ 


rine, . 673-74 

World’s Staples, . . . 680 
World’s Submarine Ca¬ 
bles, .679 

Tabor College,.701 

Tabulated Commercial 

Law,.666-67 

Tacitus,. 285, 492 

Taft, Alphonso, . . . 637, 638 

Lorado,.492 

William H. 492, 637 

Taine, H. A.492 

Tait, Peter G., .492 

Taj Mahal,.574 

Takahira, Kogoro, . . . 492 

Tale, The,.201 

Talfourd, SirThomasNoon,492 

Talleyrand,.91 

Talma, F. J.,.492 

Talmud,. 65, 383 

Tamerlane.492 

Tam O’Shanter, .... 383 

Tampa,.843 

Taney, Roger B., 637, 638, 640 

Tannhauser.383 

Tantalum.694 

Tantalus,.341 

Tarentine War. 61 

Tar Heels,.851 

Tariff: 

Dingley Bill,.108 

First Bill.101 

McKinley,.107 

Payne-Aldrich,.... 109 
Protective, enacted,. . 88 

Wilson Bill.108 

Tarkio College,.701 

Tarpeian Rock, . . . .11,159 
Tarquinius, Lucius, . . . 493 
Tarquins Expelled, ... 58 

Tartarus,.341 

Tartary,.160 

Tasso,. 309, 312, 493 

Taussig, Frank W., . . . 493 

Taxes,.856 

Tax Rate, of States, . . 627 
Taylor, Bayard, . . 305. 493 

Hannis,.493 

Jeremy,.493 

John W.640 

Robert L.,.493 

Zachary, .... 144,493 
Taylor University, . . .701 

Tea.767 

Adulteration of, . . . 645 

Teazle, Lady,.383 

Technical Schools, . . . 704 

Tecumseh,.493 

Te Deum, ..383 

Tegner, Esaias.287 

Telamon,.341 

Telegraph,.675 

Across English Channel, 90 
Atlantic, laid, .... 92 

Between India and Eng¬ 
land.92 

B etweenRussia and Japan, 9 5 

Duplex,.670 

Electro-Magnetic,. . . 675 

Fire Alarm,.670 

French Atlantic, ... 94 

In England,.675 

In United States, . . 675 

Invented.90 

Marconi Wireless,... 96 

Pacific Cable, .... 96 

Professor Morse, . 468, 675 

Quadruplex,.671 

Sir W. Thomson, . . . 675 

Submarine.92 

Wheatstone’s, . . 90,675 

Telegraphy: 


Morse System invented, 103 


PAGE 

Telegraphy—Con.: 

Wireless,.676 

Wireless Conference, . 96 

Telemachus,.341 

Telephone,.676 

Invention of, .... 94 

Telescope,.677 

Invention of, . . 82,677 

Largest,.677 

Lord Rosse’s, .... 90 

Refracting.677 

Telescopes, Largest,. . . 677 
Teller, Henry M., . . . . 638 

Tellurium,.694 

Tempest, Marie S., . . . 493 

The.383 

Temple, ...... 56, 57 

Of Minerva,.58 

Solomon’s,.160 

Temple University, . . . 701 

Tennessee. 160 

Agricultural Statisticsof, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.630 

College,.704 

Constitution, .... 632 
Electoral vote, . . . .631 

Executive,.632 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government,.632 

Governor’s Salary, . . 630 
Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.632 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, ..... 625 
Property Valuation, . 631 
Rivers and Harbors 
Convention, .... 160 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

Voting Population, . . 631 
Tennyson, Alfred, 297,303,493 

Terbium.694 

Terence,.284 

Territories, Area, . . . 625 

Capital,.624 

Metropolis,.625 

Population, ..... 625 

Settlement.624 

Terry, Ellen,.493 

Tesla, Nikola,.493 

Tetrazzini, Luisa, . . . 494 

Teutones,.160 

Teutonia,.63 

Teutonic Knights, . . . 160 
Teutonic Languages, . . 184 

Texan War,.161 

Texas: 

Agricultural and Me¬ 
chanical College, . . 705 
Agricultural Statistics of ,648 

Annexation,.161 

Area,.624 

Capital,.630 

Constitution, .... 632 
Electoral Vote,. . . .631 

Executive,.632 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 
Government, .... 632 
Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History,.160 

Independence of, . . . 90 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 

Legal Weights.862 

Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.632 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 631 

Question,.172 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

Voting Population, . . 631 
Thackeray, William M.,297,494 
Thaddeus of Warsaw, . . 383 
Thales. 282,494 


PAGE 

Thallium,.694 

Thames River, . . . 565,574 
Thanksgiving Day, . 792, 852 

Theban War.56 

Thebes, . . .54,116,130,161 

Thekla.383 

Theocritus,.283 

Theodorus,.383 

Theology,.725 

Branches of.725 

Theosophists,.726 

Theosophy,.726 

Thermometer, ..... 668 

Thermometers.82 

Thermopylae, . . . 58, 161 

Theseus,.342 

Thetis,.342 

Thiel College,.701 

Thierry, J. N.,.494 

Thiers, Louis A., . . . . 494 
Thirty, Battle of,. . . . 843 
Thirty-nine Articles, . . 686 

Thirty Tyrants.161 

Thirty Years’War, . 138,161 

Begins,.82 

Thomas, M. Carey, . . . 494 

Philip F.637 

Thompson, Jacob, . . . 638 

Richard W.,.639 

Smith. 639, 640 

William O.,.494 

Thomson, Elihu.494 

James,.296 

Sir William,.494 

Thor, . :.342 

Thoreau, H. D., . . 305, 494 

Thorium,.694 

Thorn Treaty,.164 

Thoroughwort,.737 

Thorpe, Harry, ... . 384 

Thorwaldsen, Albert B., 494 

Threshing Machine, . . . 668 
Throop Polytechnic In¬ 
stitute, .705 

Thrush,.767 

Thucydides, .... 283, 494 

Thulium.694 

Thunder.574 

Thunderer, The.384 

Thwing, Charles F., . . 494 

Tiber River, .... 565, 574 
Tibet Entered, .... 96 

Tibet, Language, .... 279 
Ticknor, George, . . 304, 494 

Ticonderoga,.162 

Battle of,.18 

Tides, .. . . 574 

High.575 

Influence of Moon, . . 575 
Sun’s Influence, . . . 575 

Theory of, .575 

Tientsin, Treaty of,. . . 164 

Tiers Etat,.162 

Tiger, .768 

Tilden, Samuel J.494 

Tillman, Benjamin R., . 494 
Tilly, Johann T., . . 162, 495 

Tilsit, .162 

Tilsit Treaty, ... 89, 164 

Time, Standard, .... 849 

Time Lock.670 

Tin.694 

Tippecanoe,.384 

Battle of.18, 101 

Tirzah,.384 

Titanium,.694 

Titans,.342 

Titian,. 82,495 

Titicaca,. 539,844 

Tityus,.342 

Toad.768 

Tobacco,.768 

Adulteration of, . . . 645 

Cuba, . . ..528 

Introduced into Europe, 82 
In United States, . . 649 

Todd, Thomas,.640 

Togo, Count Heihachiro, 495 

Tokyo,.575 

Description,.575 


Imperial University, . 575 
Tolentino Treaty, . . . 164 





































































































































































INDEX 


905 


PAGE 

Toleration,.162 

Tolstoi, Count, . 97, 316, 495 
Toltecs, .... 98, 132, 162 


Tomato,.768 

Tombs,.781 

Tommy Atkins, .... 384 

Tom Sawyer.384 

Tom Thumb,.384 

Toothpicks,.850 

Topaz,.761 

Topsy,.384 

Toronto,.575 

Commerce,.575 

Founded.101, 575 

Great Fire.109 

Industries.575 

Torpedo,.671 

Destroyers,.848 

Boats,.848 

Torricelli, Evangelista, . 495 

Tory,.163 

Toucey, Isaac, . . . 638,639 
Tourgee, A. W., .... 305 

Tourmaline,.761 

Tournament.163 

Tours, Battle of, ... . 22 

Toussaintl’Ouverture, 101,495 
Tower of London, . . . 163 
Towers, Heights of . . . 783 
Tracy, Benjamin F., . . 639 

Trades, Dangerous, . . . 783 

Trades Unions,.678 

In Europe,.88 

In Great Britain, . . . 678 
In United States, . . . 678 
Trafalgar, Battle of, . . 88 

Tragedy,.201 

And Comedy, .... 384 
Transmutation of Energy, 708 

Travel, . ..507 

Treasury Building, Wash¬ 
ington, .578 

Treasury Department, . 636 

Treaties,.163 

Adrianople,.163 

Aix-La-Chapelle, ... 164 

Amiens,.164 

Augsburg, ..164 

Baden,.164 

Basel,.164 

Berlin,.164 

Breda,.164 

Breslau,.164 

Bretigny,.164 

Burlingame,.92 

Cambray,.164 

Campo Formio, .... 164 

Carlowitz,.164 

Carlsbad,.164 

Catholic League, . . . 164 
Coalitions Against 

France,.164 

Concordat of 1801, . . 164 

Constance,.164 

Copenhagen.164 

Fontainebleau, .... 164 

Frankfort.164 

Gastein,.164 

Ghent,.164 

Hamburg.164 

Holy Alliance, .... 164 
Hubertusburg, . . . .164 

Jay’s.164 

Kiel.164 

Kutchuk-Kainardji,. . 164 

London,.164 

Lun^ville,.164 

Madrid,.164 

Munster,.164 

Nanking, ...... 164 

Nantes, Edict of, . . . 164 

Nystad, .164 

Paris,.164 

Partitions of Poland, , 164 

Passau,.164 

Perry’s,. ,164 

Portsmouth.164 

Prague,.164 

Presburg,.164 

Pretoria,. 164 

Pyrenees, ..... 164 
Quadruple Alliance, . . 164 


PAGE 

Treaties—Con.: 

Rastatt, .164 

Ratisbon.164 

Rhine, Confederation of 

the,.164 

Ryswick,.164 

St. Clair-Sur-Epte, . . 164 

St. Germain,.164 

San Stefano.164 

Schonbrunn,.164 

Shimonoseki,.164 

The Hague,.164 

Thorn.164 

Tientsin.164 

Tilsit,.164 

Tolentino,.164 

Triple Alliance.164 

Troyes,.164 

Ulm,.164 

Utrecht,.164 

Valencay,.164 

Verdun,.164 

Verona,.164 

Versailles,.164 

Vienna,.164 

Warsaw.165 

Washington,.165 

Westphalia, ..... 165 

Worms,*.165 

Zurich,.165 

Treaty,.163 

Tree, Herbert B..495 

Trenton, Battle of, ... 18 

Triads,.384 

Trial by jury, ... 70, 597 

Tribune,.165 

Trimble, Robert.640 

Trinity Church: 

Of Boston,.513 

Of New York, .... 513 
Trinity College: 

Connecticut,.701 

North Carolina, . . . 701 
Trinity University, . . . 702 
Triple Alliance, .... 164 
Tripler, Charles E., . . . 495 
Tripoli, War with U. S., . 101 

Tripoli clay,.655 

Tripolitan War, . . . .171 

Tristram, Sir,.385 

Triton,.342 

Triumvirate,.165 

First,.63 

Trojan War, 56, 138, 165, 283 
Trolley, The, .... 672, 711 
Trollope, Anthony, . 297, 495 

Troubadour,.74 

Troubadours,.385 

French,.293 

Troubetzkoy, Amalie, . . 495 

Troy.55, 130, 165,342 

Weight,.861 

Troyes, Treaty,.164 

Truchas Peak,.547 

Trumbull, John, .... 495 

Jonathan,.640 

Trusts,.678 

Tuckoes,.851 

Tudor,.165 

House of,.151 

Tufts College,.702 

Tuileries,.165 

Tulane University, . . . 702 

Tungsten,.694 

Tunnels: 

Blackwell,.94 

Hoosac,.537 

Mt. Cenis,.94 

Simplon.96 

Tupper, Sir Charles,. . . 495 

Turbine.678 

Turenne, Vicomte de, . . 495 

Turgenieff,.316, 495 

Turgot, Anne Robert, . . 495 

Turkey.575 

Area,.604 

Asia Minor, . . . . .576 

Cabinet,.632 

Capital,.605 

Captures Bagdad, . . 73 

Conquers Greece, ... 116 
Constantinople.526 


PAGE 

Turkey—Con.: 

Debt,.605 

Exports.576 

Forms an Alliance with 

Justin II.,.67 

Government,.632 

Grand Vizier, .... 632 

In Asia.576 

In Europe,.575 

Inhabitants,.576 

Invades Hungary, . . 83 

Monarchy Founded in 

Asia,.67 

Navy,.848 

Population.604 

Production,.576 

Solyman I., Sultan, . . 78 

Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Sultan. 605,632 

War with Russia, . . . 167 
Turkey Buzzard, .... 768 
Turkey Vulture, . . . .768 

Turkish Africa.508 

Turkish Empire.166 

Turko-Grecian War, . . 95 

Turks,.166 

Defeat of Romanus, . 72 

Turner, Joseph M., . . . 496 

Turquoise,.761 

Turtle,.769 

Tuscaloosa College, . . .704 

Tuscany,.167 

Tuskegee Institute, . . .705 

Tweed Ring.106 

Twelfth Night,.385 

Twelve: 

Tables, ........ 39 

Tribes,.122 

Twice-Told Tales, .... 385 
Tycoons of Japan, . . . 124 
Tyler, John, .... 144, 496 

M. C.305 

Tyndale, William, . . . 295 
Tyndall, John, . . . 297,496 

Type, .678 

Sizes of, ...... . 679 

Typesetting Machines, . . 94 

Typewriter, ...... 679 

Typewriting Machine, . . 670 

Tyre,.130 

Ulin,.385 

Ulm, Treaty of, .... 164 
Ultra-violet Rays, . . .672 

Ulysses,.342 

Uncle Sam.852 

Underground Railroad, . 385 
Underwood, Oscar W., . .496 

Undine.385 

Union Christian College, 702 
Union College: 

Kentucky,.702 

Nebraska,.702 

Union Jack,.852 

Union of South Africa, . 570 


Unions, Trades, .... 678 
Union University, . . . 702 


Unitarian Church, . . . 726 
United Brethren, .... 726 
United Kingdom: 

Area.604 

Capital,.605 

Debt,.605 

King,.605 

Population,.604 

Standard Currency, . . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
United States: 

Acquisition of the Phil¬ 
ippines and Cuba,. . 178 
Agricultural Products, 

648-50 

Alabama Claims, . . . 177 
Amnesty Proclamation, 92 
Anti-polygamy Bill, . 177 

Area,.604 

Army,.776 

Articles of Confedera¬ 
tion, .586 

Bank.172 

Banking,.652 

Boston Massacre, . . . 169 


PAGE 


United States—Con.: 

Burlingame Treaty, . . 92 

Burning of Washington, 171 
Canals, 653 

Capital,.605 

Centennial Exposition, 177 
Cities, pop. of, ... . 582 
Civil War, . . 92, 104, 174 

Coal Fields,.655 

Coal Production, . . . 656 
Colonial Settlements, . 168 
Constitution, . 170, 594, 632 
Continental Congress, . 169 
Cotton,.658 


Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, . 100,169, 632 
Discoveries in, . . 98, 168 

Distances Between 

Cities,.863 

Emancipation, . . . .176 
Emancipation Procla¬ 
mation, .105 

Exports,.662 

Foreign Commerce, 662-64 

Forest Areas.660 

Forestry,.660 

French and Indian War, 168 
Garfield’s Assassination, 177 
Geographical Statistics, 625 

Government.632 

Great Industries, . . . 661 
Greenbacks First Issued, 105 
Historical Statistics, . . 624 

History,.168 

Illiteracy,.714 

Imports,.663 

Independence, .... 169 

Indian Wars.168 

Industrial Statistics, . 625 
Inter-State Commerce 
Bill, ....... 177 

Italian Lynching, . . . 178 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill,. 173 
Know-Nothing Move¬ 
ment, .173 

Lee’s Surrender, . . . 175 
Lincoln’s Assassination, 176 

Lumbering,.660 

McKinley’s Assassina¬ 
tion, ....... 178 

Merchant Marine,. 673-74 

Military Academy, . .705 
Mint Established at San 

Francisco.104 

Missouri Compromise, 172 
Monroe Doctrine, . . .172 
Naval Academy, . . . 705 
Naval Academy Estab¬ 
lished, .103 

Navy,.848 

Newspapers,.849 

Nullification,.172 

Perryville, Battle of, . 17 

Population.604 

President, .... 144, 605 
Presidents of, .... 144 
Protests French Occu¬ 
pation of Mexico, . . 105 
Purchase of Alaska, , . 93 

Railroads,.674 

Railroad Statistics, . .675 
Reciprocity, . . . .96, 109 
Reconstruction, . . .176 
Religious Denomina¬ 
tions, .721 

Revolution, The . 100, 169 
Rocky Mountains, . . 565 
Roosevelt Reforms, . . 178 

Secession,.173 

Seminole War.172 

Slavery Question,. . . 173 
Spanish-American War, 178 
Specie Payment, . . . 177 
Stamp Act,.169 


Standard Currency,. . 604 
State Statistics, . . . 624 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 
Suffrage Requirements, 626 
Territorial Statistics, . 624 
Texas Question, . . . 172 
United States Bank,. . 172 





































































































































































































906 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

United States—Con.: 

War of 1812. 171 

War with Great Britain, 88 
War with Mexico, . . 172 
War with Tripoli,. . . 171 
Washington, George,169,498 
Whisky Insurrection, . 170 
Wilmot Proviso, .... 173 
United States Government: 

Branches,.633 

Congress,.634 

Department of Agricul¬ 
ture.639 

Department of Commerce 
and Labor, ... . 639 
Department of Justice, 637 
Department of State, . 636 
Department of the In¬ 
terior, .638 

Election of President, . 634 
Executive Branch, . . 633 
Executive Department, 634 
Federal Courts,.... 635 
Houseof Representatives, 633 
Judicial Branch, . . . 633 
Judicial Department, . 635 
Legislative Branch, . . 633 
Navy Department, . . 639 
Post-office Department, 638 
Presidential Succession, 634 
President’s Salary, . . 634 
Supreme Court, . . . 635 

The Cabinet.635 

The President, .... 634 

The Senate,.633 

Treasury Department,. 636 
War Department, . . 637 
U. S. Navy, founded, . . 101 
United States Supreme 

Court, Justices of, . 640 
Universalists, . . .... 726 
Universe, Theory of origin, 708 
Universities : 

Imperial, Tokyo, . . .575 
List of in United States, 698 
McGill, Montreal, . . . 103 

Of Alabama,.702 

Of Arizona,.702 

Of Arkansas,.702 

Of Buffalo,.702 

Of California, .... 702 

Of Chicago,.702 

Of Cincinnati, . . . .702 

Of Colorado,.702 

Of Denver,.702 

Of Florida.702 

Of Georgia.702 

Of Idaho,.702 

Of Illinois,.702 

Of Iowa,.702 

Of Kansas,.702 

Of Louisville, . . . .702 

Of Maine,.702 

Of Michigan,.702 

Of Minnesota, .... 702 

8 f Mississippi, . . . .702 

f Missouri,.702 

Of Montana,.702 

Of Nebraska,.702 

Of Nevada,.702 


Of New Mexico, 

Of North Carolina, 
Of North Dakota, 
Of Notre Dame, 

Of Oklahoma, . 

Of Pennsylvania, 
Of Rochester, . 

Of South Dakota, 
Of St. Mary, . . 

Of Tennessee, . 

Of Texas, . . . 

Of the Pacific, . 

Of the South, . 

Of Utah, . . . 

Of Vermont, . . 

Of Virginia, . . 

Of Washington, 

Of Wooster, . . 

Of Wyoming, . 
Ottawa, .... 
Oxford, .... 
Padua, .... 


702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

702 

109 

551 

552 


PAGE 


Universities—Con.: 

Statistics of,.698 

University, Avignon, . . 78 

Bologna,.76 

Coimbra.78 

Leipsic,.78 

Orleans,.78 

Padua,.76 

Paris, .76 

Perugia,.78 

Untermyer, Samuel, . . 496 
Upper Iowa University,. 702 
Upshur, Abel P., . . 636, 639 
Uralian Emerald,. . . . 761 
Ural Mountains, . . . .576 

Minerals of,.576 

Ural River,.565 

Uranium.694 

Urban II., .496 

Urbana University, . . . 702 
Ursinus College, . . . .702 
Uruguay: 

Area,.604 

Capital,.605 

Constitution, .... 640 

Debt,.605 

Executive,.641 

Government,.640 

Independent.102 

Parliament,.640 

Population.604 

President,.605 

Standard Currency, . 604 
Stock of Money, . . . 604 

Usher, James,.496 

John P.,.638 

Usury,.666 

Utah: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 
Area,.624 


630 
641 

631 
641 
667 
641 
630 
666 


Capital, .... 
Constitution, 

Electoral Vote, . 

Executive, . . 

Exemption Laws, 
Government, . . 
Governor’s Salary, 

Interest Laws of, 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature.641 

Metropolis,.625 

Polygamy,.94 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 631 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

Voting Population, . . 631 

Utopia,.385 

Utrecht, Treaties of, . . 164 
Valencay, Treaty of, . 164 

Valentine,.385 

Valentine Day,.852 

Valhalla,.342 

Valkyrs,.342 

Valmy, Battle of, ... 22 

Valois, House of, . . Ill, 148 

Vanadium,.694 

Van Buren, Martin, . 

144, 496, 636 
Vandals, ....... 66 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, . 496 

William K.,.496 

Vanderbilt University, . 702 
Van Devanter, Willis, . . 640 
Van Dyck, Sir Anthony, . 496 
Van Dyke, Henry J., . . 496 

John C.,.496 

Vanity Fair,.385 

Van Tromp, Admiral, . 85 

Varnum, Joseph B., . . . 640 

Vatican, The,.576 

Library founded, ... 80 

Library restored, ... 82 

Veda. 277,385 

Veii,.130 

Veiled Prophet, .... 386 
Velasquez, Diego R., . . 496 
Venezuela: 

Area.604 

Boundary tribunal, . . 108 


576 

342 

19 

761 

164 

685 


PAGE 

Venezuela — Con.: 

Cabinet,.641 

Capital.605 

Caracas,.523 

Congress,.641 

Constitution,.641 

Debt,.605 

Government,.641 

Independent,.101 

Population,.604 

President, .... 605, 641 
Standard Currency,. . 604 
Stock of Money. . . . 604 

Venice. 72, 576 

Bridge of Sighs, . . .576 

Campanile,.576 

Founded.66 

Maritime power of, . . 75 

Oligarchy established,. 79 

St. Mark’s Cathedral, . 

Venus. 

Vera Cruz, Battle of, 

Verd antique, . . . 

Verdun, Treaty of, . 
Vermiform Appendix, 
Vermont: 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area,.624 

Capital, ..630 

Constitution, . . . .641 
Electoral Vote, . . . .631 

Executive.641 

Exemption’Laws, . . 667 
Government, . . . .641 
Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History.178 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.641 

Metropolis,.625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation, . . 631 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 

Tax Rate. 

Voting Population, 

Verona, Congress of, 

Versailles, Treaty of, 

Version of the Scriptures, 
Vesalius, Andreas, 

Vespasian, Titus, 

Vespucci, Amerigo, 

Vesta, ..... 

Vesuvius, Mt., . . 

Eruptions, . . 

Vicar of Wakefield, 
Vice-Admiral, . . 
Vice-President of U 
Electoral Vote, . 

Popular Vote, . 

Salary, .... 

Viceroy of India, . 

Vicksburg, Battle of, 

Victor Emmanuel, 

91, 95, 123, 497 
Victoria Alexandrina, 151, 497 

Death of.96 

Jubilee.94 

Life attempted, ... 94 

Victoria Falls,.581 

Victoria Nyanza, .... 576 

Victoria Regia.769 

Vienna,. 577, 582 

Boulevards,.577 

Commerce,.577 

Description,.577 

Public Buildings, . . . 577 

Treaty.164 

Vikings.286 

Vilas, Wm. F.,.638 

Villanova College, . . . 702 

Villeins,.110 

Vincent, John Heyl, . . 497 
Vincent de Paul, St., . . 497 
Vinci, Leonardo da, . . . 497 

Vinland, ..386 

Viola, .386 

Virchow, Rudolf, .... 497 

Virgil,. 284,497 

iEneid,.343 


630 

631 
631 
164 
164 
386 

496 

497 
396 
342 

576, 577 
576 
386 
105 


S. 


618 

618 

634 

606 

19 


PAGE 

Virgil—Con.: 

Death of,.63 

Virginia: 

Agricultural Statistics of,648 .{ 

Area,.624 

Capital.630 

Constitution, .... 641 

Electoral Vote.631 

Executive,.641 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 
Government, .... 641 
Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History.178 

Institute,.704 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.641 

Metropolis,.625 

Military Institute, . . 702 
Polytechnic College, . . 705 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . . 631 

Richmond,.564 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

Voting Population, . . 631 

Vishnu,.342 

Visigoths,.66 

Vistula River.565 

Vittoria Colonna, .... 497 

Volapiik.386 

Volcanoes: 

Aconcagua,.577 

Altar.577 

Antisana.577 

Ararat,.577 

Cayambi.577 

Chimborazo,.577 

Cotopaxi, .... 527,577 

Demavend.577 

Etna. 530,577 

Fujiyama, .577 

Greatest,.577 

Hecla.577 

Height.577 

Hood,.577 

Ixtaccihuati, .... 577 

Kilauea,.577 

Llullaillac,.577 

Mauna Kea,.577 

Mauna Loa,.577 

Misti,.577 

Orizaba.577 

Pel6e,.577 

Pico,. 577 

Popocatepetl.577 

Rainier,.577 

Sahama,. 577 * 

St. Elias,. 577 1 

St. Helen’s.577 

Sangai,.577 

San Josd.. . 577 

Shasta.577 

Stromboli.577 

Tahiti.577 

Teneriffe,.577 

Tolima.577 

Toluca,.577 

Vesuvius, .... 576,577 

Wrangell,.577 

Volga River. 565, 577 

Volta, Alessandro, . . .497 

Voltaic Arc,.668 

Voltaire.497 

Volterra, Daniele de, . . 497 
Voting Requirements, . . 626 

Vulcan,.342 

Vulgate,.386 

Wabash College, . . . 702 
Wagner, Richard, . . . 497 
Wagram, Battle of, . . . 89 

Waite, Morrison R., . . . 640 
Wake Forest College, . . 702 

Waldeck,.532 

Walden,.386 

Waldenses,.74 

Walden University, . . . 702 

Wales.577 

Coal Trade,.577 
































































































































































































INDEX 


007 


PAGE 


Wales—Con.: 

Description,.577 

Industries,.577 

Inhabitants,.577 

United with England, . 76 

War with England, . . 76 

Walker, Robert J., . . . 637 
Wall of Antoninus, . . . 846 
Wallace, Alfred R., . . . 497 

Lew. 305,497 

Sir William,.497 

Wallenstein, Albrecht, 162, 497 

Walloons,.846 

Walrus,. . 769 

Walter, Thomas U., . . . 498 

Walton, Izaak,.296 

War: 

Abyssinian,. 9 

Achaean,. 9 

Actiac,. 9 

Afghan,.10 

African,.10 

Crimean, . . . 38,53, 139 
Department of, ... 637 
First African, .... 10 

Fourth African, ... 11 

Greek Independence, 

for,.116, 139 

Hussite,.79, 138 

Lamian,.10 

Of 1812,. . . 101, 139, 171 
Second African, ... 10 

Third African, .... 11 

Ward, Elizabeth, .... 498 
Ward Seminary, . . . .704 
Warren, Samuel, .... 498 


Wars: 

American Civil, 104, 139, 174 
American Revolution, 

100, 139, 169 

Apache,.94 

Austria and France, . . 84 

Austrian Succession, 

51, 86, 139 

Austro-Swiss.138 

Barbarian,.138 

Chinese-Japanese,. .95,139 
Crimean, . .38,53,92,139 

Crusades,.74, 138 

Dacian,.138 

English Civil, . . .49, 139 

Etruscan,.60 

Franco-Prussian, 

112, 115, 139 


French Civil, . . . . . 138 
French Revolution, 111, 139 
For Greek Independ- 


ence, . . . 

. 116,139 

Gallic, .... 

. .63,138 

Gladiatorial, . 

... 138 

Greco-Persian, 

. .60,138 

Greco-Roman, 

. .62,138 

Hundred Years’ 

,48, 118, 138 

Hussite, . . . 

... 138 

Italian, . ■ . . 

... 139 

Jewish-Roman, 

. . .64, 138 

Jugurthine, . 

... 138 

Kafir. 

. . . . 90 

Macedonian, . 

. . . . 59 

Messenian, . . 

. .57, 138 

Mexican, . . 

. 139, 172 

Mithridatic, . 

. .63,138 

Napoleonic, . 

. . 112, 139 

Notable,. . . 

. 138-39 

Of Spanish Succession,. 139 

Of the Roses, 

. .48, 138 

Peloponnesian, 

. .59, 138 

Persian, . . . 

. . . . 65 

Perso-Grecian, 

. .58,138 

Punic, .... 

. .61, 138 

Roman Civil, . 

. .63,138 

Roman Social, 

. ... 138 

Russo-Japanese, 125,139,153 

Russo-Turkish, 

. . 139, 167 

Sacred, . . . 

. .59, 138 

Samnite, . . 

. .59, 138 

Saracen, . . . 

... 138 

Second Macedonian, . 62 

Seven Weeks’, 

. 115, 139 

Seven Years’, 

.86, 114, 139 

Sicilian, . . . 

. . . . 59 

Social, . . . 

. . . 61 


PAGE 

Wars—Con.: 

Social in Italy, .... 63 

Spanish-American, 139, 156 
Spanish-Netherlands, . 138 
Swedish-Russian, . . . 139 

Tarentine,.61 

Third Punic,.62 

Thirty Years’, . . 114, 138 

Trojan,.56, 138 

Turko-Grecian, . . .95, 117 

Warsaw,.577 

Manufactures, .... 577 

Treaty,.165 

University,.577 

Wartburg College, . . . 702 
Warwick. Richard N., . . 498 
Washaku Needle, .... 547 
Washburn, E. B., .... 636 
Washburn College, . . . 702 
Washington: 

Agricultural College, . 705 
Agricultural Statistics of,648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.630 

Constitution,.641 

Electoral Vote, . . . .631 

Executive,.642 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government,.641 

Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History,.179 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics,. 631 

Legislature,.641 

Metropolis,.625 

Population.625 

Property Valuation, . 631 

Seattle,. 569, 582 

Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 

627,630 

Tax Rate,.631 

University, . _. . . .702 
Voting Population, . .631 
Washington, D. C., . 578, 582 
Architectural Features, 

513, 578 

Burning of,.171 

Capitol,.513, 578 

Colleges,.579 

Library of Congress, . . 578 

Monument,.579 

Pan-American Congress, 107 
Patent Office, .... 578 
Post-office Building, . 579 
Public Buildings, . . . 579 
Smithsonian Institution, 579 
State, War, and Navy 
Departments, . . . 578 
Treasury Building, . . 578 

Treaties,.165 

White House.578 

Washington, Booker T., . 498 
Bushrod, ...... 640 

Washington, George, 144, 498 
Commander-in-chief, 

100,169 

Death of,.101 

Farewell Address, . . 101 
Washington and Jefferson 

College,. 702 

Washington and Lee Uni¬ 
versity, .702 

Washington Monument,. 579 
Corner Stone Laid, . . 103 

Wasp,.769 

Wasp-Frolic, Battle of, . 19 

Watches,.80 

Water Gas.669 

Water Lily,.769 

Waterloo: 

Battle. 22, 88, 179 

Commanders at, . . . 179 

Field of,.520 

Watson, John,.498 

Thomas E.,.498 

Watt, James,.499 

Improves Steam En¬ 
gines, .86 

Watterson, Henry, . . . 499 


PAGE 


Watts, George F., . . . . 499 

Isaac,.499 

Waverley,.386 

Wax Myrtle,.739 

Wayne, Anthony,.... 499 

James M.,.640 

Weasels,.851 

Weaving Shuttle,. . . . 668 

Web Feet,.851 

Webster, Daniel, . . 304, 499 
Great Speech of, . . . 102 
Webster, Noah, . . 304, 499 

Weights.861-62 

Apothecaries’, . . . .861 

Avoirdupois,.861 

Of Commodities, . . . 862 

Per Bushel,.862 

Troy.861 

Weights and Measures, 861-62 
Welch, William H., . . . 499 
Weldon Railroad, Battle of, 19 
Weller, Samuel, .... 386 

Welles, Gideon,.639 

Wellesley College, .... 704 
Wellington: 

At Waterloo,.88 

Duke of,.499 

Ministry of,.88 

Wellington, New Zealand, 579 

Wells College,.704 

Wenceslas,.499 

Wesley, John,.500 

Wesleyan College, . . . 704 
Wesleyan University, . . 702 
West, Benjamin, .... 500 
Westbrook Seminary and 

College,.704 

Westcott, B. F., . < . . 500 

Western College.704 

Western Empire.65 

Western Maryland Col¬ 
lege, .702 

Western Reserve Univer¬ 
sity, .702 

Westfield College,. . . . 702 
West Indies, Great Hur¬ 
ricane, .109 

Westinghouse, George, . 500 
Westminster Abbey, . . 579 
Monuments in, ... . 579 
Poets’ Corner, .... 579 
Westminster College: 

Missouri, ..702 

Pennsylvania, .... 702 
Westminster Hall, . . . 579 
Westminster Palace, . . 846 
Westover Manuscripts, . 386 

Westphalia.580 

Treaty of,.165 

West Point, Battle of,. . 19 

West Virginia: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Area,.624 

Capital, ..630 

Constitution,.642 

Electoral Vote, .... 631 

Executive,.642 

Exemption Laws,. . . 667 

Government.642 

Governor’s Salary, . . 630 

History,.179 

Interest Laws of, . . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.642 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 631 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

University, . . . . .702 
Voting Population, . . 631 
Wesleyan College, . . 702 

Whale.769 

Whately, Richard, . . . 500 
Wheat, in United States, 648 
World’s production, . 680 
Wheaton College, . . . .703 
Wheatstone, Sir Charles, 500 
Wheatstone’s Telegraph, 90 


PAGE 

Wheeler, Benjamin I.,. . 500 

Joseph,.500 

Wheeler Peak,.547 

Whewell, William, . . . 500 

Whig Party,.103 

Whigs,.163 

Whipple, E. P., . . 305, 500 

Whippoorwill.770 

Whisky Insurrection, 

101, 170,179 
Whistler, James A. McN., 500 
White, Andrew D., . . .501 
Edward D., . . . 501, 640 

Horace,.501 

James W.,.501 

John,.640 

R. G., ....... 305 

William A.,.501 

Whitehall,.847 

Whitman, Walt, .... 305 

Whitman College.703 

Whitney, Mt.,.547 

Whitney, Eli,.501 

William C.,.639 

William D.,.501 

Whittier, J. G., . . 305, 501 

Whittington, Dick, . . . 386 
Whitworth College, . . .704 
Wickliffe, Charles A., . , 638 
Wiggin, Kate Douglas, . 501 
Wilberforce, Samuel, . . 501 
William, ...... 501 

Wilberforce University, . 703 
Wilcox, Ella Wheeler, . .501 

Wildebeest.747 

Wilderness, Battle of, . . 19 

Wiley, Harvey W.501 

Wiley University, .... 703 
Wilhelmina, Helene, . .501 

Queen,.95 

Wilkes, Charles, .... 502 

Wilkins, Wm.,.637 

Willamette University, . 703 
Willard, Frances E., . . 502 
William I.,.502 

II .502 

III .502 

William and Mary College, 703 
William Jewell College, . 703 
Williams, George F., . . 502 

Geo. H.,.638 

John S.,.502 

Roger, .... 98, 306, 502 
Williams College, .... 703 
William Smith College, . 704 

Willow,.770 

Wilmington College, . . 703 
Wilmot Proviso, . . 103, 173 
Wilson, Francis, .... 502 

Henry,.502 

James, of Iowa, . 502, 639 

James, of Pa..640 

Woodrow,.502 

Wilson College,.704 

Wilson Creek, Battle of, . 19 

Winchester, Battle of, . 19 

Wind,.580 

Air Currents, .... 580 

Storms,.580 

Windom, Wm., .... 637 
Windsor Castle, .... 847 
Wine Growers’ Agitation, 97 
Wines, Adulteration of, . 645 
Winslow, Erving,.... 503 

Winter’s Tale,.386 

Winthrop, John, .... 503 

Robert C.,.640 

Wireless Telegraphy, .96, 676 
De Forest System, . . 676 
Marconi System, . . . 676 
Wirt, William, . . . 503,638 
Wisconsin: 

Agricultural Statistics of, 
648 

Area,.624 

Capital,.630 

Constitution, .... 642 
Electoral vote, . . . .631 

Executive,.642 

Exemption Laws, . . 667 
Government, .... 642 
Governor’s Salary, . . 630 








































































































































































908 


THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 


PAGE 

Wisconsin —Con.: 

History, .180 

Interest Laws of, . . 666 
Jurisdiction of Justices, 667 
Legal Weights, .... 862 
Legislative Statistics, . 631 

Legislature,.642 

Metropolis,.625 

Population,.625 

Property Valuation, . 631 
Statutes of Limitation, 667 
Suffrage Requirements, 630 

Tax Rate,.631 

Voting Population, . . 631 
Wiseman, Cardinal, . . . 503 

Wistaria.770 

Wister, Owen,.503 

Witch-hazel, .770 

Witte, Count Sergiej, . . 503 

Wittenagemot,.67 

Wittenberg College, . . . 703 

Woden,.342 

Wofford College, .... 703 
Wolcott, Oliver, .... 636 

Wolf.770 

Wolfe, James,.503 

Wolseley, Garnet J., . . 503 

Wolsey, Chancellor, . 80, 503 

Wolverines,.851 

Woman’s College: 

Baltimore, Md., . . . 704 

Frederick, Md..704 

Wood, Leonard, ..... 503 
Woodbury, Levi, .... 637 

Woodchuck,..771 

Woodcock,.771 

Wood Engraving, ... 80 

Woodpecker,.771 

Wood pulp.670 

Woods, William B., . . . 640 
Wool, in United States, . 650 

Scoured,.649 

World’s production, . 680 
Woolsey, Theodore S., . 503 



PAGE 

PAGE 

Worcester, Joseph E., 

. 503 

Wyoming—Con.: 


Worcester Polytechnic In- 

Electoral vote, .... 

631 

stitute, .... 

. . 705 

Executive,. 

642 

Words: 


Exemption Laws, . . 

667 

Mispronounced, 

267-74 

Government, . . . . 

642 

Right Use of, . . 

191-98 

Governor’s Salary, . . 

630 

Study of, ... . 

221-55 

History. 

180 

Words and Phrases, . 

255-67 

Interest Laws, .... 

666 

Classic,. 

255-63 

Jurisdiction of Justices, 

667 

Greek,. 

255-63 

Legal Weights,. . . . 

862 

Latin,. 

255-63 

Legislative Statistics, . 

631 

Modern Languages, 

263-67 

Legislature,. 

642 

Wordsworth, William, 

296,503 

Metropolis,. 

625 

World, Countries of, 

604, 605 

Population,. 

625 

World’s Distances, . 

. . 864 

Property Valuation, . . 

631 

World’s Population, 

. . 852 

Statutes of Limitation, 

667 

World’s Staples, . . 

. . 680 

Suffrage Requirements, 

630 

Barley,. 

. . 680 

Tax Rate,. 

631 

Corn. 

. . 680 

Voting Population, . . 

631 

Cotton,. 

. . 680 

Xavier, St. Francis, 82, 504 

Oats,. 

. . 680 

Xenon,. 

694 

Potatoes, .... 

. . 680 

Xenophon, .... 283,504 

Rice,. 

. . 680 

Xerxes, .... 58, 141, 504 

Rye. 

. . 680 

X-Rays,.94, 

726 

Sugar. 

. . 680 

Yahoo,. 

387 

Wheat,. 

. . 680 

Yak,. 

771 

Wool, . 

. . 680 

Yale University, .... 

703 

World’s Statistics, . 

. . 852 

Yam,. 

772 

World’s Submarine Cables,679 

Yang-tse-kiang River,. . 

580 

Worms, Concordat of, 

. 165 

Grand Canal, .... 

580 

Wren,. 

. . 771 

Yankton College, .... 

703 

Wren, Sir Christopher, . 503 

Yarmouth. 

580 

Wright, Carroll D., . 

. . 503 

Yeast,. 

387 

Orville,. 

. . 504 

Yeddo. 

575 

Wilbur. 

. . 504 

Yellow Sea. 

582 

Writers, Pen Names of, . 321 

Yellowstone Park, . . . 

580 

Wtirttemberg, . . . 

. . 532 

Yenesei River,. 

565 

Wu Ting Fang,. . . 

. . 504 

Yokohama,. 

581 

Wycliffe, John, . . . 

295,504 

Commerce,. 

581 

Wyoming: 


Yonge, Charlotte M., . . 

504 

Agricultural Statistics of, 648 

Yorick, .. 

387 

Area,. 

. . 624 

York. 

581 

Capital,. 

. . 630 

Battle of,. 

19 

Constitution, . . 

. . 642 

House of, . . . 80,151 



York College, 

York Minster, 

Yorktown, 

Battle of, 

Yosemite Valley, 

Young, Brigham, 504, 698, 718 
Young Men’s Christian 
Association, . 

Young’s College, . 

Ytterbium, . . . 

Yttrium, .... 

Yukon, Gold Fields, 

River. 

Yule Clog, .... 

Zalacca, Battle of 
Zama, Battle of, 

Zambezi River,. 

Victoria Falls, 

Zamia, .... 

Zangwill, Israel, 

Zanzibar: 

British Protectorate, 
Government. .... 

Sultan.642 

Zebra,.772 

Zebu,.772 

Zeller, Eduard,.504 

Zem,. 342 

Zend-Avesta.278 

Zeno.504 

Eastern Empire, ... 66 

Zenobia. 387, 504 

Zeuglodon,.772 

Zeus,.342 

Zinc,.694 

Zinzendorf, N.,.504 

Zircon,.761 

Zirconium,.694 

Zola, Emile,.504 

Zollverein,.88 

Zoroaster,.504 

Religion of,.278 

Zurich, Treaty of, ... 165 
Zwingle, Ulrich, .... 504 


. . 726 
. . 704 
. . 694 
. . 694 
. . 108 
565, 581 
. . 387 
. . 75 

. . 61 
565,581 
. . 581 
. . 772 
. . 504 

642 
642 













































































































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